Metal Science and Heat Treatment

Vol. 46, Nos. 3 4, 2004

FRACTURES OF STEEL
This issue opens a series of articles devoted to fractures of structural steels. Their publication is expedient for
several reasons. Firstly, analysis of fracture surfaces is an effective and widely used method for evaluating the quality
of steels. Secondly, beginning with the works of D. K. Chernov the kind of fracture has become a feature for studying
the effect of heat treatment on the structure of steels and later for evaluating the effect of test conditions (temperature,
loading rate, and nature of stress state) on the kind of fracture. Thirdly, starting from the second half of the last century
and till today systematic publications on kinds of fracture have been absent in the literature. We associate this fact with
the fundamental nature of the works in this direction published in reference books in the 1930 1960s. At the same
time, the data bank accumulated in the recent decades makes it possible to create a general classification of kinds of
fracture and thus systematize the data on their structure, morphology, and relationship to the structure and mechanical
properties of steel.
UDC 620.184.6:669.14.018.298

FRACTURE SURFACES OF STRUCTURAL STEELS

A. A. Ezhov, L. P. Gerasimova, and A. M. Katok
Translated from Metallovedenie i Termicheskaya Obrabotka Metallov, No. 4, pp. 34 39, April, 2004.

The kinds of fracture of standard process samples and impact specimens obtained due to single static or impact bending are classified in accordance with the conditions and causes of their formation. Group I of fractures in this classification is considered, namely, fiber and crystalline fractures of structural steels, their characteristics, conditions and causes of formation, and interrelation with mechanical properties. Every kind of
fracture is illustrated.

The third group includes fractures with special features

of structure caused by discontinuities existing in the metal.
In the present paper we will consider only fractures of
group I, namely, fiber, crystalline, and mixed fractures
(Tables 1 and 2) obtained after testing specimens by single
static or impact bending. These kinds of fracture are typical
for structural steels.

INTRODUCTION
Depending on the conditions and causes of formation,
fractures are divided into three groups according to the morphology of their surfaces.
The first group includes all varieties of fiber (ductile)
and crystalline (brittle) fracture the formation of which is
caused by different structures of the metal (Fig. 1).
The second group includes fractures the deviation of the
structure of which from the fiber and crystalline patterns are
caused by inhomogeneity of the structure of the metal.
These deviations are initiated by
chemical microscopic inhomogeneity (dendrite fracture, cleavages in dendrite fracture, slaty fracture, light bands
in fracture);
chemical macroscopic inhomogeneity (white spots in
fracture, black fracture);
action of high temperatures on the metal (naphthalic,
intergranular, spiky, buckwheat, and grain-boundary oxidized fractures).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The kind of fracture depends on the test temperature, and
the temperature range in which the fracture behavior changes
is equivalent to the brittle range above which the fracture can
only be fully fibrous and below which it is crystalline.
The temperature range of brittleness can be influenced
by the deformation rate, the scale factor (the sizes of tested
specimens), and the notch geometry. The lower the effect of
the mentioned factors on the formation of a fracture at the
given test temperature, the more stable is the fiber fracture.
Stability of a fiber fracture increases with growth in the in170
0026-0673/04/0304-0170 2004 Plenum Publishing Corporation

Fracture Surfaces of Structural Steels

171
Fractures
of structural steel
group I

Fiber fractures
(ductile)
Dry fiber
fractures

Fiber-streak
fractures

Crystalline fractures
(brittle)

Inhomogeneous
fiber fractures

Fiber fractures
with pits

Coarse-crystal
fractures

Fiber-flake
fractures

Fine-crystal
fractures

Porcelain-like
fractures

Velvet
fractures

Mixed fractures

Fig. 1. Classification diagram of fractures in structural steel (group I).

terval between the test temperature and the critical brittle

point (CBP).
The critical brittle point (CBP) is the temperature at
which the fracture mechanism on a specific conventionally

chosen part of the fracture surface changes distinctly. CBP is

not a constant quantity and changes with the test conditions,
i.e., with the geometry and size of the specimen and with the
testing rate and temperature.

