Tang 2015

Bone I structure, formation and growth.

I. Structure of bones.
There are two forms of bones: (1) compact or cortical (lamellar), and (2) spongy or
trabecular (cancellous). Bones may be classified into (1) long bones, (2) short bones,
(3) flat bones, (4) irregular bones and (5) sesamoid bones.
Compact bone found in long bones; made up of units known as osteons or Haversian
system; made of collagen fibres in ground substance with hydroxyapatite crystals.
Binding prevents shear of the bone, and is essential for bone strength. Collagen fibres
are for tensile strength while calcium salts are for compressional strength.
Spongy bone consists of trabeculae i.e. irregular latticework of thin columns of bone;
found in most of the short, flat, and irregular shaped bone, most of the epiphyses, and
as a narrow rim around medullary cavity of the diaphysis of long bone. It is located
where bones are not heavily stressed or where stresses are applied from many
directions; light, support and protect the bone marrow.
Structure of a long bone.
It consists of (1) the diaphysis (long shaft), (2) the epiphyses (the ends), (3) the
metaphyses, including the epiphyseal plates, (4) articular cartilage, covering the
epiphyses, (5) periosteum, a sheath on the bone surface, (6) the medullary cavity, also
known as marrow cavity, which contains the bone marrow, and (7) the endosteum, a
thin membrane lining the medullary cavity.
Structure of compact bone.
There are 3 types of lamellae: - (1) concentric lamellae, which form the osteon, (2) the
circumferential lamellae (outer, on the outside; and inner, encircling the medullary
cavity), and (3) the interstitial lamellae in between the concentric lamellae. Concentric
lamellae contain osteocytes (entrapped osteoblasts) in lacunae with living processes in
canaliculi filled with extracellular (bone) fluid. Other cells include osteoblasts (cells for
bone formation) and osteoclasts (cells for bone resorption). Blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels and nerves from the periosteum penetrate the compact bone through transverse
Volkmanns canals. These are connected by Haversian canals, which lie in the centre of
the lamellae and run longitudinally through the bone. An osteon is a unit of compact
bone and is also known as a Haversian system.
Osteons in compact bone are aligned in the same direction along the lines of stress.

Structure of spongy bone.

It is made up of an irregular latticework of thin columns of bone. The spaces between
the trabeculae of some bones are filled with red bone marrow. Osteocytes are found on
the surface of the trabeculae. It also has a periosterum. The endosteum lies the spaces
between the trabeculae.
II. Functions of bone:
(1) Support support soft tissues; provide attachment for tendons.
(2) Protection protects the brain, spinal cord, and the heart and lungs.
(3) Assist in movement attachment for skeletal muscles.
(4) Mineral homeostasis storage for calcium and phosphorus.
(5) Blood cell production red bone marrow produces erythrocytes, leucocytes and
platelets.
(6) Triglyceride storage yellow bone marrow in the medullary cavity. .
III. Bone formation.
Bone consists of living cells embedded in a mineralized organic matrix (30% organic
matrix, 70% salts). Collagen makes up 90-95% of the organic matrix, the remainder
being ground substance consisting of proteoglycans such as hyaluronic acid and
chondroitin sulphate.
Bone is formed by the secretion of collagen molecules (monomers) and ground
substance (mainly proteoglycans) by osteoblasts; the collagen monomers polymerise
to form collagen fibres. Calcium is deposited over a period of days; osteoblasts
secrete a substance to neutralize an inhibitor (pyrophosphate) that prevent
hydroxyapatite crystallization.
Ossification.
It is the replacement of a preexisting connective tissue or cartilage with bone.

(1) Intramembranous ossification.

In flat bones of the skull, lower jawbones; takes place in connective tissue
membrane. At the centre of ossification, clusters of mesenchyme cells develop into
osteogenic cells and then osteoblasts, which secretes the organic matrix. The
osteoblasts then become osteocytes, which deposits calcium and other minerals. As
the matrix forms, it develops into trabeculae that fuse with one another to form the
spongy bone. A thin layer of compact bone is formed on the surface - the
periosteum.
(2) Endochondral ossification.
In most bones including the long bones; takes place in cartilage. Mesenchyme cells
develop into chondroblasts, which secrete the cartilage matrix. Chondroblasts
become chondrocytes, which divide to increase the length of the bone (interstitial
growth). Growth of the cartilage in thickness is by addition of more matrix at the
perichondrium by new chondroblasts (appositional growth). As the cartilage
grows, hypertrophied chondrocytes release their contents to increase the pH,
leading to calcification and death of other chondrocytes due to lack of nutrient.
This is followed by the development of the ossification centres.
Primary ossification centre., The formation of the periosteal bone collar by the
osteoblasts cuts off the nutrient supply A nutrient artery penetrates into the middle
of the cartilage model via a nutrient foramen, and the capillaries later induce
growth of a primary ossification center. Osteoclasts remove the dead cartilage
matrix. Osteoblasts deposit bone matrix, forming spongy bone trabeculae, which
are later replaced by compact (lamellar) bone. Ossification spreads towards the
ends and osteoclasts form the medullary cavity.
Secondary ossification centre. This develops in the epiphyses. No medullary
cavity. Ossification spreads towards outer surface of the bone.
Formation of the epiphyseal plate. It is the hyaline cartilage between the
diaphysis and the epiphyses. Closure of epiphyseal plate between 12 and 25 years
of age.
Bone age (the degree of skeletal maturation) is determined by the development of
various bones, the time of appearance of epiphyses, and the stage of fusion of
epiphyses.

IV. Bone growth.

Growth in length.
The epiphyseal plate is responsible for lengthwise growth and consists of 4 zones: (1)
zone of resting cartilage, (2) zone of proliferating cartilage, (3) zone of
hypertrophic cartilage, and (4) zone of calcified cartilage. (Some books also
mention a 5th zone zone of ossification). The diaphysis increases in length as a
result of cell division in the zone of proliferating cartilage and maturation of the
cells in the zone of hypertrophic cartilage. Chondrocytes proliferate on the
epiphyseal side of the plate and the cartilage is replaced by bone on the diaphyseal
side of the plate.
Growth in thickness.
At the bone surface, new osteoblasts secrete matrix and become osteocytes. Bone
ridges formed on either side of a periosteal blood vessels enlarge, fold and fuse to
surround the blood vessel (former periosteum becomes endosteum). Additional
concentric lamellae are formed to create a new osteon. As new bone is deposited
on the surface, old bone lining the medullary cavity is destroyed by osteoclasts in
the endosteum. As the diameter of the bone increases, the size of the medullary
cavity also increases.