Enhancements in Domestic Refrigeration Towards Sustainability

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 955968
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Enhancements in domestic refrigeration, approaching a sustainable

refrigerator A review
J.M. Belman-Flores n, J.M. Barroso-Maldonado, A.P. Rodrguez-Muoz, G. Camacho-Vzquez
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Division, Campus Irapuato-Salamanca, University of Guanajuato, Salamanca, Guanajuato CP 36885, Mxico
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 5 May 2015
Accepted 4 July 2015
The refrigerator is an essential domestic appliance product and is available worldwide. Additionally, the
technologies on which the majority of refrigerators are based involve high energy consumption, and
environmental deterioration due to the type of energy input and the use of certain work uids.
Therefore, how refrigerators work is of great interest, and in recent years the development of diverse
research in this eld has intensied. As a consequence, in this article we present an exhaustive review of
the research with the greatest impact on domestic refrigeration, based on vapor compression such as
modeled, thermal stratication, control, environmentally innocuous refrigerants, thermal isolation, and
hybrid systems, among others. Based on the above, we present the principal trends in this area, of
interest to both industry and researchers.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Compression vapor
Energy consumption
Efciency
Optimization
Modeling
Contents
1.
2.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
General modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.
Condenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.
Capillary tube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.
Evaporator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Other components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Magnetic door gasket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Defrost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.
Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Thermal insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Thermal behavior compartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Hybrid refrigerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Refrigerants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.
Charge refrigerant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.
Refrigerants with nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.
Refrigerants as a foaming agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Trends in domestic refrigeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
n
Corresponding author.
Tel.: 52 464 6479940x2419; fax: 52 464 6479940x2311.
E-mail address: jfbelman@ugto.mx (J.M. Belman-Flores).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.003
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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J.M. Belman-Flores et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 955968
1. Introduction
The refrigerator is among the home appliances that use the
most energy. The majority of these refrigerators are based on
vapor compression technology, constituting one of the principal
energy consumers whose incidence is increasing in less economically developed countries. In developed countries, the vapor compression systems are responsible for around 30% of the total
energy consumption [1], and this percentage can noticeably
increase when there are malfunctioning events in the systems.
At the same time, the refrigerator is one of the most manufactured
appliances due to being indispensable in homes. The food industry
has boomed due to the development of refrigeration, yet for more
than 100 years it has used the same technology. Tantamount to
this, more than 45% of world food production would spoil if it were
not for cold storage and distribution. This makes efcient equipment indispensable, meaning low energy consumption and a
prolonged useful life. The development of the world refrigerator
industry requires a wide study of all factors that in one way or
another, contribute to achieving greater energy efciency in
accordance with the application of and compliance with technical
norms regarding energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions,
environmental impact, and security, among others. The annual
production of these appliances worldwide in the year 2009 was
approximately 80 million units, a number which is fast increasing
[2]. Currently, there are around 1 billion domestic refrigerators in
use worldwide [3].
Mexico, has the potential to save 4.7 TWh/year in electricity
through the substitution of old and inefcient refrigerators with
modern, high performing models, this represents 33% of total
annual consumption in the domestic refrigeration sector [4].
Recent studies indicate that new refrigerators consume up to
60% less energy than older models of the same size and capacity
after eight or more years of use [5]. According to the Trust for
Saving Electrical Energy (FIDE in Spanish), the refrigerator is the
home appliance with the second greatest energy consumption (see
Fig. 1). It should be appreciated that in regards to national
electricity demand, the domestic sector has a demand close to
26%, and of this around 30% of the domestic demand corresponds
to electricity consumption by the refrigerator. For example, during
2012, the energy consumption of the residential sector rose 0.4%
when compared to 2011 consumption levels [6].
The annual average number of units made in Mexico in the last
4 years for volumetric capacities of up to 0.3 m3, have been
1,430,483 units per year, and approximately double for units with
capacities greater than 0.3 m3 [7]. Also, in Mexico 80% of homes
own at least one refrigerator, this adds up to more than 23 million
working domestic refrigerators. With this data, and without
disregarding the undoubtable increase in production, it is easy to
suppose that with any improvement in refrigerator performance it
is possible to achieve savings, and that any impact on energy
consumption will be multiplied. Additionally, the potential electricity consumed by a domestic refrigerator is considered a great
cost. Any reduction in electrical energy consumption may not only
generate competitiveness for a manufacturer, but also provide
benets in terms of nal energy savings and the reduction of the
environmental impact generated by the product. Initially, energy
consumption was not as relevant as it is now. This consumption
directly affects the quantity and means of energy production,
which leaves an environmental footprint and affects the economy.
Technological advances tend to more efcient systems with lesser
environmental impact. In the last few years, researchers have
undertaken signicant efforts to improve the energy efciency of
home appliances. Some methods such as energy labeling take into
account the efciency of the product [810]. Adding to this, there
is a variety of mechanisms that may increase refrigerator energy
efciency that have been widely studied by researchers, the most

