1.

INTRODUCTION
Solids are made of atoms and molecules. At a given
temperature, the atoms and molecules are placed at
some equilibrium distance. When heat is supplied to
solid, the interatomic separation increases by which
there is an expansion of solids. This expansion can
be in terms of length/area/volume.

2. LINEAR EXPANSION OF SOLID

(i) Almost all solids expand on heating. On
increasing the temperature of a solid, its length
increases. This change in length of a solid on
heating is called linear expansion.
(ii) Coefficient of linear expansion is defined as
fractional increase in length per C rise in
temperature. If is the length of the rod at
T K and as the temperature is changed to
T + T its length becomes +, so coefficient
of linear expansion is given by


d

=
=
dT
T
(iii) Unit of is Per Kelvin or Per C. It is positive
for metals except carbon. The value of is
negative for plastic because in plastic when the
temperature increases, length decreases.
(iv)The numerical value of is same in both the
units i.e. in Per Kelvin or Per C
(v) If is coefficient of linear expansion at t 1C.
1 = length of the rod at t1C
2 = length of the rod at t2C
2 = 1[1 + (t2 t1)]
t may be in any unit C or K because in the
formula there is a difference of temperature which
remains same for C or K.
(vi) If length of the rod is 0 at 0C and t at tC than
t = 0 [1 + (t 0)]
t = 0(1 + t)
where is temperature coefficient of linear
expansion at 0C. Here t should be in C only
because initial temperature is taken as 0C.

From the above tree, it is clear that the thermal

expansion of solid is classified into three categories.
(1) Linear expansion of solids
(2) Superficial expansion of solids
(3) Cubical expansion of solids
Now we shall discuss these topics one by one.

3. APPLICATION OF LINEAR EXPANSION

3.1 Differential expansion of two solid rod
(1) Suppose there are two rods of length 1 and 2.
The first rod is kept on the other such that the
initial separation between the free ends of the
rod is
S = 2 1
Both the rods are initially at a temperature of
t1C.

On heating the entire system, the temperature

increases to t2 such that the length of both the
rod increases. So, if the new length of the rod be
1 and 2 then
1= 1[1 + 1 (t2 t1)]
2= 2 [1 + 2 (t2 t1)]
Here 1 and 2 are the coefficients of linear
expansion at t1 and t2 C

Now the separation between the free ends of the

rod also changes such that
S = 2 1
= 2 [1 + 2 (t2 t1)] 1 [1 + 1(t2 t1)]
= (2 1) + (22 11) (t2 t1)
96

If the new separation S of the composite rod is

equal to the original separation then
S = S

Sol. (D) By linear expansion of solids, we have

= ..T
so steel . steel .T = copper . copper . T

(2 1) + (22 11) (t2 t1) = 2 1

(22 11)(t2 t1) = 0
22 11 = 0

If two strips of different metals are welded together

to form a bimetallic strip, when heated uniformly it
bends in the form of an arc, the metal with greater
coefficient of linear expansion lies on convex side.
The radius of arc thus formed by bimetal is :

or

d
( 2 1 )( t 2 t1 )

d
( 2 1 ) t

steel

22 = 11
3.2 Radius of Bimetallic strip

copper . copper

steel =

24 18 10
12 10

= 36 cm
Ex. 2
A metal sheet with a circular hole is heated. The
hole
(A) Gets larger
(B) Gets smaller
(C) Remains of the same size
(D) Gets deformed
Sol. (A) When a body is heated, the distance between
any two points on it increases. So due to thermal
expansion of solids, the hole gets larger.
Ex. 3

Two identical rectangular strips one of copper

and other of steel are riveted together to form a
bimetallic strip (copper >steel). On heating this
strip will
(A) Remains straight
(B) Bend with copper on convex side
(C) Bend with steel on convex side
(D) Get twisted
Sol. (B) When a bimetallic strip of different metals is
heated, the strip bends due to unequal linear
expansion of the two metals. The strip will bend
with metal of greater on the convex side i.e.
outer side.

at t 10 C

3.3 Thermal stress

(1) When a rod is heated or cooled, it expands or
contracts. It is turned as free expansion of the
rod

t 02 C

t1C
Where t = temp. difference between the two ends.
d = thickness of each strip
1 & 2 coefficients of linear expansion

Differential expansion of two solid rods

Ex. 1

The length of the steel rod which would have

the same difference in length with a copper rod
of length 24cm at all temperatures.

t2C strain = 0
Actually no strain is being developed because
on increasing the temperature the length of the
rod increases so at t2C, 2 because natural
length of rod.
(2) Now if the ends of the rods are rigidly fixed so
as to prevent it from expansion or contraction
than stress is produced in the rod. By virtue of
this thermal stress the rod exerts a large force on
the supports.

