Fast Track
Fast Track
Table of Content
Refractory Handouts (Reference)
1. Refractory Description...........................................
2. Refractory Classification........................................
17
21
5. Monolithics............................................................
26
40
7. Refractory Management........................................
68
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SECTION 1
REFRACTORIES DESCRIPTION
1.1
Manufacturing Processes
1.2
Manufacturing Variations
Fast Track
1.1
Manufacturing Processes
Crushing
Grinding
Screening
Batching
Mixing
Forming step(s)
Packaging
Heating step(s)
Palletizing
Semi-finishing step(s)
Shipping
Finishing step(s)
Palletizing
Shipping
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1.2
Manufacturing Variations
Coarse crushers:
jam;
gyratory and cone;
dry pan;
roll crusher;
hammer mill.
Intermediate pulverizers:
cage disintegrator;
hammer mill;
disk mill;
autogenous mill.
Stationary screens:
grizzly
Dynamic screens:
inclined vibrating;
horizontal vibrating;
oscillating;
reciprocating;
sifter;
centrifugal.
Fast Track
1.2
Batching:
Mixing:
Ribbon
Muller
Rotating screw
Drum-type blender
Double-cone blender
Twin-shell blender
Sigma blade
Planetary
Plow
High-intensity
Forming:
Hand-molding
Air-ramming
Casting
Palletizing
Heating:
Drying
Curing
Tempering
Baking
Firing or sintering
Fusion
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1.2
Semi-finishing or finishing:
Impregnating
Grinding
Drilling
Plating
Banding
Coating
Glazing
Sizing
Insulating
Packing:
Carton
Supersack
Drum
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SECTION 2
REFRACTORIES CLASSIFICATION
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.1
Fast Track
1-
Product type
2-
Chemical composition
3-
Classification temperature
4-
5-
6-
Nature of bond
7-
8-
Bulk density
9-
Shot content
10- Strength
11- Installation method
2.2
Fast Track
Category
1
Insulating
products
Code
Clause 5.1
Product type
combined with
chemical
composition
SIN
SIN
Table 2
Clause 5.2
Chemical
composition
Clause 5.3
Classification
temperature
Clause 5.9
Shot content
Clause 5.10
Strength
Clause 5.11
Installation
6
Basic products
containing less
than 7% carbon
SM
SMM98C07
7
Basic products
containing more
than 7% carbon
SM
SMM98C10
to
to
SMS40C07
SMS30C30
Table 3
Included in the
above
Table 4
Included in the
above
Table 5
Included in the
above
/075/ to /180/
Clause 5.3
Clause 5.4
Principal raw
material
Clause 5.5
State of raw
material
Clause 5.6
Nature of bond
Clause 5.7
Post treatment
of product
Clause 5.8
Bulk density
3
Alumina, silica
and aluminosilicate products
S
SHA98, SHA87,
SHA68, SHA56,
SHA45, SFC40,
SFC35, SFC30,
SLA10, SSS85,
SSL93
Ceramic fiber
products
9
Blankets, mats,
felts and paper
C
CBV, CBC,
CMV, CMC,
CFV, CFC,
CPV, CPC
11
Basic products
Included in the
above
Included in the
above
/075/ to /180
plus E when
needed
Clause 5.3
/075/ to /180
UM
Table 6
X01 to X06
Table 6
/075/ to /180
Clause 5.3
Clause 5.3
M0 to M7
550 to 1600
plus L when
needed
Table 15
Table 11
R4 to R7
R3 to R7
R4 to R4, R6, R7
Table 12
B1 to B3
Table 12
B1 to B4
Table 12
B3, B4
Table 13
Table 13
T1 to T4
Table 13
T1 to T4
Table 14
Table 14
048, 064, 96,
128, 160, 192
Clause 5.8
S0 to S4
Table 17
Table 16
C, H, CH, S
Tables 18 and 19
DVP,
DPX, DPY, DPZ,
LVP,
LPX, LPY, LPZ,
MVP,
MPX, MPY, MPZ,
RVP,
RPX, RPY, RPZ,
Table 21
C
Table 20
DVP,DDV,
DPX, DPY, DPZ,
LPX, LPV, LPZ,
MPX, MPY, MPZ,
RVP,RDV,
RPX, RPY, RPZ,
GPX, GPY, GPZ
Table 21
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Shaped
refractory
products
Category
Product type
No subdivision
High alumina
Fireclay
Low
alumina
fireclay
Siliceous
Silica
Magnesia
Magnesia-alumina
Magnesia-chrome
Chrome-magnesia
Magnesia-doloma
Doloma
Forsterite
Blanket vitreous
Blanket crystalline
Mat vitreous
Mat crystalline
Felt vitreous
Felt crystalline
Paper vitreous
Paper crystalline
Alumina, silicate and
alumino-silicate
1
Insulating
products
3
Alumina, silica
and aluminosilicate
products
6
Basic
products
containing
less than 7%
carbon
7
Basic products
containing
more than 7%
carbon
Ceramic fiber
products
Unshaped
refractory
products
9
Blankets,
mats,
felts
and paper
10
Alumina,
silica
and
aluminosilicate
products
11
Basic
products
Code
SIN
