Quality measurements

Non-destructive Quality
Measurement of Horticultural Crops

Many quality measurement techniques have been

developed to mimic the human senses
sight, smell, sound, touch and taste

Others are measures of harvest, storage, and

handling characteristics that affect quality.

David Slaughter
Biological & Agricultural Engineering
UC Davis

Bruise susceptibility

Non-destructive measurements allow 100%

sampling
Allows sorting into uniform subunits, removal of
substandard items, and identification of premium pieces.

Reference:
Technologies for Nondestructive Quality Evaluation of
Fruits and Vegetables.
Abbott J.A. et al., Horticultural Reviews Vol. 20, 1997.

Quality measurements

3
4

PowerVision

Size
Volume
Machine vision
Less accurate for irregularly
fruit

shaped

Mass
Electronic load cells

Density (mass/volume)
Bulk or individual fruit

Firmness measurements

Traditional Destructive Method

Magness-Taylor Penetrometer
Invented in 1925.
Records the Maximum Force Required
to Penetrate the Fruit.
Manually Operated.
Force Gage

Penetrometer

4 views of the fruit in one image (one camera & mirrors)

Fruit Firmness Measures

Destructive
Traditional Method
Maximum Force to
Penetrate a Known
Distance into Fruit.
Uses a Device called
a Penetrometer

Force

May indicate changes in porosity, soluble solids or

water content.
Index of quality or indicator of defects
Freeze damage, pithiness, hollow heart, puffiness
or water core.

Non-Destructive
Force Required to
Squeeze Fruit.

Deformation

Durometer

Durometer

Measures the amount of

deformation resulting from
a small force, 8 N (2 lbs)
Max. deformation = 2.5 mm
(1/10 inch)
Use the E tip for
peaches & pears.
Hand held
Stand mounted
$600 - $1100
Will bruise soft
fruit.

Principle of operation
(Force & deformation values for E tip)
0 points
(force =0)

40 points

100 points

(Deformation = 1 mm)
(force = 3.2 N)

(Deformation = 2.5 mm)

(force = 8 N)

40
40
0

40

100
0

100

Soft material

100

Firm material

UC Davis Impact Firmness Sensor

Durometer measurement of
Bartlett Pears

Accelerometer

Range of constant
impacting speed

Direction of
fruit travel

100

Electromagnet

Durometer Score

90

Spring
(compressed)

80
70

linear regression using

penetrometer firmness > 10lbs:
y=0.99(x) + 70.7, R2=0.50

60

logarithmic regression using all data:

y = 14.174Ln(x) + 47.45, R2 = 0.9028

50
40

Spring
(free length)

10

15

Solenoid

20

Optical sensor
Sensor

25

Penetrometer Firmness (lbs)

Emitter

Source: Pictiaw Chen, UCD

2.5

Impact Firmness During Ripening of Mango

Impact Firmness Parameters

2

Firm
Soft

1.5

Firmness
C1 = A/t
C2 = A/t2

A
1

0.5

0
0

Time

10

Source: I. Shmulevich

Nondestructive Firmness
Low Mass Impact Method

Clingstone Peaches
Comparison of Penetrometer
Firmness vs Sinclair Firmness

Sinclair iQTM
Nondestructive firmness tester.
Gently taps the fruit and
provides a Sinclair iQ firmness
value.

Online
Model
R2 = 0.58

Bench Top model

Acoustic Firmness Parameters

Natural frequency and firmness
Firmness = f 2 m 2/3
where:
where: f - first resonant frequency
m - fruit
fruits mass.
mass.

Acoustic Firmness Measurement

Aweta/Autoline on-line acoustic firmness sensor

AFS Firmness sensor

Gently taps fruit and listens with a microphone.

Uses Fourier analysis to determine the natural frequency
of the fruit.
Firmness = f2 * m2/3

Good
2

S=

Bench top
model

f 2 m3
10000
Bad

On-line
model

Impact vs. Acoustic Firmness

Firmness sensor

Acoustic Method

Impact Method

Global
Measurement

Local spot
measurement

Resonance of
whole fruit is
measured.

Some internal
defects can be
sensed
Works better on
firm fruit

QuickTime and a
YUV420 codec decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Volatile Sensing

Elastic properties of
exterior flesh is
measured.

Cannot sense
internal defects
Works better on soft
fruit

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electronic nose

VISIBLE

32 co-polymer sensors
Classify volatiles using
artifical neural network.

MICROWAVE
INFRARED
NIR

RADIOWAVE

ULTRAVIOLET

FREQUENCY (Hz)
108

Detecting freeze
damage in oranges

1010 109

109

108

1010

107

1011

106

1012

105

1013

104

X-RAY

1014

103

1015

102

1016

10

1017

WAVELENGTH (nm)

32 co-polymer sensors

Material/Light Interactions
Light interacts with biological materials in 3 ways:
Reflectance, Transmittance, and Absorption

Human Eye
Photoreceptors on retina
Cones
3 types, red, green, blue
Photopic (day) vision
Not suited for night vision

Rods
Achromatic (black & white)
Scotopic (night) vision
100 X more sensitive than cones.

Saturated during day.

Quantifying Color

L*, a*, b* color system

CIE (Commission
International de
lEclairage)
Developed a set of
three imaginary
primaries, x, y, z.
To be used as a
reliable way to
describe the
perceived color.
Used to determine
the tristimulus values
X, Y, Z.

