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TownscapeasaPhilosophyofUrbanDesign|RUDIResourceforUrbanDevelopmentInternational

TownscapeasaPhilosophyofUrbanDesign
WilliamMWhistler&DavidReed
WilliamMWhistlerandDavidReedwrotethetextofthispaperinthe1970sfortheCouncilof
PlanningLibrariesExchangeBibliographyno.1342.Itwasfeltthisgaveausefulbackgroundto
thewaysinwhichCullen'sviewscontributedtousingtownscapeasanapproachtoanurban
designphilosophy.
Thewordtownscapehasbecomeassociatedwithavarietyofconcernsinenvironmentaldesign
rangingfromtheconservationofpreindustrialtownstothedevelopmentofdesignguidesfor
residentialareas.Theideaoftownscapehasbeenpraisedasthesaviourforoururban
environmentandhasbeenattackedasbeingonlyconcernedwiththesuperficialvisualaspects.
Thepurposeofthisshortpaperistopresentanoutlineofwhattownscapeis,howithas
developedandwhatitscontributionisasaphilosophyofenvironmentalandurbandesign.
TheOxfordEnglishDictionarycites1880forthefirstuseofthe
word'townscape',and1889foritsspecificuseinthecurrent
sense.'...Someofthequainttownscapes(toinventanotherword)
ofourromantic,unspoiltEnglishtowns....[1]Cluestothepresent
meaningsoftownscapecanbefoundintheuseofthewordby
ThomasSharpin1948whereheattemptstogiveanametothe
actofimprovingcities:'...byananalogywithanequivalentart
practisedbytheeighteenthcenturyimproverofland,itmightbe
christenedTownscape.....[2]
ThiscivicdesignorientationwasgivenafurtherrefinementbyIvor
DeWolfewholabelstownscapeasavisualartoftownplanning
thatisacontemporaryextensionoftheEnglishpicturesqueschooloflandscapedesign.[3]De
Wolfeseestheemergenceoftownscapeasanewradicaltraditioninarchitectureinthatitbreaks
withthemodemmovementbyemphasizing"character"andsignificantdifferentiation.Also
importanttoearlydevelopmentoftownscapeisGordonCullen'sTownscapeCasebookwhich
accompaniesDeWolfe'sarticle.Throughaseriesofdescriptiveheadingsincluding"TheEyeasFan
dancer"and"TheEyeasArticulator",Cullenillustrateshowtheeyemightbeusedbythisnew
visualplannerinseeingthephysicalenvironmentasan"artoftheEnsemble".Thus,bytheearly
1950stownscapehascometomeanathemeofurbandesignwhichemphasizesthevisual
perceptionoftheenvironment.Theassumptionthatismadeatthistime(similartothe
contemporaryassumptionsaboutplanning)isthatthisvisualperceptionandconsequent
"improving"canbeaccomplishedinanobjectivemannerthroughanunderstandingofthe
emotionaleffectscreatedbythejuxtapositionofphysicalelementsoftheenvironment.
Themes
Withinthisgeneraltheoreticalframeworkofassessingthephysicalenvironmentinvisualterms,
severallooselydefinedbutgenerallycomplementarythemesinurbandesignbecameassociated
withtownscape:
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Onemajordevelopmentwasanemphasisondesigningtoreinforcetheuniquenessof
place,beingsensitivetothegeniuslociisorthesignificantdifferencesbetweenonearea
andanother.Thisbecamethecauseofaseriesofdesignstudies,usuallyatthevillage
scale,inTheArchitecturalReviewwhich,by1960,wereformalisedintoaregularmonthly
townscapefeature.Typicaldesignissuesdealtwithinthisseriesweretheeffectsofa
motorwayplanonthephysicalfabricofatown,thevisualeffectofmodemlargescale
development,andthegeneraltidyingupofpreindustrialtownswhosecharacterwas
deteriorating.[4]
ThehighpointoftheArchitecturalReview'sserieswastheapplicationofthevisualartof
townscapetoatheoreticalnewtown,calledCivilia.[5]Thisproposal,plannedontownscape
principlesofinducingdramaintotheenvironmentandofprovidingsignificant
differentiation,wasillustratedthroughaseriesofphotographiccollagesofmodem
architecture.Itspopularrejectionbegantoshowthattheappealoftownscapewasmore
thanthevisualartoftheensemble.
ConcurrentwithTheArchitecturalReview'semphasisongeniuslocicamethedevelopment