SHA
SFC
SLA
SSS
SSL
SMM
SMA
SMK
SMK
SMD
SMD
SMS
SMM
UMM
UMA
UMK
UMK
UMD
UMD
UMS
SMD
SMD
CBV
CBC
CMV
CMC
CFV
CFC
CPV
CPC
UAS
2.3
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Magnesia-alumina
Magnesia-chrome
Chrome-magnesia
Magnesia-doloma
Doloma
Forsterite
Description
Magnesiacarbon
Magnesia-
Code
SMM98C07
95, <98
SMM95C07
90, <95
SMM90C07
85, <90
SMM85C07
80, <85
SMA80C07
70, <80
SMA70C07
60, <70
SMA60C07
50, <60
SMA50C07
40, <50
SMA40C07
30, <40
SMA30C07
80, <85
SMK80C07
70, <80
SMK70C07
60, <70
SMK60C07
50, <60
SMK50C07
40, <50
SMK40C07
30, <40
SMK30C07
80, <85
SMD80C07
70, <80
SMD70C07
60, <70
SMD60C07
50, <60
SMD50C07
40, <50
SMD40C07
30, <40
SMD30C07
50, <60
SMS50C07
40, <50
SMS40C07
Range of MgO
content in the
oxide
raw material
(%)
98
Code, the last two digits showing the upper % limit of residual carbon content
7, <10
10, <15
15, <20
20, <25
25, <30
SMM98C10
SMM98C15
SMM98C20
SMM98C25
SMM98C30
95, <98
SMM95C10
SMM95C15
SMM95C20
SMM95C25
SMM95C30
90, <95
SMM90C10
SMM90C15
SMM90C20
SMM90C25
SMM90C30
85, <90
SMM85C10
SMM85C15
SMM85C20
SMM85C25
SMM85C30
80, <85
SMD80C10
SMD80C15
SMD80C20
SMD80C25
SMD80C30
doloma-
70, <80
SMD70C10
SMD70C15
SMD70C20
SMD70C25
SMD70C30
carbon
60, <70
SMD60C10
SMD60C15
SMD60C20
SMD60C25
SMD60C30
50, <60
SMD50C10
SMD50C15
SMD50C20
SMD50C25
SMD50C30
Doloma-
40, <50
SMD40C10
SMD40C15
SMD40C20
SMD40C25
SMD40C30
carbon
30, <40
SMD30C10
SMD30C15
SMD30C20
SMD30C25
SMD30C30
10
2.4
Fast Track
Description
Range of Al2O3
content
95
UAS95F05
UAS95F15
UAS95F30
alumino-silicate
85, < 95
UAS85F05
UAS85F15
UAS85F30
75, < 85
UAS75F05
UAS75F15
UAS75F30
65, < 75
UAS65F05
UAS65F15
UAS65F30
55, < 65
UAS55F05
UAS55F15
UAS55F30
45, < 55
UAS45F05
UAS45F15
UAS45F30
35, < 45
UAS35F05
UAS35F15
UAS35F30
25, < 35
UAS25F05
UAS25F15
UAS25F30
15, < 25
UAS15F05
UAS15F15
UAS15F30
5, < 15
<5
UAS05F05
UAS05F15
UAS05F30
UAS00F05
UAS00F15
UAS00F30
Description
Magnesia
Magnesia-alumina
Magnesia-chrome
Chrome-magnesia
Magnesia-doloma
Doloma
Forsterite
Code, the last two digits show the lower % limit of iron oxide x
10
> 3.0
1.5
> 1.5, 3.0
Code
UMM98
95, <98
UMM95
90, <95
UMM90
85, <90
UMM85
80, <85
UMA80
70, <80
UMA70
60, <70
UMA60
50, <60
UMA50
40, <50
UMA40
30, <40
UMA30
80, <85
UMK80
70, <80
UMK70
60, <70
UMK60
50, <60
UMK50
40, <50
UMK40
30, <40
UMK30
80, <85
UMD80
70, <80
UMD70
60, <70
UMD60
50, <60
UMD50
40, <50
UMD40
30, <40
UMD30
50, <60
UMS50
40, <50
UMS40
11
2.5
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Installation technique
Dense castable
Vibration poker
Dry vibration
Pneumatic projection
Insulating castable
Pneumatic projection
Mouldable
Pneumatic projection
Ramming mix
Vibration poker
Dry vibration
Pneumatic projection
Gunning material
Pneumatic projection
Gunning installation
temperature
None stated
Ambient
Elevated
Ambient and elevated
None stated
Ambient
Elevated
Ambient and elevated
None stated
Ambient
Elevated
Ambient and elevated
None stated
Ambient
Elevated
Ambient and elevated
None stated
Ambient
Elevated
Ambient and elevated
Code
DVP
DDV
DP
DPX
DPY
DPZ
LP
LPX
LPY
LPZ
MP
MPX
MPY
MPZ
RVP
RDV
RP
RPX
RPY
RPZ
GP
GPX
GPY
GPZ
12
2.6
Fast Track
Introduction
For refractory materials, the cement industry applies the term bond to the cohesion occurring in
the natural state because it is of primary interest in subsequent processes. Depending on the firing
temperature, the natural bond will be replaced by a ceramic bond.
If the transition to a ceramic bond occurs without significant loss of strength, the bond is
considered to be permanent (example: phosphate bond). In contrast, a pronounced loss of
strength prior to ceramic bonding is called discontinuous bonding (example: sulphate bonded
magnesia bricks). The minimum strength remaining in the intermediate temperature zone may
drop to 10-20% of the initial strength.
Bonding Agent
Ceramic Bond
Eutectic melts,
Sintering
Hydraulic bond
High-alumina cement,
Calcium aluminates
Chemical bond
Phosphates, Sulphates
Chlorides, Chromates
Organic bond
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Refractory Bonding Systems in Brick (B), Mortar (M), Plastics (P), Castables (C)
Class
Air-set
Air / Heat
Heat / Ceramic
Type
Temp. of Set
Usage
Silicate
R.T.
M, (P), (B)
Cement
R.T. / 600C
C, (B)
Phosphates (basic)
R.T.
