Modeling of Wind Farms in the Load Flow Analysis

Project report
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
Requirements for the award of the degree
of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Electrical Engineering
by
1. Rahul Syal (20108011)
2. Vivek Sisaudia (20108017)
3. Vikalp Dhiman (20102005)
4. Pranjal Mishra (20108090)
5. Prashant Srivastava(20102076)
Guided
by

Dr. Asheesh Kumar Singh

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY-ALLAHABAD

MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY
ALLAHABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
We hereby certify that the work which is being presented in this
project report Modeling of Wind Farms in the Load Flow Analysis in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Electrical Engineering and submitted in the Department of
Electrical Engineering of

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology

Allahabad is an authentic record of our own work carried out during a period
from July 2013 to May 2014 under the guidance of Dr. Asheesh K.Singh.The
matter presented in this project report has not been submitted by us for the
award of any other degree of this or any other institution.

Submitted by:
1. Rahul
Syal (20108011)
2. Vivek
Sisaudia (20108017)
3.
Vikalp Dhiman (20102005)
4.
Pranjal Mishra (20108090)
5.
Prashant Srivastava (20102076)
2

Project Guide :
Dr.
Asheesh K.Singh
Associate
Professor
Electrical Engineering Department

Acknowledgement
We would like to articulate our deep gratitude to our project guide
Dr. Asheesh K. Singh, Associate Professor,

Electrical

Engineering

Department who has always been source of motivation and firm support
for carrying out the project. We express our gratitude to Dr. Asheesh K.
Singh,

Associate

Professor,Electrical

Engineering

Department

for

his

invaluable suggestion and constant encouragement all through the thesis

work. We would also like to convey our sincerest gratitude and indebtedness
to all other faculty members
Engineering,

MNNIT,

and

Allahabad

staff

of

Department

of

Electrical

who bestowed their great effort and

guidance at appropriate times without which it would have

been very

difficult on our project work. An assemblage of this nature could never have
been attempted with our reference to and inspiration from the works of
others whose details are mentioned in references section. We acknowledge
our indebtedness to all of them.

Further, we would like to express our

feeling towards our parents and God who directly or indirectly encouraged
and motivated us during this dissertation.

Abstract
The purpose of this project is to Modeling of Wind Farms in the Load Flow
Analysis. Two methods are proposed, for the simulation of wind farms with
asynchronous generators in the load flow analysis. Both methods are based
on the steady-state model of the induction machine. The first involves
improving the conventional PQ bus, and the second involves modeling the
generators in steady-state in the bus where the wind farm is located. The
two sets of results are then compared.
When the conventional PQ bus model is used, the real and reactive powers
have constant values, although some authors propose methods for
modifying these values in order to represent loads depending either on the
voltage or on the frequency. When the PX bus model is used, the real power
is known and the reactive power is calculated as a function of the
magnetizing reactance of the generators.
Both methods suppose prior knowledge of the WT features. The turbines
power curve is generally supplied by the manufacturer. When the induction
generator parameters are not known, they must be estimated. One of the
problems that wind energy will create in electrical power systems is the
4

dependence of the injected power on the wind speed. The wind speed
cannot he predicted, but the probability of a particular wind speed occurring
can be estimated. This can be done if the probability distribution is known
by assuming it to be a Wei-bull distribution.

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Table of Content
Title
1
Certificate
2
Acknowledgement
3
Abstract
4
Certificate of Non plagiarism
5
6

Table of content
6
Chapter 1: WIND ENERGY- AN OVERVIEW
8
1.1 Wind energy in India
8
1.2 Economy of wind energy in India
9
1.3 Wind farms in India
10
Chapter 2:
TURBINES.

FUNDAMENTALS OF WIND

12

2.1 Power contained in the wind

12
2.2 Power Speed Characteristics
13
2.3 WEI-BULL Distribution
15
Chapter 3: WIND TURBINE CONTROL SYSTEMS
17
3.1 Pitch Angle Control
17
3.2 Stall Control
18
3.3 Power Electronic Control
18
3.4 Yaw Control
19
7

3.5 Control Strategy

20

Chapter 4: GRID CONNECTED AND ASYNCHRONOUS

GENERATOR

(DFIG) FOR WIND TURBINES

4.1 Model of Wind Turbine
25

4.2 Generator Model

26
4.3 Requirement of the load flow analysis
28
4.4Loadflow models considered (with flow charts)
31
4.5 AC load flows and their drawbacks
36
4.6 Genetic Algorithm Approach for Solving AC DC
Optimal Power
Flow
42
4.7

AC/DC

load

flow

43
Chapter 5: MODELS OF ASYNCHRONOUS WIND
TURBINES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
46

5.2

VARIOUS

TYPES

OF

WTGUs

50
Chapter 6: SIMULATION AND RESULT
6.1 MODELING OF THE POWER IN THE WIND POWER
SYSTEM
6.2 SIMULATION
61
6.3 RESULT
63

DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES

CHAPTER 1
WIND ENERGY- AN OVERVIEW
INTRODUCTION
The conventional energy sources are limited and pollute the environment.
So more attention and Interest have been paid to the utilization of
renewable energy source such as Wind Energy, Fuel-cell,
etc.,

Wind

Energy

is

the

fastest

growing

and

Solar

most

renewable Energy source among them as it is economically viable.

Energy

promising

1.1 WIND ENERGY IN INDIA

In 2008, India was the country that brought online the third largest amount
of wind energy, after the US and China, and it now ranks fifth in total
installed capacity with 9,645 MW of wind power installed at the end of
2008. A strong domestic manufacturing base has underpinned the growth of
the Indian wind energy market. The Indian wind turbine manufacturer
Suzlon is now a recognized player on the global market and many
international companies are established in India. India has a great untapped
potential for wind energy.

A strong domestic manufacturing base has

underpinned the growth of the Indian wind energy market. India has a great
untapped potential for wind energy.

According to official

estimates, the

Country's total wind energy resource amounts to 48 GW

of installed

capacity, but some experts think that this figure is on the conservative
side, and that technological improvements could significantly increase
this potential. The positive development of wind energy in India has mainly
been driven by progressive state level legislation, including policy measures
such as renewable portfolio standards and feed -in-tariffs. At the moment,
there is no coherent national renewable energy policy to drive

the

development of wind energy. This is urgently needed to realize the countrys

full potential and reap the benefits for both the environment and the
economy.

The

Government

of

India

is

currently

considering

the

introduction of a national renewable energy policy, so this report comes

as a timely reminder of how important a role wind energy could play in
securing Indias energy security, curbing its CO2 emissions, providing
new employment and boosting economic development. This also realizes
how important a role wind energy could play in

securing India's

energy security, curbing its CO2 emissions, providing new employment

and

boosting economic development. As can be seen by the Indian

Wind Energy Outlook, the wind industry, both domestic and international,
stands ready to do its part in achieving an energy revolution in India.

1.2 ECONOMY OF WIND ENERGY IN INDIA

10

In the early 1980s, the Indian government established the Ministry of NonConventional Energy Sources (MNES) to encourage diversification of the
country's energy supply, and satisfy the increasing energy demand of a
rapidly growing economy. In 2006, this ministry was renamed the Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy (MNRE). Renewable energy is growing rapidly
in India. With an installed capacity of 13.2 GW, renewable energy sources
(excluding large hydro) currently account for 9% of India's overall power
generation capacity. By 2012, the Government of India is planning to add an
extra 14 GW of renewable resources in its 10th Five Year Plan. The
Government of India had set itself a target of adding 3.5 GW of renewable
energy sources to the generation mix. In reality, however, nearly double
that figure was achieved. In this period, more than 5.4 GW of wind
energy was added to the generation mix, as well as 1.3 GW from other
Resources.
The Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) estimates that
there is a potential of around 90,000 MW for the country, including
48,561 MW of wind power, 14,294 MW of small hydro power and
26,367 MW of biomass In addition, the potential for solar energy is
estimated for most parts of the country at around 20 MW per square
kilometer of

open, shadow free area covered with 657 GW of installed

capacity.