ofanegativereactiontosuburbansprawl,whichwasconciselyarticulatedbyIanNairnin
anarticleentitledOutrage.[6]Inthissearingattackonthosewhorecordsuburbiaas
Utopia,Nairnshowshowmindlessrepetitionofspeculativehousingstandardsisremaking
Britainintoanundifferentiatedvisualblur.Outragebecameaclassicinthisfieldalthough
itsbasicmessagehasremainedunheededasNairnshowsinhisOutrage20YearsAfter.[7]
Athirdthemethatbecameassociatedwithtownscapeintheearly1960swasthegradual
enlargementofthemeaningofconservationfromthepreservationofbuildingsof
architecturalmerittoincludethepreservationofcertainbuildinggroupsorspacesas
importantelementsinthephysicalsettingofthetown.Agoodearlyexampleofthistheme
isfoundinTenterdenExplored.[8]Thepresentacceptanceofthevalidityofthetownscape
conservationargumenthoweverisdueprimarilytothepublicationofTheCharacterof
Towns[9]whichillustratesconciselywhattheprinciplesoftownscapeconservationareand
howtheymightbeachieved.
Onepopularbutmistakenideathathasdevelopedasathemeisthatgoodtownscapeis
onlytheresultofhiggledypiggledyindividualadditionstothephysicalenvironment.This
illusionisdueprimarilytotheuseofhistoricalexampleswhichpresumablyowetheir
appealtotheirindividualcharmratherthanbeingapartofalargerpreconceiveddesign
theme.Recentinformationabouttheextentofdesignandaestheticcontrolsoperatingin
baroque,renaissanceandevenmedievaltimeshasshownthatclassicsoftownscapesuch
astheEnglishCotswoldvillageandthePiazzadelCampoweretheresultoftheright
degreeofdesignintervention.BothGordonCullenandtheeditorsofTheArchitectural
Reviewhavemaintainedthattownscapeisnotpurelytheresultofaccidentbutdependson
adegreeofpreplanningtoturnchaosintovarietywithinorder.Thisthemehasbeenthe
basisofdesignguidessuchasTheEssexGuideforResidentialAreas,[10]designbriefssuch
asVivatWare[11]whichdevelopsaphysicaldevelopmentframeworkforanexistingtown,
andMaryculter:FinalReport[12]whichcontainsatownscapeplanforaproposednew
town.
Thefundamentalthemeoftownscapeasameansofprovidingexcitement,dramaand
emotionalresponsetothephysicalenvironmentismostcloselyassociatedtotheworkof
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GordonCullenwhohasremainedtheleadingfigureinitsdevelopment.Hisseminal
work,TheConciseTownscape,[13](originallypublishedinalongerformasTownscape)
consistentlyemphasizesthatthestartingpointfordesignistheindividual'sexperienceof
theenvironment.Thisthemeisdevelopedthroughseverallooselyorganisedconcepts.
Firstly,thereistheconceptofcreatingaplace.Cullenpointsoutthephysicalandvisual
elementswhichallowustocanonisepublicspace.Secondly,heintroducestheconceptof
serialvisionwhichillustratesthattheindividual'sreceptionofspatialinformationisthe
constantplayoffbetweentheexistingviewandtheemergingviewastheobservermoves
throughurbanspace.Thirdly,heformulatesacasebookofthesedesigndevicessuchas
'juxtaposition'or'immediacy'whichcauseustointeracteitheremotionallyoractivelywith
theenvironment.Aswellashavingdevelopedasignificantproportionofthevisualanalysis
methodsusedinTheArchitecturalReview'stownscapearticles,CullenproducedThe
Scanner,[14]achecklistofhumanandphysicalcriterianecessaryforcreatinganurban
environmentcapableofsatisfyingtherangeofhumanneedsfromphysiologicalsafetyto
individualselffulfilment,andNotation,[15]ashorthandsystemforevaluatingthephysical
environment.Cullen'sworkscanbeseenasaformativebasisfortownscapeasa
philosophyofurbandesign.
TownscapeasaPhilosophy
Becausetownscapeislackinga
methodologyandrelieson
journalisticflowerylanguageitis
sometimesdismissedasnota
seriouscontribution.However,
townscapeisaphilosophyofurban
designinmuchthesamewayas
LeCorbusier'sVilleRadieuseisa
philosophyofurbandesignitis
basicallyanintuitiveapplicationby