relevant are: improvements in compressor performance, adequate
thermal isolation, improvements in heat exchanger design, and
implementation of optimum control in refrigerator operation,
among others [11]. Additionally, from the environmental point of
view, the cold industry seeks working uids that are innocuous to
the environment.
In this context, our principal objective in this paper is to show a
general panorama of current trends and recent perspectives in the
area of domestic refrigeration. The information presented is based
on an exhaustive literature review in terms of improvements on
the domestic refrigerator with the aim of achieving a more reliable
and efcient appliance, which is why in this article the areas of
greatest development in recent years will be highlighted.
2. Modeling
In the face of the imminent need for a rational use of energy,
we visualize two general ways of improving energy efciency of a
vapor compression system: optimize the design of individual
components, and improve the operation of the refrigerator. Additionally, this should be sought without compromising the service
quality, in other words adequate temperatures in the refrigerator
compartments should be maintained. Therefore, the operation of a
refrigerator should move toward three objectives: (1) working free
of anomalies or deterioration, (2) energy efcient operation, and
(3) maintain the quality of operational conditions. However, this is
not entirely reected in refrigerators currently available on the
market. It is implied that models should approximate the real
behavior of the refrigerator so that they may improve the design
and operation of the domestic refrigerator in question. Said
models tend to be applied to the design and improvement of the
technological components in order to obtain optimum operation.
2.1. General modeling
The compression vapor cycle upon which domestic refrigerators are based consists of a compressor, a condenser, a capillary
tube, and an evaporator. Also, in order to achieve the cooling
effect, this system works with a refrigerant that undergoes phase
transitions from a liquid to a gas and back again. Fig. 2 shows a
schematic diagram of a domestic refrigerator representing the
main components.
The associated cost of research, manufacturing, and operation
of domestic refrigerators may decrease if the right model is
developed [12]. We found some simplied models in the literature. Hermes et al. [13] implemented a semi-empirical methodology for predicting the energy consumption of a typical top-mount
frost-free refrigerator. Their results were on track to nding
reductions in energy consumption through analysis of the inuence of each component, from the operational and geometric
points of views. Goncalves et al. [14] developed a model for
analysis of the cooling capacity and energy consumption. With
the model, they evaluated the effects of parameters such as the
capillary tube, compressor velocity, refrigerant charge, etc.
Mitishita et al. [15] modeled a top mount refrigerator; this model
was validated with experimental data and its application was
aimed at optimizing energy use. Negro and Hermes [16] developed a gray box model in the steady state. They found a conguration that reduced the cost of the refrigerator by 5% in
comparison to the original settings; the power consumption was
reduced by 14%. Gholap and Khan [17] developed a model for
understanding how the refrigerator works. They found an optimal
conguration representing a reduction of 8.92% of energy consumption from the baseline design. Hermes and Melo [18]
washer
steam iron
others
television
refrigerator
lighting
5% 6%
957
7%
40%
13%
29%
21.40%
25.70%
6.70%
5.40%
36.50%
4%
domestic
commercial
services
farming
medium company
large company
Fig. 1. Energy consumption by sector and energy impact at home [5].
the energy consumption of 149 refrigerators through the application of multi-layer feed networks, MLFFN, with reference to
parameters such as capacity, door opening, and thermal charge,
etc. On the other hand, the refrigerator is the central axis within
energy management strategies that manage energy demand during peak hours [23]. Researchers have even proposed thermal
models for heat gain in residential buildings [24].
The dynamic model is very useful in domestic refrigeration as
opposed to the steady-state model, for example, for prediction of
air temperatures on refrigerator behavior, or prediction of the
effects of a new control algorithm. However, the steady-state
model offers greater information on the design eld, and both
models help engineers and researchers to make decisions.
2.2. Compressor
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of a typical domestic refrigerator.
proposed a methodology for simulating the dynamic behavior of

domestic refrigerators. The model was used to assess the inuence
of several engineering parameters of the energy performance; this
model can be applied to the design. Hermes and Melo [19]
experimentally validated this model to show the transitory behavior of the refrigerator. Lin et al. [20] presented a dynamic model
for the multi-compartment indirect cooling domestic refrigerator.
With this model, the authors may predict the thermal behavior of
the compartments and the energy consumption of the refrigerator.
Another technique that has been implemented in diverse areas
of engineering in recent years, and in the context of refrigeration
systems, is articial intelligence [21]. Saidur et al. [22] predicted
Reciprocating compressors are the most commonly used type

of compressor in low and medium potential systems. This component is the heart of a refrigeration system and the most complex
component, having the greatest responsibility for energy consumption of the system. The compressor is of great interest given
that its efciency determines the requirements and life expectancy
of the system.
There are two different compression methods: intermittent
and continuous. The compressors that use the intermittent compression method are known as compressors by positive displacement; this kind of compressor is divided into two main branches:
reciprocating and rotary. Knowledge of the transitory performance
of the compressor is important in order to reduce energy consumption, and at the same time improve the general performance
of the refrigerator. In this regard, Porkhial et al. [25] analyzed the
transitory behavior of the compressor and concluded that the
refrigerator consumes more energy in a transitory state. Longo and
Gasparella [26] evaluated the performance of the compressor and
the efciency of the cycle during the development of a model in an

