WRITTEN
ENGLISH
Robin Macpherson
&
WYDAWN ICTWO NAUKOWE PWN
WARSZAWA 2 0 0 4
Table of Contents
BN 83-01-13575-1
Preface...........................................................................................
Glossary of C oncepts.................................................................
Vocabulary..................................... *...........................................
Lexical Choice Involving Parts o f Sp eech .........................
Nominalisations..................................................................
Adverbs vs. Verbs..............................................................
Proper Adjectives...............................................................
Adjectives vs. Prepositional Modifiers.............................
19
19
19
22
24
25
27
27
28
30
32
34
36
37
39
39
43
47
50
54
55
57
61
Gerunds.........................................................................................
M o st...............................................................................................
O f -.Many of..., Most of..., Some of... etc.....................................
Problems with Negative Sentences ............................................
Relative Clauses and the Comma...............................................
There..............................................................................................
What, Which etc............................................................................
64
66
67
69
73
77
83
tylistic D evices.....................................................................................
Cleft Sentences with the Pronoun I t ...........................................
Emphatic Word Order: Fronting ..............................................
I: Hardly, Only, Rarely, Scarcely etc..................................
II: With As and Though................................ ......................
Relative Clauses in Apposition..................................................
89
89
92
92
95
98
103
103
106
106
108
112
117
118
119
121
123
126
126
127
129
132
134
136
136
141
145
148
152
Punctuation...........................................................................................
(The Comma see Relative Clauses and the Comma..............
The Colon.................................................... .................................
The D ash.......................................................................................
Inverted Commas.........................................................................
The Semicolon.............................................. ................................
161
73)
161
165
168
172
177
203
Preface
Glossary of Concepts
In this book a number of terms appear that might be unfamiliar to the reader:
adverbial (also - expression, - link, sentence - )
An adverbial is a word or phrase which functions as an adverb (e.g. by
contrast, fortunately, in fact, moreover, possibly, quite recently, therefore,
undoubtedly), giving us extra information about an action, happening or
state. An adverbial may introduce a sentence, but is not to be confused with
a conjunction (e.g. although, because, while etc.).
antecedent
This is the word to which a pronoun {he, she, it, who, which etc.) refers, e.g.:
1 . 1hejiarty was a great success - the guests really enjoyed it.
apposition
Generally an apposition denotes a noun or noun phrase placed beside an
other in order to describe it, while being unconnected to it by any preposi
tion or conjunction, e.g.:
1. Joan, my wifes cousin, has just returned from America.
2. Jack is visiting Brighton, his hometown.
ributive
attributive adjective occurs before the noun to which it refers. Compare
: following alternatives:
a. This is a dangerous road.
b. This road is dangerous.
ixiliary verb
1 auxiliary verb is one like be, do, have or will which is used in combinan with another verb to make verb phrases, and especially to form tenses,
T *
5* *
complement
Complement in the broad sense means something that is necessary to com
plete a grammatical construction. Here, however, it is used in a restricted
meaning to denote a noun or noun phrase that completes a predicate con
taining the verb to be:
1. Margaret is a librarian.
2. Peter was such a kindly m an.
concord
Concord is the way a verb form changes according to whether the subject is
singular or plural (concord of number), or first, second or third person
(concord of person). Thus we say the boy is (singular) but the boys are
(plural); we say I am (first person) but he is (third person) etc.
eft sentence
cleft sentence is when special emphasis is given to one particular part of
sentence by means of it or what, e.g.:
1. W ho took the money? It was Peter that took the money.
conjunction
A conjunction is a word like and, but, although, because, if, whereas etc.
It can be used to link clauses together:
a. I arrived early, but John appeared much later.
b. I arrived early whereas John appeared much later.
m m en t clause
ie following sentences contain comment clauses (underlined):
1. John was a pilot, so he claims, in the Battle of Britain.
2. She was, as she admits, too lazy to take the jo b seriously.
he types of comment clause discussed in this book are virtual parenthe<s - in the above examples the commas could almost be replaced with
rackets:
la . John was a pilot (so he claims) in the Battle of Britain.
2a. She was (as she admits) too lazy to take the job seriously.
coordinate clause
Compare the following sentences:
a. I arrived at the party early, hut John appeared much later.
b. I arrived at the party early, whereas John appeared much later.
coordination
Unlike coordinate clause, the term coordination in this book does not have
any specialised grammatical significance. The sections which are listed un11
r the heading coordination bring together problems involving formal con;tency and logicality in the construction of a given sentence.
iangling participle
dangling participle is a participle that, when referred to its grammati1 subject, gives nonsense, e.g.:
*Not knowing the British mentality, many things might seem
rather strange at first.
ere the participle not knowing has the grammatical subject many things,
hich makes the sentence nonsensical.
fronting
Fronting is when a part of the clause is brought to the front in order to give
it special emphasis, e.g.:
John loves Renaissance music. Baroque he absolutely hates,
gender bias
This expression denotes a tendency in grammar (not only English) to be
have as if all human beings were of the male sex. Compare the following
alternatives:
a. All people can become members o f our Society who wish
to deepen their understanding of Britains heritage.
'Tot every lady owns a black terrier. Contrast non-defining relative clause.)
iscourse marker
, discourse marker denotes a large group of words and phrases which indicate
te relationship between what is being said and its context, and which often
:veal the speakers attitude to what he is saying (e.g. as a matter of fact, fortuately, frankly, obviously, possibly, on the other hand, strangely enough etc.).
llipsis
-llipsis is the leaving out of words when their meaning can be understood
:om the context. Compare the following alternatives:
a. On one side the passengers could see the bay,
and on the other they could see spectacular hills.
b. On one side the passengers could see the bay,
and on the other spectacular hills.
n b it is not necessary to insert the words they could see in the second part
if the sentence.
Jote:
'hroughout the book asterisks (*) have been used to indicate usage which is unacceptable,
ixtreme examples of incorrectness have been marked with double asterisks (**).
.2
Sentence b means essentially the same as a, but the subject Anyone is singu
lar. The possessive adjective his refers to Anyone, even though both sexes
are clearly intended.
inversion
Inversion is when the verb comes before the subject, e.g.:
She is a smoker, as are most o f her friends.
{instead of: just as most of her friends are.)
In the underlined words the phrase most o f her friends is the grammatical
subject of the as-clause and governs the verb are.
main clause
Sentences often consist of a main clause and a subordinate clause, e.g.:
1. I ll do the job when I get there.
2 . Although the driver was drunk, the police let him go.
In 1 the main clause is I'll do the job, and in 2 it is the police let him go\ in
both 1 and 2 these clauses could form self-contained sentences, being gramma
tically complete. By contrast the clauses when I get there and Although the driver
was drunk could never on their own form grammatically complete sentences.
modifier
Cf. postmodifier
13
entence a uses the noun phrase (or nominal phrase) an employee, while
uses language which is more verbal.
part of speech
A part of speech is a grammatical category of word, e.g. a verb, noun, ad
verb, adjective or conjunction.
participial postmodifier
This is when a word or phrase is modified by a participle or participial clause
that comes after it, e.g.:
1. Some o f the people accused were clearly innocent.
2. Various theories explaining this phenomenon have been advanced.
ion-finite verb
s. non-finite verb is one that cannot on its own serve as a predicate in a
entence, e.g. smoking, been etc. The term refers especially to infinitives,
tarticiples and gerunds. (A finite verb is one that can serve as a predicate
n a sentence, e.g. smokes, is smoking, is expected, has been etc.)
loun phrase {also nominal phrase)
"his is a group of words which together behave as a noun, e.g. the previous
ditions, my nephews wife, the city o f Rome etc.
)arallel expression
Jarallel expressions are words, phrases and clauses in a parallel relaionship to each other, unlinked by any conjunction, but separated by
i comma:
*TV influences our feelings, emotions.
postmodifier
This is a word, phrase or clause that comes after the word or phrase which it
modifies, e.g.:
a. The house across the road is said to be haunted.
b. Last night there was a nightingale singing in the garden.
c. There are many reasons why foxhunting should be banned.
In a the prepositional phrase across the road modifies The house-, hence it is
also called a prepositional postmodifier. In b the participial phrase singing
in the garden modifies a nightingale-, hence it is also called a participial
postmodifier. In c the clause why foxhunting should be banned modifies
many reasons. (Cf. also participial postm odifier and prepositional
postmodifier.)
predicate
The predicate is the part of a sentence which tells us about the subject. For
example, in the sentence Marjory has just arrived, everything except Marjory
is the predicate. (Cf. also complement, non-finite verb.)
14
15
>redicative
V predicative adjective is one that is placed after the verb to be, to look,
o seem etc., as in the following examples:
This road is dangerous.
You look tired.
If. attributive.
prepositional postmodifier
fhis is when a word or phrase is modified by a prepositional phrase that
:omes after it, e.g.:
the man on the moon
the house across the road
Here the prepositional phrases on the moon and across the wad modify
he man and the house respectively. (Cf. also postmodifier and partici
pial postmodifier.)
proper adjective
European and American are examples of proper adjectives. A proper ad
jective is formed from a proper noun (e.g. Europe, America).
proper noun
This is a type of noun that designates a particular person, place or thing, e.g.
Charles, Europe, Buckingham Palace. Typically it begins with a capital let
ter. (Cf. proper adjective.)
register
Register denotes a variety of language employed in a particular situation.
For example, in private a politician or chairman of the board might talk
about tackling specific problems, but in front of the television cameras he
will express the intention of addressing those problems. Addressing is of
a more formal or higher register than tackling.
sentence adverbial (cf. adverbial)
16
splice
By splice is meant an element in the middle of a sentence whose relation
ship whether to the preceding or subsequent part of the sentence is uninten
tionally obscure, as in the following example:
*Like Mother Teresa, devoting herself to the poor and dving.
Lady Diana also made caring for them her principal work.
subordinate clause
Cf. also main clause and coordinate clause
transitive
This is a category of verb that is able to take a direct object, e.g. eat (a biscuit),
give (a present), throw (a stone).
Vocabulary
Lexical Choice Involving Parts o f Speech
Nominalisations
English often displays a strong tendency to prefer verbal rather than nomi
nal constructions in order to express its meaning. This may be illustrated
by means of the following alternatives:
la . *We humans do not have any influence on our death. Those who wish
to live a long time often die in their 30s, while those who do not care
about longevity tend to live to a ripe old age.
lb . We humans do not have any influence on how and when we die....
Of the two formulations our death (la ) and how and when we die (lb ) only
the latter is in keeping with English idiom.
Let us now consider the following four sentences:
2a.
2b.
2c.
2d.
In the first sentence improvement is a noun pure and simple, albeit one
that is derived etymologically from the verb improve. To many English
people the sentence would sound highly formal, even unnatural. In terms
of register it might be found in an annual report, or in a statement delivered
by a president or chairperson on a highly formal occasion.
19
13. For those people who do not happen to be the lucky owners o f a car, trains are
the easiest and quickest m eans of travelling.
14. The improvement and more intensive utilisation o f the railways would have
the effect of a significant decrease in traffic congestion.
15. The failure o f the engine persisted, and we thought we would be stuck there.
Characterised by three o/-phrases one after the other, the sentence is all too
typical of a text that has been translated into English mechanically and
without any attempt to make the end product truly readable. Of course
there are various ways in which the above sentence may be improved and,
by implication, the mistake which it exemplifies avoided. Here are just two
possibilities:
3b. In any language it is very important to know
the principles that determine correctness o f usage.
1. Poles may be critics o f priests and question some of the C hurchs teachings,
but they love the Pope.
2. Unfortunately some teenagers stop their development at the stage o f adoles
cence.
>0
21
. The incredible sharpness o f the senses o f cats makes them react to paranor
mal phenomena.
. W e run a serious risk of a loss o f our traditional, rather conservative values.
The new developments in archaeology resulted in the consideration o f the
possibility o f coexistence o f groups o f people as reflected through numerous
ancient cultures.
we see that the first sentence uses a verbal construction which is rather
simplistic and more appropriate for a childrens tale, while the latter might
3e considered typical of any adult context.
In each of the above alternatives, the second (lb , 2b) would be widely
considered to be more in keeping with English idiom.
It is especially at the beginning of the sentence that English often pre
fers a verbal construction where other languages might use an adverbial
expression. Compare the following alternatives:
3a. Possibly he will be there tomorrow, but it is far from certain.
3b. It is possible that he will be there tomorrow....
4a. Undoubtedly there have been huge changes in public awareness
o f the environment. Evidently the environment has become
a key concern.
4b. There can be no doubt that there have been huge changes in
public awareness of the environment. It is evident / obvious that
the environment has become a key concern.
5a. To begin with, the writer discusses new developments in
e-commerce and the Internet, giving a detailed presentation
of the current situation. N ext he examines how advances
in information technology will affect our lives.
5b. The writer begins by discussing new developments...
He goes on to examine....
In each of the above alternatives, the latter (3b, 4b, 5b) would be widely
considered to be more typical of English idiom.
Sometimes, however, a verbal construction and an adverbial expression
are equally possible. Compare the following:
In the previous section it was pointed out that English often displays a striking
tendency to favour verbal rather than nominal constructions in order to ex
press its meaning. The same predilection, albeit less marked, is also to be
found when there is a choice between a verbal construction and an adverbial
expression. This may be illustrated by means of the following alternatives:
22
23
But above all, it simply cannot be taken for granted that a proper adjective
in the native language is to be rendered by the corresponding grammatical
form in English. Since the rules governing use are elusive, the only advice
is to proceed carefully.
3a. In accordance with an old belief fresh air, forests and fields
have a positive influence.
3b. It is an old belief that fresh air....
4a. Freud came up with a theory according to which dreams mirror
the passions which are concealed in the subconscious.
4b. Freud came up with a theory which holds that dreams mirror....
roper Adjectives
frequent error of non-native writers of English is to use proper adjeces where English would prefer nouns (European vs Europe, British vs
itain etc). Contrast the following sentences:
a. ^Blackpool has one of the most magnificent British beaches.
b. Blackpool has one of Britains most magnificent beaches.
c. Blackpool has one o f the most magnificent beaches in Britain.
This observation does not, however, imply that the use of an adjective
instead of a prepositional postmodifier is generally less typical of English;
the choice is simply dictated by idiom, on a case-by-case basis. The fol
lowing instances merit attention:
2. The cafe was a meeting place for many literary figures.
3. The Poet Laureate is a renowned man of letters.
25
"he above sentences exemplify set phrases. Thus we say literary figure
>ut man of letters. By contrast figure of letters is not English, while
literary man is highly informal at best.
The point can be further illustrated by means of the following altemaive sentences:
4a. Many Cubans dream of escaping communist reality.
4b. Many Cubans dream of escaping the reality of communism.
Belong
The verb to belong is frequently a cause of problems. It is used to express
membership of a clearly defined family, class or community, as in the fol
lowing examples:
Tigers belong to the cat family.
English belongs to the Germanic group of languages.
The composer belonged to a secret organisation.
Note how in each of these examples the subject (tigers, English, the com
poser) belongs to something that is grammatically singular (the cat fa m
ily, the Germanic group o f languages, a secret organisation). The verb to
belong cannot be used as a synonym of to be one o f . Consider the fol
lowing alternatives:
i. *The Habsburgs belong to Europes most ancient dynasties.
ii. The Habsburgs are one of Europes most ancient dynasties.
iii. The Habsburgs are among Europes most ancient dynasties.
iv. The Habsburgs rank (are to be ranked) among etc.
v.
The Habsburgs are to he numbered (counted) among etc.
5. Visiting the poor and chairing various charity organisations belonged to her
m any duties.
27
6. obtain
a. There is no better way than TV of getting information on recent events.
b. There is no better way than TV of obtaining information on recent
events.
7. possess
a. Few of the village doctors have got adequate medical equipment.
b. Few of the village doctors possess adequate medical equipment.
*et
et is the most overused verb in the English language, often being used
here other verbs are more suitable. In all except informal contexts its
/erase generally creates an impression of slovenliness, and its misuse leaves
1 impression of illiteracy. Look at the following sentence pairs, in each
f which the word get is replaced by an alternative:
. acquire
a. Many politicians have got a reputation for corruption.
b. M any politicians have acquired a reputation for corruption.
. become
a. Getting acquainted with other cultures broadens the mind.
b. Becoming acquainted with other cultures broadens the mind.
. derive
a. It is from there that he gets most of his income.
b. It is from there that he derives most o f his income.
. grow
a. W hen one considers all these contradictions, one simply gets confused.
b. W hen one considers all these contradictions, one simply grows
confused.
. have
a. M y grandmother has got a special way o f dealing with unwelcome
guests.
b. M y grandmother has a special way of dealing with unwelcome guests.
In the above examples each of the first sentences (a) is informal or con
versational, while each of the second (b) is characteristic of more serious
writing.
Replace get in the following sentences (in some o f them a verb other than
those listed above may be possible):
1. Politicians often try to get access to television-studios.
2. A good psychologist has got intuition.
3. All too easily people get lazy and prefer sitting in their armchairs.
4. One gets the impression that the world is m oving ever faster.
5. Many people desire to get truly educated.
6 . A mature person never tries to get out of facing the consequences o f his
actions.
7. The paparazzi will chase anybody to get some interesting and sensational
material.
8 . People may get anxious because o f these economic problems.
9. One can easily get something interesting for oneself out of the programme
offered.
10. Ethical standards have got a historical aspect to them.
11. The older one gets the wiser one becomes.
12. It is possible to get a great deal o f satisfaction from reading books.
13. When trains are delayed for so long people often get furious.
29
d. Sadly the dog proved (to be) vicious and had to be put down.
e. That argument proved to be the last straw: John left home.
(= Later on it became clear that that argument had been the last straw.)
Tiese verbs are very often confused, since their meanings largely overlap.