TABLE 1. Fiber fractures

Fracture characteristic

Factors promoting the kind of fracture

Mechanical
properties of steel

Fiber fracture (general characteristic)

Surface formed due to
ductile intragrain fracture
with well-manifested features
of plastic strain; rough, lusterless, (without metallic
luster), of dark-gray color
(Figs. 2 and 3).
Has dimple microrelief
resolved under magnification
exceeding 30 50.
The tightening is proportional to the ductility of the
metal.
The roughness increases
with growth in the contamination with nonmetallic inclusions
Pattern typical for cast
and deformed steels.

1. Chemical composition of steel

The chemical composition of the steel should ensure full hardenability in the specified cross section with formation of martensitic structure after hardening and minimum
susceptibility to temper brittleness (of the second kind).
Alloying elements ensuring formation of fiber fracture include:
nickel (1% increase in the nickel content in steel decreases the CBP by about
10C);
chromium (has positive effect when contained in an amount not exceeding 2%);
molybdenum (to a greater degree) and tungsten (to a less degree) increase the
hardenability and decrease the size of austenite grains, substantially suppress the development of reversible temper brittleness;
Silicon and manganese do not promote formation of fiber fracture.
2. Methods of steel melting
The methods should ensure:
minimum content of nonmetallic inclusions;
fine size of nonmetallic inclusions and their uniform distribution in the metal;
the inclusions should be of globular shape (sulfides in the first turn);
minimum content of gases (especially of hydrogen);
minimum content of impurities, especially of phosphorus, zinc, arsenic, antimony,
bismuth, and tin.
3. Deformation of steel
the temperature of heating ingots for hot deformation before rolling or forging
should not exceed the permissible critical temperature for the given steel, above which
film segregations can appear over grain boundaries;
the degree of deformation at the final rolling or forging temperature should be
high enough for ensuring uniform treatment of the structure.

Steels with fiber fracture have

higher impact
toughness and
ductility than
steels having
fractures of other
kinds. In addition, such steels
possess higher
cold resistance
than steels having fractures
of other kinds.

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A. A. Ezhov et al.

TABLE 1. (Continued )
Fracture characteristic

Mechanical
properties of steel

Factors promoting the kind of fracture

4. Heat treatment of steel

The modes of heat treatment should ensure:
formation of austenite grains with smallest sizes;
formation of minimum amount of nonmartensitic products of transformation
and retained austenite;
suppression of reversible temper brittleness.

Fig. 2. High-density fiber fracture. Rolled steel. The high side tightening indicates a high fracture toughness of the steel. The pattern is
typical for metal produced by remelting (steel 30KhNM, water hardening from 860C, tempering at 650C).

Fig. 3. High-density fiber fracture. Cast steel (chill casting).

The structure of the fracture is close to fiber fracture of rolled
steel and is typical for castings obtained with rapid crystallization (steel 30KhN2MA, homogenization at 1150C, normalization at 950C, hardening from 860C, tempering at 650C).

Inhomogeneous fiber fracture

Inhomogeneous surface
formed in ductile intragrain
fracture. A variant of fiber
fracture of rolled steels. Depending on the position of
the fracture plane relative to
the direction of deformation
inhomogeneous fiber fractures are divided into three
kinds with:
fiber-streak pattern;
fiber pattern with pits;
fiber-flake pattern

Inhomogeneous fiber fracture is a result of inhomogeneity of the initial structure

of cast steel (different-hardness bands of segregation origin) due to enhanced content
of sulfide inclusions in interdendrite regions and dendritic segregation. In steels with
reduced sulfur content the formation of an inhomogeneous fiber fracture can be initiated by developed primary dendritic structure accompanied by segregation of phosphorus and other impurities.
The inhomogeneity of fiber fracture decreases with increase in the degree of deformation of the metal and with decrease in the tempering temperature but not below the
point of reversible temper brittleness.
Inhomogeneous fiber fracture is typical for air-melted steels tempered at high temperature.
The inhomogeneity of fiber fracture is lowered by:
inoculation of the metal, which creates a homogeneous fine-grained structure
in the ingot;
increasing the temperature of heating the ingot to maximum permissible temperature for deformation;
use of vacuum-refining remelting.
Steel possessing inhomogeneous fiber fracture cannot be improved under plant
conditions.
Fiber-streak fracture

Inhomogeneous surface formed in fracture with features

of lamination (Fig. 4).
Extended raised portions and recesses are located
in rows parallel to the direction of deformation.
Fiber-streak fracture is formed due to failure of the metal
over a plane parallel to the direction of deformation and
perpendicular to the rolled surface.

