Transient Conduction:

Spatial Effects and the Role of

Analytical Solutions
Chapter 5
Sections 5.4 through 5.8

Plane Wall

Solution to the Heat Equation for a Plane Wall with

Symmetrical Convection Conditions
If the lumped capacitance approximation can not be made, consideration must
be given to spatial, as well as temporal, variations in temperature during the
transient process.
For a plane wall with symmetrical convection
conditions and constant properties, the heat
equation and initial/boundary conditions are:
2T 1 T
=
(5.26)
x2 t
T ( x,0 ) = T i

(5.27)

T
x

(5.28)

=0
x=0

T
x

x=L

= h T ( L, t ) T

Existence of seven independent variables:

T = T ( x, t , T i , T , k , , h )

(5.29)

(5.30)

How may the functional dependence be simplified?

Plane Wall (cont.)

Non-dimensionalization of Heat Equation and Initial/Boundary Conditions:

Dimensionless temperature difference:
Dimensionless coordinate: x *

x
L

T T
=
i Ti T

Dimensionless time: t *

Fo
L2
Fo the Fourier Number

The Biot Number: Bi

hL

k solid
= f ( x , Fo, Bi )
*

Exact Solution:

* = C n exp ( n2 Fo ) cos ( n x * )

(5.39a)

n =1

Cn =

4sin n
2 n + sin ( 2

n tan n = Bi

(5.39b,c)

See Appendix B.3 for first four roots (eigenvalues 1 ,..., 4 ) of Eq. (5.39c)

Plane Wall (cont.)

The One-Term Approximation ( Fo > 0.2 ) :

Variation of midplane temperature (x*= 0) with time ( Fo ) :

(T T ) C exp 2 Fo
o* o
( 1 )
(T i T ) 1

(5.41)

Table 5.1 C 1 and 1 as a function of Bi

Variation of temperature with location (x*) and time ( Fo ) :

* = o* cos ( 1 x * )

(5.40b)

Change in thermal energy storage with time:

E st = Q

sin 1 *
Q = Q o 1
o
1

Q o = cV (T i T )

(5.43a)

(5.46)
(5.44)

Can the foregoing results be used for a plane wall that is well insulated on one
side and convectively heated or cooled on the other?
Can the foregoing results be used if an isothermal condition (T s T i ) is
instantaneously imposed on both surfaces of a plane wall or on one surface of
a wall whose other surface is well insulated?

Heisler Charts

Graphical Representation of the One-Term Approximation

The Heisler Charts, Section 5 S.1
Midplane Temperature:

Heisler Charts (cont.)

Temperature Distribution:

Change in Thermal Energy Storage:

Radial Systems

Radial Systems

Long Rods or Spheres Heated or Cooled by Convection.

Bi = hr o / k
Fo = t / r o2

One-Term Approximations:
Long Rod: Eqs. (5.49) and (5.51)
Sphere: Eqs. (5.50) and (5.52)
C 1 , 1 Table 5.1

Graphical Representations:
Long Rod: Figs. 5 S.4 5 S.6
Sphere: Figs. 5 S.7 5 S.9

Semi-Infinite Solid

The Semi-Infinite Solid

A solid that is initially of uniform temperature Ti and is assumed to extend

to infinity from a surface at which thermal conditions are altered.
Special Cases:
Case 1: Change in Surface Temperature (Ts)
T ( 0, t ) = T s T ( x,0 ) = T i
T ( x, t ) T s
Ti T s

qs =

x
= erf

2 t

(5.57)

k (T s T i )

(5.58)

Semi-Infinite Solid (cont.)

Case 2: Uniform Heat Flux ( qs = qo )

T ( x, t ) T i =

2qo ( t / )

x2
exp

k
4 t
q x
x
o erfc

k
2 t
(5.59)
2

Case 3: Convection Heat Transfer ( h, T )

k

T
x

x =0

= h T T ( 0, t )

T ( x, t ) T i
T Ti

x
= erfc

2 t

h t
hx h 2 t
exp +
+
erfc

k 2
k
k

2 t

Multidimensional Effects

(5.60)

Multidimensional Effects

Solutions for multidimensional transient conduction can often be expressed

as a product of related one-dimensional solutions for a plane wall, P(x,t),
an infinite cylinder, C(r,t), and/or a semi-infinite solid, S(x,t). See Equations
(5 S.1) to (5 S.3) and Fig. 5 S.11.
Consider superposition of solutions for two-dimensional conduction in a
short cylinder:

T ( r , x, t ) T
= P ( x, t ) C ( r , t )
Ti T
=

T ( x, t ) T
Ti T

Plane
Wall

T ( r,t ) T
Ti T

Infinite
Cylinder

Objects with Constant Ts or qs

Objects with Constant Surface

Temperatures or Surface Heat Fluxes

Transient response of a variety of objects to a step change in surface temperature

or heat flux can be unified by defining the dimensionless conduction heat rate:
q* =

qs L c
k (T s T i )

(5.64)

where Lc is a characteristic length that depends on the geometry of the object.