unstable state. This model adapts to different geometries and
types of refrigerants, and so can be applied to the design and
development of reciprocating compressors. With the aim of
improving the general efciency of the refrigerator, Clito [27]
adapted a type of ventilation to the inferior part of the refrigerator
where the compressor is located, achieving a reduction in the
energy use of the equipment. Dutra and Deschamps [28] studied
the experimental transfer of heat between the components of a
reciprocating compressor, concluding that the lubricant oil
strongly inuences heat transfer within the compressor. Ozsipahi
et al. [29] analyzed the lubrication system through nite volume.
Their main objective was to maximize the mass ow of lubricant
involved in geometrical parameters of the crankshaft, obtaining a
more efcient lubrication of the compressor.
Another aspect to consider is the impact of nanotechnology in
recent years in the diverse elds of engineering. Nanouids are
widely applied to the improvement of thermophysical properties
and heat transfer [30,31]. Nano-uid technology provides a perspective for improvements to cold generation systems. In the
particular case of domestic refrigeration, applications involved
heat transfer and the lubrication process. The main factors that
affect the efciency and reliability of the compressor are lubricant
properties such as materials used in manufacture, operating
conditions, and production processes [32]. The use of additives
to the lubricant oil improves the performance of the compressor,
and at the same time, improves the performance of heat transfer
in the condenser and the evaporator. For example, researchers
have evaluated nano-oil MoFe2O4NiFe2O4 [33]. In another work
developed by Meibo et al. [34] they proposed the application of
nano-oil Fullerene C60. In both works, they found increases in the
energy performance coefcient (COP), of around 5%. These results
conrm that the performance of a refrigerator may be improved
by using nano-lubricants.
It has already been mentioned that the energy consumption of
a refrigerator is considerable, and greater still when considering
the great number of units installed. A large part of this consumption is due to compressor inefciency [35,36]. The linear compressors represent a greater efciency characterized by its simple
trajectory ow and low friction loss due to a greater quantity of
components than traditional compressors. By having a single point
of friction in the motor (compared to the four points that
conventional compressors contain) the durability and reliability
are considerably increased [37]. However, the performance of
these compressors is very sensitive to temperature variations, for
example condensation and evaporation due to the piston stroke
variable that has no mechanical restrictions. Consequently, Kwon
and Bong [38] investigated the modulation characteristics of a
linear compressor of inherent modulated capacity for temperature
variations of condensation and evaporation through a numerical
model and a prototype compressor. Kim et al. [39] presented a
design method for an inherent modulated capacity in a linear
compressor using R600a as a refrigerant, where electricity consumption was reduced due to the elimination of the electrical
controller. Izzeldin et al. [40] presented the design of three new
motors of permanent magnets for a linear reciprocating compressor, and compared it to a conventional compressor.
On the other hand, the compression process within the
refrigeration cycle currently uses intermittent ows, adding to an
on/off control system (see Fig. 3), thus increasing energy consumption. The scotch yoke compressor or crank piston compressor
both have various mechanical elements that generate a large
quantity of lost energy when in use (due to friction, sound, and
vibrations, etc.). Within the compression cycle there are moments
in which the electric motor does not fully take advantage of all the
energy provided to compress the refrigerant, in other words, there
are dead times during which energy use is being wasted. Due to
this, other compression options should be fully explored to
simplify the working of the compressor and even diminish the
complexity of the fabrication and processing of the ensemble of
mechanical elements.
Another characteristic of current compressors is that they work
at the same speed at all times, despite changes in thermal load or
other operating conditions of the refrigerator, a circumstance that
may generate a waste of energy. In order to avoid this, a system is
required that processes and gives constant feedback with information obtained from the environment in real time that modify the
operation characteristics of the compressor, such as: speed, mass
ow rate or local temperature, etc.
In accordance with the above, we nd that it is important to
boost the development of technology in alternate compression
systems that minimize electrical energy consumption.
2.3. Condenser
As we mentioned in the previous section, one of the critical
zones of a refrigerator is located in the occupied space of the
compressor, where elevated temperatures are registered due to its
operation. Close to this zone, in the majority of refrigerators, we
nd the condenser, a component that is responsible for expelling
the heat absorbed by the refrigerant into the environment. The
condenser is an important component of the domestic refrigerator,
and its design has a signicant effect on the performance of the
global system. Therefore, in this area, the improvements go hand
in hand with energy efciency, reducing manufacturing costs, and
introducing new heat exchanger designs (functional, compact,
etc.). A good design of the condenser should not only improve
energy efciency, it should also reduce the space and material
according to certain cooling capacities. Condensers commonly
employed in domestic refrigeration are wire-and-tube [41] and
hot-wall [42], shown in Fig. 4.
The wire-and-tube condensers are mainly located in the rear
part of the refrigerator and are cooled via natural air convection.
Normally, a condenser of this type consists of a at copper coil, or
carbon steel tubes and steel wires that are soldered to the tubes
(see Fig. 4a) and act as extended surfaces. The designs of these
exchangers are oriented towards including enough heat dissipation under peak load conditions. An insufcient air ow that
circulates through a condenser may have repercussions for the
performance of the exchanger and consequentially on the refrigerator itself. Therefore, Ramadan [43] made an analytical model to
research the effect of the available space around the condenser
based on the heat dissipation capacity. The author concluded that
with enough space (more than 20 cm) between the condenser and
the back wall (for example the kitchen wall) the heat transfer
120
Energy consumption [W]
958
100
startup
80
60
ON
OFF
40
20
0
0
0.5
1.5
Time [h]
Fig. 3. Onoff cycle of a small conventional capacity compressor.
2.5
959
Fig. 4. Typical condensers in domestic refrigerators: (a) Wire-and-tube, (b) spiral wire-and-tube, and (c) hot-wall.
driving force is increased, therefore improving its performance. On

the other hand, the local temperature where the refrigerator is
located also has something to do with the effects of heat dissipation and energy consumption [44], being a parameter that signicantly inuences energy consumption [45]. This kind of
condenser is more susceptible to use failure due to its location,
where it also creates a gradual soiling of the surface, reducing heat
transfer. Ahmadul Ameen et al. [46] analyzed the performance of
the condenser, varying the conditions of natural convection; the
method used works for the development of this kind of exchanger.
Bansal and Chin [47] presented experimental results on condenser
optimization, nding improvements in the design with 3% gain in
the thermal capacity and reducing the weight of the exchanger by
6%. Porkhial et al. [48] developed a model to predict the transitory
performance of the condenser with a reasonable prediction
according to the experimental information, additionally proving
that energy consumption may be reduced by using a controllable
compressor. Through the application of MLFFN and articial
neuronal networks, ANN, studies on the prediction of heat transfer

by natural convection have also been undertaken on this kind of
heat exchanger [49,50].
Another condenser conguration that is also used is the spiral
wire-and-tube (see Fig. 4b). Here, Barbosa and Sigwalt [51]
researched the thermal-hydraulic performance of different prototypes based on design considerations, where the radial space of
the tube and the space between the tubes, are the parameters that
have the greatest impact on the performance of the condenser.
The other type of domestic condensers is called condenser hotwall as shown in Fig. 4c. This exchanger is not viable on the
exterior as it is placed between the refrigerant liner and the
cabinet of the refrigerator, to which it is glued through a good
thermal contact. Gupta and Gopal [52] presented a robust mathematical model of a hot-wall condenser, which includes the effect
of the aluminum tape with which the condenser tubes are
attached. Through this model, it is possible to know the variation
in temperature and pressure along the length of the tube. Fatemah
960
Fig. 5. Typical evaporators in domestic refrigerators: (a) egg-crate and (b) roll bond.
and Mehdi [53] investigated the effect of various parameters of the

hot-wall condenser on energy consumption and the reduction of
production costs of a domestic refrigerator.
frost
2.4. Capillary tube