1.3 WIND POTENTIAL

The total potential for wind power in India was first estimated by the Centre
for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET) at around 45 GW, and was recently
increased to 48.5 GW. This figure was also adopted by the government as
the official estimate. The C-WET study was based on a comprehensive wind
mapping exercise initiated by MNRE, which established a country-wide
network of 105O wind monitoring and wind mapping stations in 25 Indian
States. This effort made it possible to assess the national wind potential and
11

identify suitable areas for harnessing wind power for commercial use, and
216 suitable sites have been identified. However, the wind measurements
were carried out at lower hub heights and did not take into account
technological innovation and improvements and repowering of old turbines
to replace them with bigger ones at heights of 55-65 meters, to replace
them with Bigger ones. At heights of 55-65 meters, the Indian Wind Turbine
Manufacturers Isolation (IWTMA) estimates that the 12 potential for wind
development

in

India

is

around

65-70

GW.

The World Institute for

Sustainable Energy, India (WISE) considers that with larger turbines,

greater

land

availability and

expanded

resource

exploration,

the

potential could be as big as 100 GW. Wind power in India has been
concentrated in a few regions, especially the Southern state of Tamil Nadu,
which maintains its position as the state with the most wind power, with 4.1
GW installed at the end of 2008, representing 44% of Indias total wind
capacity.

1.4 WIND FARMS IN INDIA

1. MuppandalPerungudi (Tamil Nadu) With an aggregate wind power
capacity

of

450

MW,

the

MuppandalPerungudi

region

near

Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu has the distinction of having one of the

largest clusters of wind turbines. About Rs 2500 crores has been invested
in wind power in this region.
2. KavdyaDonger, Supa (Maharashtra)
A wind farm project has been developed at Kavdya Donger at Supa, off the
PuneAhmednagar highway, about 100 km from Pune. This wind farm has
57 machines of 1-MW capacity each. Annual utilization capacity of up to
22% has been reported from this site. The farm is connected through V-SAT
to project developers as well as promoters for online performance
monitoring.

12

3. Satara district (Maharashtra) Encouraging

policy

for

private

investment in wind power projects has resulted in significant wind

power development in Maharashtra, particularly in the Satara district. Wind
power capacity of about 340 MW has been established at Vankusawade,
Thosegarh, and Chalkewadi in Satara district, with an investment of about
Rs.1500 crores.

13

CHAPTER 2:
FUNDAMENTALS OF WIND TURBINES
2.1 Power in the wind.
Wind energy is not a constant source of energy. It varies continuously and
gives energy in sudden bursts. About 50% of the entire energy is given out
in just 15% of the operating time. Wind strengths vary and thus cannot
guarantee continuous power. It is best used in the context of

system

that has significant reserve capacity such as hydro, or reserve load,

such as a desalination plant, to mitigate the economic effects of resource
variability. The total capacity of wind power on this earth that can be
harnessed is about 72 TW. There are now

many

thousands

of

wind

turbines operating in various parts of the world, with utility companies

having a total capacity

of 59,322 MW. The power generation by wind

energy was about 94.1GW in 2007 which makes up nearly 1% of the total
power generated in the world. Globally, the long-term technical potential
of

wind

energy

is

believed

to

be

times

current global energy

consumption or 40 times current electricity demand. This would require

covering 12.7% of all land area with wind turbines. This land would have to
be covered with 6 large wind turbines per square kilometer. The power
extracted from the wind can be calculated by the given formula:

P 0.5 A V 3 C P
(1)

P= extracted power from the wind,

= air density, (approximately 1.225 kg/m3at 20C at sea level)
V= wind velocity (m/s) (velocity can be controlled between 3 to 30 m/s)

14

CP

=the power coefficient which is a function of both tip speed ratio, and

blade pitch angle, Power coefficient (

CP

) is defined as the ratio of the output

power produced to the power available in the wind.

Betz Limit:
No wind turbine could convert more than 59.3% of the kinetic energy
of the wind into Mechanical energy turning a rotor. This is known as
the Betz Limit, and is the theoretical Maximum coefficient of power for
any wind turbine. The maximum value of

CP

according to Betz limit is

59.3%. For good turbines it is in the range of 35-45%.

2.2. Types of Wind energy Conversion Devices.

A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the kinetic energy in
wind into mechanical energy. If the mechanical energy is then converted to
electricity, the machine is called a wind generator,

wind

turbine,

wind

power unit (WPU), wind energy converter (WEC), or aero generator.

Wind turbines can be separated into two types based by the axis in which
the turbine rotates. Turbines that rotate around a horizontal axis are more
common. Vertical-axis turbines are less frequently used.
1. Horizontal axis wind turbine
a) Dutch-type grain grinding windmills.
b) Multi-blade water-pumping windmills.
c) High speed propeller type windmills
2. Vertical axis wind turbine
a) The Savonius rotor.
b) The Darrieus rotor.

2.3 Power speed characteristics:

The wind turbine power curves shown in figure illustrate how the
mechanical power that can be extracted from the wind depends on the rotor
speed. For each wind speed there is an optimum turbine speed at which the
15

extracted wind power at the shaft reaches its maximum. Such families of
Wind turbine power curves can be represented by a single dimensionless
characteristic curve namely the

CP

- curve, as in the figure, where the

power coefficient is plotted against the TSR. For a given turbine, the power
coefficient depends not only on the TSR but also on the blade pitch angle.
Figure shows the typical variation of the power coefficient with respect to
the TSR with the blade pitch control. The mechanical power transmitted to
the shaft is

P 0.5 A V 3 C P
(2)

Where is the function of TSR and the pitch angle . For a wind turbine with
radius R, it can be expressed

R
V

(3)

The maximum value of the shaft mechanical power for any wind speed can
be expressed as

16

P 0.5 C P ( R

)3
(4)

Thus the maximum mechanical power that can be extracted from the wind
is proportional to the cube of the rotor speed.

2.4 Wei-bull DistributionWind speed keeps changing hence to define constant power there is a need
of probability speed distribution. It is done by Wei-bull or Rayleigh
Distribution.

Fig- Probability density function variation with wind speed

Due to the non-linear variation of power with steady wind speed, the mean
power obtained over time in a variable wind with a mean velocity Um is not
the same as the power obtained in a steady wind of the same speed.

17

Fig- Power output variation in steady and variable wind

Fig- Steady wind power curve and wind speed probability

density.
The final mean power at a mean wind speed Um is the steady power W(u)
multiplied by the probability density distribution P(u) and summed (i.e.

integrated) over all the range of wind speeds. Thus, the mean power
mean speed U is given by:

18

Pm

at a


P P(u ).W (u ).du
m
0

CHAPTER 3
Wind Turbine Control Systems
Wind turbines require certain control systems. Horizontal-axis turbines have
to be oriented to face the wind. In high winds, it is desirable to reduce the
drive train loads and protect the generator and the power electronic
equipment for overloading, by limiting the turbine power to the rated value
up to the furling speed. At gust speeds, the machine has to be stalled. At
low and moderate wind speeds, the aim should be to capture power as
efficiently as possible. Along with many operating characteristics, the
technical data sheet of a turbine mentions its output at a particular wind
speed.

This

produces its

is

the

minimum

wind

speed

at

which

the

turbine

designated output power. For most turbines, this speed is

normally between 9 and 16 m/s. The choice of the rated wind speed
depends on the factors related to the wind characteristics of a given site.
The generator rating is best chosen so as to best utilize the mechanical
output of the turbine at the rated wind speed. Wind turbines can have four
different types of control mechanisms, as discussed below:

3.1 Pitch Angle Control:

19

The system changes the pitch angle of the blades according to the variation
of wind speed. As discussed earlier, with pitch control, it is possible to
achieve a high efficiency by continuously aligning the blade in the direction
of the relative wind. On a pitch controlled machine, as the wind speed
exceeds its rated speed, the blades are gradually turned about the
longitudinal axis and out of the wind to increase the pitch angle. This
reduces the aerodynamic efficiency of the rotor, and the rotor output power
decreases. When the wind speed exceeds the safe limit for the system, the
pitch angle is so changed that the power output reduces to zero and the
machine shifts to the stall mode. After the gust passes, the pitch angle is
reset to the normal position and the turbine is restarted. At normal wind
speeds, the blade pitch angle should ideally settle to a value at which the
output power equals the rated power. The input variable to the pitch
controller is the error signal arising from the difference between the output
electrical power and the reference power. The pitch controller operates the
blade actuator to alter the pitch angle. During operation below the rated
speed, the control system endeavors to the pitch the blade at an angle that
maximizes the rotor efficiency. The generator must be able to absorb the
mechanical power output and deliver to the load. Hence, the generator
output power needs to be simultaneously adjusted.