Consider the variation of q* with time, or Fo, for
Interior heat transfer: Heat transfer inside objects such as plane walls,
cylinders, or spheres,
Exterior heat transfer: Heat transfer in an infinite medium surrounding an
embedded object.

Objects with Constant Ts or qs, Cont.

When q* is plotted versus Fo in Figure 5.10, we see that:

All objects behave the same as a semi-infinite solid for short times.
q* approaches a steady state for exterior objects.
q* does not reach a steady state for interior objects, but decreases continually
with time (Fo).

Constant Ts

Constant qs

Why do all objects behave the same as a semi-infinite solid for short times?

Objects with Constant Ts or qs, Cont.

Approximate Solutions for Objects

with Constant Ts or qs

Easy-to-use approximate solutions for q*(Fo) are presented in Table 5.2 for all the
cases presented in Figure 5.10.
As an example of the use of Table 5.2, consider:
Infinite cylinder initially at Ti has constant heat flux imposed at its surface.
Find its surface temperature as a function of time.
Look in Table 5.2b for constant surface heat flux, Interior Cases, Infinite cylinder.
Length scale is Lc = ro, the cylinder radius.
Exact solution for q*(Fo) is a complicated infinite series.
Approximate solution is given by:
q* =

1
for Fo < 0.2
2 Fo 8

or

q* = 2 Fo +
4

for Fo 0.2

It is then a simple matter to find Ts from the definition, q* =

qs L c
k (T s T i )

Problem: Thermal Energy Storage

Problem 5.63: Charging a thermal energy storage system consisting of

a packed bed of Pyrex spheres.

KNOWN: Diameter, density, specific heat and thermal conductivity of Pyrex

spheres in packed bed thermal energy storage system. Convection coefficient
and inlet gas temperature.

FIND: Time required for sphere to acquire 90% of maximum possible thermal
energy and the corresponding center and surface temperatures.
SCHEMATIC:

Problem: Thermal Energy Storage

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional radial conduction in sphere, (2)

Negligible heat transfer to or from a sphere by radiation or conduction due to
contact with adjoining spheres, (3) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: With Bi h(ro/3)/k = 75 W/m2K (0.0125m)/1.4 W/mK = 0.67,
the lumped capacitance method is inappropriate and the approximate (one-term)
solution for one-dimensional transient conduction in a sphere is used to obtain the
desired results.

To obtain the required time, the specified charging requirement

( Q / Q o = 0.9 ) must first be used to obtain the dimensionless center temperature,

o* .
From Eq. (5.52),

o =

13
Q
1

3 sin ( 1 ) 1 cos ( 1 ) Qo

With Bi hro/k = 2.01, 1 2.03 and C1 1.48 from Table 5.1. Hence,

o =

0.1 ( 2.03 )

3 0.896 2.03 ( 0.443 )

0.837
= 0.155
5.386

Problem: Thermal Energy Storage

From Eq. (5.50c), the corresponding time is

r2
t = o 2 ln o
1 C1

= k / c = 1.4 W / m K / 2225 kg / m3 835 J / kg K = 7.54 107 m 2 / s,

t=

( 0.0375m )

ln ( 0.155 /1.48 )

7.54 10 m 2 / s ( 2.03)

= 1,020s

From the definition of o* , the center temperature is

To = Tg,i + 0.155 Ti Tg,i = 300C 42.7C = 257.3C

The surface temperature at the time of interest may be obtained from Eq. (5.50b)
with r = 1,

Ts = Tg,i + Ti Tg,i

o sin ( 1 )
0.155 0.896
= 300C 275C
= 280.9C
1
2.03

Is use of the one-term approximation appropriate?