Alum
(R.T.) 500C
M, P. (B)
Phosphoric (acid)
> 400 C
M, P
Sulphates
> 800 C
B, M
> 1000 C
B, M, P
Combination of above
14
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Manufacture and
delivery to end users
Manufacturing
characteristics and physicalchemical state
Refractory products
Unfired refractories
Phosphate
bonded bricks and
mixtures, sulfate bonded magnesite
bricks, mixtures, mortars, water-glass
bonded mixtures, mortars
Hydraulically bonded bricks, mixtures,
mortars
Tar bonded magnesite and dolomite
bricks plastic mixtures with and
without chemical pre-binders
Stabilized refractories
Fired refractories
15
Fast Track
Bonding agent
Bonding clays
Bonding process
Drying (clay-water
systems)
Viscosity increase
Formation of hydrate and
gel
Formation of gel and
hydrate carbonation
Carbonation
Magnesium oxides
Linseed oil
Polyester resins
High-alumina cement
(Alumina bonding)
Carbonation
Oxidation
Polymerization
Formation of hydrate
hydrate gel
Pitch, tar
Sorel cement
Silicate of sodium
- Artificial
Hydraulic setting
Heat setting
Acidic phosphates
(reactive bond)
(phosphate bond)
(stabilized bond)
Firing
Eutectic bond (melts)
- Liquid sintering (ceramic bond)
(conventional bond)
Primary bond (spinel)
- Dry sintering
Condensation
(Chained and interlaced
phosphates)
Polymerization
Bonding during liquid
phase
fritting
Primary bond sintering
Refractories
Plastic building materials
ramming, mixes, mortars
Dolomites
Unfired magnesite bricks
Mortars, ramming mixes
Mortars
Refractory building boards,
mortars
Mortars
Unfired bricks and finished
pieces ramming casting and
spraying mixtures
Unfired bricks, ramming
mixes (especially fire clay
and high alumina products)
All ceramically bonded
(mixtures and mortars), basic
products and special product
Spinel forming induction
Furnace mixtures
(periclase spinel)
(polymer bond)
(active oxide)
16
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SECTION 3
REFRACTORIES PROPERTIES
3.1
Properties of Refractories
17
3.1
Fast Track
Properties of Refractories
The significant of any refractory - including its high temperature strength - depend on its mineral
makeup and the way these minerals react to high temperatures and furnace environments.
Unfired or green refractories consist of a mixture of refractory particles varying from coarse to
extremely fine sizes. Coarser particles may be 1/4 inch in diameter, and the fines may pass a 200mesh screen.
After the refractory has been fired, the fines form the ceramic bond between larger particles. The
fired refractory consists of bonded crystalline mineral particles and glass or smaller crystalline
particles, depending largely on the composition of the refractories.
Most refractories contain a small amount of accessory oxides such as soda, lime, potash and iron
oxide. These impurities promote formation of low-melting glasses, and so for many years
considerable research has gone into elimination or control of these accessory oxides in
refractories.
The physical properties of refractories most readily determined are bulk density, porosity and
strength at room temperature.
Bulk density, usually expressed as pounds per cubic foot or grams per cubic centimeter, is an
indirect measure of any refractorys capacity to store heat. Technically, it is the ratio of weight or
mass to volume.
The porosity of a refractory indicates its ability to resist penetration by slags and fluxes and
permeation by gases as well as influencing its thermal conductivity. Insulating refractories are
lightweights with a porous structure.
The cold crushing strength of refractories indicates ability to withstand handling and shipping
without damage and impact or abrasion in low temperature operations. However, it provides little
or no indication of their strength at furnace operating temperatures.
The most significant properties of refractories are those which enable them to stand up under
conditions found in an operating furnace. Refractories must withstand the maximum service
temperature of the furnace. In most applications the reheat, load and hot modulus tests, should
play an important part in the choice of refractories for high temperature applications. These tests
indicate the strength of refractories in service conditions.
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Refractories must often resist spalling effects of rapid temperature changes. They may be called
on to resist heavy loads, abrasion and impact, or the corrosion and erosion caused by liquids and
gases. In general, the refractories that are strongest at operating temperatures show the best
resistance to impact and abrasion.
The standard ASTM Reheat Test, method C113, tests brick for changes in dimensions. In this
test, the bricks are placed in a furnace and gradually heated to a predetermined temperature,
depending on their composition. The test temperature is held five hours and the bricks are cooled.
Then they are measured to determine changes in linear dimensions and volume.
The Load Test, a standard laboratory procedure, measures the ability of a brick to carry a load at
high temperatures, the temperature depending on the quality of the brick. In this test, two 9-inch
straight are set on end in a furnace and a vertical load of 25 pounds per square inch in applied.
Under ASTM Method C16, the temperature is gradually raised and held on a prescribed schedule.
The load test is an accelerated test. In service loads are usually less than 25 psi.
In the Hot Modulus of Rupture Test, refractory samples are brought up to temperature in a testing
furnace. They are placed in the testing machine, supported at both ends across a 7-inch span and
broken in the middle (ASTM C583-76). The machine measures the forace in pounds required to
break the specimen.
Thermal spalling is caused by stresses developed by unequal rates of contraction or expansion in
different parts of the refractory, usually associated with rapid changes in temperature. The brick
with greatest resistance to thermal spalling have the lowest average thermal expansion and do not
expand sharply within any narrow temperature range.
The Panel Spalling Test, applicable to fireclay, some high-alumina and some basic brick, is
designed to measure comparative resistance to thermal spalling. ASTM Method C38 calls for 14
brick laid in a movable panel to form a section about 18 inches square. One side of the panel is
backed by insulation; the other, subjected to heat. After a 24-hour preheat, the panel goes
through a thermal shock treatment, alternately heated and cooled according to a specified pattern.