3.2 Stall Control:

(a) Passive stall control:
This stall control to limit the power output at high winds is applied
to constant-pitch turbines driving induction generators connected to the
network. The rotor speed is fixed by the network, allowing only 1-4%
variation. As the wind speed increases, the angle of attack also increases for
a blade running at a near constant speed. Beyond a particular angle of
attack, the lift force decreases, causing the rotor efficiency to drop. This
lift force can be further reduced to restrict the power output at high winds

20

by properly shaping the rotor blade profile to create turbulence on the rotor
blade side not facing the wind.
(b) Active stall control:
In this method of control, at high wind speeds, the blade is rotated
by a few degrees in the direction opposite to that in a pitch controlled
machine. This increases the angle of attack, which can be controlled to keep
the output power at its rated value at all high wind speeds below the furling
speed.
A passive controlled machine shows a drop in power at high winds. The
action of active stall control is sometimes called deep stall.

Owing

to

economic reasons, active pitch control is generally used only with

high capacity machines.

3.3 Power Electronic Control:

In a system incorporating a power electronic interface between the
generator and load (or the

grid), the electrical power delivered by the

generated to the load can be dynamically controlled. The instantaneous

difference between mechanical power and electrical power changes the
rotor speed following the equation
J . d
dt

Pm Pe

(6)

Where J is the polar moment of inertia of the rotor, is the angular

speed of the rotor, is the mechanical power produced by the turbine, and
is the electrical power delivered to the load. Integrating, we the above
equation, we get:
t2

0.5 J (2 ) ( Pm Pe ).dt
2

2
1

t1

21

(7)

3.4 Yaw Control:

Turbine is continuously oriented along the direction of the wind flow. This is
achieved with a tail-vane in small turbines, using motorized control systems
activated either by fan-tail, in case of wind farms, by a centralized
instrument for the detection of the wind direction. It is also possible to
achieve yaw control without

any

additional

mechanism,

simply

by

mounting the turbine downwind so that the thrust force automatically

pushes the turbine in the direction of the wind.
Speed of the rotor can also be controlled using the yaw control mechanism.
The rotor is made to face away from the wind direction at high wind speeds,
thereby reducing the mechanical power. Yawing often produces loud noise,
and it is restriction of the yawing rate in large machines to reduce noise is
required.

3.5 Control Strategy:

Different speed control strategies are required for the five different ranges
of wind speed.
a) Power is not generated by the machine below a cut-in speed. Rotation
of the machine may start in this speed range if there is sufficient
starting torque. But no power is generated and rotor rotates freely.
b) Maximum power is extracted from the wind at normal wind
speeds. This is achieved at a particular TSR value. Hence, for tracking
maximum power point, rotational speed is changed continuously
proportional to the wind speed.
c) At high wind speeds, rotor speed is limited to a maximum value which
depends on the design of the mechanical components.

Here Cp is

lower than the maximum value. Power output is not proportional to

the cube of the wind speed.
d) At even higher wind speeds, output power is kept constant at the
maximum value allowed by the electrical components.

22

CHAPTER 4
GRID CONNECTED AND ASYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR FOR WIND TURBINES
In terms of the generators for wind-power application, there are different
concepts in use today. The major distinction among them is made between
fixed speed and variable speed wind turbine generator concepts. In the
early stage of wind power development, fixed-speed wind turbines and
induction generators were often used in wind farms. But the limitations of
23

such generators, e.g. low efficiency and poor power quality, adversely
influence

their

further

application.

With

large-scale

exploration

and

integration of wind sources, variable speed wind turbine generators, such as

doubly

fed

induction

generators

(DFIGs)

and

permanent

magnetic

synchronous generators (PMSGs) are emerging as the preferred technology.

In contrast to their fixed-speed counterparts, the variable speed generators
allow operating wind turbines at the optimum tip-speed ratio and hence at
the optimum power efficient for a wide wind speed range. As the
penetration of wind power increases, integrating large wind farms to power
grids and the relevant influences on the host grids needs to be carefully
investigated. So, accurate and reliable model of variable speed wind turbine
generators are urgently needed for power system simulation analysis. The
paper is dedicated to analyzing the complete model of a variable speed
wind

turbine

with

permanent

magnet

synchronous

generator

and

developing control schemes for the wind turbine generator. The modeled
system consists of a PMSG model, a pitch-angled controlled wind turbine
model and a drive train model.

4.1 Aerodynamic Model

The wind turbine extracts power from wind and then converters it into
mechanical power. The amount of aerodynamic torque is related to the wind
speed. The drive train of PMSG consists of five parts, namely, rotor, low
speed shaft, gearbox, high-speed shaft and generator. In the analysis, other
parts of wind turbines, e.g. tower and flap bending modes can be
reasonably neglected. When the interest of study varies the complexity of
the drive train differs. For example, when the problems such as torsional
fatigue are studied, dynamics from both sides of gearbox have to be
considered. So, two-lumped mass or more sophisticated models are
required. But when the study focuses on the interaction between wind farms
and AC grids the drive train can be treated as one-lumped mass model for
the sake of time efficiency and acceptable precision. So, the drive train
takes the form of the latter one in the paper and is displayed in figure in
which the parameters have been referred to the generator side.
24

4.2 Generator Model

Doubly fed electric machines are electric motors or electric generators that
have windings on both stationary and rotating parts, where both windings
transfer significant power between shaft and electrical system. Usually the
stator winding is directly connected to the three-phase grid and the threephase rotor winding is fed from the grid through a rotating or static
frequency converter.

Although the multiphase slip ring assembly reduces reliability and requires
regular maintenance, it allows easy control of the rotor (moving) winding set
so both multiphase winding sets actively participate in the energy
conversion process with the electronic controller controlling half (or less) of
the power capacity of the electric machine for full control of the machine.
This is especially important when operating at synchronous speed, because
then the rotor current will be DC current. Without slip rings the production of
DC current in the rotor winding is only possible when the frequency
converter is at least partly located in the rotor and rotating with it. This kind
of rotor converter naturally requires its own winding system (preferably
using high frequency in the 10 kHz range for compact size) for power
25

transfer out of or into the rotor. Furthermore, there are thermal and
mechanical constraints (for example centrifugal forces) of the power
electronic assembly in the rotor. However, high speed alternators have had
electronics incorporated on the rotor for many years. Furthermore, high
frequency wireless power transfer is used in many applications because of
improvements in efficiency and cost over low frequency alternatives.

4.3 Requirement of the load flow analysis (both AC

and AC/DC) for the power system
DC power flow is a simplification, and linearization of a full AC power flow.
DC power flow looks only at active power flows, neglecting voltage support,
reactive power management and transmission losses. Thanks to its
simplicity and linearity it is very often used for contingency analysis [5] and
techno economic studies of power systems for assessing the influence of
commercial energy exchanges on active power flows in the transmission
network. The method as such is well-known and its fundamentals have been
discussed extensively.
The classic power flow problem consists of active and reactive power flow
and can be formulated using four variables per node voltage angle,
voltage magnitude, active and reactive power injections. Active power
losses are not known in advance as they depend on the active power
injection

pattern

and

voltage

profile.

Other

variables

are

also

interdependent, making the problem non-linear. This is why it is often

linearized and the solution is obtained using successively linearized steps
iteratively. The losses are re-estimated at each iteration based on all other
variables. Modern power system analysis tools use as a basis the NewtonRaphson algorithm. Assumptions of DC power flow:

Voltage angle differences are small

Flat voltage profile
Line resistance is negligible

26

4.4 Load flow models considered

Newton Raphson Method

In numerical analysis, Newton's method (also known as the Newton
Raphson method), named after Isaac Newton and Joseph Raphson, is a
method for finding successively better approximations to the roots (or
zeroes) of a real-valued function. Limitations of Newton Raphson
Method are:

i.

Finding the f(x) i.e. the first derivative of f(x) can be difficult in cases
where f(x) is complicated.

ii.

Infinite oscillation resulting in slow convergence near local maxima or

minima. If the initial guess is far from desired root, then the method
may converge to some other root

Gauss-Seidel Method

27

In an n -bus power system, let the number of P-Q buses be np and the
number of P-V (generator) buses be ng such that n = np + ng + 1. Both
voltage magnitudes and angles of the P-Q buses and voltage angles of the
P-V buses are unknown making a total number of 2np + ng quantities to be
determined. Amongst the known quantities are 2np numbers of real and
reactive powers of the P-Q buses, 2ng numbers of real powers and voltage
magnitudes of the P-V buses and voltage magnitude and angle of the slack
bus. Therefore there are sufficient numbers of known quantities to obtain a
solution of the load flow problem.