. happen
his verb emphasises the element of chance and fortune. The following
entences exemplify various constructions with this verb:
la. He happens to have the same birthday as myself.
(= It is an interesting coincidence that he has..)
lb. It so happens that he has the same birthday as myself.
2.
3.
4.
Tt quite often happens that the schools heating system breaks down.
!. occur
"his verb has two principal meanings that are very different from each
tther.
1. When did this event occur? (= take place)
2. It just did not occur to him that his best friend had
let him down. (= He did not realise...)
50
N.B.
After prove the verb to be can often be left out (especially when followed
by an adjective, as in examples a-d.). This omission is not generally possi
ble with turn out:
a. The new secretary turned out to be incompetent.
(Not: *tum ed out incom petent)
Transpire and emerge are used especially when a secret, above all a scan
dalous secret, comes to light. Transpire is of a higher register than emerge.
b. From my talks with the new chairperson it emerges that the firm is
on the verge of bankruptcy.
c- It now transpires that the director has been embezzling money
for many years.
31
6 . --------- the number o f accidents at that nuclear plant is out of all proportion
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
to its size.
M alaria----------especially in warmer climates.
Before TV was discovered family members had more time for each other.
N ow adays,----------we are more interested in the lives of our favourite TV
characters.
We all know those evenings w h e n ----------we have nothing to do but sit in
an armchair and read a book.
The subject----------more complicated than I thought.
When she finally did contact her parents i t ----------that her father had died
a few months earlier.
In this last example, but not in 1-2, which is is also possible instead of
namely.
3a. Both parents and teachers have the same task to perform,
which is to educate a rising generation.
32
33
Although M r Jones knows what his daughters interests are, he does not treat
them seriously.----------he does not help Amy to develop her interests, but
rather tries to project his own ambitions onto her.
The healthiest way to eat fruit is the opposite of the conventional w a y ,-----one should have it before the main meal, rather than after.
Man has another feature that animals la c k ,----------the possibility of rising
above the instincts.
Natural aptitude is indispensable for being a good teacher.----------it is not
enough to possess a knowledge of a particular subject.
Let us focus on the most important benefit of living in the country, ------- th<
abundance of fresh air.
The Princess also mentions some of the g o ssip .----------she notes that a book
by an erstwhile friend of hers is to a great extent fantasy.
The Governm ent has always pursued the same judicious foreign policy,
--------- to promote good neighbourly relations.
tcorrect:
With the Internet the world has become easier to be comprehended.
asy and difficult, possible and impossible share one particular construcon involving the infinitive. Compare the following sentences.
1. It is easy / difficult / possible / impossible to decipher our secret code.
2a.
2b.
4
35
ralue
Citizen
his word is also often misused, as in the following examples (la and 2a):
This word generally has a very restricted technical meaning, occurring pri
marily in legal contexts:
la . *Human life is the greatest value, and doctors should stop at nothing
to preserve it.
lb . Nothing is more valuable than human life, and doctors should
stop at nothing to preserve it.
2a. *We underestimate many values in our lives. The m ost important
ones, like health and peace o f mind, cannot be purchased at any
price.
2b. W e underestimate the importance of many things in our lives.
Those like health and peace of mind cannot be purchased at any price.
Citizen also has the meaning of city dweller, as in the following sen
tence:
2. Citizens of Philadelphia have a wide variety of cultural events
to choose from.
This second example would, however, strike many, if not most English
people as very stiff and formal, and needs rewriting:
7ind better alternatives to the word value in the following sentences, para
phrasing wherever appropriate:
. Are we really able to find any positive values among all those shown on TV?
Literature still has a number of values that cannot be replaced.
i. Our ancestors were able to preserve the m ost important values of culture,
despite all the wars and calamities.
L People often have fight for such priceless values as freedom and peace.
i. E uropes traditional music, legends, literature and art are eternal values which
are respected by all cultured people.
3. For many a clear conscience is the most important value in life.
36
1.
2.
3.
For long JFK s memory was revered and American citizens did not subject
his lifestyle to close scrutiny.
4.
The Internet could change the lives o f citizens as much as the telephone,
the radio and the TV have done.
5.
An hours walk in the open will guarantee a satisfactory level o f fitness for
the average adult citizen.
37
Appositions (I)
An apposition (literally placing at) occurs, for example, in the following
sentence:
Maijorie, my nephews wife, runs a boutique.
39
le crucial thing is that an article (the) has been added and the punctuation
is been reduced (one comma has disappeared).
While both la and lb are primarily about peoples fears, there is a sigficant difference in nuance: la informs us about the existence of Celtic
id Rangers, and that they were arch-rivals at that time (thus implying that
e might not necessarily have known).
lb , by contrast, makes no such implication about the readers knowlIge. Although the article is used (the two arch-rivals), lb does not imply
iat arch-rivals on the one hand ox Celtic and Rangers on the other have
reviously been mentioned.
Note that in sentence la the phrase two arch-rivals can hardly be fol>wed by any punctuation other than two commas. Here are two typical
~rors of punctuation:
i. with dashes:
lc . *When the cup final was held between two arch-rivals
- Celtic and Rangers - many people expected trouble.
3b. England is bounded on the west by the three W elsh counties (of)
Gwent, Powys, and Clywd.
Again 3a assumes that the reader may not have known that Gwent,
Powys, and Clywd were Welsh counties, and hence the tone is markedly
didactic. By contrast, 3b is not didactic: it makes no assumptions about the
persons knowledge.13a is slightly different from la and 2a: a colon has
been substituted for the comma. The reason for this is that the apposition is
not sandwiched between two clauses, but instead concludes the sentence.
Finally there is one tendency, typical of journalism, to favour structures
exemplified by lb , 2b and 3b, but without the initial article the:
4. NATO spokesman Jaimie Shea was in no doubt
where the real blame for the incident was to be placed.
The above examples point to patterns of usage, rather than any gram
matical rules as such. Of course, usage varies widely depending on subjec
tive considerations of what feels right, and in practice both types (a and
b) may often be used interchangeably, without any obvious difference of
nuance. The pattern illustrated in the type b sentences does, however, have
one important advantage: it involves little or no punctuation, and hence
might be considered more elegant.
Additional Note:
Only the final sentence is typical of English punctuation. (Cf. also below,
pp. 165f).
Nor does the use of the article (the three...) imply that Welsh counties have already
been mentioned.
41
42
19. The Pope John Paul II has tried to continue the work of John XXIII a/the
great reformer and an/the enlightened conservative Paul VI.
Appositions (II):
Appositions vs. Prepositional Structures
A special type of de facto apposition is used for towns, cities, districts,
landmarks, islands etc. It is typically expressed by the pattern the...of.
Compare the following alternatives:
a. The Cotswolds area has many picturesque towns. One charming spa,
Cheltenham, is especially worth visiting.
b. ...The charming spa of Cheltenham is especially worth visiting.
Both a and b have the same meaning. In the first alternative, Cheltenham
is technically in apposition to One charming spa. The second alternative
is especially typical of English idiom, conforming to a well-established
pattern that is found with various categories of proper nouns:
I. Towns and Villages:
1. The city of Rome is situated on the Tiber.
2. The town of Monmouth is the gateway to Wales.
3. The village of Tintagel is associated with King Arthur.
4. Today the Pope is visiting the Baltic port of Szczecin.
All the above sentences contain nominal phrases characterised by the pat
tern the...of... In each instance two nouns are linked by of to form a whole:
thus in 1 the phrase the city would be incomplete without of Rome
(the sentence refers to all of Rome, not just to one part);1 similarly in
4 the Baltic port and Szczecin are identical the phrase does not imply
any distinction between, say, a port of Szczecin and the rest of that city.
1
Phrases like the city o f Rome are not to be confused with the phrase the City o f Lon
don, which means one particular part of London - the ancient heart of the city where the
Bank of England, the Tower, and St Pauls Cathedral are to be found.
43
tn 1 the C o u n ty o f G w en t forms a whole: the county would be incomDlete without of Gwent; the same goes for the k in g d o m o f W essex and
'he D u c h y o f B u rg u n d y etc.
b. Provinces and Federal States:
44
Islands:
Here usage is divided:
but:
Roads:
Again usage tends to vary from case to case:
1. London is connected to Birmingham by the M l motorway.
(preferable to: the motorway M l)
2. The Berlin-Hanover autobahn is one of the busiest in Europe.
(preferable to: The autobahn Berlin-Hanover)
3. He was the designer and constructor of the Callao-La Oroya
railway line.
(not: **the railway line Callao-La Oroya)
Contrast:
The city is served by the international highways E75 and E71.
Hotels:
In Britain Hotel generally comes at the end of the name:
The Savoy Hotel is in London .1
1 Hotel Savoy sounds Continental.
f. Dates:
. Miscellaneous:
(b) is m o re fo rm al.
VI. Epithets:
Tie phrases emphasised in heavy print have one pattern in common: the
lore specific element comes first and the less specific element comes secnd. Thus English idiom does not favour: **the Affair Watergate, **the
ase Dreyfus, **a minireader Sumal PE2, **a study tour NL/UK, **Polish
drlines LOT, etc.
Consider too the following sentence:
6 . Our promotional material, presently available on the off-line system ,
Despite the above pattern (1-6), usage is not consistent. In the followng examples there are two possibilities:
Peter the Great, Ivan the Terrible, Charles the Fat, Ethelred the Unready etc.
Zorba the Greek, Vlad the Impaler, Edward the Confessor, Dolly the Sheep
etc.
Suggested Exercises (13):
9. The Niagara Falls / The Falls Niagara are the highest in the world.
10. The St Bruno Foundation / The Foundation St Bruno enjoys great prestige.
16
Negative sentences with because are often a source of confusion, the rea
son being that they fall into two totally different categories.
47
Type I:
l a . I did not invite M r Fortune because he is a bank manager.
(I invited him because I genuinely like him.)
In this first type the speaker denies an imputed motive for his action, while
giving what he claims to be the real reason. In such cases it is often possi
ble to rewrite the sentence as follows (although the word order would then
be unusual):
lb . I invited M r Fortune not because he is a bank manager....
Note how the insertion of ju s t makes the meaning of the sentence much
clearer.
48
If, however, the sentence is type II, then its clarity would be much en
hanced by changing because into since:
3c. ...The teacher should not be strict with such pupils,
since their personalities are slow to mature ....1
Another option is a reformulation which dispenses with the becauseclause and turns it into an independent sentence:
3d. ...The teacher should not be strict with such pupils.
After all, their personalities are slow to mature....
This, however, does not exhaust the possible options for cases of type
II. Let us look at a modification of an earlier example:
4. A: Why didnt you invite M r Fortune?
B: I didnt invite him for the simple reason that he was
going away for the weekend.
In fact, the phrase fo r the simple reason that and its more formal variant
the reason being that are useful especially in such contexts, where it is
necessary to avoid ambiguity.
In sentences of type II one other useful construction is also possible in
some cases. Compare the following alternatives:
5a. *The EU does not promote conformity because it appreciates
the unique features of each nation.
5b. The EU does not promote conformity, appreciating as it does
the unique features of each nation.
49
50
The point at issue becomes clearer if one compares the following sen
tences:
3a. *Cumbria, being a region of mountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.
3b. Cumbria, which is a region of mountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.
3c. Cumbria, a region of mountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.
4a. *Shivering and having a temperature I went to the party.
4b. Although I was shivering and had a temperature, I went to the party.
The participles being and having should express a causal relationship, yet
it is obvious that this is the case neither in 3a (being') nor in 4a (having)',
it is not possible to rewrite the sentences so:
*Cumbria, since it is a region of mountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.
Seeing that I was shivering and had a temperature, I went to the party.
Thus, only 3b-c and 4b render the presumed meaning. By contrast, 3a and
4a, are not even English.
The same pattern emerges if we compare the following alternatives, o f
which only options 5b-d are correct:
5a. *School is a formative time for most of us. Being at school,
we meet many interesting people.
5b. ...While being at school we meet many interesting people.
5c. ...While at school we meet many interesting people.
5d. ...While we are at school we meet many interesting people.
Replace the participles being and having in the following sentences, rear
ranging them where necessary:
51
generally miserable.
7. Being 70 Mann crossed the Pyrenees on foot to escape arrest.
8 . She was frequently told about Charles affair by people having a hostile
Now compare the above with three alternative sentences (all correct),
where the participle having is used:
2a, Having these unique advantages, Oxford and Cambridge
will surely appeal to many tourists.
2b. Oxford and Cambridge will surely appeal to many tourists,
having as they do these unique advantages.
2c. Oxford and Cambridge will surely appeal to many tourists,
having these unique advantages as they do.
ii) having
The contract was signed on 16* February 1999 between
Abacus International, having its seat in London,
represented by Mr John Evans, hereinafter referred to
as the Employer, and Ms Mary Parsons, hereinafter
referred to as the Employee.
53
)r even:
...between the London-based Abacus International....
Be + fo-infinitive
1. As a command:
You are to clean the house and after that prepare things
for our arrival, (i.e. These are our instructions / orders.)
2. As an official arrangement:
Later this year the Prime Minister is to visit Norway.
(i.e. This is what has been planned and scheduled.)
54
on who is speaking or stating or arguing. If that is not our intention, varius alternatives are at hand:
lb . ...Giving complete freedom is the only way,
so they insist, to bring up the young.
lc . ...Giving complete freedom is the only way,
they insist, to bring up the young.
Id . .-They insist that giving complete freedom
is the only way to bring up the young.
The sentence implies that the defendant was not in town that day, and that
10 one disputes the fact.
To summarise, if our standpoint is not identical to that of the person that
,ye are referring to, if we do not necessarily endorse his or her opinions,
hen the use of phrases like as he says, as they insist etc. can be highly
confusing, and especially when they begin the sentence. Sometimes they
ire hardly English in any context at all.1
1
The comment clause as he put(s) it is an exception, in that it tells us nothing about the
standpoint of the writer. It is, however, found generally in mid-sentence, seldom or never at
he beginning.
56
Since in English grammar the subject generally has to come first, it follows
that in la and lb the grammatical subject is A good illustration o f that,
while my parents is the complement. And since the verb to be must agree
with the grammatical subject, it follows that the verb required should be
singular, not plural, and hence la is ungrammatical. Sentence lb is gram
matically correct, but it is clumsy since the predicate (is my parents) is
shorter than the subject, causing the sentence to read abruptly (see below,
p. 103).2 Hence the best thing is a complete reformulation:
lc . ...A good illustration of that is provided bv my parents.
Id . ...M v parents are a good illustration of that.
Of course, it may be pointed out that in Id the subject is plural while the
complement is singular, and hence the sentence might be considered awk
ward. Even so, Id reads much better than lb , since the predicate (are a
good illustration o f that) is longer. Finally there is one other possibility,
which is unproblematic:
Additional Note 1:
58
59
Some people seek the meaning of life in religious devoteeism. Another group
of people whose aim is to possess wisdom are philosophers.
Another proof of the villas late occupation are the pavements of mosaic and
m arble fragments indiscriminately mixed.
Sometimes when the sentence is reformulated, it is necessary to introjce a completely new verb (e.g. lc , le , 2c). Compare also the following
tree sentences:
4a.
4b.
4c.
4d.
3b. Euthanasia implies dying with dignity, as becomes every human being.
(Not: **as it becomes....)
Here are some more phrases (discussed below at p. 84) which use the same
construction:
as can be exemplified, illustrated etc. by....
as can be noticed, observed, seen etc. in....
as is (has been, will be etc.) argued, demonstrated,
proved, shown, suggested etc.
as is obvious from....
as is/was the case with ....1
1 For this phrase see below, p. 142
61
.B.
he structure occurs especially with the verb to be. This verb may be either
1 simple form (e.g. as is obvious...) or in passives containing the auxiliary
erb to be. In this latter case the verb to be occurs either on its own (e.g. as
as emphasised above) or with modals (<35 can be noticed).
)
I. As + inversion
s. rather similar structure involving as (meaning just as) occurs with the
erbs to be and to do. Compare the following alternatives:
7a.
7b.
7c.
7d.
8 a.
8 b.
8 c.
8 d.
The above sentences (7a-d, 8a-d) are different ways of saying virtually the
;ame thing. In 7c and 7d the words and so are and as are are interchangeible; similarly, in 8c and 8d the words an d so do and as do are inter
changeable.
1 The phrase as it often happens... is an entirely different construction. Contrast the
The concluding clauses of 7b-c and 8b-c are especially typical of informal
contexts, while 7d and 8d are especially characteristic of sophisticated writ
ten English.
the
nothing.
9. In our country religion and church-going are taken very seriously, a s ---------seen on Sundays.
10. The judge, a s ----------been expected, refused to admit the charge.
11 . I thought he wanted to mug m e ,----------all too often happens in my
township.
12. This strange picture of our country is very widespread in the West, a s ---------illustrated by the case of an acquaintance of mine from the New W orld
who was amazed to see we had cellular phones.
13. Rick would smoke one cigarette after another, a s ----------common in such
circles.
14. A s ----------once happened ten years before, John was suddenly called upon
to stand in for his boss.
15. Throughout the world computers seem to be dominant, a s ----------noticed in
almost every field of human life.
16. Such a policy cam only bring disaster, a s ----------observable in the streets of
our cities.
63
17. The marriage was a m ost splendid affair, a s ----------been expected given
the wealth of the two families.
18. Goering comported him self with as much dignity a s ----------humanly
possible, given the circumstances of the case.
19. The ju d g e s conviction of the opposition leader is indeed remarkable,
a s ---------- the fact that most of the defences witnesses have been murdered.
20. The Portuguese president refused the invitation to the Vienna Carnival Ball,
a s ---------- some other statesmen.
21. The patriotic aspect is also very important, a s --------------be illustrated by
nineteenth-century Polish literature.