Results are reported in terms of average percentage loss in weight.
In most furnaces, chemical reaction contributes to the ultimate destruction of refractory linings.
Refractory materials can react with the furnace charge, with slags or other furnace products, with
fuel ash, fumes or dust and in some cases with other refractories. Absorption of liquids or
penetration by gases or fumes into the refractories can change the size and orientation of crystals,
form new minerals or glass and thus alter the physical and chemical characteristics of the
refractories.
Erosion, washing away grains of refractory after the bond has been destroyed, in a physical
process. Corrosion is the chemical process that destroys the bond.
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Dense refractories, low in apparent porosity, generally can be expected to demonstrate greater
resistance to corrosion and erosion. It is a natural assumption and generally true that basic
refractories should be used where basic fluxes come into contact with the furnace lining, and acid
refractories with acid processes. However, there are some exceptions to this general principle due
to differences in operating and reaction temperatures, reaction rates, viscosities of reaction
products and the formation of protective coatings on linings.
Chemical composition represents a guide to the ingredients of the mix. In the fireclay and highalumina refractories, the alumina-silica ratio roughly indicates the refractoriness of the
composition - the higher the alumina content, the greater the refractoriness. Accessory oxides
also play a part in the quality of the refractory. Lime may be present as a result of the binder in
monolithic refractories.
Iron oxide becomes important in refractory compositions when the process carried out in the
refractory-lined vessel involves a reducing atmosphere. At certain temperatures, carbon monoxide
can react with iron oxide in a refractory causing deposition of carbon within the lining. If the
reaction continues, it will crack the lining. A hydrogen atmosphere will reduce iron oxide,
sometimes producing volatile compounds that can be harmful to a process.
The Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE) provides a standard for evaluating the high temperature
softening behavior of some fireclay refractories.
In this test, a ground sample of the material is molded into test cones and mounted on a ceramic
plaque with a series of standard pyrometric cones. The plaque is heated at a specific rate until the
test cone softens and bends. The number of the standard cone whose tip touches the plaque at the
same time as the tip of the test cone is reported as the PCE value of the test cone.
PCE does not indicate a definite melting or fusion point, but simply offers a comparison of
thermal behavior in terms of standard cones. It is, however, widely used for quality control tests
on fireclay products during mining and manufacturing.
20
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SECTION 4
BRICKS SELECTION
4.1
Refractories Selection
4.2
Selection Criteria
4.3
21
Fast Track
Materials
Many suppliers
Subtile and non-subtile differences
Installation Methods
Know-how with bricks
Different with monolithics
Operating Conditions
IPC Concept
(More in Section 7)
22
Fast Track
A First Example
First Step, zoning, and installation methods (KIV)
Second Step, definition of the constraints
Causes and effects
Thermal-mechanical-chemical
Stresses due to causing such phenomena
23
Fast Track
Chemical factors
use of fuel rich in sulphur and chlorine
use of high-ash coal
frequent change of fuel
disturbance of the SO3 / (K2O + Na2O) - equilibrium
high concentration of chlorides (KCI!) in kiln atmosphere (raw meal)
sulphatizing and/or addition of fluorspar
variations in cement raw material
grain size of SiO2 - component
change between reducing and oxidizing atmosphere
Mechanical factors
deformation of kilns hell
ovality, kiln rotation (rpm)
axial distortion
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Fast Track
4.3 Guidelines
Coating formation
With coating
No coating
Temperature too
Unstable
Stable
Low
high (seldom)
Chemical stresses
- clinker melts
- alkali salt components
- reduction (redox)
Thermal stresses
- heat load (overheating)
- thermal shocks
- thermal fatigue
Mechanical stresses
- squeezing
- erosion
Key:
= very high,
= high,
= medium,
= very low,
Normal cases
- transition zone
- sintering zone
= absent
Special case
- discharge zone
Occurrence:
= low,
= often
= rare
= not present
25
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SECTION 5
MONOLITHICS
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
26
5.1
Fast Track
Preheater
27
Fast Track
5.1.2Insulation
Althoughthetotalheatlossbyradiationinthepreheaterislessthan2%ofthetotalheatinput,
mostpreheatervesselsandductsareinsulatedtoprotectthesteelshell.
Theuseofrefractoryfiberboardsinthehottersectionsofthepreheatermayinducepremature
liningfailureifthefiberfailsbehindthedenselining.Fiberboardscontainacertainamountof
organicmatterthat,whenexposedtomoderatetemperatures,burnsoutwithemissionoffumes.
Thedamagedproductlacksbothmechanicalstrengthandinsulatingproperties,andexposesboth
thesteelshellandtheanchorstemtohighertemperatures.Theresultingrelativemovements
damagetheanchoringsystemandinducecracksonthedenselining.
Toavoidproblemslikethis,choseaninsulatingmaterialwiththeminimumamountoflosson
ignitionsuchascalciumsilicate,diatomaceousearthorvermiculiteboards,orinsulating
castablesthatcanbecast,gunned,sprayedorpumpedinplace.
5.1.3LiningThickness
Theidealliningthicknessforanyareaofthepreheateristheminimumthicknessrequiredto
attainthespecifiedshelltemperature.
Iftheliningistoothin,theshellandtheanchoringsystemareexposedtotemperaturesthat
acceleratemetalcorrosion,scalingandfatigue.Oncetheanchorisburnedoutthelining
collapses.Alsotheinsulatinglayermayfailatitsinterfacewiththedensematerial,creating
gapswheredustwillaccumulateandcompromisetheliningintegrity.