The capillary tube is a device that controls the ow of the
refrigerant by fall in pressure. It is a copper tube with the interior
diameter calibrated to a very small size, around 2 mm. Both the
diameter and the length of the tube determine the quantity of
liquid refrigerant that will pass through the tube at a given
pressure drop. The capillary tube does not control the reheating
or pressure; it is simply a device with a perforation and a xed
pitch that does not possess any moving parts. Capillary tube
systems require a small refrigerant load (20200 g), which is not
modulated in relation to the domestic refrigerator cooling capacity
(50250 W). The quantity of the refrigerant is critical in systems
with capillary tubes, which already have a strong inuence on the
performance of the refrigerator [54]. The capillary tubes are
studied as adiabatic [55] and non-adiabatic (the capillary tube is
soldered to the suction line and the combination is called a
capillary tube-suction line heat exchanger) [56]. Melo et al. [57]
studied diverse geometries of suction concentric-linear capillary
tubes nding an empirical correlation to estimate the mass ow of
the refrigerant. Bansal and Xu [58] characterized the mass ow of
the variation of thermodynamic and geometric parameters of a
diabatic capillary tube. Later, Bansal and Yang [59] modied the
above model incorporating correlations of two-phase heat transfer
to simulate behavior within the capillary tube. Choi et al. [60]
developed a correlation for the mass ow in a diabatic capillary
tube through the implementation of dimensional parameters
based on experimental aspects. Zhang [61] developed a generalized correlation for the mass ow of refrigerant through a capillary
tube through the application of ANN. Islamoglu et al. [62] used a
MLFFN model to the back propagation learning algorithm to
predict the temperature and refrigerant mass ow rate of a
diabatic capillary tube suction line heat exchanger. Bjrk and Palm
[63] offered some ideas on the optimal capacity of the length of
the capillary tube and the charge quantity for the refrigerator.
Fatouh [64] developed a model to predict refrigerant ow using
mixes of work uids; the model is based on physical fundamentals
such as mass equations, energy, and momentum. Pisano et al. [65]
proposed a method to optimize the performance of a freezer by
ice
defrost heater
Fig. 6. Photo of frost on the evaporator (spine nned).
combining the charge of the refrigerant and the diameter of the

capillary tube.
2.5. Evaporator
The evaporator plays an equally important role as the condenser
in refrigerator performance, it is responsible for providing the
required cooling capacity for preserving food at optimum conditions.
Among the types of domestic refrigerators that we found on the
market are: no-frost (frost-free) or frost (direct cold). Here, the type
of evaporator used intervenes to some extent, and currently the
nned tube (egg-crate) evaporators and plate (roll-bond) are more
widely used in domestic refrigeration, as shown in Fig. 5.
An egg-crate evaporator consists of an arrangement of tubes
over which extended surfaces were added. The tube is generally
made of aluminum, and the material of the extended surfaces may
vary. Within this kind of evaporator there are various congurations in terms of the arrangement of the tube or air ow: discrete,
continuous, or spine nned (see Fig. 6). Lee et al. [66] researched
the behavior of the coefcient of heat transfer (air side) for the
three preceding congurations. Spine nned evaporator presented
the best thermo-hydraulic performance in dry conditions (without
frost). Bansal et al. [67] analyzed the heat transfer in an egg-crate
evaporator by varying parameters such as n density, weight, and
thickness. During said study, they proposed an optimal geometry
according to the performance of heat transfer, thus increasing the
cooling capacity by 4.7%. Waltrich et al. [68] evaluated the thermohydraulic behavior in dry conditions of nine different evaporator
designs called ow accelerated, varying the geometrical conditions. The characteristic of this heat exchanger is that the crosssectional area decreases with distance from the entrance of air
ow (the freezer oor) up to the higher section. Thereafter,
Waltrich et al. [69] increased the COP of the refrigerator by 1%,
and reduced the quantity of the material of the evaporator by 5.1%,
with regards to the baseline. Other works on domestic evaporators
have to do with the analysis of ow boiling heat transfer, where
ow maps were used to indicate the path of ow and to analyze
the heat transfer coefcient [70].
As shown in Fig. 5, the other type of evaporator that is also
widely used is roll-bond. This kind of evaporator consists of a plate
formed by two aluminum sheets within which canals are stamped
where the refrigerant circulates and where evaporation takes
place while air circulates externally. Hermes et al. [71] developed
a mathematical model based on fundamental physics with the aim
of investigating the behavior of a roll-bond evaporator. Righetti
et al. [72] compared the performance of a roll-bond through the
use of thermography and experimental analysis for the refrigerants R134a and R1234yf, exhibiting similar behavior for the same
mass ows. Visek et al. [73] experimentally evaluated the energy
consumption of a refrigerator designed by a dual sequential
evaporator (roll-bond and n-tubes) achieving the reduction of
energy consumption by 8.1%. On the other hand, Yoon et al. [74]
studied different effects such as the charge of the refrigerant and
the diameter of the capillary tube on the performance of a parallel
cycle (parallel evaporators), optimizing the system by achieving
energy savings between 1.8% and 7.8%.
Therefore, improving the efciency of the heat exchangers,
particularly the evaporator, may result in considerable energy
savings. A low temperature difference between the evaporator
and the air inside the cabinet provokes a high evaporation
temperature, resulting in better performance of the refrigerator.
3. Other components
Other components or accessories found in domestic refrigerators may also affect the thermal and energy performance of a
domestic refrigerator. As such, they are areas of interest and
development that have worked with the idea of achieving
improvements. Therefore, in this section we widen the information on advances in this area.
3.1. Magnetic door gasket
The consumption of electricity in a domestic refrigerator is
principally related to sensible and latent heat gains of perishable
foods stored in compartments, such as heat transfer through the
walls of the cabinet and inltration of the air. All of these gains
should be removed in the evaporator of the refrigeration system.
The greater the heat gain, the greater the work for the compressor,
leading to greater energy consumption. We emphasize here the
transfer of energy related to air inltration that principally occurs
through the magnetic seals of the doors. The seals are designed
with a certain thickness that allows us to easily open the
compartment doors, thereby avoiding problems with the differential pressure that occur between the internal and external space.
Heat loss through magnetic seals can reach up to 30% of the total
thermal loss of a domestic refrigerator. This is due to the low
density insulation is these zones where the door is embedded.
Also, there is the possibility of air inltration given through the
walls of the cabinet due to incorrect foam, which causes cavities.
Due to the frequent use of the refrigerator that comes with
opening and closing doors, the magnetic seals are losing their
capacity and are subject to allowing air inltration. The most
961
common causes in which the magnetic seal loses its capacity are
due to cracks in the plastic and lack of adherence. Last but not
least, besides heat loss, there are also kinds of bacteria that are
found in the inltrated air, which leads to food deterioration.
There is a way to quantify the percentage of energy consumed
by the compressor in removing or overcoming the gains by air
inltration through magnetic seals. Afonso and Castro [75] compared experimentally through the tracer gas technique, the inuence of the magnetic seals on the thermal, and energy
performance of the refrigerator. They showed that an old, used
seal subject to inltrations implies greater energy consumption
than a new one. When the seals are new, 3.6% of the energy used
by the compressor is due to air inltrations, and 96.4% is due to
gains through the walls, for an old seal that has started to lose its
properties, this percentage increases to 18.5%. This causes signicant increases in the energy consumption of the compressor, and
thus, in the economic cost and its environmental implications.
Hyung Seok et al. [76] presented a study where the characteristics
of heat transfer were predicted around magnetic seals.
So, magnetic seals represent an opportunity to improve this
kind of appliance. It should be highlighted that there is little or no
information in the literature found on this kind of system, as the
design of seals is secret and or are patented by manufacturers, and
are therefore not published.
3.2. Defrost
Domestic refrigerator users generally seek greater convenience
in the management of their appliance. Therefore refrigerators that
are able to defrost automatically are more generally acquired than
manual defrost appliances.
Frost is a porous medium composed of humid air and ice
crystals; it is a transitory process between heat and mass transfer.
It basically depends on parameters such as temperature and
humidity relative to the air, speed, cleanliness, the supercial
temperature of the metal, as well as its properties. The growth of
frost is formed by the deposition of water vapor contained in air
currents that mean that it strongly depends on the inltration of
humid and warm air during the opening of doors and through
magnetic seals. There are various experimental works focused on
the parameters that inuence the formation and growth of frost
[7779]. A refrigerator free of frost represents certain energy
problems depending on the defrosting method employed. When
the frost accumulates on the surface of the evaporator, it acts as
thermal resistance by reducing the ow of heat and increasing the
pressure drop on the air side. Therefore, the performance of the
evaporator deteriorates and the energy consumption of the system
increases by up to 20% [80].
In order to avoid the obstruction of the evaporator due to the
formation of frost and blocks of ice, periodic defrosting should be
implemented. Among the most common methods we nd a
bypass through hot gas, an inverse cycle, and electric heaters.
The rst two methods use less energy when applied to refrigerators, however, they require cycle modications, which make them
unviable for domestic refrigeration, thus they are mainly used in
heat pumps [81] and in showcase refrigerators [82].
Defrost through electric heaters is more commonly used in
domestic refrigerators (see Fig. 6). Due to its simple operation and
structure, electric heaters are positioned as the best method of
frost and ice melting. However, electric heaters use considerable
amounts of energy, which is why studies related to the analysis of
diverse congurations are aimed at improving the efciency of
these heaters, and, therefore, achieve energy savings.
Electric heaters are controlled by a timer and a thermostat so
that they periodically start defrosting. The heat required to start is
determined by the quantity of frost on the evaporator and its
962
temperature. The efciency of defrost may be dened by the