Flow chart for Gauss Siedel Method

Fast Decoupled Method

In the operations of a power system, it is important for personnel to have a

high level of contingent information. The reason is that personnel need to
know what power-flow changes will occur due to generator outages. The
contingent information can also be used to anticipate future power
disruptions in the power network. In this case fast decoupled load flow
method is used as a common method to retrieve contingent information
conveniently.

28

Flow chart for Fast Decoupled Method

4.5 AC load flows and their drawbacks

The classic power flow problem consists of active and reactive power flow
and can be formulated using four variables per node voltage angle,
voltage magnitude, active and reactive power injections. Active power
losses are not known in advance as they depend on the active power
injection

pattern

and

voltage

profile.

Other

variables

are

also

interdependent, making the problem non-linear. This is why it is often

linearized and the solution is obtained using successively linearized steps
iteratively. The losses are re-estimated at each iteration based on all other
variables. DC power flow is a commonly used tool for contingency analysis.
Recently, due to its simplicity and robustness, it also becomes increasingly
used for the real-time dispatch and techno economic analysis of power
systems. It is a simplification of a full power flow looking only at active
power. Aspects such as voltage support and reactive power management
are possible to analyze. However, such simplifications cannot always be
29

justified

and

sometimes

lead

to

unrealistic

results.

Especially

the

implementation of power flow controlling devices is not trivial since

standard DC power flow fundamentally neglects their effects. Until recently,
this was not an issue as the application of power flow controlling devices in
the European grid was limited. Therefore, it is important to fundamentally
re-validate the fast, but less accurate, DC power flow method.

4.6 AC/DC load flow

Sequential Power Flow

Simultaneous Power Flow

The advantage of sequential load flow algorithm is the easy integration of

dc side equations into ac load flow framework without making any changes
to the existing framework. Figure shows flow chart of sequential load flow
algorithm-

It is worth mentioning that the dc network as well as the ac network power

flows has to be solved iteratively. Once the dc slack bus power injection is
updated, the ac power flow solution changes. So, apart from these internal
iterations for dc and ac power flow solutions, an external iteration loop is
required to ensure the overall convergence of the algorithm. In the initial dc
30

slack bus power is estimated as the algebraic sum of all other converters,
which can increase the total number of iterations.
In Sequential Power Flow method, both ac and dc sides are considered
together as a unified ac-dc grid for solving the power flow. Since ac and dc
equations are solved simultaneously, an external iteration loop is not
required here. However, in this algorithm, the slack station losses are
considered as a separate variable XS. Apart from ac and dc mismatch
equations, an additional mismatch equation is therefore included to account
for slack converter losses.

With sequential algorithm, power flow convergence in two external

iterations when a flat start is considered. In the first external iteration, ac
side requires five and dc side requires two internal iterations for
convergence.

31

CHAPTER 5
MODELS OF ASYNCHRONOUS WIND
TURBINES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Wind energy is one of the important renewable energy sources.

As

opposed to the currently existing carbon-based energy sources such as

coal, petroleum, and natural gas, wind energy has the advantages that it
is clean, unpolluted, inexhaustible, and free in term of its natural
existence . Current trend shows that wind energy is getting popular to
replace the traditional energy sources due to the expectable depletion
of traditional energy resource and the humankinds effort in reduction of
carbon dioxide emission but not affecting the usable energy production for
the continuous developments. Wind energy, although with the advantages
mentioned, is still developed at preliminary stage of power generation.
Generally, wind energy is converted into kinetic energy before the
Conversion to the usable electrical energy. Wind energy is converted
to low speed rotational energy via blades and through the gear box, the
rotational energy is used to drive the generator for electric power
generation. Wind energy is an abundant resource with free cost but it is
important to study the way to maximize the power generation by wind
energy. Several control methods of wind energy conversion

system

has

been proposed by researchers to maximize the wind energy harvest.

However, most of the proposed methods have rather low efficiency to
32

extract power. Besides, the extracted energy is the very unstable since the
nature of wind flow is spontaneous which this situation will lower the power
extraction and subsequently reduce the efficiency of power generation.
Wind Turbine with Variable Speed Generator The wind turbine model is used
to generate mechanical torque. The negative value of output torque means
the wind turbine is providing torque. Result shows the output torque

is

positive for wind speed smaller than 7 m/s, which represent that the
wind turbine is not providing power, but consuming power from the
load. Hence, the value of wind speed at 7 m/s could be possibly as the cutin speed of the wind turbine model and the result of output mechanical
torque. For a range of wind speed is shown in Figure, the effect of both
varying

generator

speed

and

wind

speed

on

the

output torque is

investigated in simulation and the results are shown in Figure. It can be

noticed that higher wind speed can provide larger torque and hence larger
power to the load. For instance, at 1.5 m/s, the turbine output torque by
wind speed 12 m/s is about -0.38 W, but the turbine output torque by wind
speed 18 m/s is about -1.35 W. wind turbine at higher output torque can
provide larger output power, hence improving the power efficiency of
the power generation.

5.2 Various types of WTGUs:

1 Fixed speed WTGU: This type of WTGU has a squirrel cage induction
generator which is driven by a wind turbine either having a fixed turbine
blade angle (stall regulated fixed speed WTGU) or having a pitch
controller to regulate the blade angle (pitch regulated fixed speed
WTGU). In both these types of WTGU, the induction generator is directly
connected to the grid. In the operating range the rotor speed varies
within a very small range (around 5% of the nominal value) and hence,
these are reckoned as fixed speed WTGU. Normally in these WTGU a
fixed shunt capacitor is used to provide reactive power compensation.
(a) Stall regulated fixed speed WTGU: The power output of this class
of WTGU depends on the turbine and generator characteristics, wind

33

speed, rotor speed and the terminal voltage. For a given turbine and
generator characteristics, wind speed alone is the independent
variable

while

the

rotor

speed

and

terminal

voltage

are

interdependent and vary with wind speed as well as the network

conditions. In some of the existing models for this WTGU, either the
turbine characteristics is neglected (constant mechanical input) or the
WTGU power output is considered to be independent of the terminal
voltage

variation.

The

method

suggested

here

facilitates

the

computation of the power output of the WTGU without making these

simplifying assumptions. In order to take this interdependency of rotor
speed and voltage into account, the power output is calculated
iteratively. For a given wind speed, the power output is computed for
an assumed terminal voltage. The calculation is repeated if the
computed power output results in a change in the terminal voltage.
The power output calculation requires finding the rotor speed common
to both the turbine and the generator. This rotor speed corresponds to
the intersection of the turbine and the generator characteristics. Since
the two characteristics are non-linear, an iterative method has been
developed here for computing the rotor speed.
(b)Pitch regulated fixed speed WTGU: In this class of WTGU, the
pitch angle controller regulates the wind turbine blade angle ()
according to the wind speed variations. Hence, the power output of
this class of WTGU depends on the characteristics of the pitch
controller in addition to the turbine and generator characteristics.
Since the interest here is in steady state behavior, rather than the
actual control process the effect of the control process is important.
This control guarantees that the power output of the WTGU for any
wind speed will be equal to the designed value for that speed
(irrespective of the voltage). This designed power output Pe of the
WTGU with wind speed is provided by the manufacturer in the form of
a power curve. Hence, for a given wind speed Pe can be obtained from
the power curve of the WTGU, but Qe needs to be computed. With Pe
known

and

an

assumed

voltage,
34

the

induction

generator

Pe

expression can be recast as a quadratic equation in slip (rotor speed).

This equation is solved to get the slip value. With the slip known, the
reactive power output Qe is calculated from the induction generator
equivalent circuit. Any change in voltage due to these output changes
is computed and the above process is repeated till convergence.
2. Semi variable speed WTGU: This class of WTGU consists of a pitch
controlled wind turbine and a wound rotor induction generator. The rotor
circuit of the generator is connected to an external variable resistance.
Power electronic devices are used to vary the rotor resistance.
In these WTGU, the reactive power compensation is normally provided by a
fixed shunt capacitor. There are two controllers, a pitch controller and rotor
resistance controller. These two controllers are designed to operate in a
coordinated manner. This design guarantees that the active power output is
equal to the maximum power at wind speeds below nominal and equal to
rated power above nominal wind speeds. For this class of WTGU also, the
manufacturer provides the designed real power output versus wind speed
characteristics.
3. Variable speed WTGU:

WTGU having double fed induction generator

(DFIG): The DFIG consists of a pitch controlled wind turbine and an induction
generator whose stator winding is directly connected to the grid but the
rotor circuit is connected to the grid through a back to back voltage source
converter. The voltage source converter (connected to the rotor) applies
voltage across the rotor which is regulated by two rotor current controllers .
WTGU having generator (synchronous/induction) with front end converter
(GFEC): The GFEC consists of a pitch controlled wind turbine and a variable
frequency synchronous or induction generator connected to the grid through
a power electronic converter (back to back voltage source converter). In this
case, the voltage source converter output applied to the stator is varied by
the control signals obtained from the current controllers.