Iftheliningistoothick,highthermalgradientsdevelopwithinthedenselining,causingitto
crackorspalloff.Iftheinsulationistoothick,thedenseliningoperatesathigherthannormal
temperatureandresultsdestroyedbychemicalattackormelting.Thisisparticularlytrueforthe
flashcalcinerequippedwithsolidfuelburners.Overinsulatingalsobringsuptheinterface
temperaturebetweenthetwolayers,withconsequentdamagetotheanchorsandtotheinsulating
material.
Foranytypeofpreheaterorprecalciner,werecommendamaximumof5inchesofdense
castableorbrick,ontopof4inchesmaximumofinsulatingboard,castableorbrick.Ifthe
combinedliningmustbemorethan9in.thick,thenuseathickerlayerofalessinsulating
28
Fast Track
material,andkeepthedenselayerconstant.Agoodreasonforoursuccessinseveral
installationsisexactlythestrictobservanceofthisrule.
29
Fast Track
5.1.4DustInfiltration
Thisisoneofthemostcommonfailuremodesinpreheaterapplications:redhotkilndust
infiltratesbehindthedensecastableorbrickandcauseoneorseveralofthefollowingdamages:
anchorshearingorbreaking
insulationsinteringandshrinking
liningpushinginfrombehind
Inallthreecasestheliningintheaffectedareacollapsesinashorttime.Sincekilndustparticles
areinaveragesmallerthan48microns,theybehavelikeafluidandfindtheirwaythroughany
openjoint,crackorholeinthelining.Incaseswheretheinsulationshrinks,dustdepositsbuild
upbetweentheshellandthelining,orbetweentheinsulatingliningandthedenselining,
creatingatremendousheadpressurethat,insomeinstances,pullstheanchorawayfromthe
shell.
Thebestremedyinthistypeoffailureistoairtightensealtheentireliningatjunctions,corners,
ceilingsandexpansionjoints.Metaltrayssupportedbycantileversordusttrapsmustbeusedat
thebeginningandattheendofeachsection.Ifbrickisused,theentireliningmustbeinstalled
withagoodqualitymortar,andbrickanchoringmustbeusedtobondtheliningfromtimeto
time.Specialattentionmustbegiventoinspectiondoorsandpeepholes.Theflanksofthe
insulatinglayercannotbeexposedinthoseareas.Instead,usethedensematerialarounddoors
andholes.
5.1.5SulphurAttack
Sulphurpenetratestheliningandreactswiththecalciumaluminatephasesaccordingto:
inoperation:
SO3+2(CaO.Al2O3)
CaO.2Al2O3+CaSO4
SO3+CaO.Al2O3
2Al2O3+CaSO4
CaSO4.xH2O
duringshutdown: CaSO4+xH2O
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Theformationofanhydriteandgypsumweakenstheliningandincreasesitstendencytopromote
andstabilizepreheaterbuildups.
In order to minimize sulphur attack, choose castables with a minimum amount of calcium
aluminate cement (check the CaO content) and increase the lining density. If possible, balance the
sulphur to alkali ratio in the system to decrease the amount of free SOx.
On new linings, apply a protective ceramic coating to seal the open pores and prevent sulphur
penetration.
3K2O.Al2O3.2SiO3+2Al2O3
KCl,NaCl+11Al2O3+1/2O2
(Na,K)2Al22O34+Cl2
During kiln shutdown, the products of reaction undergo a 30% volume expansion inside the
castable, causing an alkali bursting and lining destruction. In the second reaction above, the
product of reaction is a powerful flux that softens the castable in service.
This problem can be minimized using bauxite-based castables, as opposed to mullite-based or
corundum-based materials. Although bauxite also reacts with potassium, the volume expansion is
not as severe as with mullite. Another measure to minimize the problem is to reduce the alumina
content in the product, if the service temperature allows.
Other ways to minimize potassium attack is to decrease the amount of back up insulation and to
seal the finished lining with an alkali-resistant ceramic coating.
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released during fuel combustion. If this problem cannot be solved by the fuel supplier or by the
kiln operator, then serious consideration should be given to a more refractor, magnesia-spinel
lining.
In some other cases the thermal load is normal but buildups formed in the riser or inside the flashfurnace direct the hot gases to the wall and destroy it in a short time. The solution is to replace
the lining with an anti-buildup silicon carbide-alumina castable.
5.2 Kiln
5.2.1 Material Selection
Inside the rotary kiln, three types of monolithic products are used, according to the installation
method: castables, pumpables and plastics. Gunning materials are not recommended inside a kiln
because of their naturally higher porosity and lower strength at kiln temperatures.
Pumpables and self-leveling castables should be limited to the chain section where temperatures
are moderate and the casting volumes are large. When pumping material into the chain section,
especial care must be used in metering the amount of water. Too much water will render the
lining abrasion-sensitive in a zone where abrasion resistance must be maximized.
Plastic refractories have a temperature limitation, caused by the phosphate binder, and require
permanent forming if the kiln is to be turned before heat is applied to the lining. Plastic materials
are mainly used in nose-ring applications, around ceramic anchors.
For other areas of the kiln, low-cement castables roto-cast in place is the best alternative. Usually
a 60% alumina is more than sufficient for the inlet cone, and retaining rings in the calcining zone.
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For the nose-ring, a more refractory, higher alumina product can be used, provided there is no
severe alkali attack in the area. In planetary cooler kilns, a 95% corundum low-cement castable is
recommended around the satellite inlets.
No monolithic product should be used at or in the burning zone because of the limited hotstrength of castables and plastics, and the impossibility to properly anchor the product in place.
5.2.2 Insulation
Back up insulation is not recommended under monolithic products in the kiln. The insulation
lacks compressive strength and could collapse under the dense lining causing its failure.