following equation [83]:
Q melt
Q melt Q losses
where Qmelt is the energy required to melt the frost and Qlosses is the
energy lost during defrost. According to the above, Bansal et al. [84]
analyzed the thermal behavior of the defrost cycle to design a more
efcient mechanism. They quantied the consumption of energy
used in defrost and researched how this energy dissipates in various
parts of the freezer beyond the evaporator. The authors estimate the
defrost efciency to be around 30%, while the increase in energy
consumption is above 17% due to automatic defrost. Other experimental research on the efciency of diverse electric heater congurations including distribuited, glass tube, and carold heaters have
been explored by Melo et al. [85], who obtained a maximum
efciency of 48% for the glass tube conguration. Kim et al. [86]
evaluated electric heaters of diverse forms, materials, and power,
nding greater performance in conventional heaters.
Due to the aforementioned problems originating from the
formation of frost, Xiao et al. [87] presented an innovative photoelectric technique for frost detection. The results indicate that this
technology may be considered an effective control criteria and
therefore achieve energy savings.
Considering the fact that users are more inclined towards acquiring frost-free refrigerators, defrost technologies that are adequate to
the refrigerant capacity and allow for the reduction of energy
consumption of the refrigerator should be developed. Therefore,
improvements to defrost mechanisms and heat exchangers may
result in increases in the energy efciency of the refrigerator. This
may be achieved through the use of an electric eld sensor to
improve frost detection, or through pulses of defrosting.
3.3. Fans
Fans located in the household refrigerator play an important role
in energy system performance. The fans that circulate air across the
condenser and the evaporator contribute signicantly to the overall
power consumption. Typical power motors used in condenser and
evaporator fans are 9 W and 12 W, respectively. At steady state, the
air crossing the evaporator determines the evaporating pressure and
thus impacts overall energy consumption. Historically, research has
been focused on three objectives: design and construction of fans
with low power consumption, high internal ow rate and low noise,
among others such as weight, dimensions and cost. Recently, Hermes
and Melo [18] developed an experimental model to determine the
power consumption of the fan, they reported that fans consume from
1 W to 25 W. Kim et al. [88] proposed a discrete gray box model to
evaluate the effect of certain design factors such as: tip clearance,
inner fence and motor-box struts. In order to increase the performance of the centrifugal fan, the effects of these factors on the
volume ow rate were analyzed using Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD). Typically, approximately 10% of the overall refrigerator energy use is attributable to fan energy [11]. In the literature,
there are also works related to the reduction of noise caused by fans
[89,90]. Thus, the trend of research is to achieve fans for household
refrigerators with a large range of volumetric ow without impacting
energy indicators such as COP, and also provide comfort for users by
reducing overall noise. In addition to better fan motors, improvements to the controls can also lead to signicant energy savings.
4. Thermal insulation
One of the areas of importance in terms of energy savings has
to do with adequate insulation, which helps reduce heat losses in
the refrigerator [91]. For example, an average energy saving of 25%