22. Next we have the pessimists who - a s --------- typical of pessimists - argue
that everything is going from bad to worse.
23. The case was referred, a s ----------proper, to a higher authority.
24. Far from becoming more original a s ----------their intention, such teenagers
simply end up as cheap copies of Madonna, Kate Moss or the Spice Girls.
25. A s ----------widely realised, trains are one of the safest means of travel.
26. Curie discovered that certain of the compounds show higher levels of
radioactivity th a n ----------previously been supposed.
Gerunds
The... of...
Gerunds are a frequent source of problems. Consider the following alter
native sentences:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Sentence a is the least formal and sentence g the most formal. Sentences b,
d and e are ungrammatical.
64
When the gerund is used, more formal English generally requires that it
be preceded by the definite or indefinite article (a ! an, the)-, if the gerund
is preceded by an article, it has to be separated from its object by the pre
position of, which is why sentences d and e are ungrammatical. Sentence c
is questionable since it is a mixture, or confusion, of a on the one hand and
f and g on the other.
The construction exemplified by sentence a (i.e. without article + of) is
most often used in informal contexts. If the gerund has a direct object (in
sentence a, ones horizons), then the gerund may be qualified by an adverb
(constantly), but not by an adjective (constant), which is why b is ungram
matical.
Some non-native writers of English do, however, have difficulties when
they wish to make clear who or what is performing the action that is ex
pressed by the gerund. Compare the following alternatives:
a. The fact that Slovenia achieved its objective of independence
encouraged other republics in Yugoslavia to break away.
b. Slovenias achieving its objective of independence
encouraged other republics in Yugoslavia to break away.
c. *Achieving bv Slovenia its objective of independence
encouraged other republics in Yugoslavia to break away.
d. *The achieving bv Slovenia its objective of independence
encouraged other republics in Yugoslavia to break away.
e. The achieving bv Slovenia of its objective of independence
encouraged other republics in Yugoslavia to break away.
65
Most
A recurrent error is to write sentences containing a phrase consisting of the
most + adjective. Consider the following alternatives:
a. Comfort and affluence are most important in life.
b. *Comfort and affluence are the most important in life.
c. Comfort and affluence are the most important things in life.
66
Additional Note:
An analogous error involves best, worst etc. Compare the following sen
tences:
a. People seem to take each other more and more for granted. Worst of all
is that they have grown used to this pattern o f behaviour.
b. ...*The worst of all is that they have grown used to this pattern of
behaviour.
c. ...The worst thing of all is that they have grown used to this pattern of
behaviour.
In the second sentence of Id what the phrase most of the countries really
means is most of the countries that belong to the EU or most of the coun
tries in the EU. Thus the structure represented by lc is generally possible
only when modified by a further postmodifier (e.g. most o f the countries in
the EU). or when that postmodifier is understood from the context. Howev
er, it is important to note that even in Id Most countries would also be possi
ble, with the intended meaning most of the countries in the EU.1
1
That the countries of the EU rather than other countries are meant, would be clear
from the context.
67
1:
and > or
Affirmative:
la . Some people are very smart when it comes to making
a good impression and getting what they want from others.
For each o f the following sentences choose an option that is most likely to
read correctly irrespective o f the context:
Negative:
lb . Some people are not very smart when it comes to making
a good impression or getting what they want from others.
1. Some o f parts / Some parts / Some of the parts of our brain are much more
complex than others.
2:
2. None of parents / No parent / None of the parents is / are able to avoid such
mistakes.
Affirmative:
3. M any years of totalitarianism left peoples lives much the poorer. Any of
human values / Any human values / Any o f the human values was / were
destroyed by an inhuman system.
4. One of such organisations / One such organisation is regularly in trouble with
the authorities.
Negative:
2b. Our colleague does not enjoy high esteem as a teacher or role-model,
to say nothing of her failure to publish anything.
5. Hardly any of such children / Hardly any such child stands / stand a chance of
developing in a normal way.
6 . M ost of Americans / M ost Americans / M ost of the Americans possesses /
3:
possess guns.
7. The story can be found in one o f books / one book / one o f the books o f the
Bible.
8 . She was known to all of people / all people / all of the people as M other
Teresa.
Negative:
3b. Our Chief Accountant is never obliging, any more than his colleagues
are.
68
69
Negative:
4:
greatly > to any great extent / degree
Affirmative:
4a. M r Jones greatly impressed his listeners.
7:
Negative:
4b. M r Jones did not impress his listeners to any great degree.
So far we have been talking only about tendencies, and the modifica
tions outlined above ought not to be considered in any way obligatory.
Thus as an alternative to 3b the following sentence is also possible, al
though some would consider it clumsy:
3c. Our Chief Accountant is never obliging, just as his colleagues are not-
Affirmative:
7a. I have seen John and Peter as well as Tom.
Negative:
7b. I have not seen John or Peter, let alone Tom.
8:
entirely / completely
not at all
Affirmative:
8 a. Jack and Jill are entirely compatible.
II: Non-Optional
Negative:
9:
as well / too > either
Affirmative:
5a. As our tourist will discover, telephones generally function properly.
Public transport is an attractive feature of our daily life as well.
5b. ...Public transport is an attractive feature of our daily life too.
Negative:
Negative:
9b. He did not influence political developments to any considerable extent
5c. As our tourist will discover, telephones do not generally function prop
erly. Public transport is not an attractive feature of our daily life either.
1 The following option also exists, but some would find it highly informal:
6:
6c. No visitor - and especially not from Western Europe - can fail to notice
these subtleties.
70
these subtleties.
Notice the dashes instead of the commas.
2 The sentence Jack and Jill are not entirely compatible has a very different meaning:
it implies that they are at least to some extent compatible.
71
1. Our new secretary is very hard-working, and she proves to be very competent
as well.
1. Jack looked worn out, and he was not exactly impeccably dressed---------2. Many cannot afford basics like food or clothes,----------going away on
holiday.
2. The turmoil on the Japanese markets has considerably affected the economic
situation of neighbouring countries.
3. Joan has a talent for teaching as well as for getting her knowledge across.
3. He saw that the cell-door was open. There were no warders around---------4. The importance of health cannot be underestim ated,----------peace of mind.
5. The Firm became increasingly hostile towards her, and she found she could
no longer rely on her friend s---------6 . Such parents fail to realise that buying expensive toys has nothing to do with
12. Ants never seem to be tire d b ees, which ceaselessly collect nectar
and pollen.
13. Life there cannot exactly be riveting,--------- for an ambitious type of man.
14. Arabella loved her fiance dearly, just as her parents did, but was unable to
take his ideas seriously,----------------------------------- her p aren ts------15. There is no reason for the W est to do business with this dictator,----------one
who is accused of such human rights abuses.
16. The Pope was not afraid of waging a war against com m unism ,-------------he
hesitates to express his disapproval of capitalism.
-
17. Not every family, a n d those with several children, can meet the costs
of studies.
18. The authorities cannot even afford to heat existing classrooms in winter,
build new ones.
72
73
The fact that such an insertion is possible shows that the relative clause is
non-restrictive, and that a comma is therefore necessary in 2a:
2c. In the seventh century much of Tibet converted to Buddhism,
which came from India.
Again, the fact that such an insertion is possible shows that the relative
clause is non-restrictive, and that a comma is therefore necessary in 3a:
3c. Napoleon was exiled to St Helena, where he was to spend
the rest of his life.
Again, the fact that such an insertion is possible shows that the relative
clause is non-restrictive, and that a comma is therefore necessary in 4a:
4c. Roumania is trying to modernise its economy, which is
still recovering from long years o f neglect.
Sentence 5a (but not 5b) can easily be turned into a coordinate clause with
and:
5c. My brother has just arrived at Brighton, and he finds it most agreeable.
74
N.B.
Only in the defining or restrictive type of sentence can that be substitut
ed for who or which:
lc . The president that made such remarks was Lincoln.
Supply commas and correct the word that wherever necessary (sometimes
no changes are required):
1. Tourists may well be charmed by their visit to our country where remarkable
customs are still to be found.
2. The most important organisation is the EU that now comprises 15 members.
3. This is the question that I am going to examine in this essay.
4. The ties between man and nature that were very close until the nineteenth
century can no longer be restored.
5. The life that our cat leads is one of luxury.
6 . Even in the economically most developed countries where it might seem that
everyone lives in affluence there are people whose standard of living is low.
7. The organisation that they belong to will soon be banned.
8 . Those that take themselves too seriously will have a rude awakening.
9. There are times in life when we are faced with two simple alternatives.
10. Even now England has a number of old traditions an example of which is
November 5 when children bum a dummy.
11. They were ready to counsel anyone that approached them.
12. Europes paparazzi some of whom even disturbed her last moments must
take much of the blam e for the princesss death.
13. China is the country where paper, silk and gunpowder were first m anufactured.
14. Becoming poor is not a punishment: it is simply life that is often cruel and
full of injustices.
15. Those that were brought up with such attitudes expect the state to provide
everything.
75
7. Everything began in the early 50s when the foundations for the EU were
being constructed.
8 . The politicians that I have been discussing are all too typical of our country.
9. The situation that faces us is highly alarming.
0. The European Commission to which member-states send delegates meets in
Strasbourg.
1. M ost o f the unemployed are genuine cases, but everyone knows that there are
also many people that prefer just sitting at home instead of looking for work.
2. Napoleon that is remembered today as one of Frances greatest men was
actually a Corsican.
3. Global warming will have especially serious consequences in Central Africa
where m alaria already reaps a grim harvest.
4. The cultures that I have attempted to describe above declined for reasons that
have yet to be satisfactorily explained.
5. Their marriage that used to be considered so stable has now come to an end.
6 . Those doctors who went on strike were bitterly criticised by those others
who remained at their posts.
7. He was one of the paparazzi that were arrested at the scene of the accident.
8 . Paper, silk and gunpowder were first manufactured in China where recorded
6 a. The Iron Curtain, which once divided Europe, still exists in the minds
of some.
6b. The Iron Curtain that once divided Europe still exists in the minds of
some.
But a more likely explanation for sentences like 6b is that the pattern the...
that... (discussed below, p. 155f.) is becoming increasingly fashionable
in British English, not least because it does not involve any punctuation.
6b is more typical of contemporary journalism.
There
There is also a regular source of related problems, since it is used for two
distinct words, each of which has its own distinct functions:
a) as a spatial expression:
Where is our taxi? Look, there is our taxi you see it coming?
loth 6a and 6b are correct. Some would argue that in 6b the phrase The
vn Curtain has ceased to have the status of a proper noun, as in the second
f the following alternatives:
7a. Susan, who lives across the road, is getting married next week.
7b. The Susan that lives across the road is getting married next week.
(i.e. not the Susan that works with me at the office).
1 Many English people pronounce the two words differently: /6e9(r)/ for the spatial
expression and /d9(r)/ for the introductory subject of sentences.
77
5. with verbs that describe an arrival (appear, arise, arrive, come, emerge,
enter, follow etc.), especially in a highly formal or literary context.
i)
Last week there arose new doubts concerning the veracity of the
document.
iii)
iv)
4. with verbs that describe a state (exist, live, remain etc.), especially in
a formal or literary context.
i) There exist valid reasons why foxhunting should be banned.
There exist some grounds for optimism that the conflict will soon be
resolved.
ii) In this house there had once lived an eccentric millionaire.
iii) There remain two problems that no one seems able to solve.
ii)
v)
vi)
vii)
As in section 4 all the examples again involve real subjects that consist
of several words, and nearly all contain postmodifiers (... o f dark and om
inous aspect, ... concerning the veracity o f the document, ...from abroad,
... when we will need their help, ... wearing balaclavas, ... o f the most bi
zarre appearance). The tfiere-construction serves to focus the readers at
tention on the actual subject of the sentence (some clouds o f dark and om
inous aspect, new doubts concerning the veracity o f the document etc.).
Note that this construction generally occurs only in the simple present
or simple past. The following sentences are hardly possible:
** There are arising new doubts....
** There has arrived a huge parcel....
** There has emerged a band of men....
79
80
In each of the above alternatives the first is much more informal than the
second. Note in sentences 2a, 3a and 4a the lengthy subject, containing
a postmodifier consisting of a participle + prepositional phrase (... a night
ingale singing in the garden. ... many people killed on our mads. ... thou
sands o f people emigrating to the States'l. It is precisely this lengthy and
composite subject that tends to characterise the construction, la being
an exception.
III. There + passive verb + subject
The above example may at least convey some idea of how rare the con
struction in question actually is.
Suggested Exercises (27):
81
3.
4.
5.
6.
4. On the western edge of the Nile delta there is the city of Alexandria.
5. At a right angles to the square there is the tow ns most famous monument.
7. Fortunately, there are being invented more and more ways of dealing with
such problems.
T y p e A:
Incorrect:
Correct:
b. Hay-on-Wye is surrounded by hills, and this gives rise to a special
microclimate.
c. Hay-on-Wye is surrounded by hills, which gives rise to a special
microclimate.
d. Hay-on-Wye is surrounded by hills, a circumstance that gives rise to a
special microclimate.
82
83
3. John said he would fight for custody of the children. This he justified by
saying that Jane was unsuited as a mother.
4. The Joneses have different social backgrounds. That seems to influence
the relations between Mrs Joness parents and their own son-in-law.
Type B:
Sometimes, however, different structures are needed from the ones pre
sented above. This is especially the case when certain verbs are involved.
These may be classified as:
i) verbs of illustrating, exemplifying etc.
ii) verbs of seeing, noticing, observing etc.
ii) verbs of arguing, establishing, proving, showing etc.:
i. Even when natural ability is absent, hard work can often produce results,
as can be illustrated (exemplified) by the case of M r X, my maths
teacher.
In the above sentence *what can be seen would hardly be English; which
can be seen, though not exactly wrong, is best avoided. For more details
of this as-construction, cf. p. 6 If.
iii. Wales has a great tourist potential, as I am going to show in this essay.
In the above sentence *what I am going to show would hardly be Eng
lish; which I am going to show, though not exactly wrong, is best avoid
ed.
5. Life expectancy and life style are closely related. This has been established
beyond all doubt by an immense num ber of scientific studies.
Type C:
This type involves phrases containing evaluative adjectives like impor
tant, significant, worse etc.
Incorrect:
a. *A teacher needs three qualities: a positive attitude to others, an ability
to empathise, and - what is important - a certain degree of intelligence.
Correct:
b. A teacher needs three qualities: a positive attitude to others, an ability to
empathise, and - more importantly - a certain degree of intelligence.
c. A teacher needs three qualities: a positive attitude to others, an ability to
empathise, and above all a certain degree of intelligence.
Incorrect
*what is (more) important
*what is (more) interesting
*what is (more) obvious
*what is significant
*what is more worrying
*what makes matters worse
Correct
more importantly
interestingly (enough)
(more) obviously
significantly
more worryingly
making matters worse
N.B.
The phrase what is worse is often used in an inappropriate manner.
Clumsy:
1. Dreams are closely related to reality. This can be illustrated by the fact that we
often dream about people and places we know.
84
*There are people who buy such magazines and, what is worse, believe
the things they read there.
85
Better:
There are people who buy such magazines and, worse still, believe
the things they read there.
In reality, phrases like worse still, even worse or making matters worse
are much more common.
Suggested Exercises (31):
In the following sentences supply the gaps in the way indicated above:
1. Such people live in their own little world, blind to what is happening all
around them a n d ,--------- , unable to express their emotions.
2. Pensioners are faced with extreme poverty.----------, these people can do
nothing about their predicament.
3. This suggests that she was not a conscientious teacher a n d ,----------, not a
successful one.
4. Education has become a means to an e n d ;----------, it is no longer free of
charge.
5. TV often monopolises our lives a n d ,----------, we rarely realise it.
Type D:
This type of mistake is similar to type C, but the structures required for its
correction are to some extent different:
Incorrect:
N.B.
The phrase what follows expressing a logical relationship is rare in the
extreme. Compare the following alternatives:
Incorrect:
la . *They will be more able to cope with their disabilities and,
what follows, to lead happier lives.
Correct:
lb . They will be more able to cope with their disabilities and,
consequently, to lead happier lives,
lc . ...and, bv implication, to lead happier lives.
Incorrect:
2a. *Nowadays it is fashionable to call human wickedness a kind of
illness. What follows, the criminal is essentially absolved from
his actions, requiring a doctor rather than a prison warder.
Correct:
2b.
...It follows from this that the criminal is essentially absolved from
his actions, requiring a doctor rather than a prison warder.
Correct:
b. W hat is especially alarming is that not even huge oceans etc.
1. IRONIC the Party was abolished by the man whom it had once expelled in
disgrace.
Here are some other examples of such incorrect phrases (all typically fol
lowed by commas):
*What is astonishing,
*What is curious,
86
87
3. W ORTH MENTIONING George always put other people first and him self
last.
4. REM ARKABLE they do not overestimate their financial situation.
5. CURIOUS people often behave in an irrational way when confronted by
TV-cameras.
6 . IM PORTANT dreams reveal the stresses with which people are not able to
cope in reality.
Stylistic Devices
89
As can be seen from Id, the construction can also be used unchanged with
a plural expression. Compare the following alternatives:
4a. Not only Liverpudlians are proud of the Beatles: the fact is that Paul,
John, George and Ringo were a peculiarly British phenomenon.
4b. It is not only Liverpudlians that are proud....
N.B.
i)
In sentence 4b the verb of the that-clause agrees with Liverpudlians and
not with it: i.e. the verb (are) is in the plural.
ii)
With sentences like 2, 3 and 4, where the focus is on people, who is possi
ble instead of that:
2c. It was George Orwell who wrote Animal Farm in 1945.
3c. It was Paula who married a film star quite recently.