Moreover, it has a tendency to overheat and destroy the anchoring system. In rotary driers,
roasters and lower temperature kilns, however, back up insulation can be safely used provided the
product modulus of rupture is above 250 p.s.i.
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5.3.2 Insulation
Since the main purpose of the lining here is to reduce heat transfer to the metal pipe, a low kfactor material is a must. Another option is to wrap the metal pipe with insulating felt, to a final
thickness of 1/2 in., and fill the balance with the dense castable.
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5.4 Hood
5.4.1 Material Selection
For lining purposes the kiln hood must be divided in at least two areas: the upper half, towards
the burner pipe, and the lower half towards the cooler. The upper half side walls and ceiling work
under high temperature and high heat radiation. It is often subject to thermal spalling during
clinker and coating avalanches, or during temporary kiln shutdowns when the hood door is open.
The lining in this area is constantly exposed to alkali and sulphur coming from the cooler with the
secondary air. These conditions are getting worse with the advent of the high-efficiency coolers
that elevate the secondary air temperature a couple hundred degrees. The best lining in those
circumstances is a 50 or 60% alumina, low cement castable. If the secondary air temperature is
above 1650 F and loaded with potassium, then the best alternative is to line the hood with
MAGKOK bricks backed up by insulating fire brick or calcium silicate board.
The lower half of the hood can be advantageously lined with a non-wetting silicon-carbide
alumina or zircon-alumina low cement castable. Non-wetting properties are desired to minimize
showman formation in the cooler.
Independently of which material is used in the application, pre-cast, pre-fired modular blocks
should always be preferred to cast or gunned in place materials.
5.4.2 Insulation
The kiln hood must always be insulated due to the high heat concentration in the area. As the
work lining thins down by wear, the insulation keeps the shell from overheating and warping.
Moreover, there are always people circulating around the hood and a hot shell poses a safety
problem to the workers and visitors.
The integrity of the insulation is critical to the work lining integrity. If hot clinker dust penetrates
the insulating layer behind the dense castable or brick, it quickly damages the anchoring system
and pushes the lining away from the shell until it collapses. Most insulating materials shrink at
hood temperatures and make the situation even worse.
When choosing an insulating material for hood application, make sure it contains no organic
binders, its limit service temperature is above 2000 F and it retains its full integrity at that
temperature.
Our recommended choices are 2000 degrees calcium silicate boards or 2300 degrees insulating
castable gunned in place.
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SO3+2(CaO.Al2O3)
CaO.2Al2O3+CaSO4
SO3+CaO.Al2O3
2Al2O3+CaSO4
CaSO4.xH2O
duringshutdown: CaSO4+xH2O
Theformationofanhydriteandgypsumweakenstheliningandincreasesitstendencytopromote
andstabilizepreheaterbuildups.
In order to minimize sulphur attack, choose castables with a minimum amount of calcium
aluminate cement (check the CaO content) and increase the lining density. If possible, balance the
sulphur to alkali ratio in the system to decrease the amount of free SOx.
On new linings, apply a protective ceramic coating to seal the open pores and prevent sulphur
penetration.
5.5 Hood
5.5.1 Material Selection - Side Walls
Gunnables, pumpables, self-flow, self-leveling and shot-crete materials follow the FIFO RULE in
this application: Fast-In-Fast-Out. Since we want the cooler lining to last at least three years,
with minor repairs, the installation velocity should never dictate which materials will be employed.
The best alternative to line cooler walls is still brick, but, unfortunately, this technology is dead in
the U.S. The acceptable options left are conventional or low cement castables cast-vibrated
behind forms and held in place by a combination of metal and ceramic anchors. A 60% alumina
product is sufficient for most applications.
Another interesting alternative, finding more and more acceptance in cement plants, is the
modular lining which offers the advantages of both bricks and castables. In this alternative the
castable is pre-cast and pre-fired into blocks that have the insulation and the anchoring system pre
attached.
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SECTION 6
REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION IN A ROTARY KILN
6.1
Introduction
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
Installation
6.9
Nose-ring
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6.0
6.1
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The condition of the kiln shell ovality in the tyre area and the procedure of
heating-up and cooling down the kiln
The choice of refractory materials in respect of its quality and its positioning
(zoning) in the kiln
A proper and efficient installation of the refractory lining will not only help to increase
lifetime and eliminate some stresses. It will prevent premature wear.
6.2
We must look at general requirements when we start a new installation or a repair job
Safety for workers (they have to be well instructed and we must give them the
appropriate tools).
Installation quality. The lining must be installed in such a way that it will fit the most
perfectly and tightly against the kiln shell that will increase lifetime to the refractory.
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6.3
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The following methods will be demonstrated in the Baker brick installation video
Glueing method
Advantages
Low investment in equipments
Possibility to rotate the kiln during the job
Disadvantages
A slow method of installation
Necessitate to turn the kiln very often (slow down the job)
Can be used only in small kiln, not more than 4.5
It is not a very safe method for the workers
Advantages
Kiln can be rotate at all time during the lining work
Low investment in equipment
Easy access to the lining work (no scalfoling or platform required)
Fast method of installation
Disadvantages
Storability and used (critical temperature has to be respected)
Requires to turn the kiln very often
When gluening bricks over welding seams, corrections can not be made with
mortar on the extrado side of the bricks
That method is not save for the working personnel. The shell must be very
clean and free of rust and specified temperature has to be respected. That is
why this method is only use on specific job for example in very narrow area.
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Figure 2 - Mul-o-ring
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6.4
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Kiln with smaller dont loose easily its coating, thus it is possible to leave the coating in
place, as long you are sure of the good condition of the bricks lining.
6.5
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6.6
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6.7
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Installation of the individual brick grade (zoning suitable for the different burning
process)
The choice of the brick grade must be suitable for the individual zone in different burning
process (wet, semi-dry, dry, preheater and calciner). The brick grade should be selected to
meet the special requirements of each individual rotary kiln.