(copper = 18 106 k1, steel = 12 106 k1)

is
(A) 20 cm
(C) 24 cm

(B) 18 cm
(D) 36 cm
97

The first figure indicates the rod kept at a

temperature t1C having length 1. The rod is
between two rigid supports. If the supports were
not there then on increasing the temperature the
free expansion occurs by which length becomes
2 at higher temperature t2C. The third figure
indicates that on increasing the temperature to
t2C, the length remains same but a compressive
strain is induced in the rod.
If 1 is the length of the rod at t1C and on
increasing the temperature to t 2C its length
becomes 2 then
2 = 1 [1 + (t2 t1)]
2 = 1 + 1 (t2 t1)
2 1
= (t2 t1)
1
The above relationship indicates the thermal
strain developed in the rod. i.e.
Thermal strain =

2 1
= (t2 t1)
2

In elasticity, Young's modulus =

stress
strain

Stress = Y (t2 t1)

As force =

stress
Area

Force = YA (t2 t1)

(3) If the rod is in its natural length at t 1C while at
t2C it is in compressed state, then
Strain =

Change in length
Original length

(4) When the temperature of the rod is increased,

the compressor stress is developed while on
decreasing the temperature of the rod the tensile
stress is developed.

Thermal stress
Ex. 4
Sol.

Ex. 5

Sol.

A steel rod of length 1m rests on a smooth

horizontal base. If it is heated from 0C to 100C,
what is the longitudinal strain developed ?
In this case rod rests on a horizontal base which
is the free expansion on heating. Hence no strain
is developed in the rod i.e.
Strain = 0
A steel rod of length 50 cm has a crosssectional
area of 0.4cm2. What force would be required to
stretch this rod by the same amount as the
expansion produced by heating it through 10C.
( = 105 k1 and Y = 2 1011 N/m2)
We have
Force = YA .
= 2 1011 0.4 104 105 10
= 0.8 103
= 800 N

3.4 Effect of temperature on Pendulum clock

A pendulum clock consists of a metal rod or wire with
the bob at one end.
Let 1 be the length of the simple pendulum at 1C
than time period T 1 is given by
1
...(1)
g
Now when the temperature increases to 2C the
effective length becomes 2 so that

T 1 = 2

T 2 = 2

2
g

...(2)

Dividing eqn. (2) by (1), we get

2
1
but 2 = 1 [1 + (2 1)]
T2
T1 =

In this case first figure represents the rod of

length at t1C when the temperature is lowered
to t2C the length of the rod remains same but a
tensile strain is developed in the rod.

t
t
( t )
=
= t = t ~ t
t
Stress = t

so

T2
T1 =

1[1 ( 2 1 )]
1

T2

T1 = [1 + (2 1)]
T2
T1 = 1 + 1/2 (2 1)
T2 T1
T1 = 1/2 (2 1)
98

Change in time period T = T 2 T1 = 1/2 ..T1

The above expression represents the time lost per
oscillation. Thus a pendulum clock loses time in
summer and gains time in winter.

(ii) If V0 is the volume of solid at 0C and on

increasing the temperature, volume becomes V t
than,
= V0 [1 + t]
Where is coefficient of volume expansion at
0C. Here also t should be in C only.
Vt

Note : If a pendulum clock is giving correct time when

time period is T than
If T increases, clock becomes slow.

(iii) If V1 is the volume of solid at t1C and on

increasing the temperature to t2C the volume
becomes V2 then,

If T decreases, clock becomes fast.

Pendulum clock
Ex. 6

Sol.

V2 = V1 [1 + (t2 t1)]
Where is coefficient of volume expansion at
t1C.

A pendulum clock with a pendulum made of invar

( = 0.7 106 C1) has a period of 0.5 s and
is accurate at 25C. If the clock is used in a
country where the temperature averages 35C,
what correction is necessary at the end of a
month (30 days) to the time given by the clock

(iv) Coefficient of volume expansion is defined as

the fractional increase in volume per C rise in
temperature.
dV
V V
=
V .dT
T
(v) Unit of is per C or per Kelvin.

In time interval t, the clock will become slow by

1
.t.
2
1
=
7 107 30 86400 (35 25)
2
= 9.1 s

t =

6. RELATION BETWEEN COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR

EXPANSION ( ), COEFFICIENT OF SUPER FICIAL
EXPANSION ( ) & COFFICIENT OF CUBICAL

4. SUPERFICIAL EXPANSION OF SOLID

EXPANSION ()

(i) On increasing the temperature of solid, its area

increases. This change in area is referred as
superficial expansion of solids.

= 2
= 3

(ii) If A0 is the area of solid at 0C. On heating the

rod to t1C, the area becomes At so that

At = A0 [1 + t]
Where is coefficient of superficial expansion at
0C and t should be in C only.
(iii) If the area of solid at temperature t 1C is A1 and
on heating the rod, the area becomes A2 at t2C
than
A2 = A1 [1 + (t2 t1)]
Where is coefficient of superficial expansion at
t1C.
(iv) Coefficient of superficial expansion is defined as
fractional increase in area per C rise in temperature.
dA
A A
=
A
.dT
T
(v) Unit of is per C or per Kelvin

5. VOLUME EXPANSION OF SOLID

(i) On increasing the temperature of rod, its volume
changes.