4c. It is not only Liverpudlians who are proud of the Beatles....
iii)
This type of cleft sentence cannot be used to focus on the complement of
a verb:
Salman Rushdie is a controversial figure.
N ot: **It is a controversial figure that Salman Rushdie is.
iv)
When the sentence refers to the past, then it is is likely to change into
it was:
90
5a. In 1825 Sopot became a spa. But above all the interwar period left its
mark on the towns appearance.
5b. ...But it was above all the interwar period that left its mark on the
tow ns appearance.
Convert the following sentences in the same way (italics have been given
fo r guidance). Example:
a. On the foundations o f our childhood memories we build
all the subsequent stages.
Additional Note:
A:
It is... that..
la . We hope that this conference will be a great success,
lb . It is our hope that....
2a. I am / We are convinced that this conference will be a great success.
2b. It is mv / our conviction that....
3a. We are deeply sad to announce the death of....
3b. It is with deep sadness that we must announce....
4a. W e heartily approve of and admire your endeavours....
4b. It is with heartfelt approval and admiration that we have been observing
your endeavours....
B:
It is my / our... to...
la . We have the pleasure to inform you that you have been awarded
the Nobel Prize,
lb . It is our pleasure to....
2a. I have the honour to welcome you to....
2b. It is my honour to....
3.
92
Make the following sentences more emphatic (in some o f them words have
been italicised where the new sentence is to begin):
E.g. Such a complex organism has never before existed.
Never before has such a complex organism existed.
1 . I had seldom before seen such an expressive face.
93
2. Every one of us can derive such wisdom from reading books. (Such is...)
3. Such enormous progress in medicine has never before been achieved.
entire energies to attaining common material goals. (In the worst scenario not
only... )
9. One can appreciate the talent and writing skill of the author only by reading
his book or poem in the original.
10. She was so imaginative and creative that every class with her was different.
11. This knowledge not only imbues one with confidence but also helps one in
getting to know other cultures.
12. Talent must be accompanied by hard work, and it yields results only then.
13. There are grounds for saying that the pen is m ightier than the sword. (Not
without reason...)
14. The fans are so enthralled by their idol that they will follow him to the ends
of the earth.
15. Literature should serve useful purposes under no circumstances.
16. This scandal had no sooner been forgotten than another appeared.
17. The traces o f the First World W ar are nowhere more visible than in Northern
France.
18. You will be allowed to join our gathering only when your manners improve.
19. He stopped to think about the consequences of his deed hardly for a single
moment. (Hardly for...)
20. The princess had no idea of the terrible fate that awaited her. (Little did...)
21. The explosion was of such force that several people were killed instantly.
(Such was...)
Additional Note:
In the above construction the words hardly and never are usually part of a
more composite expression (e.g. Hardly ever does the Prime Minister put
aside her mask o f hypocrisy). Thus sentences like *Hardly would I enjoy
94
95
In 5c the adverb still makes it obvious that the first clause is concessive
(Even though), and not causative (Since, Seeing that).
If we set aside the examples with much as and concentrate on the other
sentences (1 and 5), we will see that they involve the verb to seem (Amazing
though it may seem) or the verb to be (Tired as I was). It is precisely with
these two verbs that the emphatic construction most frequently occurs.
Very occasionally a noun phrase may be brought to the front, in which
case it generally appears without any article. Compare the following ex
amples:
6a. As I am a dream enthusiast, I confess I find dreams more interesting
than books or films.
6b. Dream enthusiast as I am, I confess I find dreams more interesting
than books or films. (Not: **A dream enthusiast...)
NB:
The construction(s) described above tend to be reserved for clauses which
have the same grammatical subject as the main clause:
Amazing as it may seem, it is the simple truth.
Tired as I was, I still could not fall asleep.
In sentences of this type (7b) the meaning is invariably seeing that or since,
and never even though. Generally the construction involves a verb which
takes a direct object (e.g. have). The as-clause and the main clause tend to
have the same grammatical subject. (For more details, cf. p. 53.)
96
97
shows that the relative clause of la (where he was to spend the rest o f his
life) is non-defining, and therefore needs to be preceded by a comma.
This insertion of an apposition remains a very useful technique when we
are dealing with non-defining relative clauses that conclude the sentence.
Let us take the following example:
2a. Englands culture is the product of its long years of history, which
have included several invasions and religious upheavals.
98
While sentence 2a is not incorrect, the relative clause might easily be recast
as a coordinate clause:
2b. Englands culture is the product of its long years o f history,
and these years have included several invasions and religious upheavals.
or even:
3e. He succeeded in deciphering three of archaeologys m ost perplexing
secrets, enigmas that had rem ained unsolved for ages.
Mastering this trick will make your writing easier and more pleasant to
read, as well as eliminating potential ambiguities. This is especially impor
tant when the relative clause has an unclear antecedent, as in the following
sentence:
99
4a. The sacked deputy prime minister rejects the accusations of perjury,
sexual m isconduct and financial impropriety, which he claims to be
politically motivated.
Presumably the which refers to accusations, yet the fact that the two
words are far removed from each other makes the sentence slightly awk
ward to read. It could be greatly improved by the insertion of an appo
sition:
6a. Many are unaware of the history of their country, which also adversely
affects their knowledge of other fields of education.
Here which refers not to one word, but to the entire previous clause, al
though that is not immediately obvious. Hence the following reformulation
would be a great improvement:
6b. Many are unaware of the history of their country, a fact which also
adversely affects their knowledge o f other fields of education.
4b. The sacked deputy prime minister rejects the accusations of perjury,
sexual misconduct and financial impropriety, accusations which he
claims to be politically motivated.
or even:
4c. The sacked deputy prim e minister rejects the accusations of perjury,
sexual misconduct and financial impropriety, charges which he claims
to be politically motivated.
we will see that which has no antecedent that is obvious at first sight. If,
as is most likely, which refers to responsibility, then the following would
be a great improvement:
5b. Freedom has proved to be scary and to demand great responsibility
from our actions, a responsibility which we are often afraid of.
argumentation.
101
13. They treat old people with respect, which is probably linked to the impor
tance attached to good manners.
14. M r and Mrs Jones have little job security and poor professional prospects,
which m ay disqualify them as potential foster-parents.
15. A visit to the harbour is always like a week in a health resort, where all my
senses may recuperate from the fumes and traffic of the city.
16. The extended family is not an anachronism. It is a cure for loneliness which
has developed along with humanity and m ust be continuously cultivated.
17. Our tourist is likely to stand in queues for hours while'clerks usually
fem ale - are varnishing their nails, reading magazines, drinking coffee,
guzzling cakes and gossiping about their bosss latest hair-do, which they
acquired during their years under the previous political system.
18. Owing to these childhood experiences she is unable to establish any satis
factory relationships with others, which leaves her a very unhappy person.
Here the predicate arose consists of one word, coming after a subject o f
many words. Many British people would consider the sentence awkward
and difficult to read. Yet if the predicate were longer, the sentence would
be unobjectionable:
lb . The problem of how best to divide up the profits was discussed bv all
concerned.
Most native users of English would find the second alternative incompara
bly easier to read.
If we look at the following sentence, we will again notice a short pred
icate preceded by a long subject:
4a.*According to scientists, the most important point of dissimilarity
between homo sapiens and the rest of the animal kingdom is speech.
Here the predicate is speech consists of two words, coming after a subject
of many words. The sentence needs reorganising:
4b. According to scientists, speech is the most important point....1
104
Both sentences are ambiguous as well as being clumsy, the short under
lined phrases coming abruptly after longer elements. Sentence 6 is am
biguous because at first reading it looks as if the meaning is too little
exercise and too little stress. Sentence 7 is similarly unsatisfactory. Both
6 and 7 need to be read more than once before the most likely meaning
emerges.
A related mistake involves one particular type of composite genitive
expression. Contrast the following alternatives:
8a.*Computers have changed not only students but also teachers lives.
8b. Computers have changed the lives of both students and teachers.
Improve the following sentences by changing the word order and if neces
sary by rephrasing them.
1. Another typical example of keeping local traditions in our country is Easter.
2.
3. It was against this background that the idea of writing a m odem history of
England, highlighting the role of Parliament, emerged.
4.
5.
6.
Many years have passed since the famous Round Table talks, which are
considered to have been the beginning of the end of communist domination,
took place.
7.
Observing five-year-olds who can only think about new com puter games and
who perceive reality only through a monitor screen, is sad.
8. From among these Th. M om m sens contribution in the field of textual criti
cism and epigraphy, R. Sym es work on the significance o f the prosopographical method, and A.H.M. Joness immense structuralist study o f the
later Roman Empire deserve particular recognition.
105
Additional Note:
3. The decisions that people make and the statem ents that are uttered are often
irrevocable.
4. Such students devote their whole free time to party activism , and it is fo r
them a kind of professional hobby which will later turn into a political career.
5. M other Teresa would give away all the money she had raised and never
count the cost, with public opinion m eaning nothing to her.
6. It is im possible for animals to com m unicate some special circum stances
that have never happened before.
7. It is only natural that many countries should adopt cultural im portations
that are perhaps more attractive or convenient for them.
8. Our tourist will have a hard time m aking him self understood in the street and
it will also be a struggle for him to arrange anything in our public institutions.
Coordination
11. Man has learned to solve many problem s, although there are some that have
yet to be overcome.
A very common error is to change the subject of the sentence when such a
change is unnecessary and even flies in the face of logic. Let us look at the
following example of such an error:
14. Sometimes in life we must sacrifice som ething in order to gain som ething
vital for us.
Here the real subject of the sentence is clearly we, and so it is not only
quite unnecessary but even confusing to switch the subject in the conclud
ing clause. The following improvement suggests itself:
106
15. Let m e focus on the products o f human thought, by which culture is m eant.
17. If anyone examines our history, it will become clear w hy w e have a deeply
ambiguous attitude to the West.
18. In the old days every child was brought up with a deep respect for m oral
values, and honesty, keeping o n es word, and respect for o nes elders w ere
the m ost highly prized qualities.
19. It is easy to convince oneself that everything is preordained and that there
is no point in trying to change it.
20. M ost people live their lives in the pursuit o f pleasure, which is the m ost
im portant thing for them.
21. Am ericans especially enjoy m eeting Europeans, and they should not think
twice about coming to the States.
107
Additional Note:
Of course, this need for coordination must not be taken to extremes. Some
times sentences read perfectly well even when there is a switch of subject
whose necessity is far from obvious. Let us compare the following sen
tence pairs, the first of which (a) is characterised by a subject switch and
the second (b) by coordination:
la . He spent most of his life in the country, where the majority of his
poems were written.
lb . He spent most of his life in the country, where he wrote the majority
of his poems.
2a. When we watch comedies we laugh, melodramas make us cry or feel
happy, horrors give rise to fear, and thrillers keep us on the edge of
our seats.
2b. Comedies cause us to laugh, m elodramas m ake us cry or feel happy,
horrors give rise to fear, and thrillers keep us on the edge of our
seats.
If one compares these sentence pairs, one sees that little if anything has
been gained by making all the clauses of each sentence start with the same
subject. In other words, it is doubtful whether lb represents an improve
ment on la , or 2b an improvement on 2a.
Many people would be at the very least unhappy with the language of
the above, since it gives the impression that all politicians are male, an
assumption which is as sexist as it is factually incorrect. One method of
avoiding this implication is to modify the sentence slightly:
b. A politician should not hesitate to resign if the public is scandalised by
his or her private life.
** ...He or she should realise that his or her moral code is not as m uch
his or her own business as he or she might think.
This reads much more naturally, though again one must decide whether
life or lives is preferable.
To repeat, the effort to avoid gender bias (by finding an alternative to a)
often involves problems of its own. Yet with a minimum of ingenuity the
issue can be circumvented, as in the final option:
e. A politician should not hesitate to resign if the public is scandalised by
that persons private life.
2.
109
One... one...
An important case concerns the pronoun one. If one has been used at
the beginning of the sentence, then in formal British English one is used
to refer back to it. Consider the following options:
a. If one believes in the evolution of the species, one regards m ankind as
part of the natural world.
b. If one believes in the evolution of the species, he regards mankind as
part of the natural world.
c. If one believes in the evolution of the species, he or she regards
mankind as part of the natural world.
d. If one believes in the evolution of the species, they regard m ankind as
part of the natural world.
110
Of the above alternatives only the first (a) is standard British English. The
second is American English. Sensitivities as regards gender bias make the
third (c) and fourth (d) options increasingly attractive to many. To many
ears the repetition one...one of the first option may sound unnatural, even
laboured, and perhaps the best advice is to try to avoid the construction
altogether, for example along the following lines:
e. B elief in the evolution of the species implies a recognition of mankind
as part of the natural world.
Ill
A:
both... and....
la . This observation applies both to material objects and spiritual values,
lb . This observation applies both to material objects and to spiritual values.
While la is not exactly wrong, very many native speakers of English would
feel that regularity of structure would require the repeat of the preposition to.
B:
Sentence 3a would be widely felt to be incorrect, the reason being that the
construction is again lop-sided.1
Another very common error involves the fronting of not only. Compare
the following sentence alternatives:
Another very common error is to write sentences where the necessary par
allelism of structure is absent and which hence appear lop-sided. The most
common manifestation of this kind of error involves the constructions both...
and..., not only... but also..., either... or... and neither... nor.... Here are
a few typical examples:
112
4a. Politicians should not only pass laws but also set an example for others.
4b. *Not only should politicians pass laws but also set an example for
others.
4c. Not only should politicians pass laws but they should also set an ex
ample for others.
1 The reader expects the second part of the sentence (preserves...) to be in some kind of
grammatical harmony with the first part (It does not...). If, however, the second part is
coordinated with the first part, that causes problems of its own:
3c. *...It does not merely instruct us but also preserve us from boredom.
Sentence 3c is simply un-English.
113
C:
114
15. Some people live so long that they not only have grandchildren but great
grandchildren as well.
Parallelism of Structure
If we look at the following sentence, we will again notice an absence of
parallelism in the form of a gratuitous repetition of about:
7. *1 have a cousin in America who never forgets about W elsh traditions,
St D avids Day, or even about the annual Eisteddfod.
Here again common sense would suggest the insertion of that to bring
out the parallelism of structure (8b).
Here the reader expects the noun rejection to be paralleled by another word
of exactly the same grammatical category. Instead what he gets is the ger
und losing. The sentence can be greatly improved by changing the gerund
into a straightforward noun:
9b. These problems are often caused by the rejection of the family or the
loss of a job.
1 The logical alternative, namely to repeat about before each nominal phrase, produces
a sentence that is impossibly cumbersome:
7a. *1 have a cousin in America who never forgets about Welsh traditions, about
St Davids Day, or even about the annual Eisteddfod.
115
116
2a. This guide will be useful to those who are involved in tourism in all its
forms - whether in the highlands or in the lowlands.
2b. ...whether in the highlands or lowlands.
117
2. The things that we dream about seldom come true. Thus, if we dream about
the death of a relative, it does not have to mean anything. Or when you dream
about failing your exam, there is no need to panic.
3. Transmitted deliberately in the middle of a film, when your mind is stimulated
and very receptive to influence, these ads induce a state of stupefaction and
m ake us believe in a half-truth that is in fact a lie.
4. W e smoke too many cigarettes or else drink too much coffee or alcohol things that we consider to be useful as they help you either to work until late at
night or to defuse the tension after a hard day.
5. One can never fall asleep if you travel alone because either you will wake up
naked and all your baggage will be gone, or else you will not wake up at all.
V: Dangling Participles
A dangling participle is one that, when referred to its grammatical sub
ject, makes nonsense. Let us look at the following sentence:
la . *Not knowing British history, the phenomenon of devotion to the
m onarchy might seem rather anachronistic.
If we look at the participle Not knowing, we will see that its grammatical
subject is none other than the subject of the main verb, namely the phenom
enon o f devotion to the monarchy, although that was not what the writer
intended. There are several ways of correcting the sentence, two of the
most obvious being:
l b . To anyone not knowing British history the phenomenon of devotion to
the monarchy might seem rather anachronistic.
lc . Not knowing British history one might find the phenomenon of devo
tion to the monarchy rather anachronistic.
Again the subject of while trying should be the same as the subject of the
main verb.1 The sentence needs reformulating:
1 In conversation, however, such a sentence would be acceptable.
118
Of course, there are a number of words and phrases in English that resem
ble participles, but are really conjunctions or discourse markers, and to which
the above remarks do not apply - for example: assuming, broadly speaking,
considering, depending on, failing that, generally speaking, including, judg
ing by, owing to, providing, seeing that, strictly speaking, supposing etc.
Splices
By splice is meant an element in the middle of a sentence whose relation
ship whether to the preceding or subsequent part of the sentence is ob
scure. Example:
a. *Like Mother Teresa, devoting herself to the poor and dving.
Lady Diana also made caring for them her principal work.
If the subject of the clause is Mother Teresa, then the obvious correction is:
b. Like Mother Teresa, who devoted herself to the poor and dying,
Lady Diana also made caring for them her principal work.
And if the subject of the clause is Lady Diana, then the sentence might be
rewritten as follows:
c. Like Mother Teresa, Lady Diana also made caring for the poor and dying
her principal work, devoting herself to them.
Identify the ambiguous elements o f the following sentences. Make the sen
tences less ambiguous:
1. The only way to make money is to set up a private practice, however, only
some doctors are successful.
2. Many answers have been put forward. The question is a tricky one, however,
in this essay an attempt will be made to examine it.
1. People generally have very inconsistent attitudes to sports. While most people
adm ire sportsmen, watching them on TV, they all too rarely move from the
front of the screen.
2. W ith a freely elected government in office and the free market taking hold, at
long last, the country is looking forward to the kind of prosperity that the West
has long enjoyed.