Kiln
With
Planetary;
Cooler
Precalciner Kiln
With Great
Cooler
> 4.0 m
< 4.0 m
> 4.0 m
4-1x
4-1x
1-1.5x
1-1.2x
1-1.5x
1-1.5x
Lower Transition
Zone Burning
Zone 1
1x
1-2x
1x2
1x2
1-2x
1-2x
1-2x
2x
1-2x
Burning Zone 2
3x
4x
3x
4x
3x
3x
3x
3x
6-8x
Upper Transition
Zone Burning
Zone 3
2-3x
3x
2-3x
3x
3x
3x
2-3x
2-3x
2-4x
2x
2x
2x
2x
2x
2x
2x
2x
2x
5-8x
5-8x
5-8x
5-8x
Chain Zone
4-6x
4-8x
4-8x
4-8x
Inlet Zone
Ca-1m
Ca-1m
Ca-1m
Ca-1m
Ca-1m
Ca-1m
Ca-1m
Outlet Zone
Safety Zone
Preheating Zone
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Installation
6.8.1 The following are to be followed when installing the brick
a)
b)
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b)
The mortar must be mixed in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. There
is three basic types of mortar available for rotary kilns:
High-alumina mortar
Magnesia mortar
Fireclay mortar
No mortar is applied to the kiln shell or the extrado side of the bricks.
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c)
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The method is coming more and more adopted in recent years. The following details
should be noted.
The extrado side of the bricks must be completely in contact with the kiln shell
and the horizontal joint must point in the direction of the kiln axis.
For this purpose, it is necessary to adapt the mixed brickwork to the kiln shell
requirements.
Sometimes the brickwork become stepped, particularly near the welding seams.
To compensate for this, thin mortar joints may be applied between the bricks and,
in the case of larger welding seams beneath the bricks. In no case any metal shims
should be used as to compensate for this.
In the case of a kiln with large ovality and big shell deformation, it will be wise to
use mortar.
d)
Some of the magnesia bricks, are still laid with metal shims. From our
experience, these shims get oxidized during the operation, take volume
specifically on the hot face and cause premature wear to the refractory lining.
Like the other method, the bricks must be completely in contact with the kiln shell
and the horizontal joint must point in the direction of the kiln axis.
When closing the rings, avoid by all means the insertion of two metal shims into
one brick joint.
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Alumina bricks do not need any additional joints, since the expansion of this
material is slightly greater than the expansion of the entire rotary kiln axially and
vertically.
With basic brick grades, expansion joints of 2 mm are inserted between the
individual ring (2 mm is the equivalent of 1% of the brick length).
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Use only the original brick to close the rings. Never use cut bricks to fit the
closure.
Never use key bricks side by side, alternate them with standard VDZ or ISO
shapes. Same with ASTM.
The metal shims used for the closure, should have a thickness of not more than 2
mm.
Never use more than one metal shim per joint. If more than one shim is needed
for keying the closure bricks, they should be distributed over the entire closure
area.
Correct installation
Keying shims
max. 2 mm
Key bricks
Correct installation
Key bricks
Keying shims
max. 2 mm
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a)
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The final brick of the ring must be inserted from above because it is impossible from
the side as in the case of other rings (Figure 4).
Make sure that the last bricks are tightly pressed against kiln shell and that the
horizontal joint extends in the direction of and parallel to the kiln axis.
Make the opening for the last brick such that a standard VDZ or ISO shape brick
fits. Do not use any cut bricks. Same for ASTM. The ring is secured by
knocking in keying shims which should be distributed over the entire closure
zone.
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Reference lines are drawn on the kiln shell parallel to the welding seams at every
1.5 m. These lines must be strictly followed for the lining work.
If only a section of the lining refractory has to be repaired, take the nearest
welding seam as a reference line. An uncut ring should be laid to secure the older
lining. Cut the following ring of new brick to adapted with the new alignment.
The last ring have to be adapted to the old lining. You need to have at least 100
mm brick length to join the old lining. If impossible, cut the two last consecutive
rings. By doing so, this shall respect the minimum length of brick recommended
(some companies provide bricks 250 mm, that avoid to cut on two rings of
bricks).
As a guideline for the brickwork, the long axis of the kiln is to be determined.
Two point needs to be located. The lowest point in the kiln is determined at the
start of the section to be lined, using a spirit level parallel to a vertical welding
seam. The same is done at the end of the section to be lined. These two points
are then connected by a line. A timber batten or steel angle is placed along this
line and fixed to prevent it from shifting. This gives a straight brickwork end,
which subsequently facilitates closing of the ring.
Figure 5 - Alignment of brickworks
Horizontal welding joints
of kiln shell
Parallel alignment
Auxiliary line
e.g. chalk line
Vertical welding
joint of kiln shell
Radial joint
Axial joint
Parallel alignment
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a)
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A welding seam higher than 8 mm the bricks should be cut to fit the shell (Figure
6).
A welding seam lower than 8 mm the bricks are backed with mortar. So the brick
can be installed parallel to the other brick rings.
With the glueing method, the brick have to be cut out above the welding seams.
More than
8 mm
Kiln shell
To be cut on installation
Kiln shell
Max. 8 mm
Kiln shell
Max. 8 mm
Kiln shell
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6.8.6 Installation of bricks lining over distorted kiln shell is possible but it has to be
done very carefully
Like usual, the extrado side of the brick must fit tightly against the kiln shell
(Figure 7).
The horizontal joints must be laid with mortar. The maximum mortar joint
thickness between the bricks should not exceed 1.5 mm.