PQ MODEL OF AN ASYNCHRONOUS WIND TURBINE

35

A way to model a wind farm as a PQ bus is to assume a generated real power and a
given power factor, with which the consumed reactive power is calculated. Some
improvements can be achieved if the steady-state model of the induction machine
is taken into account. The model shown in Fig is assumed. In this model, applying
the conservation of complex power theorem (Boucherots theorem) allows the
following expression to be written for the reactive power consumed by the
machine:

Fig. Reactive Power consumed variation with wind speed

The reactive power curve as a function of wind speed can be seen in Fig.

Q Q0 Q1P Q2 P 2
(8)
Where above mentioned constants are experimentally obtained. If the wind speed
is desired to be the input datum for the problem, the real power can be obtained as
a function of it:

P 0.5 A V 3 C P
(9)
All parameters have been mentioned already.

PQ MODEL OF AN ASYNCHRONOUS WIND TURBINE

The other method proposed here consists of modeling the machine as an RX

bus, following the next three steps(a) Calculate the power that each WT can extract from the wind for a given
wind speed and a given rotor speed, according to its power coefficient
curve.
(b) Calculate the power that each WT can generate, according to the results
of the load flow analysis, and to the rotor speed given in step (a).
36

Fig- Curves for the generator and turbine

(c) Compare both powers and look for the value of the slip, for which the
electrical and the mechanical powers coincide, for the wind speed
given.

CHAPTER 6
SIMULATION AND RESULTS
37

Load Flow Analysis of 33 Bus System Using Wei

bull Distribution using paper[1] & [2]
Input bus data:

Pe : Active Power in MW
Reactive Power in MVAR
|V| : Terminal Voltage in P.U.
CAS

BUS NO.

Qe :

TYPE of WTGU

Win

38

Pe(MW)

Qe(MVAR |V| (pu)

)

Spee
d
1

33

Stall

Regulated -

0.0000

0.00000

0.85082

Fixed Speed
Semi
Variable -

00
0.0000

0
0.00000

1
0.88610

18

Speed
DFIG

00
0.0000

0
0.00000

1
0.86764

00
0.0000

0
0.00000

9
0.93357

00

0.7109

0.13862

0.89428

25

33

Stall

Fixed Speed
Semi
Variable 8

65
0.3671

1
0.04773

9
0.92887

18

Speed
DFIG

9.5

90
0.5994

4
0.00000

6
0.93108

02
0.5604

0
0.00000

3
0.96240

38

25

GFEC

Regulated 11

GFEC

33

Stall

Regulated 13

0.8670

0.24059

0.91596

Fixed Speed
Semi
Variable 10

95
0.5657

2
0.09581

2
0.94773

18

Speed
DFIG

11

84
0.9084

3
0.00000

3
0.97189

25

GFEC

10.5

36
0.8519

0
0.00000

3
0.97190

65

33

Stall

Regulated 13

0.8704

0.19187

0.98510

Fixed Speed
Semi
Variable 10

71
0.5657

2
0.09754

8
0.98327

18

Speed
DFIG

11

84
0.9084

8
0.00000

6
0.99125

10.5

36
0.8519

0
0.00000

8
0.98416

65

25

GFEC

39

PERFORMING LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS ON DIFFERENT

TYPES OF WTGUs using paper [1]
ACTUAL RESULT:
CAS

BUS NO.

TYPE of WTGU

Wind

E
1

Pe(MW)

Qe(MVAR)

|V| (pu)

( Uw )
-

0.000000

0.000000

0.8784

Speed
33

Stall

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

0.000000

0.000000

86
0.9331

18

DFIG

0.000000

0.000000

39
0.8958

0.000000

78
0.9648

25

Regulated

Fixed

GFEC

0.000000

24
2

33

Stall

Regulated

Fixed

11

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

18

DFIG

25

GFEC

0.748595

0.157656

0.9199

0.394330

0.049261

91
0.9586

9.5

0.619500

0.000000

45
0.9589

0.586000

0.000000

91
0.9821
07

33

Stall

Regulated

Fixed

13

0.890600

0.270924

0.9586

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

10

0.590918

0.109595

61
0.9752

18

DFIG

11

0.929250

0.000000

78
0.9911

25

GFEC

10.5

0.879000

0.000000

95
0.9912
10

40

33

Stall

6
18
25

Regulated

Fixed

13

0.892213

0.200400

1.0150

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

10

0.590918

0.099890

36
1.0125

DFIG

11

0.929250

0.000000

25
1.0511

0.000000

19
1.0130

GFEC

10.5

0.879000

85

USING NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD:

CAS

BUS NO.

TYPE of WTGU

Pe(MW)

Qe(MVAR)

|V| (pu)

)
-

0.0000

0.0000

0.8172

Wind

Spee
d
( Uw

33

Stall

Regulated

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

0.0000

0.0000

0.8921

18

DFIG

0.0000

0.0000

0.8422

25

GFEC

0.0000

0.0000

0.9150

33

Stall

11

0.5102

0.1235

0.8876

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

0.2634

0.0374

0.9162

18

DFIG

9.5

0.4728

0.0000

0.9167

25

GFEC

0.4113

0.0000

0.9349

33

Stall

13

0.7010

0.1909

0.9089

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

10

0.5016

0.0981

0.9293

18

DFIG

11

0.7561

0.0000

0.9532

Regulated

Regulated

Fixed

Fixed

Fixed

41

25

GFEC

10.5

0.6281

0.0000

0.9976

33

Stall

13

0.7010

0.1823

0.9812

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

10

0.5016

0.0873

0.9801

18

DFIG

11

0.7561

0.0000

0.9968

25

GFEC

10.5

0.6281

0.0000

0.9902

Pe(MW)

Qe(MVAR)

|V| (pu)

( Uw )
-

0.0000

0.0000

0.8165

Regulated

Fixed

USING GAUSS SEIDEL METHOD:

CASE

BUS NO.

TYPE of WTGU

Wind
Spee
d

33

Stall

Regulated

Fixed Speed
Semi
Variable

0.0000

0.0000

0.8903

18

Speed
DFIG

0.0000

0.0000

0.8396

25

GFEC

0.0000

0.0000

0.9076

33

Stall

11

0.5063

0.1210

0.8814

Fixed Speed
Semi
Variable

0.2610

0.0319

0.9033

18

Speed
DFIG

9.5

0.4713

0.0000

0.9102

25

GFEC

0.4099

0.0000

0.9322

Regulated

42

33

Stall

Regulated

13

0.6944

0.1889

0.9018

Fixed Speed
Semi
Variable

10

0.5001

0.0941

0.9246

18

Speed
DFIG

11

0.7548

0.0000

0.9513

25

GFEC

10.5

0.6219

0.0000

0.9941

33

Stall

Regulated

13

0.6944

0.1799

0.9779

Fixed Speed
Semi
Variable

10

0.5001

0.0856

0.9734

18

Speed
DFIG

11

0.7548

0.0000

0.9912

25

GFEC

10.5

0.6219

0.0000

0.9837

USING FAST DECOUPLED METHOD:

CASE

BUS

TYPE of WTGU

NO.