3. Although it may at first be difficult to follow the gist, as many masterpieces
often use a very sophisticated language, the fact that you have read one such
work will give you a great deal o f satisfaction.
4. W hen the countries of the East started to turn towards democracy, freedom of
speech, press and conscience, the division into eastern and western Europe
still survived in peoples minds.
5. Anyone who wishes to become a successful practitioner, invests in his
education, never ceases to increase his qualifications, is devoted to all his
patients.
A related error involves the word however placed between two clauses:
a. *Sympathy and patience are essential for a prospective teacher, however,
they are not enough to start working at school.
The position of however in the above example also sows confusion, since
at a first reading it is not obvious that the word belongs to the second clause.
Best put a full stop after teacher:
b. Sympathy and patience are essential for a prospective teacher. However,
they are not enough to start working at school.
120
Here it is unclear whether the phrase their existence refers to students, stu
dents abilities, or even patience and an appropriate attitude. Better would
be to rewrite the second sentence so as to make the antecedent explicit:
2b. ...Unfortunately not every teacher is aware of the existence of those
abilities.
A particularly widespread error is the use of the pronouns this and that
in a manner that may cause confusion, as in the following example:
3a. *Apart from providing recreation, books are a stimulus to our
imagination and creativity. W e cannot underestimate this.
Here it is far from clear what this refers to. If we go for the most likely
interpretation, then the following would be an improvement:
3b. ...We cannot underestimate this basic truth.1
In 3b the pronoun this has been turned into a phrase that is both explicit
and appropriately sententious.
4a. *Many well-to-do people are simply too lazy to study, or else regard
that as unimportant for their lives.
Of course the above examples are far from exhausting the possible ways of
circumventing such problems. Often it is only a matter of common sense
and developing a feel for language. Cf. also p. 123 (The Pronoun It),
below.
The meaning of the second sentence can only be guessed at. Does the pro
noun it refer to Snowdonia National Park, the hilly coastal belt, the Lleyn
Promontory, or even Cardigan Bay? All these interpretations are possible.
Hence, it is necessary to rephrase the sentence by spelling out the real
subject:
la. The coastal belt is an area of remarkable scenic diversity.
lb. The Lleyn Promontory is an area of remarkable scenic diversity.
lc . The whole area is characterised by a remarkable scenic diversity.
122
Yet even when the antecedent is perfectly clear, English very often avoids
it in favour of this, that, or some paraphrase. Compare the following alter
natives:
2a. Many long for a lasting peace settlement in the Middle East, but
whether it is feasible or not is a different matter.
2b. ...but whether that is feasible or not is a different matter.
2c. ...but whether such a thing / scenario is feasible or not is a different
matter.
In the last of the above alternatives, 2c, a paraphrase has again been used,
a stylistic preference that is very typical of more formal written English.
124
11. So far we have mentioned the Tower o f London, Buckingham Palace, the
Millennium Dome and the churches and museums. Impressive as it may
seem, it does not exhaust Londons attractions.
12. Rubbish is seldom collected and there are some forlorn buildings between the
castle and the main square. It is an eyesore, and not only for tourists.
13. Amy did not even try to understand her father or to point out what was
wrong. It could have given new life to their relationship.
14. Legal regulations should be introduced obliging firms to set aside some of
their profits for the further training of employees. It would make employers
more aware o f the importance of professional development.
15. Many people are prejudiced, but few are ready to admit it.
16. Parents imagine their child will be following their example. Unfortunately it
happens very rarely, as youngsters generally choose other people to imitate.
Additional Notes:
i.
A most frequent error is to use the phrase do it as a paraphrase of some
previous verb, as in the following instance:
*TV informs, but it does not always do it in an objective way.
ii.
The phrases It is so and Is it so? are hardly typical of formal written English:
Compare the following alternatives:
a. ^Parents are no longer role models for their children. W hy is it so?
b. ...Why is that the case?
iii.
The phrases *it is so because, *it is so since, *it happens so because, and
*it happens so since are hardly English. Compare the following alternatives:
a. *Our first-time foreign visitor is likely to have many surprises when he
crosses the border. It is so because our country was for many years
isolated from others.
b. ...This is because our country was....
c. ...the reason being that our country was....
IV.
The phrase *it means that is hardly English. Compare the following sen
tences:
a. *Dreams should be interpreted as signifying the opposite of what they
appear to signify. It means that if one dreams about winning money,
one will end up poor.
b. This means that.
c. What this means is that....
8. A friend whom Diana had trusted made out of publishing untrue or half-true
stories about her a small fortune.
9. One may see here many interesting exhibits.
10. He says that while he likes the USA, he can do in Central and Eastern Europe
much more.
11. TV affects tremendously our lives.
12. M an usually considers him self superior, calling him self conceitedly homo
sapiens.
13. John realises perfectly well this fact.
14. If you were to ask such people, they would probably put after a m om ents
hesitation money at the top of their list of priorities.
15. We have improved considerably our safety precautions.
Un-English Syntax
I: Verb and Object
Generally English tries not to place any words between verb and object.
Compare the following alternatives:
l a . *We see very often such sights,
l b . W e very often see such sights.
126
In 2a an initial subordinate clause and the subject of the main verb (it)
are separated by the phrase in most cases. If, however, we were to re127
3a. *However eager our foreigner mav have been to visit our country, after
using anv means of public transport he will want to go back home.
Here the sentence is improved by changing the position of the second sub
ordinate clause:
3b. However eager our foreigner may have been to visit our country, he
will, after using anv means of public transport, want to go back home.
The problems discussed in this section are especially frequent with sen
tences beginning with although. Sometimes such a sentence may benefit
from a complete rephrasal. Compare the following alternatives:
a. *The Wettins are among Europes oldest dynastic families.
Although the end of their rule came with the revolution of 1918, despite
their dethronement the family continued to live in Saxony until 1945.
b. ...The end of their rule came with the revolution of 1918, yet despite
their dethronement the family continued to live in Saxony until 1945.
Here the phrase leaving much to be desired must go elsewhere, and the
sentence needs to be rephrased in accordance with English idiom:
129
lb . The universitys tennis courts are part of the campus, while the
swimming pool, one that sadlv leaves much to be desired, is situated
near the city centre.
3b. ...Young and hungry for knowledge, students are becoming increas
ingly critical of their teachers.
The mistake exemplified by l a leaves at the very least an impression that the
writer is incompetent in English; at worst such writing becomes unintelligible.
Suggested Exercises (52):
Only the second sentence, with difficult to define in the predicative posi
tion, is grammatical.
Syntactic errors involving composite attributive expressions can some
times be avoided by the addition of punctuation:
3a. *On our campuses things are beginning to change. Young and hungry
for knowledge students are becoming increasingly critical of their
teachers.
130
Identify the words in the following sentences that violate English syntactic
patterns; rewrite the sentences in correct English:
1. The famous, surrounded by parks Grand Hotel usually hosts international
pop-stars.
2. Development is hampered by the dominant everywhere bureaucracy.
3. The Popes remarkable and im possible to characterise personality works
wonders with various foreign dignitaries.
4. In our country such improving their qualifications teachers are very unique.
5. The Internet can be used to disseminate forbidden and often harmful in some
way material.
6. John was a sensitive, very easy to hurt individual.
7. This reasonable in its assumptions economic policy led to widespread
impoverishment.
8. Many city dwellers dream of living in a quiet, close to nature village with
fields, meadows and unspoilt by civilisation landscapes.
9. In their eyes Maureen is still a perfect, obedient to her parents daughter.
10. The located there Toyota factory is a principal source of employment.
11. Such immature idealists will one day become callous, egotistic and loving
only themselves people.
12. Looking at the littered with rubbish lawns and dilapidated houses, one m ight
suppose that our town has no future.
13. W inter is presaged by swarms of leaving for warmer climes birds.
14. The mentioned above history teacher was always making our lives a misery.
15. This scintillating and skilfully m anipulating the mass media m an is the
ultimate politician.
16. Parents often find it difficult to accept the growing with age independence of
their children.
17. Many factories are full of obsolete, imported from the former USSR technology.
1 This construction is dealt with in some detail in Part II of my English for Writers and
Translators (cf. Left- and Right-Handed Sentences).
131
18. To make matters worse, there have been complaints from dissatisfied with
their low salaries railwaymen, who are threatening to go on strike.
19. He was famous for performing the first in Britain heart transplant.
Additional Note:
132
133
135
2a. M ost would dread such an outcome. On the other hand, some would
welcome it.
2b. M ost would dread such an outcome. Nonetheless, some would
welcome it.
Rhetorical Enhancers:
Conjunctions and Discourse Markers
B:
although / though
Example:
A:
although / though
Example:
l a . Though it was raining cats and dogs, we decided to set out.
l b . It was raining cats and dogs, though we decided to set out.
The conjunctions though and although are used to qualify the main utter
ance of the sentence, which is generally the main clause. Thus in sentence
la the focus is on the second clause (we decided to set out), and in sentence
lb the focus is on the first clause (It was raining cats and dogs).
Yet is a stronger version of but:
lc . It was raining cats and dogs, yet we decided to set out.
Here, the second clause (yet we decided to set out) has received more em
phasis than the first clause.
A frequent grammar mistake is to make although function as an adver
bial link, as if it were like nonetheless, nevertheless, on the other hand
etc. Compare the following sentences (2a-b):
136
albeit
II
3a. We finally reached the summit, though we were utterly exhausted.
3b. We finally reached the summit, albeit we were utterly exhausted.
3c. We finally reached the summit, albeit in a state of utter exhaustion.
137
7. While many people have good job prospects, many more do not.
C:
whereas / while
by contrast
Look at the following sentences (5a-d), whose meaning and emphasis are
much the same:
5a.
5b.
5c.
5d.
5a-d all express a contrast between two equivalent ideas. The adverbial
by contrast is generally preceded by a full stop or semicolon, as in 5b
and 5c above. It can be sandwiched within the clause or sentence, as in 5c
and 5d.
A frequent grammatical mistake is to make while / whereas function as
an adverb:
5e. **John is helpful. Whereas Peter is not at all helpful.
D:
while
whereas
Except in legal contexts whereas does not generally begin the sentence in
contemporary English:
1 Of course, in 6a whereas is possible instead of while, and while is possible instead of
whereas, but they are not optimal.
138
despite
irrespective of
Example:
9. He was finally executed despite pleas for clemency.
10.
The soldiers killed everyone irrespective of age or sex.
139
1. as and like
15. To conclude, our society would certainly not like to become completely
A m ericanized,----------there are some people among us who would like that
to happen.
16. A silly Venezuelan series depicts the melodramatic and unreal lifestyle
desired by most frustrated housew ives.---------- , the young generation seeks
role models in the positively awful Beverley Hills 90210.
17. The poor are often unable to break out of this vicious circle,----------- the rich
do not seem to be willing to help them.
18. Frequent and bloody battles are to be found in both environm ents.----------it
is worth noting that animal conflicts do not take as heavy a toll as those
between human beings.
19. Children may even kill themselves trying to imitate Superm an.----------- to be
quite fair, not all TV programmes for kids are so terrible.
20. In causing the deaths of several patients,----------unintentionally, the doctors
went beyond the limits o f legal protest.
21. W omen are often banned from participating in politics,----------unofficially.
22. ----------not all mistakes may be avoided, making up for them is essential.
23. H er M ajesty is not an intellectual and she avoids discussions that get too
ab stract.--------- she is beyond a doubt a highly intelligent woman and very
knowledgeable at that.
140
case o f means for example, but with the special nuance and I myself
can think of one instance of this happening, namely....:
10. Tourists are sometimes attacked in our public places, as in the case of
a visiting American delegate who was robbed at the airport.
7. ju st as... so...
This construction is used to illustrate the parallel nature of two things. Just
as and so each begin a clause:
17. Just as the Serbs once made life miserable for the Albanians, so
the Albanians are now making life miserable for many Serbs.
8. if... then...
N.B.
The phrase similarly to does not exist in standard English.
6. by way o f contrast
This phrase is used especially in transitions from one subject to another:
One authority describes this phrase as an intolerable tautology for like (E. Partridge,
Usage and Abusage, Penguin Books, 3rd ed.1999, p. 38). The present author begs to differ.
In the above example substituting like for as was the case with would make the sentence
awkward in the extreme.
1
142
Using the above words and phrases fill in the gaps in the following sen
tences:
1. In Pomerania there are beaches sheltered by d u n es,---------in other areas of
the Baltic coast.
143
144
24. --------- you think Paris has traffic problem s,-----------you should see Rome.
25. In our country there are no legal regulations that prescribe continuous
training of personnel in a given p o st.----------there are no regulations stating
that part of a companys budget must be set aside for such purposes.
145
There are many words and phrases which have meanings that are rather
similar to therefore:
2: It follows that...
This expression is highly formal and occurs in the context of consciously
logical argumentation, where a key implication needs to be brought out:
If we accept that every criminal is merely sick, it follows that he cannot be
held morally responsible for his actions.
146
Fill the gaps in the following sentences using any o f the above expressions
(including therefore):
1. A language represents the contributions of countless generations.----------- the
learning of a foreign language can only enrich ones inner life.
2. So far the Government has not kept any of its undertakings. W e c a n ---------deduce that it is unlikely to abide by its latest one.
3. When a man becomes a politician, he should be aware of the good and bad
features of the jo b .----------when a man intends to become a public figure, he
must be able to control himself.
4. But there are two sides to every story ,----------- 1 feel obliged to mention a
number of things.
5. If you want decent medical treatment in our country, you have to bribe the
doctor.--------- their earnings are not as small as they officially maintain.
6. John was forced by his father to study law, a subject for which he has no
real predisposition; on the contrary he was a talented painter who wanted
to m ake his living as an artist. Nowadays John is neither a law yer nor
an artist a n d ----------has wasted half of his life, ju st satisfying his parents
expectations.
7. Olympic athletes generally consume huge amounts of energy. T h e y ---------require diets that are especially rich in calories.
8. If all people are equal in the eyes of G o d ,----------- no one has the right to feel
superior to others or to kill.
147
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
The strong conviction that certain jobs demand devotion or even sacrifice
entered our culture in the nineteenth century. The doctors profession is one
o f th em .----------when a doctor gives priority to his own economic interests,
he can expect criticism.
In 1961 he discovered that he was terminally ill a n d ----------decided to put an
end to it all.
The culture has become somewhat eclectic.----------it is impossible for the
younger generation to find any one single moral authority.
The cooking plates are covered with a delicate, non-stick coating.----------do
not allow sharp or abrasive objects to come into contact with the surface of the
plates.
If a company cannot generate profits, it will never be able to develop its
infrastructure or make new investm ents.-------- - our railway network will
inevitably collapse unless it receives state subsidies or undergoes drastic
restructuring.
In My Opinion...
A frequent error is to obtrude ones viewpoint in a rather clumsy manner
using phrases like in my opinion, I believe etc, when English people often
tend to prefer other ways of expressing themselves. Various alternatives
are given below, grouped according to function:
Intuition:
My feeling is that...
My impression is that...
My intuition tells me that...
I suspect that... (= I know I am the first to say this, but I am probably
right...y
I have a hunch that...2
1 Suspect does not always refer to something bad. One can also suspect something that
is neutral or positive:
When John retires, I suspect that they will give him a golden handshake.
2 This phrase is highly informal.
148
Contention:
Arguably (= This is my opinion and if I had the time, I could provide
some good arguments in support o f it)1
Surely (= You must agree with me when I say that...)
It is my contention that... (= / wish to argue that...)
It is my (firm / strong) conviction that... (= I am convinced that...)
It needs to be pointed out that...
I would even go so far as to say that... (= / know you may be shocked,
but I firm ly believe that...)
I beg to differ. (= I am afraid that I disagree.)
Self-Evident Truth:
A moments reflection shows that... (= Even an idiot would agree
that...)
Closer observation suggests that... (= I f you stopped and examined
this fo r a while, you would probably agree with me that...)
It goes without saying that...2
It is a sad truth that... (= It is my sad observation that...)
It is common knowledge that...
It is no secret that...
Inescapable Conclusion:
It would seem that... (= I am probably right in concluding that...)
The conclusion seems inescapable that...
The fact of the matter is that... (= I am simply right in saying that...)
The fact remains that... (= There is simply no way one can deny that...)
The only conclusion that would suggest itself is that...
There are no two ways about the fact that...3
There is no escaping the fact that... (= Any reasonable person would
agree with me when / say that...)
1 Arguably tends to occur in mid-position, rather than at the beginning of the sen
tence.
2 This phrase is highly informal.
3 This phrase is rather informal.
149
150
13. Many peace initiatives were undertaken. A ny reasonable person would agree
that military action in that conflict was a necessary evil, an evil that had to
occur in order to preempt a far greater one.
14. I believe that instead of industrial action it is rather patience and determ ina
tion that this country needs now.
15. W hile it is true that bringing up a child requires a great deal of love, the
excessive permissiveness of parents is - you must agree with me - doing
more harm than good.
16. It is impossible to reach any consensus as regards the nature of dreams. In m y
opinion, however, there is always a grain of truth in any dream, as it comes
straight from our subconscious.
17. You only have to think fo r a moment and you will realise that nowadays one
can hardly lift a finger without encountering high-tech devices.
18. No one can deny that since we have been using computers they have been
affecting almost every sphere of our lives. It seems fa ir to conclude that
in the near future computers will become indispensable.
19. Some argue that censorship and art are mutually hostile. I am absolutely
convinced, however, that censorship may actually strengthen the position
of art.
Additional Note:
Of course, overuse of the passive also entails the disadvantage of the lan
guage becoming excessively impersonal, even to the point of its seeming
unnatural.
The words honesty and decency are uncountable, and have no plural. Ex
cept in very special contexts (see below, point 13), we cannot say an hon
esty, a decency etc.