Mortar is use to compensate for irregularities between the extrado side of the
bricks and the kiln shell. Maximum thickness 8mm.
It is advisable to position these deformed kiln area in the lower half of the kiln
before starting bricking.
Max. 8 mm
Max. 8 mm
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80m m
Down Kiln
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50
180
retaining ring
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6.9
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Nose-ring
The most two types of lining used for nose-ring construction: bricks or castable.
6.9.1 Bricks construction
Quality of bricks required:
a)
Advantages
Some nose-rings are builted with special bricks shapes. Other are builted with bricks
cut from standard shapes. The manufacturers can not produce special shape bricks
that correspond to the required quality, because of the complicated production
technic. The experience has proved that the use of regular bricks shape has done
better results.
Figure 10 - Nose Rings
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6.10.4 Curing
After the product is mixed with waer or liquid binders, a considerable amount of time is required
for full strength development. The strength comes from chemical reactions and new-phase
formation in the product. Failure to observe the curing time leads to premature material wear by
disintegration, abrasion, thermal shock or chemical attack. No matter how quick the installation
is performed, the curing time cannot be changed. For most castables the binder is calcium
aluminate cement that requires a minimum of 12 hours for complete hydratation. Plastics and
some no-cement castables can be cured in shorter times without any problem. Material hardening
or setting must not be confused with material curing. Hardening occurs in a few hours or minutes
after mixing, whereas curing requires a minimum of 6 hours. Beware of magic products that
can be cast and fired in minutes. This is only possible with hot-gunning materials used in the
steel industry, but the binding mechanism for those products is totally different from castables.
6.10.5 Dryout
Problems with product dryout are easy to identify because they usually occur in an explosive way,
exposing lives, lining and equipment to serious risk.
Monolithic products made with hydraulic binders contain three different types of water:
chemically combined, absorbed and adsorbed.
Adsorbed or free water is released at room temperature, through normal evaporation. It rarely
presents any problem if it leaves the castable.
Absorbed water is retained inside mini-pores and crevices of the refractory grains. The porous
grains act like a sponge. Since the water is retained by capillary forces, it requires more energy
(and time) to be released than free waer, and could cause material cracking or fracturing if the
temperature raise is too abrupt.
Chemically combined water, a product of hydration reactions, is chemically bonded into the
structure of the compounds, and requires high amounts of bonded into the structure of the
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compounds, and requires high amounts of energy to be released. The quantity of chemically
combined water varies with the amount of hydraulic binder and the curing temperature, as
previously discussed. If the material is installed outside the recommended temperature range, the
amount of chemically combined water can increase to large proportions, relative to the total
amount of water. During dryout, the chemically combined waer is released at temperatures above
500 F, when the castable surface is already at a much higher temperature. That generates
tremendous volumes of stream in a short period of time. If the dryout is not slowed down at that
moment, the internal pressure will blow the castable out with complete destruction of lining. The
best remedy to avoid such accidents is to contract the dryout from a specialized company. Their
burners are capable of releasing large volumes of moderate temperature gases and vapor that
promote steady steam release at critical temperatures, without creating considerable thermal
gradients in the lining. The price charged for a professional dryout more than compensates for the
cost of an accident. More and more plants are moving in that direction.
ASI 304
up to 1850 F
ASI 309
up to 1900 F
ASI 310
up to 2000 F
ASI 330
up to 2000 F
The problem with temperature tables is their failure to address the fatigue properties, structural
transformations and load bearing capacity of metals at kiln temperatures. Tensile, elongation and
flexural strength must also be taken into account when selecting an anchor material.
AISI 300-series stainless steels, when held between 800-1500 F for long periods of time,
undergo a structural change called carbide precipitation. As a may fail in service in a short time.
Carbide precipitation also renders the anchor stem or tips extremely brittle.
Inconel is not a steel. Inconel represents a family of several Nickel super alloys used in turbine
and furnace parts exposed to extremely corrosive environments. It should be used in applications
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where the lining thickness is reduced and the service temperature is relatively high: hose-ring,
bullnose and burner pipe. Like for any other metal, its limit of rupture drops sharply with
temperature:
INCONEL 601
INCONEL 700
57,000 psi
86,000 psi
24,000 psi
32,000 psi
17,000 psi
3,500 psi
Whenever possible, ceramic anchors should be used because of their many advantages over metal
anchors:
- higher refractoriness
- no scaling
- no elongation
- higher hot strength
- lower thermal expansion
- higher holding capacity
- higher load-bearing properties
- not sensitive to welding
When selecting ceramic anchors attention must be given to material behavior towards chemical
attack and thermal cycling.
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12 in. centers
16 in. centers
18 in. centers
6 in. centers
12 in. centers
16 in. centers
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SECTION 7
REFRACTOFY MANAGEMENT
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Refractories
Zoning
LOWERTRANSITIONZONE
Transientcoatingformation
Thermalcycling&shock
Mechanicalstressfromtirearea
Highthermalloading
Overheatingpotential
Hotabrasionbyclinker
Volatilesvaporphaseattack
LOWERTRANSITIONZONE
Magnesiadolomazirconia
Magnesiaspinel
BURNINGZONE
Stablecoatingformation
Hightemp.,hottestzone
Clinkerliquidmobility
Flameimpingement
Thermalcycling&shock
REDOXreactions
Volatilesvaporphaseattack
BURNINGZONE
Doloma
Dolomazirconia
Magnesiadolomazirconia
Magnesiazirconia
UPPERTRANSITIONZONE
Nilcoatingformation
Volatilesvaporphaseattack
Mechanicalstressfromtirearea
Thermalcycling
UPPERTRANSITIONZONE
Magnesiaspinel
Magnesiazirconia
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