Cartesian coordinate
system
L* represents luminous
intensity
a* represents the red green content
b* represents the blue yellow content
Often used to describe
the color of biological
materials

L*, a*, b* Example

a* b* Chromaticity Diagram

Lemon
reflectance
1

Y 3
L* = 116 16
Yn

1
1

X 3 Y 3
a * = 500
Xn Yn

Human eye

1
1

Y 3 Z 3
b * = 200
Y Zn
n

Munsell Color System

Clingstone Peach Maturity

Developed by painter Albert

Munsell in 1915
Hue = name of color

80
80 degrees
90

(e.g., purple, green, yellow)

Dominant wavelength

Value, lightness, or
brightness

45

180

Similar to luminous intensity

Divided into 11 equal steps
(black=0, white = 10)

Value ~ (ave. reflectance)0.5

270

Chroma, purity, or saturation

Mid IR Spectroscopy
Typical Mid IR Spectrum

Mid IR Spectroscopy

All organic and inorganic molecules, except

homonuclear molecules (e.g., O2), absorb in
the infrared region.
The uniqueness of the infrared spectrum
allows the analysis of mixtures of closely
related organic compounds.

Absorbance Spectra

Typical Mid IR Pathlengths

Below is a picture of a cup of water

What color would the water appear in the infrared?

When measuring a material using Mid IR the

following sample thicknesses are typical:
Concentration (%)

Pathlength (mm)

> 10

0.05

1-10

0.10

0.1-1

0.20

< 0.1

> 0.5

Black

Mid IR Reflectance

Pathlengths in the NIR

Attenuated total reflectance (ATR)

Weaker
Absorbances in
the NIR allow
Longer
Pathlengths.
Many Biological
Materials can be
measured in
their natural
state in the NIR.

Based upon the concept of total internal

reflection.

Light penetrates a fraction of a wavelength

beyond the crystal and into the sample.
The absorbance is summed over many internal
reflections.

Transmission through
Wheat Kernels.

WHOLE
GRAIN
SAMPLE

SILICON or PbS DETECTOR

Absorbance Spectra

NIR Applications to Biological Materials

Moisture
Grains, Forages, Fruits,
Meat, Milk, Cheese,
Seeds, Soil.

Protein
Grains, Forages, Meat,
Seeds.

Soil Nitrogen
Ethanol
Beer, Wine.

Fat
Oil seeds, Milk, Meat,
Cheese, Snack Foods,
Human Triceps.

Carbohydrates
Grains, Breakfast
Cereals, Fruits.

Starch
Grains, Seeds,
Kiwifruit.

Fiber
Forages, Grains

Amino Acids
Grains

Defects
Bruising,
Contaminants.

Transmission Example
Sugar sensor

Can you transmit light through a kiwifruit?

QuickTime and a
YUV420 codec decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Yes

NIR Applications
NIR calibrations are well suited for on-line
process control applications where the
product type does not change.

18
13 PLS FACTORS, 700-1100NM

NIR PREDICTED SSC (oBRIX)

NIR CALIBRATION RESULTS FOR SOLUBLE SOLIDS

CONTENT OF INTACT PAPAYA

16

Global NIR calibrations that can be used

across multiple products are difficult to
develop due to the need to optimize
wavelength selection for specific chemical
interferences.

14
12
10
8

r2=0.84, SEC=1.1oBRIX

6
4
4

10

12

14

16

18

SSC BY REFRACTOMETER (oBRIX)

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

Hydrogen atoms
in a biological
material act like
magnetic dipoles
due to the
rotation of the
electron around
the proton.

Under
normal
conditions
the
magnetic
dipoles
point in
random
directions.

Magnetic
Dipole

Proton

Electron
S
Hydrogen

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

The material
is placed
inside a
powerful
electromagnet.
This causes
the dipoles to
align with the
magnetic
field.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

A radio frequency
(RF) pulse is then
used to knock
the atoms out of
alignment.

NMR measurement of Avocado Quality

When the RF pulse

stops, the atoms spiral
back into alignment
with the magnetic field.
The time it takes for
realignment is called
the relaxation time
(usually within
milliseconds).
The realignment
process creates its own
radio frequency signal
that is detected by the
system.

NMR - Data Analysis

NMR - Online Quality Measurement

Prototype NMR Avocado Sorter

NMR - Example Applications

Seed/pit detection
Worm damage
Bruises
Water core
Freeze damage

Magnetic Resonant Image

of Partially Frozen Orange

Healthy Tissue

Freeze Damaged Tissue

Dielectric measurements

Dielectric Moisture Meter

Behavior of non-metallic materials when

placed inside an alternating electric field.
Moisture of dates and other dry fruits or nuts.
+ Positive Charge +
-

Metal Plate

Before Energizing

+ +

+ +

+
+

+
+
Dielectric Material
+
+

Metal Plate

+ +

+ +

- Negative Charge After Energizing

+
Empty Walnut Drying Bin

Bin Sides are a Capacitor

with Walnuts as the
Dielectric Material

X-ray & Gamma-ray

Maturity of lettuce heads
Defect detection
Freeze damage in citrus online
Split pits in peach
Hollow heart in potato online
Bruises in apple

QuickTime and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Olive, showing fruit

fly entrance hole

QuickTime and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

X-ray image showing

tunnels. R. Haff

10