is observed by employing panels of vacuum insulation (VIP) [3,92].
One of the possible storage techniques of thermal energy that has
been studied for several years is the application of phase change
materials (PCM) [93]. In these materials, the transfer of thermal
energy occurs when the material changes state from solid to
liquid, or vice versa. The PCM due to economic and environmental
considerations are used in diverse applications, such as the
preservation of food and pharmaceutical products [94]. The
employment of these materials is evident when the temperature
within the refrigerator is close to the fusion temperature of the
PCM. Azzouz et al. [95] employed PCM on the entire surface of the
evaporator, achieving a general increase in the COP between 5%
and 15%. Or et al. [96] and Marques et al. [3], demonstrated that
the use of PCM may maintain the interior temperature of the
refrigerator almost constant for more than 3 h without the use of
electricity. Khan and Afroz [97] and Marques et al. [98], undertook
an experimental study using water and eutectic mixtures (fusion
point 5 1C) such as PCM in the evaporator, improvements of 19%
were observed in the COP. Sonnenrein et al. [99] experimentally
evaluated the inuence of using PCM (copolymer compound) on
the thermal behavior of the condenser, which brings a signicant
reduction in energy consumption to up to 10%.
On the other hand, it is well known that blowing agents are
widely used in domestic refrigeration [100]. The rigid polyurethane as thermal insulation was under development but manufacturers rst abandoned the use of R11 (CFC) as a blowing agent
to make way for R141b (HCFC) and the next generation R245fa
(HFC) and cyclopentane (HC). However, the use of these blowing
agents still have drawbacks, both environmental, energy and
initial investment in changing production lines, as well as the lack
of a safe operation in the case of cyclopentane. Recently, a new
molecule, Forane1233zd was announced by the company Arkema
[101] as a blowing agent with low global warming potential
(GWP). Evaluations by the company predict that this new blowing
agents performs better when compared to conventional agents.
Yoon et al. [102] optimized the insulation thickness, thereby
achieving reductions in average energy consumption by 6%.
Hammond and Evans [103] researched the viability of VIPs
application via embedding these in the polyethylene foam walls
of refrigerator and freezer cabinets, achieving energy savings.
Based on the aforementioned studies, we may conclude that
the use of changing phase materials is a good option to implement
in domestic refrigerators as they may achieve considerable energy
savings. It should be highlighted that it is important to select a
PCM that has a phase change temperature close to the storage
temperature. Other important parameters to consider for PCM
implementation is the density and thermal charge required.
Thermal insulation is very important in the cold generation
industry, which is looking for new and better materials for use
as insulation, among which are compounds or composites.
5. Thermal behavior compartments

The basic function of a domestic refrigerator is to preserve the
quality of perishable products. It is well known that quality depends
on good refrigerator performance, which is tightly linked to temperature distribution and air ow inside the compartments: fresh
food and freezer. There have been studies on the thermal behavior
ranges according to the legislation and production in different
countries [104]. Based on this, several studies have been conducted
in the eld of domestic refrigeration, particularly in the temperature
and air ow distribution of the compartments. Thus, in the literature
we may nd works related to the study of the air speed using the
Particle Image Velocimeter technique (PIV) [105,106], along with 3D
numeric simulations using CFD software [107]. Laguerre et al. [108]

conducted a numeric study of air ow and heat transfer in a natural
convection domestic refrigerator, the numeric analysis was based in
the use of CFD. Gupta et al. [109] introduces the development of a
model in CFD for a frost-free refrigerator where they predict and
experimentally compare temperature proles, obtaining a certain
discrepancy in their results. Additionally, they obtain the eld of ow
velocity. In order to improve the temperature uniformity and the air
ow in a natural convection refrigerator, Ding et al. [110] applied CFD
software Start CD arriving to the conclusion that the temperature
distribution depends on the internal geometry of the refrigerator,
specically in the spaces between the refrigerator shelves and the
liner bottom wall, as well as that of the edge of the shelves and the
door. Yang et al. [111] presented a numerical simulation of a forced
convection refrigerator performance for a top mount conguration.
The authors conclude that the freezer and the food compartment are
found in phase (synchronized) one with the other, while the
vegetable space is out of phase with regard to the other two. Through
simulation the authors propose a new design and localization of the
air conduct, and also improvements in the design of the grills in the
air outlets achieving a better thermal prole. Torabi et al. [112]
worked particularly in the freezer of a natural convection refrigerator,
by means of experimentation and the use of CFD they analyzed the
design of seventeen models to optimize the eld of temperatures in
the freezer. Bayer et al. [113] simulated the uid ow with a reduced
order modeling method (proper orthogonal decomposition) and
temperature distribution in a refrigerator compartment. The free
convection in refrigerator applications is evaluated in 3D, turbulent,
transient, and coupled non-linear ow problem. In order to evaluate
the effect of the heat release of the condenser and the compressor on
the thermal behavior of refrigerator, Afonso and Matos [114] measured the inside air temperature in two situations: with and without
radiation shield, also with Fluent simulate the internal air temperature in both situations. Bjrk et al. [115] used a thermographic
camera to observe the temperature distribution of a household
refrigerator, as an alternative method to analyze the cooling system
compared with conventional thermocouples. Belman et al. [116]
analyzed the thermal stratication in the compartments of a bottom
mount, forced convection refrigerator through CFD, whose results
were experimentally validated. With the proposal of a new design in
the interior they found better thermal proles and obtained a 10%
reduction in the energy consumption of the refrigerator. Kumlutas
et al. [117] developed an ANN model to nd temperature distribution
inside the refrigerator in order to predict the design parameters.
Based on the mentioned works, we conclude that some researchers
analyze the distribution of temperatures in the compartments experimentally, and, in most cases, they compare their results with
numerical simulations. In this type of study, the performance of the
refrigerator in a stable state is analyzed. Even though the air ow
measurements are difcult to obtain, techniques of sophisticated
metrology like PIV and DPIV have been applied. Furthermore, numerical simulations have been performed from both a heat transfer and air
ow point of view, in which the stratied temperature values have
been found inside the simulated space, as well as cyclical variations
due to compressor operation. The means to reach temperature
uniformity inside domestic refrigerators is still a research topic, which
is coupled with and also directly inuenced by the geometric conguration of the compartment or refrigerated space.
It should also be highlighted that temperature control also plays an
important role in the domestic refrigerator. The subject has gained
major importance due to energy and environmental aspects, which
require more sophisticated control solutions. Di Felice et al. [118]
designed a simple adaptive control for freezer temperature that
synthesizes the temperature limit to reduce the work done by the
compressor. Shuqing et al. [119] developed an intelligent thawing
method that includes an insulated crisper and several insulated
963
freezers where temperature is controlled by single-chipmicrocontroller. This intelligent thawing saves energy compared with
normal thawing. In this context, Piedrahita-Velsquez et al. [120]
found that a variable speed compressor refrigeration unit gives 15%
energy savings with respect to an equivalent conventional refrigerator
system, therefore also ensuring more stable temperature control.
6. Hybrid refrigerator
As we mentioned previously, one disadvantage of refrigerators
based on vapor compression is that the compartments (fresh food
and freezer) oscillate in their thermal behavior. One of the causes is
due to the characteristics of the stop and start of the compressor
when there are oscillations of the air temperature inside the
compartments, which to a certain extent worsens food conservation.
Currently, thermoelectric technology represents an attractive application in competition with systems based on vapor compression
[121]. In addition to the above, this technology is featured as an
alternative to achieving more precise temperature control systems
for domestic refrigerators. In this way, Vin and Astrain [122]
developed a prototipe of a hybrid refrigerator that combines thermoelectric technology and compression vapor technology, this with the
aim of obtaining better COP and adequate control temperature. The
framework in Fig. 7 shows the proposed hybrid system, which
contains a chilled compartment for thermoelectricity that maintains
a temperature of 0 1C, with oscillation lower than 70.5 1C. This
design reduces energy consumption by a total of 20%.
Later, the authors optimized their original prototype by analysing three refrigerator congurations, and with it providing a nal
design based on a computational model developed for that
purpose [123]. The combination of these technologies represents
a viable alternative for domestic refrigerators that takes into
account the competitive values of electrical energy consumption
of hybrid refrigerators.
Fig. 7. Hybrid system: vapor compression and thermoelectric [122].
964
Fig. 8. Activation of a refrigerator based on compression vapor with solar energy.
On the other hand, we should mention refrigeration systems that