A good dictionary should tell you whether a word is countable or un
countable.
2. A / an has the nuance of one or (an y\
i)
a t an one
The plurals of a gifted sportsman and an artist are gifted sportsmen and
artists respectively. Each of the sentences represents one way of saying
essentially the same thing, i.e. of making a generalising remark.
4. Generalisations
The plural with zero article (Bom sportsmen in sentence b of the previous
section) is more frequently used for making generalisations about catego
ries. Consider the following alternatives:
l a . A portable telephone is within everyones reach,
l b . Portable telephones are within everyones reach.
2a. A small child is very impressionable.
2b. Small children are very impressionable.
ii)
152
a / an = any
1 The singular would require a reformulation: The average Westerner has such strange
ideas etc.
153
5. Back-pointing the
The often takes up what has already been mentioned:
W hen I went out, I saw a lady walking a huge dog. The lady was frail
and elderly and the dog seemed very much in charge.
In the above sentences the subject really means that subject (i.e. maths),
while the situation really means that situation.
8. The... of...
If the word o f occurs anywhere, then there is an especially great likelihood
that it will be preceded by the:
Contrast the following sentences:
la . Reality is often depressing.
l b . The reality o f daily life is often depressing.
2a. Success generally requires much effort.
2b. The success o f the enterprise depends on you.
1 Of course it is also possible to say discovered by the Vikings, i.e. giving the credit
collectively for what only a few achieved.
154
While this is only a pattern or tendency and not a rule, being aware of it
will help non-native speakers to avoid many mistakes.
In the above sentence pairs each of the second (b) is a defining relative
clause: i.e. lb refers to some cigars only, and 2b refers only to one instance
of money.
Note the following gradation:
3a. Poverty makes people desperate.
3b. The poverty of Third W orld countries is desperate.
3c. The poverty that afflicts Third W orld countries is desperate.
The same pattern is found even with proper nouns. Compare the follow
ing:
4. I have two friends called Susan. One lives across the road and the other
is my colleague at work. The Susan that lives across the road is getting
married next week.
155
10. Participles as Postmodifiers (i.e. coming after the noun phrase that
they refer to)
There is again a marked tendency for such participles to be preceded by
the. Compare the following alternatives:
la . The phenomena that are presented here are highly significant,
lb . The phenomena presented here are highly significant.
2a. The people who work in that place are underpaid.
2b. The people working in that place are underpaid.
156
In the above example, the phrase the twentieth century has been taken up
by the phrase a century (not: the century).
Note how the defining relative clause does not prevent the phrase the. fac
ulty of speech from being modified into a faculty.
By the same token the tendency also takes precedence over point 10
(Participles as Postmodifiers):
Man possesses the faculty of speech, a faculty distinguishing him from
the animals.
157
Supply the article (a / an, the) where necessary in the gaps o f the following
sentences:
1. If he had h a d ------ good map, he would not have lost his way.
2. The President seems to treat everybody around him w ith ------ contempt.
31. ------ S/stupidity that some people display surpasses all understanding.
35. Many little girls dream of b e in g ------ teachers, and their pupils b eco m e-------
37. ------ M/myth of Eden tells o f ------- harmony existing between God and man.
11. Many religious myths tell of the battle betw een------ good a n d ------- evil.
12. Laughter depends o n ------ very important and subtle human quality a sense
of humour.
13. ------ V/violence shown on TV is often excessive.
43. Copernicus confirm ed------hypothesis that the earth goes around the sun.
46. There a re ------ regular pilgrimages t o ------- place where the m iracle is said to
18. Anyone who spent a fortune on a computer ten years ago would now b e -----proud owner o f ------ worthless antique.
have occurred.
47. The two sides will soon address------ issues facing them.
19. If Aristotle had u s e d ------ language other than Greek, his philosophical sys
tem would have been different.
48. People still rem em ber------ com m unism ,------- system that governed their
20. ------ English of the Middle Ages is very different fro m ------- English of today.
50. They attend classes i n ------ gramm ar of English, and learn ab o u t-------------
22. ------ C/chimpanzee behaviour has interested scientists for many years.
23. ------ T/thought is conditioned b y ------- language to such an extent that people
are not even aware o f ------ fact.
24. Is man really different fro m ------ animals?
25. ------ S/six days of the 1967 war changed------- face of Palestine.
26. ------ A/answer to this question is arguably negative.
158
ference.
52. People should acquire the ability to think positiv ely ,------ ability which is
159
54. If you want to pass the driving test, you must Ie am ------ road signs.
55. Mr Jones was able to convey------ knowledge he possessed in an interesting
way.
56. We are seldom sympathetic t o ------ person with such problems.
57. Peabodys proposal was treated w ith ------ contempt that it deserved.
58. B ridging------ gap betw een------- two halves of Europe will not be easy.
59. ------ P/philosophy is a tricky subject, a n d ------- philosophy of language
especially so.
60. ------ V/violence is a part o f ------- American life.
61. ------ B/behaviour o f--------chimpanzees has interested scientists for many years.
62. The President is aware o f ------ great responsibilities that he must shoulder.
63. M any people p re fer------ entertainment offered by TV.
64. The candidate is able to get on very well with other p eople,------ fact which
I
consider to be highly significant.
65. This ability to m ak e------ tools i s ------- uniquely human ability.
66. It is impossible to m ak e------ good teacher out o f ------- person who is not
bom for teaching.
67. M /music of the Renaissance is especially fascinating.
68. ------ P/proverbs are rooted i n ------- culture and history o f a country.
69. ------ G/good therapist requires---------------patience. In fact he or she n eed s------patience of Job.
70. ------ S/sociology that emerged in the 1960s was very different from its
prewar version.
71. You cannot expect me to buy all these th in g s --------- list is rather long.
72. ------ P/peace a n d ------- prosperity should not be taken for granted.
73. ------ W/wine that France exports is subject to the most stringent controls.
Punctuation
The Colon (:)
The colon is used above all to give a sense of poise and counterbalance to
what has already been written. By the same token it is very often employed
later on in the sentence, to set off what has gone before.
1. Appositions at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence
In la the colon separates the subject (Its colours) from the rest of the sen
tence, and is therefore incorrect. If the sentences grammatical structure is
left unchanged, then it is best to use different punctuation altogether:
lb . Its colours - blue, red, green and yellow - create a fabulous picture.
74. ------ P/politicians seldom stick t o --------- moral standards that they publicly
advocate.
Thus, instead of a colon, two dashes have been used to mark the apposition.
75. ------ S/socialism of M r Blair has little or nothing in common w ith ------socialism o f ------ Bolsheviks.
Exactly the same principle applies when the apposition happens to be
76. ------E/evil that men do lives after
th em ,--------good is often
a title:interred with
their bones.
2a. * The second part: Proposals for a Cleaner Environm ent includes
an impassioned plea for alternatives to fossil fuels.
In 2a the colon is incorrect for the simple reason that it separates the sub
ject The second part from the rest of the sentence. A change of punctuation
is necessary:
161
In 3 the colon is incorrect for the simple reason that it cuts a self-contained
grammatical unit into two: the words In her essay are. grammatically in
complete.
A similar mistake is to insert the colon between two clauses that in
grammatical terms are closely interconnected, as in the following:
4a. * Giving birth to two boys: W illiam and Henry, she became a public
figure.
In other words, the apposition William and Henry is marked off from the
rest of the sentence by two commas.
For a further discussion of colons and appositions, cf. also above,
p. 40.
II. Colons with phrases of exemplification and enumeration:
162
Note how, unlike in la , 2a, 3 and 4a, the colon is preceded by a selfcontained grammatical unit ( Small talk is an essential part o f British
life).
And when the colons function is to enumerate a list of three or more
items, it often occurs after phrases such as the following, as follows
etc.
6. The principal Romance languages are as follows: Italian, Spanish,
Portuguese, Catalan, French, Provencal, Romansh and Rumanian.
In 6a the colon separates the verb from its complement. This usage, which
violates the principle that the colon should not divide elements of a sen
tence that grammatically are closely interconnected, is primarily restricted
to the verbs to be, to include and a very few others. If, however, the colon
is left out altogether, it is suggestive of an informal style:
6b. The principal Romance languages are Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,
Catalan, French, Provencal, Romansh and Rumanian.
N.B.
The word both is not generally followed by a colon. Compare the follow
ing alternatives:
7a. * Singapore is an obvious destination for both: businessmen and
tourists.
7b. Singapore is an obvious destination for both businessmen and
tourists.
The Dash ( - )
The dash should be used sparingly except in highly informal contexts.
The following points need to be borne especially in mind:
I.
Ellipsis of verbs
The dash can never mark the ellipsis of a verb. Compare the following
alternative sentences:
la . **The trains are always empty and the busses - always full,
lb .
The trains are always empty and the busses always full.
2a. **They know that all good deeds will bring joy, and bad ones - sorrow.
2b. They know that all good deeds will bring joy, and bad ones sorrow.
7. M any years ago cinema audiences around the world were enthralled by an
American musical entitled Westside Story.
8. W isdom comes from many different factors like age and experience.
II. Appositions
9. Two famous museums the National History and the V&A are situated in
Kensington but an even more renowned one the British Museum located in
Bloomsbury is closer to the centre.
10. Is the maxim early to bed, early to rise really for everyone?
11. Bad teachers will always be despised because of such factors as arbitrary
behaviour, laziness or sheer incompetence.
12. The region possesses great variety including beaches, lowlands, highlands
and steep cliffs.
13. W hatever we do whether we wish to broaden our horizons or to realise our
dreams, we are limited by an overwhelming lack of money.
14. All kinds of relationships marriages, partnerships, friendships and parentchild relations may become toxic and have a detrim ental effect on our
health.
15. The most important rivers in this area are the Wye, the Monnow, and the
Trothy.
16. However, her life divorce, love affairs, and conflicts with the rest of the royal
family left her far removed from sainthood.
Incorrect:
3a. * If only Baird - the inventor of TV, had foreseen the consequences of
his discovery!
Correct:
3c. If only Baird, the inventor o f TV, had foreseen the consequences of his
discovery!
17. Such failings as anger, jealously or infidelity bring many marriages to an end.
18. The results obtained for the years 1985, 1988, 1990 and 1992 indicate that
further environmental degradation has taken place.
164
165
More formal:
Incorrect:
7b. For many visitors our culture is an enigma: we combine tradition with
foreign influences.
4a. ** All that we - children can do is forgive the mistakes of our parents.
Correct:
4b.
IV. Parentheses
VII.
More formal:
Incorrect:
Correct:
5b.
V.
Creating an effect
Additional Note:
Both
Both is not generally followed by any punctuation, and least of all a dash.
Compare the following alternatives, which mark the very beginning of an
essay:
Correct:
9b.
6a. **In the course of her history Poland has assimilated both eastern and
western influences.
6b.
In the course of her history Poland has assimilated both eastern and
western influences.
On the north W estminster is bounded by M ayfair, Bloomsbury and M arylebone all districts of London.
2.
Through the first window one could see the deep blue ocean, through the
second the endless forests, and through the third the misty mountains.
3.
Less formal:
4.
5.
Years ago margarine was believed to be good for one and butter bad for one.
One of Europes largest Gothic structures St M arys Church towers over the
city.
166
167
Sarcasm is the lowest form of wit, as the saying goes. Being generally
something very banal and commonplace, it seldom requires inverted com
mas. The following sentence represents a typical misuse:
3a. * In our country the average teacher works ju st 35 hours a week.
The inverted commas are not justified by the quality of the sarcasm, which
could be expressed much more appropriately by a rephrasing:
3b.
4c.
Or:
Inverted commas are used for the following purposes:
I.
Genuine quotations
1. Marx described religion as the opium of the masses .
Sometimes, however, the writer may merely repeat hearsay or received opin
ions without specifying the source. Compare the following alternatives:
2a. * We should question the morals of this, as some say,
unpredictable man.
2b. ...the morals o f this reputedly unpredictable man.
Note how the clumsy and asyntactic parenthesis as some say of 2a has been
replaced in 2b by reputedly, while the inverted commas have disappeared.
168
Thus the word supposedly (seemingly) has been added, while the inverted
commas have disappeared.
Let us now look at the following sentence, taken from a discussion on
nonconformists:
5a.
Here again, if the concept revolt has occurred for the first time and there is
no obvious quotation, inverted commas might strike many as being inap
propriate. Moreover, the irony or distance inherent in the writers use of
the word is hardly forceful enough to justify them. The sentence needs to
be rephrased, perhaps along the following lines:
169
5b.
Thus, the phrase so-called has been added, while the inverted commas
have disappeared.
For a writer who wishes to create a certain distance between himself
and the word or phrase that he is using, other options are also available:
6a. In many countries of the world, capitalism is the most important single
discovery of the 1990s.
6b. In many countries of the world, capitalism is the most important single
discovery - if one can call it that - o f the 1990s.
7a. The mixture o f violent films and shocking talk-show confessions is
further enriched with endless soap operas.
7b. ...is further enriched with endless soap operas, if enriched is
the word.
In each of the above pairs the second alternative (6b, 7b) is preferable.
Of course, there are also occasions when the sarcasm is less common
place, and it is then that inverted commas are justified, perhaps in the fol
lowing example:
8. My only education consisted of parental abuse, sadistic teachers and
several stays in a borstal.
IV. Metaphors
8. Mrs Thatchers programme included family values, law and order, and
short, sharp punishm ents for persistent offenders.
9. H alf the class had to retake the year thanks to that maniac. After such en
couragem ent few of us saw any point in studying any more.
10. Hungary belongs to Western Europe, where western means better developed.
11 . Someone who is always afraid of what the neighbours will say does not
really live for himself. Adapting your life to standards means living a lie all
the time.
12. My parents were brought up in a different reality, the reality of the sixties.
13. Over our monotonous world the natural bom conformist reigns supreme.
14. The speaker insisted that she did not believe in any truths from the Bible, or
in any God.
15. Little did Marjorie know that her little angel was really a little devil, ter
rorising the other kids.
Additional Note:
Here also 2a, having only commas, is confused and bewildering, while 2b is
clearly organised. Thus, to repeat, the semicolon often separates phrases and
clauses that are themselves broken up by commas or other punctuation.
II. Sem icolons without com m as
In addition, the semicolon is often used to mark a division of a sentence often a long one into two grammatically comparable sections even when
other punctuation is absent:
172
3. In a film the producer creates every detail of his world for us; in a book
the author allows us to create that world for ourselves.
The semicolon is often used to link two sentences that are grammatically
separate but connected in thought when the second one is introduced by
sentence adverbials, such as the following: accordingly, also, consequent
ly, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, in fact, moreover, nevertheless,
on the contrary, otherwise, so, still, then, therefore, thus, what is more,
yet etc.
Two typical patterns deserve to be noted. The first is exemplified by the
following sentence:
5. All these years M r Jones has been employed as a junior clerk;
consequently, it is time we thought about assigning him to a more
senior position.
173
I
Here the sentence adverbial by contrast makes explicit the relation of the
two principal parts of the sentence to each other; nonetheless, it does not
start the second part directly, but is embedded or sandwiched in the text.
The pattern may be summed up as semicolon followed by two commas.
Additional Note:
In English the conjunction and may be preceded by the comma and semi
colon, as can be seen from two of the above examples (la-b and generally,
2a-b and finally).
174
refused to take care of her insisting that it was the family doctor that should
take care of her.
8. We are not all bigots and not all drunks there is a young generation that is not
at all influenced by past horrors and most importantly not everything here is
upside down.
9. For some people the countryside is a place o f freedom from cars buses and
pollution for others however it is a place of hard work and poverty.
10. People rarely go to a library for a good book they prefer to stay at home in
front of the TV.
11. Western borders were suddenly open which gave the peoples of the W arsaw
Pact countries an opportunity to visit foreign countries shops were filled with
both imported and local produce the growth o f the free market became a fact.
12. Literature trains the imagination of the reader someone who reads a book can
imagine things as he wants to and create the main characters in his own way.
13. Many parents seem to forget about their essential role they treat their children
as playthings or as a necessary fulfilment of marriage.
14. People did not abandon their traditions what is more they did their best to
preserve them.
15. The human psyche has three levels the id standing for impulses and urges the
ego representing ones personality and the superego dealing with sublimated
desires and urges.
16. Good teachers never treat those entrusted to their care as their inferiors on the
contrary the relationship is based on the principle of equality.
17. Each literary epoch possesses the rich legacy of patriotic lyrics whose pur
pose was to arouse the fighting spirit and win battles love lyrics written to
express an authors feelings towards his beloved religious poems expressing
an authors faith and devotion to God political treatises voicing the need for
change or philosophic tracts setting forth a w riters reflections about different
aspects of human life.
18. Today people work very hard to earn money they stay at work late take addi
tional hours and spend much of their free time on activities connected with
their jobs.
(2, p. 21):
1. One shortcoming of globalisation is the danger of small countries becoming dom
inated by multinational concerns. 2. A teacher must be capable of judging his or her
students fairly as individuals. 3. ...a consequence of failing to realise the full signif
icance of the situation. 4. ...identified by comparing the present century with former
epochs. 5. The theme of this essay is the way the computer has i n v a d e d ry sphere....
6. ...people seem to have ceased to fe e l that it is necessary to do good deeds. 7. The
fa c t that cats have incredibly shaip senses makes them react.... 8. We run a serious
The answers provided below do not by any means exhaust all the possibilities of correctness.
In many cases alternative answers may also be found.
177
risk of losing our traditional, rather conservative values. 9. The new developments
in archaeology resulted in the possibility being considered of the coexistence of
groups of people.... / The new developments in archaeology resulted in the possi
bility being considered o f groups o f people coexisting as reflected....