The appearance of inhomogeneous fiber

fracture is accompanied by
anisotropy in mechanical properties of rolled
stock; the impact
toughness and
the ductility over
the thickness of
the product decrease the most
considerably.

Fig. 4. Fiber-streak fracture.

Rolled steel. The pattern is
typical for steel after hardening and high-temperature tempering (steel 30KhN3M, hardening from 860C, tempering
at 650C).

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173

TABLE 1. (Continued )
Fracture characteristic

Mechanical
properties of steel

Factors promoting the kind of fracture

Fiber fracture with pits

Inhomogeneous surfaces formed in fracture are characterized by the presence of raised portions and recesses
(Fig. 5).
The recesses and raised portions are directed normally
to the direction of deformation. This kind of fracture appears due to failure of the metal in a plane perpendicular
to the direction of deformation and to the rolled surface.
The height of the raised portions and recesses depends
on the degree of inhomogeneity of the metal and can
reach 10 12 mm.

Fig. 5. Fiber fracture with pits.

Rolled steel. Fracture formed due
to partially preserved segregation
inhomogeneity of the ingot at insufficiently high heating of the
preform before rolling (steel
30KhN3M, hardening from
860C, tempering at 650C).

Fiber-flake fracture
The inhomogeneous surface formed in fracture is
characterized by the presence of flakes with smooth
and even surface, which are extended along the direction
of deformation (Fig. 6). The pattern appears on the
surface when the metal fails in a plane parallel to the
rolled surface.
Fig. 6. Fiber-flake fracture. Rolled steel
38KhN3M (hardening from 830C, tempering at 650C).
Surface formed due to
intragrain ductile fracture
with less manifested features
of plastic strain than in fiber
fracture (Figs. 7 and 8).
As distinct from fiber fracture this pattern is accompanied by lower deformation
of grains.
The fracture is lusterless;
its gray color is lighter than
in fiber fracture. The tightening is inconsiderable.

Dry fiber fracture

The fracture is formed after hardening and low-temperature tempering and is optimum for the given kind of treatment.
If the heat treatment mode is chosen correctly, crystal fines are absent on the background of dry fiber fracture.
After hardening and tempering, the appearance of dry fiber fracture is possible, if the
tempering is conducted at cooling temperature and rate causing reversible temper brittleness, and also in the presence of nonmartensitic products of austenitic transformation
after the hardening.
Formation of dry fiber fracture is promoted by the same process factors as those
causing fiber fracture. However, silicon and manganese increase the impact toughness
instead of lowering it like in the case fiber fracture of high-tempered steels.
Dry fiber fracture in low-tempered steels forms the easier the finer the nonmetallic
inclusions and the initial austenite grains.
With growth in the test temperature the structure of dry fiber fracture changes quite
inconsiderably. It is difficult to determine the CBP for dry fiber fracture visually, because the crystalline component in it is not manifested obviously in contrast to fiber
fracture. This is the case for employing microscopic analysis of fracture surfaces for
determining the CBP.

Fig. 7. Dry high-density fiber fracture. Rolled steel. The

low side tightening indicates lower fracture toughness of the
steel as compared to steels exhibiting fiber fracture (steel
20GSN2MA, hardening from 900C, tempering at 250C).

Steels with
dry fiber fracture display
lower plasticity
compared to
thouse with
fiber fracture.
Dry fiber
fracture provides
high structural
strength.

Fig. 8. Dry high-density fiber fracture. Cast steel. The structure of

the fracture is close to that of fiber fracture of rolled steel. Typical
for casting with rapid crystallization (steel 20GSN2MA, homogenization at 1150C, hardening from 900C, tempering at 250C).

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A. A. Ezhov et al.

TABLE 2. Crystalline and Mixed Fractures

Fracture characteristic

Factors promoting the kind of fracture

Mechanical
properties of steel

Crystalline fractures
General characteristic
Fracture surface consisting of flat lustrous facets of light-gray color without
features of macroscopic plastic strain
(Figs. 9 and 10).
Is typical for cast and deformed steels.
Appears in cleavage fracture of individual crystallites (grains), which causes
considerable reflectivity of the fracture
and ensures characteristic metallic luster.
Tightening is either absent or very low.

Forms at test temperature below the critical brittle point.