are activated by non-conventional energy such as solar [124]. As a
consequence, there is a very large interest in the use of domestic
refrigerators in the rural sector, or above all in sectors far from the
energy supply, this is an opportunity to improve quality of life. The
reduction of energy consumption of domestic refrigeration systems
does not only involve improving the efciency of components or
mechanisms that have been mentioned previously, but it is also very
important to develop and improve systems that take into account the
variation in the demand for refrigeration to keep energy wastage at a
minimum. Considering the fact that cooling demand tends to
increase with the intensity of solar radiation, the solar refrigerator
may be considered a logical solution [125]. Modi et al. [126]
evaluated the implementation of a domestic refrigerator that is
activated with solar photovoltaic energy, specically applied to rural
zones with wide solar energy availability. In addition, they analyzed
the economic viability of the hybrid system, concluding that it may
only be considered through subsidies or through a reduction in the
component costs. Gupta et al. [127] undertook a parametric study to
nd the best combination of the components such as the photovoltaic panel and the battery capacity so that the refrigerator can
work with solar energy alone. The refrigerator system was modeled
under distinct climatic conditions in order to evaluate its performance. Kaplanis [128] designed a hybrid attachment to a refrigerator
with solar photovoltaic reducing the refrigerator capacity, and consequently the required potential. Aditionally, they studied the performance of the refrigerator components, especially the compressor.
According to the above, Fig. 8 represents a general framework of
domestic refrigerator activation with solar energy and the principal
components to achieve this integration.
7. Refrigerants
In general, refrigerants are well known as uids that absorb heat
during evaporation. When concerns regarding the deterioration of
4th Generation
3rd Generation
2nd Generation
Protection of the
ozone layer
R134a, R152a, R413a
Focused on global warming

R1234yf, R600, R600a,
R290.
Reliability and durability

R12, R22
1st Generation
Any substance
CO , NH , H O, CCl
Fig. 9. Refrigerants over the generations.
the ozone layer became apparent, the most used refrigerants were
the chlorouorocarbons R12 and R22. The rst was used for automotive air conditioning and small refrigerators, while the second had
a role in various applications, domestic refrigeration among them.
These refrigerants and some others presented high levels of potential
ozone layer destruction, ODP, and global warming potential, GWP. So,
faced with this precarious situation and according to the Kyoto [129]
and Montreal protocols [130], scientists began to look for new
alternatives. In Fig. 9, we illustrate the evolution of refrigerants over
the generations, where present day usage is focused on refrigerants
with low global warming potential. Emphasizing domestic refrigeration, we highlight the hydrocarbons, R134a, and its medium-term
substitutes such as R1234yf.
We nd in the literature several works on the evaluation of
refrigerants and what this uid inuences on the global behavior
of the refrigerator. Thus, natural refrigerants such as R290
and R600a have been widely researched due to their low GWP,
and analyzed for compatibility with diverse lubricants [131].
Another refrigerant such as R430a has been studied as a possible
substitute for R134a, this is without needing to make any modications to the refrigerator [132].
On the other hand, exergetic analysis has been extended to the
evaluation of various refrigerants, such as the effect of the
incorporation of nanouids and nanolubricants to reduce the
exergetic losses within the compressor [133]. Another exergetic
study of a refrigerator that looked at R600a and R134a [134] was
able to observe that a greater quantity of destruction exergy is
observed in the compressor; furthermore, under the same conditions they were able to identify that the charge of refrigerant
R600a is less than that of R134a. Guarav and Kumar [135]
compared the following refrigerants: R134a, R152a, R290, and
R600a for certain working conditions where R152 had a hiher COP
and better exergetic performance.
Recently, refrigerants such as R1234yf and R1234ze have emerged
as alternative uids for low GWP (46) and low levels of toxicity
[136]. These refrigerants are compatible with traditional lubricants
but require a longer suction line in order to lightly compensate
higher velocities as compared to systems using R134a [11]. A
theoretical study evaluates R1234yf as compared to refrigerants such
as R152a and R134a in refrigeration systems [137]. But at the level of
domestic refrigeration there are still no studies on experimental
reports of R1234yf, which may be due to the high cost of the
refrigerant. Analysis such as pressures rate, performance, input
power of the compressor and the output temperature of refrigerants
R290, R1270, R600, R600a, and R152a, allow us to nd that the
behavior of the last is closer to R134a [138]. In short, Table 1 shows
examples of the principal refrigerants used in domestic refrigeration
and the most relevant properties.
7.1. Charge refrigerant