Proper Adjectives
(3, p. 25):
1. Philadelphia is one of A m ericas biggest cities / one of the biggest cities in Amer
ica 2. The various cultures of Europe / Europes various cultures 3. Polands young
generation / the young generation in Poland 4. one of Britains most aristocratic
families / one of the most aristocratic families in Britain
(8, p. 33):
1. namely 2. namely 3. In other words, Thus 4. i.e. 5. namely 6. Thus, In other
words 7. namely 8. Thus 9. namely, which is
(4, p. 26):
(9, p. 35):
Belong
(5, p. 27):
1. Dunes are among the characteristic features of the Baltic littoral. 2. These monu
ments are among those most often visited by lovers of art. 3. Frankly, the Joneses are
not to be numbered (ranked) among those people who have fastidious tastes. 4. Ac
cording to the latest computer-based analyses the BM J is one of the top three most
prestigious journals in the world. 5. Visiting the poor and chairing various charity
organisations formed part o f her many duties. (Or: Her many duties included....)
6. Sensitivity, intelligence and tolerance are also to be included among the qualities of a
good teacher. 7. Health and happiness are among the most precious things in life.
8. The m urder mysteries of Agatha Christie are among the m ost popular books
ever written. 9. Diet is one of the most crucial factors in human longevity.
Value
(10, p. 36):
1. elements 2. aspects; features 3. elements 4. for things of such priceless value
as; for such blessings as 5. have an eternal value, being respected by...; ...are things
of eternal value, being respected by.... 6. thing
Citizen
Get
(11, p. 37):
(6, p. 29):
1. acquire; gain 2. possesses 3. become; grow 4. has; is left with; cannot avoid;
cannot escape 5. be; obtain a proper education etc. 6. avoid; evade 7. extract; ob
tain 8. become; grow 9. select; find something interesting for oneself in the pro
gramme offered 10. have 11. grows 12. derive, obtain 13. grow
178
179
Appositions (I)
(12, p. 42):
1. Our company owns the Dutch publishing house Polkadot. (Also possible: owns
Polkadot, a Dutch publishing house.) 2. The British PM Benjamin Disraeli played
a crucial role in the crisis. 3. The book describes the relationship between the writ
er Hum bert Humber and a precocious teenager. 4. The Soviet politician Mikhail
Gorbatchev also describes these events. 5. From my window I have a spectacular
view o f the extinct volcano Shavnabada, which forms part of the central mountain
range. (A lso possible: ...a spectacular view of Shavnabada, an extinct volcano which
forms part of the central mountain range.) 6. The above journals are complemented
by the monthly bulletin Forthcoming Publications. (Alsopossible: ...by Forthcom
ing Publications, a monthly bulletin.) 7. Viking comes from vikingr, an old Nor
dic word meaning pirate. 8. The Peasants Revolt was led by W at Tyler, a man of
humble origins. 9. Using e-mail I can communicate with my Australian friend Ri
chard within a few seconds. (A lso possible: ...with Richard, an Australian friend of
mine....) 10. A poll conducted by the American magazine Newsweek also gave the
same results. 11. The Roman poet Juvenal once said that.... 12. Taking the double
name John Paul II, he soon established a reputation for him self as a defender of
freedom, offering great moral support for the Solidarity trade union. (A lso possible:
...for the trade union Solidarity.) 13. Not only does the President face a charge of
sexual harassment by former Arkansas State employee Paula Jones, but he has also
had an extramarital affair with 21-year-old White House intern Monica Lewin
sky. 14. The name Iron Curtain was given to the Elbe frontier. 15. Orphee, con
ceived and directed by the great French playwright Jean Cocteau, is a case in
point. 16. ...in the framework of the mass movement Alliance for Change. 17. Thus
Raskolnikov, the protagonist of Dostoyevskys novel Crime and Punishment, un
dergoes something of a spiritual rebirth. 18. I would like to quote the words of a
song by the British heavy-metal band Iron Maiden. 19. Pope John Paul II has tried
to continue the work of the great reform er John XXIII and the enlightened conserv
ative Paul VI.
180
Be + to-infinitive
(16, p. 55):
1. is expected to, is supposed to, is meant to 2. is expected to, has to 3. exists to, is
intended to, is there to 4. are expected to, are supposed to
181
(17, p. 57):
(20, p. 63):
1. It is widely assumed that this cataclysm destroyed the entire M inoan civilisation
in a single day. (Also: This cataclysm, it is widely assumed, destroyed....) 2. The
best way to dismantle a personality was, she remarked, to isolate it. (Also: She
remarked that the best way to....) 3. The lama stressed that his mental state was....
4. It seems that (or: It would seem that) dishonesty is sometimes justified. (Also:
Dishonesty is, it seems, sometimes justified. 5. Unchanged: the speakers position
is identical to that o f the person who wrote the report. 6. The relationship between
her husband and Camilla had, she said (or: she insisted), appalled her from the
very beginning. (Also: ...the relationship between her husband and Camilla had,
as she put it, appalled her.... - cf. p . 56, footnote.) 7. You claim in your article that
nuclear energy is the only feasible option. (Also: Nuclear energy is - so you claim
in your article - the only feasible option.) 8. Her deep love of her spiritual mentor
inclined her towards what she called free and wholehearted dedication.... 9. ...be
cause they assumed I was too young....
Gerunds
(21, p. 65):
1. There should be strict controls on the manufacturing o f such articles. 2. The
Council cannot tolerate the killing o/unarm ed civilians by paramilitaries. 3. A spe
cial term exists for this manipulating o/public opinion.... 4. The Institute prom pted
the setting up o f two research stations.
(18, p. 59):
1. The birds are the first thing that visitors to Australia notice. 2. Doctors are distin
guished from others by their professional ethics. (Also possible: W hat distinguishes
doctors from others is their professional ethics.) 3. The beggars who throng the
streets and train stations are yet another sign of the countrys poverty. 4. Our long
term goal is bilateral relations.... 5. Philosophers are another group o f people whose
aim is to possess wisdom. 6. Another proof of the villas late occupation is the
pavements o f mosaic and marble fragments indiscriminately mixed.
(19, p. 60):
1. The Botanical Gardens constitute one.... 2. People who are completely absorbed
in their careers provide (or: constitute) another interesting instance..; Another in
teresting instance of bad parents is provided by people.... 3. ...but the greatest at
traction is provided by the tall cliffs...; ...but it is the tall cliffs jutting straight into
the sea that constitute the greatest attraction.
Most
(22, p. 66):
1. the most frightening thing is the fact that...; what is especially frightening is the
fact that... 2. the most important thing is... 3. The most visible thing for anyone...;
What is most visible for anyone... 4. the most crucial thing is... 5. The m ost re
markable thing a b o u t...; What is most remarkable about... 6. are m ost important...
7. the most important thing... 8. are most appropriate at this moment; are the m ost
appropriate measures (steps etc.) at this moment 9. the most important thing of all
is that...
182
183
T here
(24, p. 72f.):
(26, p. 79):
A. 1. either 2. let alone, to say nothing of 3. either 4. let alone, to say nothing
of 5. either 6. to say nothing o f 7. let alone, least of all 8. let alone, to say nothing
of 9. any more than 10. either 11. let alone 12. any more than 13. let alone, least
of all 14. any more than her parents were 15. let alone, least of all 16. any more
than 17. let alone, least of all 18. let alone
B. 1. Our new secretary is not very hard-working, and she does not prove to be
very competent either. 2. The turmoil on the Japanese markets has not affected the
economic situation of neighbouring countries to any considerable degree. 3. Joan
has no talent for teaching, let alone for getting her knowledge across.
184
(27, p. 81):
1. No more staff meetings have been planned for the foreseeable future. (Not: No
more staff meetings for the foreseeable future have been planned.) 2 . 1 am going to
consider whether anv limits should be established to such interference in private
affairs. (Not: ...whether any limits to such interference in private affairs should be
established.) 3. A special term has even been coined for this kind of thing. (Not:
A special term for this kind of thing has even been coined.) 4. organisations ought
to be formed, devoted to the needs of such social groups. (Not: organisations devot
ed to the needs of such social groups ought to be formed.) 5. No written accounts of
this event have been found in the records of other civilisations. (Not: No written
accounts o f this event in the records o f other civilisations have been found.)
6. Every year innocent people are m urdered.... 7. Fortunately, people are inventing
more and more ways of dealing with such problems.
185
(28, p. 82):
1. Beyond the picturesque town of Penzance lies the westernmost point of Great
Britain. 2. Adjacent to the Grand Hotel is / is situated the Sopot pier, extending 512
metres. 3. Ahead of them, clearly discernible on the horizon, rose / towered the
Pillars of Hercules. 4. On the western edge of the Nile delta lies / is situated / i
located the city of Alexandria. 5. At a right angles to the square is / is to be fonnH
the tow ns m ost famous monument.
(30, p. 84):
1. Dreams are closely related to reality, as can be illustrated by the fact that we often
dream about people and places we know. 2. People in our country tend to be very
hospitable, as visitors will easily notice. (Also: ... as will easily be noticed by vi
sitors.) 3. In extreme cases love may demand the sacrifice of life, as was the case
with Romeo and Juliet. 4. The government does not attach much importance to the
teaching profession, as is obvious from the teachers wages. 5. Life expectancy
and life style are closely related, as has been established beyond all doubt by an
immense number of scientific studies.
(31, p. 86):
1. m ore worryingly, worse still etc. 2. W orse still, Making matters worse 3. more
importantly 4. more importantly, worse still, more worryingly etc. 5. making mat
ters worse
(32, p. 87):
1. It is ironic that / The ironic thing is that the Party was abolished by the man whom
it had once expelled in disgrace. 2. It is striking that / The striking thing is that /
W hat is especially striking is that he does not consider his actions to be at all crim
186
187
188
(36, p. 98):
1. Having as he does the most highly developed brain functions, man seems to be
completely different from the other primates. 2. Taking up so much time as it does,
television can be detrimental to family relations. 3. It will not be difficult for the
twenty-first century to seem like an age of gold, having as it does such a terrible and
bloody predecessor. 4. TV, operating as it does by means of visual images, is much
more communicative and fascinating than radio. 5. The publication constitutes an
invaluable source of information, including as it does many crucial discoveries.
189
a week in a health resort, a place where all my senses may recuperate from the
fumes and traffic of the city. 16. The extended family is not an anachronism. It is a
cure for loneliness, an institution which has developed along with humanity and
must be continuously cultivated. (Also: an institution that; a remedy which / that....)
17. Our tourist is likely to stand in queues for hours while clerks usually female
are varnishing their nails, reading magazines, drinking coffee, guzzling cakes and
gossiping about their bosss latest hair-do, an attitude which they acquired during
their years under the previous political system. (Also: an attitude that...; an ap
proach to work which / that...; habits which / that....) 18. Owing to these childhood
experiences she is unable to establish any satisfactory relationships with others,
a predicament which leaves her a very unhappy person. (Also: a predicament that....)
Coordination
II: Concord and Gender Bias
(40, p. Ill):
1. he or she 2. his, his 3. he (also: he or she) 4. one 5. him (also: him or her; that
person) 6. his 7. his, his (also: each students, his or her) 8. he (also: he or she; that
person) 9. him, his (also: that person, his or her; such people, their) 10. his, his 11. his
(also: his or her; that persons) 12. him 13. that persons (also: his; his or her) 14. he.
He (also: he or she, The average adolescent) 15. its own 16. him self (also: him- or
herself) 17. him, his (also: that person, his or her; that person, his) 18. he (also: he or
she) 19. that person 20. one 21. he, his 22. his or her (also: his) 23. he (also: he or
she; that person) 24. he (also: he or she) 25. his, himself, his, his 26. himself 27. his
(also: his or her) 28. that person (also: him or her)
Coordination
I: Unjustified Change of Subject
(39, p. 106):
1. W e hardly spoke a word... 2. ...if they have made any mistake. 3. ...the state
ments that they utter... 4. ...to party activism, regarding it as a kind of... 5. ...and
never count the cost, caring nothing for public opinion. 6. ...that they have never
encountered before. 7. ...that perhaps they find more attractive or convenient.
8. ...and he will have a struggle arranging anything... 9. ...by the awarding of the
Nobel Prize. 10. ...and I will attempt to explain why. 11. ...that he has yet to over
come. 12. ...whatever she found superfluous. 13. ...that we do not like trees or
going for walks. 14. ...something that we consider vital. 15. ...by which I mean
culture. 16. ...that the two are unconnected. 17. ...he (also: he or she) will under
stand why... 18. ...a deep respect for such things as honesty, keeping ones word,
and respect for ones elders. 19__ that everything is preordained and thus not worth
trying to change. 20. ...which they consider the most important thing. 21. Europe
ans are especially well received in the States, and they should not think twice about
visiting the country.
190
Coordination
III: Absence of Parallel Structure
(41, p. 114):
1. TV not only gives us... 2. Either the question has... (also: ...or could be an
swered...) 3. ...but they also show... 4. ...but also desensitise... 5. The young are
expected not only to maintain... 6. ...should be not only... 7. M an is able not only
to create... 8. Bringing up children means not only providing... 9. ...but she was
also believed... (also: M other Teresa was not only widely recognised...) 10. ...will
turn neither into... 11. expect him to be not only a competent candidate... 12. Life
style determines not only longevity but also the quality of life. 13__ but also ruin...
(also: Not only are such teenagers unaware...) 14. ...and the bad things... 15. ...they
have not only...
(42, p. 116):
I. By introducing a common currency and elim inating international barriers (also:
By the introduction of a common currency and the elimination of international bar
riers) the countries of W estern Europe became integrated in terms of economics,
trade, and to some extent culture. 2. ...equality or wealth. 3. ...or Catholic cler
ic... 4. ...to help them, to talk to them, or even sometimes to prepare... 5. ...and
identity. 6. ...and harm the poor. 7. ...and still effective... 8. ...or does perhaps the
fault lie...? 9. ...of finding a job... 10. ...the status quo of Europe and the world...
I I . A proper diet, a balanced life style, regular sports and the avoidance of ad
dictions... 12. ...the average European. 13. ...using the railway... 14. ...methods
of separating, purifying and measuring the activity of radioactive elements.
191
Coordination
IV: Unjustified Change of Person
(46, p. 121):
1. However, only some doctors are successful. (Alsopossible: ...yet only some doc
(43, p. 117):
tors are successful.) 2. Tricky as the question is, an attempt will be made in this
essay to examine it.
1. ...and educating oneself. 2. Or when we dream about failing our exam.... (The
alternative, namely o f using one and o n es throughout, would read less natural
ly.) 3. ...when the mind is stimulated... (Also: ...when our minds are stimulated....)
4. ...as they help us... 5. You can... (The humour o f the context suggests that the
more informal you and yo u r are to be preferred to one and ones. Also the repetition
o f one and o n es would seem highly awkward and unnatural.)
Coordination
V: Dangling Participles
(44, p. 119):
1. W hoever examines the influence of TV will have to face one important ques
tion. 2. When visiting Britains former colonies one can still come across... 3. Given
the sheer variety of opinions...; W hen one observes the sheer variety... 4. Having
attained such a rank, many abuse... 5. Though called an eater of tim e, TV is argu
ably a necessary source of information as well as entertainment.
Splices
(45, p. 120):
1. (Depending on the meaning:) i. While most people admire sportsmen and watch
them on TV, they all too rarely move from the front of the screen, ii. While most
people admire sportsmen, they all too rarely move from the front of the screen as
they watch them on TV. 2. (Depending on the meaning:) i. With a freely elected
government in office and the free market taking hold at long last, the country is
looking forward to the kind of prosperity that the West has long enjoyed. (A comma
has been removed.) ii. With a freely elected government in office and the free mar
ket taking hold, the country is looking forward at long last to the kind of prosperity
that the West has long enjoyed. 3. Although at first it may, given the sophisticated
language of many masterpieces, be difficult to follow the gist, the fact that you have
read one such work will give you a great deal of satisfaction. 4. When the countries
of the East started to turn towards democracy and towards freedom of speech, press
and conscience, the division into eastern and western Europe still survived in peo
p les minds. 5. W hoever wishes to become a successful practitioner will surely
invest in his education, never cease to increase his qualifications, and be devoted to
all his patients.
192
Un-English Syntax
I: Verb and Object
(49, p. 126):
1. Such eyesores generally represent the tasteless architecture o f the past. 2. In
reality, few politicians enjoy any privacy. 3. The young generation does have role
models that profoundly influence teenagers. 4. Those are the boys who in cold
blood killed a two-year-old child. Also: who killed a two-year-old child in cold
blood. 5. A good teacher can, for example, make you adore physics, even if you
loathed the subject sincerely before. 6. They want the best for their children.
7. The news is full of various conflicts now tormenting that continent. 8. A friend
193
whom Diana had trusted made a small fortune out of publishing untrue or half-true
stories about her. 9. One may see many interesting exhibits here. A lso: Here one
may see.... 10. He says that while he likes the USA, he can do much more in Cen
tral and Eastern Europe. 11. TV affects our lives tremendously. 12. M an usually
considers him self superior, conceitedly calling him self homo sapiens. 13. John
realises this fact perfectly well. 14. If you were to ask such people, they would
probably, after a m om ents hesitation, put money at the top of their list of priori
ties. 15. W e have considerably improved our safety precautions. A lso: W e have
im proved our safety precautions considerably.
Un-English Syntax
II: Main and Subordinate Clauses
(50, p. 128):
1. Although the RSC is perceived as exclusively producing Shakespeare, their pro
gramme does in fact include classical theatre of all periods. 2. As we grow up and
face m ore and more moral dilemmas, we can no longer condemn such behaviour.