Win

Pe(MW)

Qe(MVAR)

|V|

d
Spe

(pu)

ed
( U
w)
1

33
6
18
25

Stall Regulated Fixed

0.0000

0.0000

0.81

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

0.0000

0.0000

59
0.88

0.0000

96
0.83

0.0000

87
0.90

DFIG

GFEC

0.0000
0.0000

65
2

33
6

Stall Regulated Fixed

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

11
8

0.5061
0.2604

0.1204

0.88

0.0311

05
0.90
19

43

18

DFIG

9.5

0.4702

0.0000

0.90

25

GFEC

0.4089

0.0000

95
0.93
01

33
6
18
25

Stall Regulated Fixed

13

0.6928

0.1881

0.90

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

10

0.4990

0.0936

02
0.92

DFIG

11

0.7541

0.0000

27
0.94

0.0000

98
0.99

GFEC

10.5

0.6207

26
4

33

Stall Regulated Fixed

13

0.6928

0.1784

0.97

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

10

0.4990

0.0840

63
0.97

18

DFIG

11

0.7541

0.0000

18
0.99

25

GFEC

10.5

0.6207

0.0000

01
0.98

15

COMPARISION OF PERFORMANCE OF VARIABLE SPEED

WIND TURBINE AT A PARTICULAR SPEED AND USING
WEIBULL DISTRIBUTION

AT A PARTICULAR SPEED:

44

CASE

BUS NO.

TYPE of WTGU

Wind

Pe(MW)

Qe(MVAR)

Spee

|V|
(pu)

d
1

33

Stall Regulated Fixed

( Uw )
-

0.0000

0.0000

0.817

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

0.0000

0.0000

2
0.892

18

DFIG

0.0000

0.0000

1
0.842

25

GFEC

0.0000

0.0000

2
0.915
0

33

Stall Regulated Fixed

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

11
8

0.5102
0.2634

0.1235

0.887

0.0374

6
0.916

18

DFIG

9.5

0.4728

0.0000

2
0.916

25

GFEC

0.4113

0.0000

7
0.934
9

33

Stall Regulated Fixed

13

0.7010

0.1909

0.908

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

10

0.5016

0.0981

9
0.929

18

DFIG

11

0.7561

0.0000

3
0.953

0.0000

2
0.997

25

GFEC

10.5

0.6281

6
4

33

Stall Regulated Fixed

13

0.7010

0.1823

0.981

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

10

0.5016

0.0873

2
0.980

18

DFIG

11

0.7561

0.0000

1
0.996

25

GFEC

10.5

0.6281

0.0000

8
0.990
2

45

USING WEIBULL DISTRIBUTION:

CAS

BUS NO.

TYPE of WTGU

Wind

Pe(MW)

Qe(MVAR)

|V| (pu)

Speed
( Uw )

33

Stall Regulated

0.000000

0.000000

0.850821

Fixed Speed
Semi
Variable

0.000000

0.000000

0.886101

18

Speed
DFIG

0.000000

0.000000

0.867649

25

GFEC

0.000000

0.000000

0.933572

33

Stall Regulated

11

0.710965

0.138621

0.894289

Fixed Speed
Semi
Variable

0.367190

0.047734

0.928876

18

Speed
DFIG

9.5

0.599402

0.000000

0.931083

25

GFEC

0.560438

0.000000

0.962401

33

Stall Regulated

13

0.867095

0.240592

0.915962

Fixed Speed
Semi
Variable

10

0.565784

0.095813

0.947733

18

Speed
DFIG

11

0.908436

0.000000

0.971893

25

GFEC

10.5

0.851965

0.000000

0.971908

33

Stall Regulated

13

0.870471

0.191872

0.985108

Fixed Speed
Semi
Variable

10

0.565784

0.097548

0.983276

18

Speed
DFIG

11

0.908436

0.000000

0.991258

25

GFEC

10.5

0.851965

0.000000

0.984167

Performing Load Flow Analysis on all types of

WTGU Model on a different Set of Bus using paper
[1]
46

Pe : Active Power Generation

Qe : Reactive Power Generation
V : Terminal Voltage
Uw : Wind Speed
CAS

BUS

NO.

TYPE of WTGU

Wind

Pe(MW)

Speed

Qe(MVA

|V| (pu)

R)

( Uw )
1

31

Stall

9
14
22

Regulated

Fixed

0.00000

0.00000

0.850821

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

0
0.00000

0
0.00000

0.886101

DFIG

0
0.00000

0
0.00000

0.867649

0
0.00000

0
0.00000

0.933572

11

0.71096

0.13862

0.894289

GFEC

31

Stall

Regulated

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

5
0.36719

1
0.04773

0.928876

14

DFIG

9.5

0
0.59940

4
0.00000

0.931083

22

GFEC

2
0.56043

0
0.00000

0.962401

13

0.86709

0.24059

0.915962

Regulated

Fixed

31

Stall

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

10

5
0.56578

2
0.09581

0.947733

14

DFIG

11

4
0.90843

3
0.00000

0.971893

22

GFEC

10.5

6
0.85196

0
0.00000

0.971908

13

0.87047

0.19187

0.985108

Regulated

Fixed

31

Stall

Fixed

Speed
Semi Variable Speed

10

1
0.56578

2
0.09754

0.983276

14

DFIG

11

4
0.90843

8
0.00000

0.991258

22

GFEC

10.5

6
0.85196

0
0.00000

0.984167

47

Comparison of Various Wind Turbine Models using

paper [1]
Variable Speed Wind Turbines:
1. DFIG (Doubly Fed induction Generator)
Case No.

Bus No.

Wind Speed

Pe(MW)

Qe(MW)

|V| (pu)

(Uw) in m/s
1.

18
14

0.0000
0.0000

0.0000
0.0000

0.8422
0.8676

2.

18
14

9.5
9.5

0.4728
0.5994

0.0000
0.0000

0.9167
0.9310

3.

18
14

11
11

0.7561
0.9084

0.0000
0.0000

0.9532
0.9718

4.

18
14

11
11

0.7561
0.9084

0.0000
0.0000

0.9968
0.9912

Pe(MW)

Qe(MW)

|V| (pu)

2. GFEC (Generator with Front End Converter)

Case No.

Bus No.

Wind Speed
(Uw) in m/s

1.

25
22

0.0000
0.0000

0.0000
0.0000

0.9150
0.9335

2.

25
22

9
9

0.4113
0.5604

0.0000
0.0000

0.9349
0.9624

3.

25
22

10.5
10.5

0.6281
0.8519

0.0000
0.0000

0.9976
0.9719

4.

25

10.5

0.6281

0.0000

0.9902

48

22

10.5

0.8519

0.0000

0.9841

Pe(MW)

Qe(MW)

|V| (pu)

Fixed Speed Wind Turbines:

Stall Regulated Fixed Speed
Case No.

Bus No.

Wind Speed
(Uw) in m/s

1.

33
31

0.0000
0.0000

0.0000
0.0000

0.8172
0.8508

2.

33
31

11
11

0.5102
0.7109

0.1235
0.1386

0.8876
0.8942

3.

33
31

13
13

0.7010
0.8670

0.1909
0.2405

0.9089
0.9159

4.

33
31

13
13

0.7010
0.8704

0.1823
0.1918

0.9812
0.9851

Pe(MW)

Qe(MW)

|V| (pu)

Semi Variable Speed Wind Turbines:

Case No.

Bus No.

Wind Speed
(Uw) in m/s

1.

6
9

0.0000
0.0000

0.0000
0.0000

0.8921
0.8861

2.

6
9

8
8

0.2634
0.3671

0.0374
0.0477

0.9162
0.9288

3.

6
9

10
10

0.5016
0.5657

0.0981
0.0958

0.9293
0.9477

4.

6
9

10
10

0.5016
0.5657

0.0873
0.0942

0.9801
0.9832

In above tables:
Pe: Active power in MW.
Qe: Reactive Power In MW.
|V|: Bus voltage in pu.

49

Note: In all the above tables four different cases have been tabulated.
These cases are
1. WTGU operating below cut-in wind speed (which is equivalent to the
system without WTGU) and system loads corresponds to the base
load.
2. WTGU operating at low wind speeds with all the variable speed WTGU
operating with specified Q and system loads corresponds to the base
load.
3. WTGU operating at higher wind speeds than case 2 with GFEC and
DGIG operating with settable Q and system loads corresponds to the
base load.
4. WTGU operating at wind speeds corresponding to case 3 with GFEC
and DFIG operating with settable Q and system load corresponds to
30 % of the base load.
The feeder voltage is 12.66 kV (base voltage). The base case total
load is 4.715 MW and 2.3 MVAR.

AC/DC Combined Power Flow Solution using paper

[3]

Data: Under nominal condition each of G1, G2, G3, G4, G5, and G6
generates 700 MW whereas G3 left slack. The converters connected to DC
buses DC1, DC2 and DC3 control the DC power at 600 MW, 300 MW and 300
MW respectively. The converter connected to DC4 is slack converter keeps
the DC link constant at 320KV.The base power for the DC side is 600 MW
however the base MVA for the AC side is 100 MVA.