The optimum refrigerant charge, as previously stated, is a topic
of great interest, the minimization of charge is an important factor
in the design of the system, it not only reduces the cost and
relieves the ammability or toxicity of some refrigerants, but it
also improves the system design. For example, Radermacher and
Hwang [139] analyzed the energy consumption of different loads
of refrigerants R436A and R600a. The results allow us to determine that the lowest annual energy consumer was R600a with a
charge of 50 g, and in the case of R436A it was a charge of 60 g.
Additionaly, the effects of the variation of the refrigerant charge
and expansion restriction have been found experimentally [140],
this study allows us to determine that an inadequate combination
of restriction in the expansion and charge of a refrigerant may
have repercussions, and increase energy consumption by to up to
30%. The variation of the charge on the refrigerant not only effects
the energy performance of the refrigeration system, but it also
modies the architecture and the design of the refrigerator [141].
When the optimum charge of the refrigerant is minimal, so that
the evaporator is completely lled by a saturated vapor the
refrigeration capacity is at its maximum. Hae Wong Jung et al.
Table 1
Relevant properties of most commonly used refrigerants in domestic refrigeration.
Refrigerant Boiling point
(1C)
R134a
R152a
R1234yf
R436A
R600a
R600
R290
R413A
26.1
25
29
34.3
11.6
0.5
42.09
33
Critical
temperature (1C)
Critical pressure
(kPa)
ODP GWP
101.1
113.5
95
130.1
135
152.0
96.70
98.5
4060
4492
3400
3390
3645
3794
4248
4169
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1200
120
4
3
20
20
20
1775
965
[142] also researched the optimum charge of the refrigerant

between different operating modes of the refrigerator.
7.2. Refrigerants with nanoparticles
Another important aspect of the refrigerants lies in the improvement of their thermophysical properties. Nanoparticle research on
refrigerants has uncovered very interesting results such as lubricant
compatibility, improved performance, and reduction in pressure
drops, among others [143]. The dispersion of nanoparticles allows
for a more uniform distribution of the uid temperature [144].
Different studies have allowed us to observe an inverse relationship
between the concentration of nanoparticles in the refrigerants and
their specic heat capacity. This thermophysical property affects heat
transfer. Equally, quantitative increases in specic heat capacities
have been observed that present increases in temperature [145].
Specically in domestic refrigeration, various thermophysical variation properties have been studied, including nanoparticles of Al2O3 in
refrigerant R134a [146]. The addition of particles allowed a 15%
higher COP than the refrigerant R134a. Nanoparticles of titanium
oxide TiO2 have been added to mineral oils that act as lubricants,
achieving interesting results on energy consumption [147]. These
nanoparticles have been used in refrigerants such as R600a obtaining
an anologic reduction of energy consumption by up to 10% for
concentrations of Titanium Oxide TiO2 [148]. If used in the lubricant
or in the refrigerant itself, they improve the thermal conductivity,
and thereby reduce energy consumption; the impacts of substituting
R134a, such as R413a, R1234yf, R1234ze, among others, with these
candidates should be studied in order to determine their impacts on
the cycle components.
The application of ANN present in refrigerants, where it is
generally used to predict thermophysical properties of pure and
mixed refrigerants [149].
7.3. Refrigerants as a foaming agent
We mentioned previously that refrigerants are also used as
foaming agents, although this is a practically null subject in the
literature. Natural refrigerants such as CO2 (R744) have been
studied as additives in foaming agents [150], with the aim of
generating more environmentally friendly agents that have a
lower impact on the ozone layer.
8. Trends in domestic refrigeration

According to the above sections, we may emphasize that the
majority of the research in this eld is focused on modeling entire
refrigerators or their components; around 40% of the works in the
literature are based on models. A quarter deal with improvements
to accessories or mechanisms such as: seals, defrosting systems,
ventilation, and insulation. The other areas of research (around
15% of all research in the eld) are related to thermal behavior of
refrigerator compartments and the search for improvements in
new refrigerators. Lastly, the least developed area, and from our
point of view where the most favorable environmental, energy,
and sustainable aspects may be found, is in the development of
hybrid refrigerators, which help the development of rural or offgrid communities.
Therefore, we conclude that the trend in the search or approximation of a sustainable refrigerator is shown in Fig. 10.
9. Conclusions
This article has presented a thorough review of the different
branches of research on domestic refrigeration based on vapor
966
normativity
improve in
components
conservation
Trends in
refrigeration
control
eco friendly
Fig. 10. Main trends in domestic refrigeration.
compression. Showing the main trends in the last few years in the
development of cold generation systems that use energy in a more
efcient and rational way. Therefore, in this work we have
commented on a variety of options that may increase the energy
efciency of a domestic refrigerator. These include cabinet
improvements (insulation, magnetic seals), improvements to the
refrigeration system (adequate performance of components, use of
innocuous refrigerants), mechanism improvements (defrosting,
temperature control), and minimal thermal stratication in
compartments.
From our point of view, with this article we try to divulge
recent results with the purpose of motivating and increasing
research interest in this eld, as a refrigerator is based on
compression vapor that will stay on the market and remain in
use for consumers for the foreseeable future. Research is heading
in the direction of more efcient and reliable refrigerators.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Directorate for Research Support
and Postgraduate Programs at the University of Guanajuato for
their support in the translation and editing of the Englishlanguage version of this article.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 955968

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Enhancements in domestic refrigeration, approaching a sustainable

efciency that have been widely studied by researchers, the most

Fig. 1. Energy consumption by sector and energy impact at home [5].

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of a typical domestic refrigerator.

proposed a methodology for simulating the dynamic behavior of

Reciprocating compressors are the most commonly used type

the efciency of the cycle during the development of a model in an

Energy consumption [W]

driving force is increased, therefore improving its performance. On

neuronal networks, ANN, studies on the prediction of heat transfer

and Mehdi [53] investigated the effect of various parameters of the

2.4. Capillary tube

Fig. 6. Photo of frost on the evaporator (spine nned).

combining the charge of the refrigerant and the diameter of the

temperature. The efciency of defrost may be dened by the

the refrigerator [91]. For example, an average energy saving of 25%

5. Thermal behavior compartments

numeric simulations using CFD software [107]. Laguerre et al. [108]

Fig. 7. Hybrid system: vapor compression and thermoelectric [122].

Fig. 8. Activation of a refrigerator based on compression vapor with solar energy.

On the other hand, we should mention refrigeration systems that

Focused on global warming

Reliability and durability

7.1. Charge refrigerant

[142] also researched the optimum charge of the refrigerant

8. Trends in domestic refrigeration

Fig. 10. Main trends in domestic refrigeration.

[107] Ben Amara S, Laguerre O, Charrier-Mojtabi MC, Lartigue B, Flick D. PIV

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