3. Had it not been for such events, we would now perhaps be living in a completely
different reality. 4. W hen we cross the threshold o f parenthood, we simultaneously
cross the threshold of the generation gap. 5. W hile in the initial stages training was
focussed mainly on traditional banking, the course gradually came to include other
areas. 6. Although the majority o f people have chosen to live in small units, there is
still a tendency in some regions towards preserving extended families. 7. As I am
not a music lover, my dislike of concerts has frequently led to serious quarrels
between us both. 8. Founded by 12 countries in Washington in 1949, NATO was
initially a military alliance against the USSR. 9. As most would agree, it depends
on ourselves to a certain extent in what way we are influenced by the mass m e
dia. 10. If a child is deprived of the possibility of imitating grown-ups, he or she
will probably find it difficult as an adult to perform the role of parent. 11. Although
he offers a plausible theory, he som etim es unfortunately borders on fantasy.
12. W hen it comes to politics, our country seems finally after many years of un
bridled capitalism - to have established its own middle way. 13. Sad as it may seem,
nothing has been done so far to elim inate this problem.
(51, p. 129):
1. Despite the fact that we had spent fifty years in a prison, it turned out that when
the walls finally came down the dream of instant paradise on earth had not come
true for everyone. 2. Although a dog may be cheerful and wag its tail, it will never
laugh at our jokes or understand us, however much it tries.
194
Un-English Syntax
III: Composite Attributive Expressions
(52, p. 131):
1. The famous Grand Hotel, surrounded by parks, usually hosts international popstars. 2. Development is hampered by the bureaucracy dominant everywhere. (Also:
...by the ubiquitous bureaucracy.) 3. The Popes personality remarkable and im
possible to characterise works wonders with various foreign dignitaries. (Also:
The Popes remarkable and enigmatic personality....) 4. In our country such teach
ers, who improve their qualifications, are very unique. 5. The Internet can be used
to disseminate forbidden material, m aterial that is often harmful in some way.
6. John was a sensitive individual, (and) very easy to hurt. 7. Though reasonable in
its assumptions, this economic policy led to widespread impoverishment. 8. M any
city dwellers dream of living in a quiet village close to nature, with fields, m eadows
and landscapes unspoilt by civilisation. 9. In their eyes Maureen is still a perfect
daughter, obedient to her parents. 10. The Toyota factory located there is a princi
pal source of employment. 11. Such immature idealists will one day become cal
lous, egotistic people, loving only themselves. 12. Looking at the lawns littered
with rubbish and the dilapidated houses, one might suppose that our town has no
future. 13. Winter is presaged by swarms of birds leaving for warmer climes. 14. The
history teacher m entioned above was always making our lives a misery. 15. This
scintillating man who skilfully manipulates the mass media is the ultim ate politi
cian. (Also: Scintillating and skilful in his manipulation of the mass media, this
man is the ultimate politician.) 16. Parents often find it difficult to accept the inde
pendence of their children that grows with age. 17. Many factories are full of obso
lete technology imported from the form er USSR. 18. To make matters worse, there
have been complaints from railwaymen dissatisfied with their low salaries, who are
threatening to go on strike. 19. He was famous for performing B ritains first heart
transplant.
Un-English Syntax
IV: Parallel Expressions
(53, p. 134):
1. TV influences our feelings and em otions, and changes our social attitudes. (Also:
...as well as changing....) 2. There m ust be a good atmosphere in class, so that stu
dents can take part in discussions and express their opinions on the subject. 3. M ed
ical advances have saved countless lives. It is enough to mention the transplantation
of organs and the invention of the artificial heart. 4. Many people would prefer to
lie and be dishonest.... 5. Sitting in front of the TV causes headaches and backaches,
195
and is bad for the eyes. (A lso:... headaches and backaches, as well as being bad....) 6.
I am g o in g to d isc u ss th e fe a tu re s o f a p e rfe c t te a c h e r and e x p la in ....
7. Our world will soon become more cohesive and standardised, as well as beinp
governed.... 8. Family life helps people to appreciate such things as love and friend
ship.... 9. W e m ust face these problems and try to understand them. 10. The Inter
net informs us about the present as well as the past, and gives us.... (Other possibil
ities: ...giving us....; The Internet informs us about the present as well as the past; it
gives us....) 11. The roads here are narrow and full of holes.... 12. Each day the
minister has meetings and consultations, as well as sending letters and faxes. (Also:
...has meetings and consultations, quite apart from sending....V 13. ...in the way we
perceive and understand.... 14. The situation o f complete misunderstanding and
non-communication leads.... 15. Often readers identify with literary characters and
share their emotions. Indeed, they sometimes even imitate them and copy their be
haviour. (Also: Often readers identify with literary characters, sharing their emo
tions. Indeed, they sometimes even imitate them, copying their behaviour.) 16. We
have similar views and interests; we listen to the same kinds of music and watch
Hollywood blockbusters. 17. There is seldom any clear rule or direction that we
must take in life.
Un-English Syntax
V: Active vs. Passive
(54, p. 135):
1. The high academic level of the book is guaranteed by specialists of international
standing.... 2. The eastern edge of the Vistula delta is formed by the Elbl^g High
lands and the Lowlands of Warmia. 3. The material is illustrated by a set of twelve
diagrams. 4. The decision to build the basilica was made by Abbot Quodvultdeus.
5. At the Olympic Games each country may be represented only by one man and
one woman.
196
In My Opinion...
(58, p. 150):
1. The fact of the matter is that...; There is no escaping the fact that...; The sad truth
is that...; The simple fact is that... 2. I beg to differ. 3a. The conclusion seems
inescapable that...; There is no escaping the fact that... b. My impression is that...;
I suspect that...; My feeling is that... 4. It is my contention that...; It is my convic
tion that... 5. the conclusion seems inescapable that...; the only conclusion that would
suggest itself is that... 6a. I would even go so far as to say that...; b. My feeling is
that...; I suspect that...; Surely 7. The fact of the matter is that... 8. In our spiritual
ly impoverished world the Dalai Lama arguably represents...; My feeling is that...;
It would seem that...; A mom ents reflection shows that... 9. A m om ents reflection
shows that...; The fact of the matter is that... 10. my feeling is that...; the question
would seem to admit of... 11. it is a sad truth that...; it needs to be pointed out
that... 12. A m om ents reflection shows th a t...; It is a sad truth that...; It is no secret
that... 13. Surely...; M ilitary action in that conflict was arguably a necessary
197
Colons
(60, p. 164):
1. Unchanged. A colon after a s is impossible. 2. After are a colon is possible
in a form al context. Otherwise unchanged. (A comma is also possible after Maggiore). 3. In a highly form al context a colon is possible after includes, even
though that would separate the verb from the direct object. 4. A comma is possible
after car p a rks". Otherwise unchanged. (There is no colon after such as, fo r that
would separate the subject from the verb.) 5. Unchanged. No colon after include,
because the ensuing list consists only o f 2 items. 6. Unchanged. 7. Unchanged.
N o colon is necessary after entitled. 8. Comma after factors. N o colon after
"like. ( Like is not generally follow ed by a colon.) 9. Two famous museums, the
National History and the V&A, are situated in Kensington; but an even more re
nowned one, the British Museum located in Bloomsbury, is closer to the centre.
(After an even more renowned one a colon is impossible, fo r that would separate
a subject from its verb - cf. exx. 2a-b. Here in sentence 9 commas are preferable to
dashes, while the basic organisation o f the sentence is indicated by the semico
lon.) 10. Unchanged. The use o f the colon is inappropriate (cf. exx. 2a-b). 11. Un
changed. The phrase such as is seldom follow ed by a colon, and the context is
obviously not form al. 12. Best leave unchanged, since the context is obviously not
198
form al enough to deserve a colon after including. Comma possible after varie
ty. 13. Comma after d o . A colon is impossible, because that would separate
a subordinate clause from the main clause. 14. Dashes after relationships an d
relations (cf. e x x la -b ). Comma also possible after friendships. 15. Colon p o s
sible after are (cf. ex. 6a). 16. However, her life divorce, love affairs, and con
flicts with the rest of the royal family left her far removed from sainthood. (C f ex.
lb , and 14 above. Commas are not possible, because the apposition itself contains
commas, and the result would be confusion .) 17. Unchanged. Cf. 1 , 4 and 11
above. 18. Unchanged. A colon after years is impossible.
The Dash
(61, p. 167):
1. On the north W estminster is bounded by Mayfair, Bloomsbury and M arylebone
all districts of London. 2. Unchanged. 3. TV is part o f our everyday life it
follows us wherever we go. 4. Unchanged. 5. One of Europes largest Gothic struc
tures, St M arys Church, towers over the city. 6. Unchanged. 7. For sure, not
everybody. 8. Unchanged. 9. Unchanged. 10. Unchanged. 11. The co-authors, dis
tinguished doctors from Britain and America, are specialists in various branches o f
medicine. 12. Unchanged. Colon also possible. 13. ...my brothers girlfriend, Kate.
(Leaving the sentence unchanged is also possible.) 14. England and Wales are d i
vided into 53 counties (before 1974 it was 62).
Inverted Commas
(62, p. 171):
(Places where changes have been introduced have been underlined.)
1. Unchanged. The irony is arguably effective, which justifies the use o f the inverted
commas. 2. I f the inverted commas are intended to express reported speech, then it
is completely unclear whose speech it is. I f the context is an interview with downand-outs, then the follow ing modification is possible: Such are the down-and-outs
who are poor from choice, as they put it. or simply because they like it. 3. The
so to speak is clumsy. B est rephrase: Envy has the potential to turn a relationship
into a kind of prison. 4. F orgetting is both unusual and effective in its sarcasm;
hence the inverted commas seem justified. 5. Literature in this context is bitterly
sarcastic, and hence the inverted commas seem justified. 6. Victims here is an obvi
ous metaphor. Hence the inverted commas should be removed. 7. Unchanged. O b
viously, a word or phrase can be p u t in inverted commas i f you wish to discuss it.
199
8. These are all virtual quotations. Hence the inverted commas are justified. 9. The
bitter sarcasm justifies the inverted commas. (Cf. also 5, above.) 10. Unchanged:
the word western is being discussed. Cf. 7 above. 11. W hat the neighbours will
say is immediately recognisable as a cliche, and hence the inverted commas are
possible, to indicate that the writer is distancing him self from it. B y contrast, the
inverted commas around standards are unjustified, and a reformulation is better:
Adapting your life to so-called standards means living a lie all the time. 12. The
inverted commas have no obvious justification. 13. Unchanged. The phrase natu
ral born conform ist is strikingly unusual. 14. Here a word is being used in a highly
ironic manner; hence the inverted commas are justified. 15. Unchanged. The phrase
is a notorious cliche and the inverted commas serve to disassociate the writer.
The Semicolon
(63, p. 174):
1. Such students usually do not pay too much attention to learning; they cheat in
order to pass exams; and finally they become frustrated, pessimistic teachers who
are not able to forget their problems as they enter the classroom. 2. In my opinion
there are several kinds of poor people: those who are poor because they do not care
much about material goods; those who are too lazy to work more; and finally those
who are industrious and work from dawn to dusk, but still cannot save enough
money for a higher standard of living. 3. In this essay I am going to give some
examples to support this view, and at the same time answer two crucial questions:
firstly, whether we have the right to pry into politicians private lives; and secondly,
whether those statesmen whose private lives do not conform to the same ethical
standards as their conduct in public deserve to be condemned. 4. Some labourers
became unemployed; some of them, however, succeeded in making a living from
agriculture. 5. There are programmes really worth seeing: films that are works of
art, plays we are not able to see in the theatre but may watch on T V ; we can find
truly educational productions that are not likely to have a detrimental effect on the
character of the young. 6. Such a child has everything; (colon also possible) all his
dreams are fulfilled at once; his life is like a fairy tale without pain, close to moth
e rs apron strings. 7. The results of such a strike can be terrifying: in one country
town, for example, a woman died of influenza because the local doctor refused to
help her, claiming that he was simply overwhelmed with patients; the emergency
services also refused to take care of her, insisting that it was the family doctor that
should take care of her. 8. We are not all bigots and not all drunks; there is a young
generation that is not at all influenced by past horrors; and, most importantly, not
everything here is upside down. 9. For some people the countryside is a place of
freedom from cars, buses, and pollution; for others, however, it is a place of hard
200
work and poverty. 10. People rarely go to a library for a good book; they prefer to
stay at home in front of the TV. (A colon is also possible.) 11. W estern borders
were suddenly open, which gave the peoples of the Warsaw Pact countries an op
portunity to visit foreign countries; shops were filled with both imported and local
produce; the growth of the free market became a fact. 12. Literature trains the im
agination of the reader; someone who reads a book can imagine things as he wants
to and create the main characters in his own way. 13. Many parents seem to forget
about their essential role; they treat their children as playthings or as a necessary
fulfilment of marriage. 14. People did not abandon their traditions; what is m ore,
they did their best to preserve them. 15. The human psyche has three levels: the id,
standing for impulses and urges; the ego, representing ones personality; and the
superego, dealing with sublimated desires and urges. 16. Good teachers never treat
those entrusted to their care as their inferiors; on the contrary, the relationship is
based on the principle of equality. 17. Each literary epoch possesses the rich legacy
of patriotic lyrics whose purpose was to arouse the fighting spirit and win battles;
love lyrics written to express an authors feelings towards his beloved; religious
poems expressing an authors faith and devotion to God; political treatises voicing
the need for change; or philosophic tracts setting forth a w riters reflections about
different aspects of human life. 18. Today people work very hard to earn m oney;
(colon also possible) they stay at work late, take additional hours, and spend much
of their free time on activities connected with their jobs.
Index
A
accordingly 145, 173
according to 24
active (voice) 34, 135
adverbial 136, 138, 173f
after all 49
agreement 57-60, 90
albeit 137
all 59, 154
also 173
although 129, 136-9
anaphora 133
and 69, 74, 99, 132, 174
antecedent 99f, 121-4
any 68, 152
anybody 109
any more than 69
anyone 109f
appear78f
apposition 39-47, 73, 83, 98-100, 157,
161f, 165
arguably 149
arise 79
arrive 79
article 20, 39-41, 43-7, 64-8, 96, 152-60
B
be 57-60, 62, 77f, 80, 82, 96, 163
be to 54f
be found 82
be situated 82
because 47-50
being 50-3
belong 27
best 67
both 163, 166
both... and 112f, 116
but 136
by contrast 138, 142, 173
by the same token 143
by way of contrast 142f
as
=just as 55f, 61f, 8 4 ,141f
= since 49f, 53, 62, 96f
= though 95 f
as against 141
as a result 145f
as... as.... 61
as follows 163
as he puts it 56
as in 141
C
can be 60
citizens 37
cleft sentence 89-92
colon 40f, 161-3
come 79
comma 40f, 49, 73-7, 89, 98, 137, 162,
172-4
comment clause 55f
203
D
dangling participle 118
dash 4 Of, 161f, 165-8
definite article 40f, 65, 68, 76f, 154-6
depending on 119
despite 139
difficult 34f, 130
direct object, cf. object
E
easy 34f
either 70
either... or.... 112, 114
for 35, 50
for example, for instance 162, 167
for the simple reason that 49
fronting 928
furthermore 173
G
gender bias 108-112
generalisation 153
generally speaking 119
genitive 105
gerund 19f, 64f, 115
get 28f
greatly 70
grow 28
H
happen 30
hardly 924
have 28, 78, 97
having 504
hence 146, 173
however 120, 173
ellipsis 165
emerge 30f, 79
emphasis 57, 92-8, 136, 138
enter 19
entirely 71
implication 147
important 85
impossible 34
include 163
including 119
in contrast to 142
indeed 173
indefinite article 65, 100, 152, 157
in fact 173
infinitive 19f, 34f, 54
in my opinion 132, 148
in no way 93
in other words 33
interestingly enough 85
inversion 62, 928
inverted commas 16871
enumeration 162f
epithet 47
especially 70f
F
failing that 119
find cf. be found
first person, expressions involving
cf. in my opinion
follow 79, 87
204
i.e. 33
if... then.... 143
irony 169f
irrespective of 139
it 33, 61f, 89-92, 123-6
it follows that.... 87, 147
it is a curious fact that.... 86-8
J
journalism 41, 44, 54, 77
judging by 119
just as 61f, 69f, 143
L
least of all 70f
left-handed sentence 131
legal contexts 53, 139
let alone 70f
lie 82
like 141f
little 93
live 78
M
main clause 40, 52f, 61, 96, 99, 127f, 136
main verb 118, 127, 162
making matters worse 85f
many of 67 f
metaphor 170
mid-position 149
modal 62, 78
modifier 25
more importantly 85
moreover 173
more worryingly 85
most 66-8
much as 95f
N
namely 324, 39
negative sentence 47-50, 69-73, 89
neither... nor.... 93,112,114
never 935
nevertheless 136, 173
nobody 109f
nominalisation 19-22
nominal phrase (cf. noun phrase)
none of 68
nonetheless 136f
non-finite verb 32
no one 109f
no sooner than 93
not 48-50, 92f
not at a im
not only... but also.... 93, 112f
not to mention 69
noun phrase 43, 90, 96, 115, 141, 156
nowhere 93
O
object 20, 126, 134f
obtain 29
obviously 85
occur 30
o f 43f, 67f, 154f
one 74, llOf, 117, 152
one of 68
only 92f
on no account 93
on the contrary 142, 173
on the other hand 136f
or 69, 71, 133
otherwise 173
owing to 119
P
parallel expression 1324
parenthesis 166
participle 77, 80f, 119, 130, 156, 162
passive 34, 62, 81, 134f, 151
past simple tense (cf. simple past)
perhaps 132
possess 29, 78
possessive adjective 109f, 117, 121
possible 34f
postmodifier 25f, 67, 78f, 81, 156f
participial postmodifier 156f
prepositional postmodifier 25f, 156
205