50

Note: Each generating source comprises of stall regulated wind turbines in

wind farm, where the generators are induction machine with following
parameters:
Stator resistance Rs = 0.01352 ohms
Stator reactance Xs = 0.5380 ohms
Rotor resistance Rr = 0.01290 ohms
Rotor reactance Xr = 0.21289 ohms
Magnetizing reactance Xm = 3.42979 ohms
Area swept by the blades of wind turbine is 961 meter2.
Wind speed varies from 13 m/sec to 29 m/sec.

Case 1: All Converters are in PQ model with zero reactive power injection
and with rated active power.
Sequential
Algorithm

Simultaneous
Algorithm

AC

Voltage(p

Angle(ra

Bus

.u.)

d)

1.0219

0.2918

1.0018

3
4

Pinj (p.u.)

Voltage(p

Angle(ra

Pinj

.u.)

d)

(p.u.)

7.000

1.0219

0.2918

7.000

0.1256

7.000

1.0018

0.1256

7.000

1.0219

-0.1079

7.000

1.0219

-0.1079

7.000

1.0018

-0.2785

7.051

1.0018

-0.2785

7.0509

51

0.9926

0.1828

0.9926

0.1828

0.9759

0.0086

0.9759

0.0086

0.9616

-0.1317

0.9616

-0.1317

0.9616

-0.3372

0.9616

-0.3372

0.9764

-0.5374

0.9764

-0.5374

10

0.9842

-0.3950

0.9842

-0.3950

11

1.0081

-0.2201

1.0081

-0.2201

12

0.9923

-0.3387

0.9923

-0.3387

13

0.9771

-0.5850

0.9771

-0.5850

14

1.0018

-0.2236

7.000

1.0018

-0.2236

7.000

15

1.0018

-0.4680

7.000

1.0018

-0.4680

7.000

DC

Voltage(p

Angle(ra

Pinj (p.u.)

Voltage(p

Angle(ra

Pinj

Bus

.u.)

d)

.u.)

d)

(p.u.)

0.9986

0.9986

-1.0000

0.9893

0.5000

0.9893

1.0000
0.5000

0.9953

-0.5000

0.9953

0.5000
0.9770

1.0000

0.97706

1.0000

Case 2: All the converters are in PV mode maintaining the PCC voltage to
1.0 p.u.
Sequential
Algorithm

Simultaneous
Algorithm

AC

Voltage(p

Angle(ra

Bus

.u.)

d)

1.0219

0.2743

2
3
4

1.0018
1.0219
1.0018

0.1062
-0.1074
-0.2767

Voltage(p

Angle(ra

Pinj

.u.)

d)

(p.u.)

7.000

1.0219

0.2743

7.000

7.000
7.000
7.0291

1.0018
1.0219
1.0018

0.1062
-0.1074
-0.2767

7.000
7.000
7.0295

Pinj (p.u.)

52

5
6

1.0078
0.9911

0.1623
-0.0050

0
0

1.0078
0.9911

0.1623
-0.0050

8
0
0

7
8
9
10
11

0.9926
0.9861
0.9926
0.9911
1.0078

-0.1445
-0.3403
-0.5327
-0.3928
-0.2200

0
0
0
0
0

0.9926
0.9861
0.9926
0.9911
1.0078

-0.1445
-0.3403
-0.5327
-0.3928
-0.2200

0
0
0
0
0

12
13
14
15

0.9926
0.9926
1.0018
1.0018

-0.3338
-0.5782
-0.2179
-0.4621

0
0
7.000
7.000

0.9926
0.9926
1.0018
1.0018

-0.3338
-0.5782
-0.2179
-0.4621

0
0
7.000
7.000

DC

Voltage(p

Angle(ra

Pinj (p.u.)

Voltage(p

Angle(ra

Pinj

Bus

.u.)

d)

.u.)

d)

(p.u.)

1
2
3

0.9986
0.9893
0.9953

-1.0000
0.5000
-0.5000

0.9986
0.9893
0.9953

-1.0000
0.5000
-0.5000

1.0000

0.97706

1.0000

0.9770
6

Comparison of Genetic Algorithm and Newton

Raphson Approach for Solving AC DC Optimal
Power Flow Problem
For IEEE-14 Bus System:
Bus Data:

53

Problem Statement: The problem here is to minimize the overall cost

function. The overall cost function fi(PGi) is given by:

Note: The problem was solved using two methods (Genetic Algorithm and
Newton Raphson) and there results were tabulated. A DC link is connected
between bus 1 and bus 14.The voltage values of all buses have been
bounded between 0.95 and 1.05.
Also for Genetic Algorithm:
54

Number of Iterations: 100

Number of runs: 9
For Newton Raphson:
Number of Iterations: 25
Number of runs: 1

Result:
Actual Result:

Bus

Voltage (pu)

Generator Cost ($/MWh)

No.
GAOPF

Newton
OPF
55

GAOPF

Newton
OPF

Best

Worst

1
2
3

0.98
0.99
1.01

1.02
1.00
0.97

0.99
0.98
0.97

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

0.96
0.97
0.99
1.02
0.99
0.98
0.97
1.01
0.98
1.03
0.97

0.96
0.99
0.99
0.98
1.01
0.98
0.95
1.01
0.95
0.99
1.02

0.96
0.96
1.02
0.97
1.02
0.95
0.96
0.99
1.00
0.99
0.95

Best

Worst

68.47
60.34

120.01
180.20

90.94
90.46

102.6

85.51

89.87

118.6

120.91

88.40

Obtained Result:

Bus

Voltage (pu)

Generator Cost ($/MWh)

No.
GAOPF

Newton

GAOPF

Newton

OPF

1
2
3

Best

Worst

0.976
0.989

1.013
0.998

1.005

0.967

0.987
0.974
0.968

56

OPF
Best

Worst

68.453

119.15

90.652

60.332

7
179.86

90.381

1
4
5
6

0.958
0.967
0.989

0.958
0.989
0.989

0.952
0.952
1.011

7
8

1.013
0.989

0.976
1.005

0.968
1.011

102.51

85.480

89.613

118.53

120.86

88.228

9
10
11
12
13
14

0.976
0.967
1.005
0.976
1.023
0.967

0.976
0.944
1.005
0.944
0.989
1.013

0.941
0.952
0.987
0.997
0.987
0.941

Genetic Algorithm Approach for Solving AC DC

Optimal Power Flow Problem
For IEEE-30 Bus System:
Bus Data:

57

58

Given bus data

Problem Statement: The problem here is to minimize the overall cost

function. The overall cost function fi(PGi) is given by:

59

Note: The problem was solved using two methods (Genetic Algorithm and
Newton Raphson) and there results were tabulated. A DC link is connected
between bus 1 and bus 28. The rating of converter at bus 1 and 28 is 1.00
pu. The voltage values of all buses have been bounded between 0.95 and
1.05.
Also for Genetic Algorithm:
Number of Iterations: 100
Number of runs: 14
For Newton Raphson:
Number of Iterations: 30
Number of runs: 1

Result:
60

Actual Result:
Bus

Voltage (pu)

Generator

GAOPF

($/MWh)
GAOPF

No.
Newt

Cost
Newt

on

on

OPF

OPF

Best Wor

Bes Wor

st

st

1.00

0.99

1.00

9.7

11.6

10.55

0.99

1.00

0.99

7
7.9

7
11.0

6.53

3
4
5

0.96
0.98
1.01

0.98
0.96
1.02

0.99
0.98
0.99

8.1

11.4

6
7
8

0.99
0.98
0.96

1.00
0.95
0.99

0.97
0.98
1.03

8.1

10.5

9
10
11

0.96
1.01
0.99

1.01
1.02
1.00

0.99
1.02
1.01

8.4

10.5

6.1

10.5

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

1.01
0.99
0.97
1.00
0.98
0.99
0.99
1.01
0.97
0.98
0.99
0.99
1.01
0.98
0.99

0.95
1.01
0.96
1.00
0.97
0.96
1.01
0.98
1.01
0.97
0.99
1.01
1.01
0.97
1.01

1.00
1.01
0.99
0.99
1.00
1.00
0.99
0.99
1.03
0.99
0.98
0.99
1.02
1.03
1.02
61

6.52

6.93

11.87

6.90

Bus

27
0.98
28
0.99
29
1.01
Voltage (pu)
30
0.99

No.
GAOPF

Best

0.97
1.05
0.95
0.99
0.98
1.05
Generator
0.98
1.05
($/MWh)
Newt GAOPF

Newt

on

on

OPF

OPF

Worst

Cost

Best Wor
st

0.997

0.988

0.997

9.53

11.4

10.32

0.988

0.997

0.988

7.72

2
10.7

6.29

5
3
4
5

0.959
0.976
1.005

0.976
0.959
1.014

0.988
0.976
0.988

6
7
8

0.988
0.976
0.959

0.997
0.949
0.988

0.967
0.976
1.028

9
10

0.959
1.000

1.005
1.014

0.988
1.014

11

5
0.988

0.997

1.005

7.83

11.1

6.31

9
7.79

10.3

6.74

8.22

10.3

11.69

9
12
13

1.005
0.988

0.949
1.005

0.997
1.005

14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

0.967
0.997
0.976
0.988
0.988
1.005
0.967
0.976
0.988
0.988
1.005
0.976
0.988
0.976
0.988
1.005
0.988