TenterdenStudy1967

adesignerofabeliefinhowpeople
operateinacity.Corbusiertalked
abouttheneedforsunlight,fresh
air,flowingopenspaceandwaysto
facilitatecartravelbetweenpoints.
Cullentalksaboutthepossession
ofspaceaccommodatingtherange
ofhumanneedsandemotions,and
alsoabouttrafficandmovement
servingtovitaliseareasofthecity.
Theseareabstractideasby

TownscapeCasebook1949

themselvesanditistheresultant

Outrage1955

physicalformandthevisual
perceptionoftheformwhichcan
giventhesetermsmeaning.

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Thesignificantcontributionof
townscapeisthatitisadesign
philosophybaseduponsatisfyinga
fullerrangeofhumanneeds
includingthosewhichareatleast
partiallymetbythevisual
environment.
Theemphasisonvisualperception,

VivatWare1974

however,hasallowedtheideaof
townscape,asadvocatedbyThe

ArchitecturalReview,tomakethemistakenpresumptionthatapparentformcanbedivorced
fromcontent.Twoimplicationsofthisincorrectideaarethatthevisualmessagecanbe
abstractedfromtheculturalmessageandthatthecreationofastrongimagecanbeasubstitute
forcontent.BothofthesefallaciesaresummedupinthevisualmessageofPortGrimaud,the
modernresortvillagedesignedaccordingtotownscapeprinciplesin1965andbuiltinacounterfeit
preindustrialvernacularstyle.TheillusionofGrimaudisinbelievingthatthequainteffectofthe
variousjuxtaposedbuildingsandspacescanbecreatedinatotallymodernformandimagining
thattownscapeappealhasnothinginparticulartodowiththeimplicationsofusingcertain
buildingformsandelementssuchasarches,cobblesandlocalvernacularwhichcarrywiththem
themessageofstabilityandacquiredstrengththroughagingandfamiliarity.SanGrimaudisthe
heightoftownscapeasastageset.Theimageisofaquietprovencalvillagebuttherealityisa
veryexpensiveholidayresort.Civiliaontheotherhandisplannedonsimilarconceptsbutisbuilt
ofconcreteandglass,andtheeffectoftheculturalmessageismadeclear.
Asmentioned,themisunderstandingthattheeffectofvisualperceptionistheonlythemein
townscape,andthebeliefthattownscapeisactuallyanintuitivedesigner'scontributionto
providingamoresatisfyingenvironmentisborneoutbyrecentworksofenvironmental
psychologistsandwritersonvisualperception.Severalofthesewritersrefertotownscape,or
morespecificallyCullen'sTheConciseTownscape,asbeingthephysicalandvisualedificationof
theirtheories.
RapoportandKantorputforwardthehypothesisthatthereisahumanneedforcomplexityinthe
visualenvironmentandthatoneofthemostsatisfactorywaystoprovidethiscomplexityis
throughambiguityorthecreationof'...visualnuance,howeverslight,whichgivesalternative
reactionstothesamebuildingorurbangroup.'[16]Aftersubstantiatingthisbeliefwitha
samplingofempiricalresearchfindings,thepapergoesontorefertofiveofCullen'sdescriptive
headings(Combination,MultipleUse,Here&There,ProjectionandRecession)asintuitive
interpretationsoftheirmorethoroughlyresearchedhypothesisofcomplexity.Morerecently,
EduardoLozanocitesCullen'scallforvisualvarietywithinapatternas"...substantiallythe
essenceofhishypothesisthatthereisaneedforacombinationofpluralityofvisualinputs..."to
provideorientationandvarietyintheenvironment.[17]
Researchonlypartiallyrelatedtoenvironmentpsychologyhasalsomentionedthesignificanceof
Cullen.ThemaintenetofJayAppleton'sProspectRefugetheoryisthatourphysiologicalneedfor
safetyinitsmostbasicsensecanbeexpressedastheabilitytoseewithoutbeingseen,andthis
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primordialinstincthasbeensublimatedtoanaestheticresponse.Appletondevelopsfromthisa
symboliclanguageinwhichthepresenceofdistantprospectsandhidingplacesinalandscape
sceneorpaintingsignalsinusasenseofwellbeingandcontroloftheenvironment.In
transferringthissymboliccodetoanalysisofarchitectureandurbandesignhereferstoCullen's
descriptionofenclaves.......Theenclaveortheinterioropentotheexteriorandhavingdirect
accesstoboth...hastheadvantageofcommandingthescenefromapositionofsafetyand
strength......[18].
This,contendsAppleton,istheessenceoftheprospectrefugecomplement.
CertainlyJaneJacobs'callfordiversityincitiesissimilartoCullen'sideasaboutmultiuseand
precinctsinthecity,whileCullen'sideasaboutpossessionofpublicspaceandoccupiedterritory
arereallythesamethingthatOscarNewmanisdescribingascreatingzonesofinfluenceand
definingpublicfromprivatespaceastheprincipalargumentofhisdefensiblespaceideas.
ScannerandNotation
Inthe1960sAlcansponsoredaseries:
ATowncalledAlcanwithfourcircuitlineartowns(1964):
TheScanner(1966),wherehumanandphysicalfactors
weresetoutandinterrelated:
Notation(1968)'theobservantlayman'scodeforthe
environment'.