Brittle crystalline fracture forms due to:
1. In melting:
the use of blend contaminated with harmful impurities (see
fiber fracture);
low crystallization rate and subsequent cooling in ingots, which
increases the chemical inhomogeneity of cast steel and
the content and nonuniformity of the distribution of nonmetallic
inclusions;
enhanced gas content.
2. In hot deformation:
high final temperature of the deformation process and slow
cooling in the temperature range preceding phase transformations;
3. In heat treatment:
(a) hardening:
overheating of the metal;
cooling at a rate below the critical value, which causes the appearance of high amount of nonmartensitic products of austenitic
transformation (mixed fracture over boundaries of former austenite
grains and over the body of grains).
(b ) tempering:
tempering in the range of temperatures of reversible and irreversible temper brittleness (fracture primarily over boundaries of
former austenite grains);
too slow heating after high-temperature tempering, which stimulates reversible temper brittleness (fracture primarily over boundaries of former austenite grains).
Crystalline fracture caused by incorrectly conducted heat treatment can be cured:
if the level of strength characteristics exceeds the specified
value, by second tempering or tempering at a higher temperature
than that used in the first tempering;
if the level of strength characteristics is below the specified
value, by second hardening and tempering in corrected temperature-and-time regime.

Fig. 9. Crystalline fracture. Cast steel (grain

size Nos. 1 2). Fracture pattern typical for
steel subjected to hightemperature austenization with subsequent
hold in the range of
pearlite transformation
(steel 25KhN3M, austenization at 1150C, air
cooling to 650C, 24-h
hold in the furnace at
650C, cooling in air.

Steel with crystalline

fracture has lower impact toughness than that
with fiber fracture. The
larger the grains in the
fracture the more brittle
the fracture is.

Fig. 10. Crystalline fracture. Rolled steel (grain size Nos. 10 11).
Test temperature ttest = 196C (steel 40KhNM, austenization at
950C).

Fracture Surfaces of Structural Steels

175

TABLE 2. (Continued )
Fracture characteristic

Factors promoting the kind of fracture

Fine-grained fracture
Is formed under the following conditions:
Crystalline fracture of steels with grain size correspond excess (above that necessary for full hardenability)
ing to No. 10 and larger. Possesses a hardly visually disalloying of structural steels with enhanced carbon content
cernible crystalline structure.
(over 0.4%) with chromium, manganese, silicon, vanadium,
Is typical for high-strength structural steels tempered
niobium, and titanium;
at low temperature and possessing fine-grained structure
enhanced content of harmful admixtures and hydrogen
in cast and deformed states at enhanced carbon content.
in the metal;
Fine-grained fractures are classified into porcelain-like
too short duration or too low temperature of high-temfracture (Fig. 11) for steels with grain size corresponding
perature tempering;
to Nos. 10 12 and velvet fracture (Fig. 12) for steels
Fine-grained fracture can be prevented by using vacuum
with grain size corresponding to No. 13 and finer.
refining and remelting processes for steels with enhanced
Porcelain-like fracture has a smooth surface of lightcarbon content.
gray color with porcelain-like appearance.
Velvet fracture has a smooth surface of gray color
with dull metallic play reminiscent of velvet.

Mechanical
properties of steel

Steels with
fine-grained
fracture possess diminished ductility
and impact
toughness
at a high
strength level.

Fig. 12. Fine-grained velvet fracture. Rolled steel (grain

size No. 13). Region of fine-grained velvet structure gradually transforming into crystalline fracture with coarser
grains. Test temperature ttest = 196C (steel 45KhNMFA,
hardening from 880C, tempering at 180C).

Fig. 11. Fine-grained porcelain-like fracture.

Rolled steel (grain size No. 12). Test temperature ttest = 196C (steel 45KhNMFA, hardening from 880C, tempering at 180C).

Mixed fractures

Fig. 13. Fiber fractures in cast steel with crystalline regions of different shape and location. Steel 25KhN3M
hardened from 850C after tempering at 600C (a) and
630C (b ): a) crystalline regions in the form of individual bands; b ) individual small crystalline regions.

Fig. 14. Different kinds of crystalline fracture of rolled steel

formed due to manifestation of reversible temper brittleness.
Steel 40KhNM hardened from 900C and tempered at 600C
with decelerated cooling in the furnace: a) crystalline fracture
with fine fiber veins; b ) fan-like river-line crystalline fracture.