Superficial and volume expansion of

solid
Ex.7

The coefficient of linear expansion of a crystal in

one direction is 1 and that in every direction
perpendicular to it is 2. The coefficient of cubical
expansion is
(A) 1 + 2
(B) 21 + 2
(C) 1 + 22
(D) None of above
Sol. (C)
V = V0 (1 + T)
or L3 = L0(1 + 1T) L 20 (1 + 2T)2
or

= L 03 (1 + 1T) (1 + 2T)2

or V = V0(1 + 1T)(1 +2T)2

Hence 1 + T = (1 + 1T)(1 +2T)2
or
1 + T = (1 + 1T)(1 + 22T)
= 1 + (1 + 22)T
Hence = 1 + 22
99

Ex. 8

Consider the following statements

(1) The coefficient of linear expansion has
dimension K1.
(2) The coefficient of volume expansion has
dimension K1.
(A) Both 1 and 2 are correct
(B) 1 is correct but 2 is wrong
(C) 2 is correct but 1 is wrong
(D) 1 and 2 are both wrong
Sol. (A) Coefficient of linear expansion is given by
d
=
and coefficient of volume expansion is
.dt
dV
given by =
. So from above formula it is
V .dt
clear that both have units of per Kelvin.

7. CHANGE IN DENSITY OF SOLID WITH

TEMPERATURE
Suppose m is the mass of a solid which at a given
temperature occupies a volume V so that density at
m
0C is
d0 =
V
Now if the temperature is increased by tC, mass will
remain unchanged but due to thermal expansion
volume increases so that,
V= V (1 + t)
m
m
Now density
d t=
= V (1 t )
V
dt =

d0
(1 t )

Here is coefficient of cubical expansion at 0C.

100

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Ex.1

A clock which keeps correct time at 25C has a

Sol.

The steel expands on heating and contracts on

cooling. Given that tape gives correct reading at
20C. At 0C. the tape contracts. The situations
at 0C and 20C are shown in figure. Obviously
real length of the wood is less than 25 cm.

Ex.3

A metal disc has a hole in it. What happens to

size of hole when disc is heated?

Sol.

On heating the size of hole increases.

Ex.4

A circular hole in an aluminium plate is 2.54 cm in

diameter at 0C. What is the diameter when the
temperature of the plate is raised to 100C ?
Given

pendulum made of brass whose coefficient of

linear expansion is 0.000019. How many seconds
a day will it gain if the temperature fall to 0C.
Sol.

Let L0 and L25 be the length of pendulum at 0C

and 25C respectively.
We know that
L25 = L0(1 + T)
= L0(1 + 0.000019 25) = 1.000475 L0
If T25 and T0 be the time periods at 25C and 0C
respectively, then
L 25
L0
T 25 = 2 g and T0 = 2 g

L 25
T25

T0 = L 0 =

1 .000475 L 0

L0

Sol.

Let Do and Dt be diameters of hole at 0C and

tC respectively.
Circumference of hole at 0C
= 2r0 = D0
Circumference of hole at t = 100 C

(1 .000475 ) = 1.000237.
T25 T0
T0

Now

Al = 2.3 105 (C)1

t = 2t = Dt
From relation t = 0 (1 + .t), we get

= 0.000237.

Dt = D0(1 + 2.3 105 100)

Dt = 2.54 ( 1 + 0.0023)

Gain in time for one vibration

= 2.5458 cm.

= 2 0.000237 sec.
Number of vibration in one day

Ex.5

24 60 60
sec. ( T = 2 sec.)
2
Hence, the gain in time in one day
=

1
t 86400
2

24 60 60
= 2 0.000237
=20.52 sec.
2
Sol.
Ex. 2

A steel tape gives correct reading at 20C. A

A pendulum clock keeps correct time at 0C. Mean

coefficient of linear expansion is a per C. If the
temperature of the room increases by tC, then
show that the clock loses per day by

Let L0 be length at 0C and L1 that at tC. If T0

and T1 are time periods at 0C and tC respectively,
then

piece of wood is being measured with the steel

tape at 0C. The reading is 25 cm on the tape.
State whether the real length of the wood is more
than or less than or equal to 25 cm.

T0 = 2

L0
L
Tt 2 t
and
g
g

Dividing
Tt
T0

Lt
L 0 (1 t )

(1 t )1/ 2 .....(1)
L0
L0

101

[For section pendulum time period is 2 sec i.e.

T0/2 = 1 sec.]
If n0 and nt are number of seconds in one day,
then

nt

Tt
T
T
n
n0 0 t 0
2
2
T0 n t

Ex.6

If the volume of a block of a metal changes by

0.12% when it is heated through 20C, what is
the coefficient of linear expansion of metal?

Sol.

Coefficient of cubical expansion of metal is given

by

From (1)

V
Vt
V 0.12

, t = 20C
V
100

n0
1
1/ 2
1 t
=
=
(
1

)
t
nt
2

Here

or

n0
1
t
nt 1 = 2

nt n0
1
t
n0
2

Coefficient of linear expansion

or

1
or nt n0 = t n 0
2
But n0 = 24 60 60 = 86400
nt =

0.12
5
100 20 = 6.0 10 per C

6.0 10 5

= 2.0 105 Per C

3
3

1
t 86400
2

Negative sign shows that the clock loses time.

102