0.959
0.997
0.967
0.959
1.005
0.976
1.005
0.967
0.988
1.005
1.005
0.967
1.005
0.967
0.949
0.976
0.976

0.988
0.988
0.997
0.997
0.988
0.988
1.028
0.988
0.976
0.988
1.014
1.028
1.014
1.046
0.988
1.046
1.046

5.89

10.3
4

62

6.78

Obtained
Result:

Simulation of IEEE-14 and IEEE-30 Bus system

using modified Newton Raphson Method for AC/DC
Circuits.
Actual Result: (obtained using genetic algorithm)

63

1. for IEEE-14 Bus System

Bus

Voltage(p.u.)

Generator

GAOPF

($/MWh)
GAOPF

No.
Best

Worst

0.976

1.013

0.989

Cost

Best

Worst

0.998

68.453

119.157

1.005

0.967

60.332

179.861

0.958

0.958

0.967

0.989

0.989

0.989

102.514

85.480

1.013

0.976

0.989

1.005

118.538

120.864

0.976

0.976

10

0.967

0.944

11

1.005

1.005

12

0.976

0.944

13

1.023

0.989

14

0.967

1.013

For IEEE-30 Bus System

64

Bus No.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Voltage(p.u.)

Generator

GAOPF
Best

Worst

($/MWh)
GAOPF
Best
Worst

1.00
0.99
0.96
0.98
1.01
0.99
0.98
0.96
0.96
1.01
0.99
1.01
0.99
0.97
1.00
0.98
0.99
0.99
1.01
0.97
0.98
0.99
0.99
1.01
0.98
0.99
0.98
0.99
1.01
0.99

0.99
1.00
0.98
0.96
1.02
1.00
0.95
0.99
1.01
1.02
1.00
0.95
1.01
0.96
1.00
0.97
0.96
1.01
0.98
1.01
0.97
0.99
1.01
1.01
0.97
1.01
0.97
0.95
0.98
0.98

65

Cost

9.77
7.97

11.67
11.06

8.13

11.40

8.15

10.57

8.40

10.54

6.12

10.56

Obtained Result: (Using Modified Newton Raphson)

For IEEE-14 Bus System
Bus No.

Voltage(p.u.)
Advanced

Generator

Cost

($/MWh)
Newton Advanced

Newton

Raphson Method

Raphson Method

0.985

0.971

90.471

0.963

90.194

0.949

0.951

1.007

0.965

1.007

0.936

10

0.951

11

0.985

12

0.993

13

0.985

14

0.936

89.472
88.095

For IEEE-30 Bus System

Bus No.

Voltage(p.u.)
Advanced

Generator

Cost

($/MWh)
Newton Advanced Newton
66

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Raphson Method

Raphson Method

0.998
0.986
0.986
0.979
0.986
0.967
0.979
1.026
0.986
1.019
1.005
0.998
1.005
0.986
0.986
0.998
0.998
0.986
0.986
1.026
0.986
0.979
0.986
1.019
1.026
1.019
1.048
0.986
1.048
1.048

10.38
6.34

6.41

6.74

11.69
6.71

67

Discussion

1. With its abundant, inexhaustible potential, its increasingly competitive

cost, and environmental advantage, wind energy is one the best
technologies available today to provide a sustainable supply to the
world development. In depth understanding and investigation of wind
power generators, wind farm integration, grid core and etc. is very
meaningful.
2. In terms of generators for wind power application, there are different
concepts in use today. The major distinction among them is made
between fixed speed and variable speed wind turbine generator
concepts. In the early stage of the power development, fixed speed
wind turbines and induction generators were often used in wind farms.
But the limitations of such generators like low efficiency and poor
power quality adversely influences their further application. With large
scale exploration and integration of wind sources, variable speed wind
68

turbines generators, such as doubly fed induction generator (DFIG)

and permanent magnet synchronous generators are emerging as
preferred technology. In contrast to their fixed speed counterparts, the
variable speed induction generators allow operating wind turbines at
the optimum speed tip speed ratio and hence at the optimum power
efficient for a wide wind speed range.
3. As the penetration of wind power increases, integrating large wind
farms to power grids and the relevant influences on the host grids
needs to be carefully investigated. So, accurate and reliable model of
the variable speed wind turbine generators and urgently needed for
power simulation analysis. Two models were propose namely PQ and
RX model. It was found that RX model was better as it obtained a
single working point for each wind speed,. However the conventional
PQ model has its advantage of being simpler and easy to implement.
4. One of the greatest problem facing wind farms is that the electrical
power generated depends on variable characteristics of the wind. To
become competitive in liberalized market, the reliability of wind
energy must be guaranteed. Good local wind forecast are therefore
essential for accurate prediction of generation levels for each moment
of the day.
5. From above tables of individual wind turbines following can be
deduced:
a) The power output of DFIG is greater than that of GFEC for a given
wind speed.
b) GFEC has better voltage profile than that DFIG for wind speed up to
cut off speed. In fact DFIG has best voltage profile amongst all
generator models.
c) Voltage profile of Variable Speed Wind Turbine is far better as
compared to Semi Variable and Fixed Speed Turbines.
d) At speed considerably below cut off speed the output of fixed
speed Wind Turbine is greatest.
e) Semi Variable Wind Turbines are used to employ benefits of both
Fixed and Variable speed Generators. Although their performance is

69

inferior than that of Fixed Speed at low wind speed and Variable
Speed at higher wind speeds.
f) The major advantage of Variable Speed Wind Turbines is that

reactive power compensation can be employed.

Conclusion
1. This study brings out some interesting features about the WTGU
performance and their impact when used as DG sources. The real
power output of all the types of WTGU (considered here) at any
given wind speed does not change perceptibly even with
significant changes in terminal voltage.
2. The Q demand of the fixed and semi-variable speed WTGU is
sensitive to terminal voltage variations. However, in the case of
variable speed WTGU the terminal voltage variation (normal
range) has no impact on their Q demand.
3. From load flow analysis of different wind turbines models using
different methods it was concluded that Newton Raphson method
was best for performing load flow analysis as it is more accurate.
4. It was also found that load flow results obtained using Weibull
distribution were far accurate than those obtained at particular
speed.
70

5. After plotting load flow results of different wind turbines on two

sets of bus it was found that choice for a given wind turbine really
exists between DFIG and GFEC.
6. However DFIG has greater power output as compared to its counterpart
it is the most preferable choice. Also GFEC is more expensive because of
power electronics associated with it.

7. From the results one could conclude that result obtained by GAOPF
best solution has shown improvement as compared to Newton OPF
solution. Also the overall cost of generation obtained by GAOPF
best solution is less.
8. But GAOPF required 100 iterations and 9 runs compared to 20
iterations and 1 run required by Newton OPF method. Thus Newton
OPF method is faster as compared to GAOPF method.
9. From the results one could conclude that result obtained by GAOPF
best solution has shown improvement as compared to Newton OPF
solution. Also the overall cost of generation obtained by GAOPF
best solution is less.
10. But GAOPF required 100 iterations and 14 runs compared to 30
iterations and 1 run required by Newton OPF method. Thus Newton
OPF method is faster as compared to GAOPF method.

References
[1]K.C. Divya, P.S. Nagendra Rao Models for wind turbine
generating systems and their application in load flow studies,
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560012, India.
[2]Heras,Escriva,Ortega Wind farm electrical power production
model for load flow analysis.
[3]Nakul Narayanan K & Pinaki Mitra A comparative study of
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