Problem: Thermal Response Firewall

Problem: 5.79: Use of radiation heat transfer from high intensity lamps
( qs = 10 4 W/m 2 ) for a prescribed duration (t=30 min) to assess
ability of firewall to meet safety standards corresponding to
maximum allowable temperatures at the heated (front) and
unheated (back) surfaces.
KNOWN: Thickness, initial temperature and thermophysical properties of
concrete firewall. Incident radiant flux and duration of radiant heating.
Maximum allowable surface temperatures at the end of heating.

FIND: If maximum allowable temperatures are exceeded.

SCHEMATIC:

Problem: Thermal Response of Firewall

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in wall, (2) Validity of

semi-infinite medium approximation, (3) Negligible convection and radiative
exchange with the surroundings at the irradiated surface, (4) Negligible heat
transfer from the back surface, (5) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: The thermal response of the wall is described by Eq. (5.59)

T ( x, t ) = Ti +

1/ 2

2 q o ( t / )
k
7

x 2 q o x
x
exp
erfc

4 t
k
2 t

where, = k / c p = 6.92 10 m / s and for

t = 30 min = 1800s, 2q o ( t / )

1/ 2

/ k = 284.5 K. Hence, at x = 0,

T ( 0,30 min ) = 25C + 284.5C = 309.5C < 325C

At

x = 0.25m, x / 4 t = 12.54, qo x / k = 1, 786K, and x / 2 ( t )

2

1/ 2

= 3.54.

Hence,

T ( 0.25m, 30 min ) = 25C + 284.5C 3.58 106 1786C ( ~ 0 ) 25C

Problem: Thermal Response of Firewall

Both requirements are met.

Is the assumption of a semi-infinite solid for a plane wall of finite thickness

appropriate under the foregoing conditions?
COMMENTS: The foregoing analysis may or may not be conservative, since
heat transfer at the irradiated surface due to convection and net radiation
exchange with the environment has been neglected. If the emissivity of the
surface and the temperature of the surroundings are assumed to be = 1 and Tsur
= 298K, radiation exchange at Ts = 309.5C would be

4
q rad = Ts4 Tsur
= 6, 080 W / m 2 K,

which is significant (~ 60% of the prescribed radiation). However, under actual

conditions, the wall would likely be exposed to combustion gases and adjoining
walls at elevated temperatures.

Problem: Microwave Heating

Problem: 5.87: Microwave heating of a spherical piece of frozen

ground beef using microwave-absorbing packaging
material.
KNOWN: Mass and initial temperature of frozen ground beef. Rate of
microwave power absorbed in packaging material.

FIND: Time for beef adjacent to packaging to reach 0C.

SCHEMATIC:
Beef, 1kg
Ti = -20C
Packaging material, q&

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Beef has properties of ice, (2) Radiation and convection
to environment are neglected, (3) Constant properties, (4) Packaging material has
negligible heat capacity.

Problem: Microwave Heating

PROPERTIES: Table A.3, Ice ( 273 K): = 920 kg/m3, c = 2040 J/kgK, k =
1.88 W/mK.
ANALYSIS: Neglecting radiation and convection losses, all the power absorbed
in the packaging material conducts into the beef. The surface heat flux is
qs =

q&
0.5P
=
As
4R 2

The radius of the sphere can be found from knowledge of the mass and density:
4
m = V = ro3
3
1/3

3 m
ro =

1/3

3
1 kg
=
3
4 920 kg/m

= 0.0638 m

Thus
qs =

0.5(1000 W)
4(0.0638 m) 2

= 9780 W/m 2

The beef can be seen as the interior of a sphere with a constant heat flux at its surface,
thus the relationship in Table 5.2b, Interior Cases, sphere, can be used. We begin by
calculating q* for Ts = 0C.
q* =

qs ro
9780 W/m 2 0.0638 m
=
= 16.6
k(Ts - Ti ) 1.88 W/m K(0C - ( - 20C))

Problem: Microwave Heating

We proceed to solve for Fo. Assuming that Fo < 0.2, we have

q*

1
2 Fo 4
-2

Fo = 2(q* + ) = 0.0026
4

Since this is less than 0.2, our assumption was correct. Finally we can solve for
the time:
t = Fo ro2 / = Fo ro2c/k
= (0.0026 (0.0638 m)2 920 kg/m3 2040 J/kg K)/(1.88 W/m K)
= 10.6 s

COMMENTS: At the minimum surface temperature of -20C, with T = 30C

and h = 15 W/m2K from Problem 5.33, the convection heat flux is 750 W/m2,
which is less than 8% of the microwave heat flux. The radiation heat flux would
likely be less, depending on the temperature of the oven walls.