'Indicators'fromNotation

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'PhysicalFactors'fromTheScanner
Conclusions
Thus,summarisingtownscapeasaphilosophyofurbandesign,thefollowingpointscanbemade:
TownscapeIntermsofitsvisualImageowesmuchofitssuccessand/orfailuretothe
culturalbaggageofolderenvironments.Reproducingtheimageisahollowsuccesswhenit
isnotanaccuratereflectionofthesocialandeconomicconditionswhichcreateit.
Townscapeasamethodofcreatingastimulatingphysicalenvironmentissignificantwhen
itisseenasoneaspect,perhapsthroughtheproductionofatownscapeplan,ofprovidinga
moreaccommodatingenvironment.
TherealvaluetobegainedfromreadingTheConciseTownscapeorTheScannerisinbeing
presentedwithgoodphysicaldesignapplicationsofsomeaspectsofhumanneedsinthe
visualenvironmentwhicharebeingidentifiedbymorescientificresearchinenvironmental
psychology.
Townscapeasaphilosophyofurbandesigntakesitsexamplesofphysicaldesignfroman
erawhentimeandmotionscalewaspedestrianandthemajorityofhumancontactswere
facetoface.Itcanbeusedanimportantcounterargumenttoadvocatesofanaesthetic
basedonahigherspeed,lessdirectcontactsociety.

References
1.Hissey,JJ,ATourinaPhaetonthroughtheEasternCounties,London:RBentley&
Son,1889,p.263.
2.Sharp,Thomas,OxfordReplanned,London:ArchitecturalPress,1948.
3.DeWolfe,Ivor,'Townscape',ArchitecturalReview,Vol.106,December1949,pp.
355362.
4.Browne,Kenneth,'HighLondon',TheArchitecturalReview,Vol.127,JJ1960,pp.
175179.
Nairn,Ian,DerbyMarketPlace.ArchitecturalReview,Vol.130,JD1961,pp.429
431.
'ManchesterReUnited',ArchitecturalReview,Vol.132,JD1962,pp.116120.
5.DeWolfe,Ivor,Civilia,London:ArchitecturalPress,1971.
6.Nairn,Ian,'Outrage',ArchitecturalReview,Vol.117,JJ1955,pp.364460.Re
printedbyArchitecturalPress,1955.
7.Nairn,Ian,'Outrage20YearsAfter',TheArchitecturalReview,Vol.158,JD1975,
pp.328337.
8.MacManus,FredandPartners,andGordonCullen,TentendenExplored,KentCounty
Council,1967.
9.Worskett,Roy,TheCharacterofTowns,London:ArchitecturalPress,1969.
10.EssexCountyCouncil,DesignGuideforResidentialAreas,Chelmsford:Essex
CountyCouncil,1973.
11.RockTownsend,GordonCullen,ArthurHenderson,consultants,VivatWare,East
HertfordshireDistrictCouncil,1974.
12.Gosling,David,GordonCullenandKennethBrowne,Maryculter:FinalReport,
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KincardineC.C.,1974.
13.Cullen,Gordon,TheConciseTownscape,London:ArchitecturalPress,1971.
TownscapeArchitecturalPress,1961.
14.Cullen,Gordon,TheScanner,London:AlcanIndustriesLtd,1966.
15.Cullen,Gordon,Notation:TheObservantLayman'sGuidetoHisEnvironment,
London:AlcanIndustriesLtd,1968.
16.Rapoport,AmosandRobertKantor,'ComplexityandAmbiguityinEnvironmental
Design',AmericanInstituteOfPlannersJournal,July1965.
17.Lozano,Eduardo,F,'VisualNeedsintheUrbanEnvironment',TownPlanning
Review,Vol.45,No.4,1974.
18.Appleton,Jay,TheExperienceofLandscape,London:JohnWiley,1975

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