NICOLAE FLOREA

Titular member of the

Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Bucharest

PEDODIVERSITY
AND P E D O C Y C L I C I T Y
- SOIL IN SPACE AND TIME - Second edition -

BUCHAREST - ROMANIA

2010

NICOLAE FLOREA

PEDODIVERSITY AND PEDOCYCLICITY

- SOIL IN SPACE AND TIME -

BUCHAREST
- 2010 3

NICOLAE FLOREA
Titular member of the
Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Bucharest

PEDODIVERSITY AND PEDOCYCLICITY

- SOIL IN SPACE AND TIME Second Edition (in English)
with modifications and additions

BUCHAREST
- 2010 4

Typesetting:
Iuliana Alexandra Florea
Cover photographies:
Petru Ignat

ISBN: 978-973-0-08545-7

Time goes by, time comes along,

All is old and all is new,
What is right and what is wrong
You must think and ask of you.
Mihai Eminescu
Romanian poet, 1850-1889
(translation.: A.G.Sahlean)

Motto:
There is nothing in the whole of nature which is more important
than or deserves as much attention as the soil. Truly it is the soil
which makes the world a friendly environment for mankind. It is the
soil which nourishes and provides for the whole of nature; the whole of
creation depends on the soil which is the ultimate foundation of our
existence.
(Friedrich Albert Fallou, 1862).
(Pedologie oder allegemeine, Bodenkunde, Dresden, 1862)

All features of the natural landscape express themselves in

the soil, which is the final synthetic expression of the forces in the
natural landscape working together, and by which the nature of the
landscape can be better characterized, more completely and more
direct than by any other factor or combination of factors.
(Charles E. Kellogg, 1938).

A nation that destroys its soil destroys itself.

(Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1930).

There are few activity-fields which interest much more people

categories like the soil; besides the agronomist, the pedologist, the
sylviculturist, the chemist, the microbiologist, the botanist and the land
development engineer, the studies on soil interest the geologist, the
geographer, the zoologist and should interest so much the more the
political figures and anyone else who has a leading and responsibility
role in the life of society, life whose power is based in the last analysis
on the land (soil).
(Gheorghe Ionescu-iseti, 1937).

TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ..................................................................................................................... 14
1. THE PEDOSPHERE OR THE SOIL COVER ................................................................ 18
1.1 General characterization .......................................................................................... 18
1.1.1 Definition. The relations with the other geospheres ........................................... 18
1.1.2 Soil components, organization and forming ....................................................... 22
1.1.3 Soils main complex properties .......................................................................... 26
1.1.4 Soils main functions .......................................................................................... 26
1.1.5 The soil as a subsystem of terrestrial ecosystem or continental geosystems .... 27
1.1.6 The territorial systems and the soil cover........................................................... 30
1.1.7 Energy consideration for soil processes ............................................................ 31
1.2 The basic (spatial) components of the pedosphere .................................................. 32
1.2.1 The basic components of the terrestrial cover ................................................... 32
1.2.2 The soil map, source-document referring to the soil cover ................................ 33
1.2.2.1 Geometric elements of the map. Plotting in a horizontal projection............. 34
1.2.2.2 The soil-covers conformation and its role in the substance circulation ....... 35
1.2.3 The main geometric characteristics of the soil map units (polygons) .................38
2. SPACE AND TIME, BACKGROUND OF THE SOIL-COVER ........................................ 42
2.1 What are space and time? ....................................................................................... 42
2.2 Space and time, background of the soil-cover.......................................................... 44
2.3 Space and the soil cover .......................................................................................... 45
2.4 Time and the soil cover ............................................................................................ 46
2.5 The soil in the space-time continuum ....................................................................... 54
2.6 Conclusions.............................................................................................................. 55
3. THE SOIL COVER PARTITION. TERRITORIAL PEDOGEOGRAPHICAL ENTITIES. . 58
3.1 Succinct history ........................................................................................................ 58
3.2 The principles and basic ideas for a soil cover consistent partition .......................... 61
3.3 Basic soil units of the soil cover................................................................................62
3.4 The soilscapes and their systematization ................................................................. 67
3.5 Hierarchy of the units of geographical partition (segmentation) of soil cover ........... 70
3.6 Some characteristics of the main pedogeographical partition units .......................... 73
3.7 Grouping of the elementary soilscapes in major pedogeographical units................. 74
3.8 Consistent soil criteria for pedogeographical units differentiation ............................. 76
3.9 Soil combinations ..................................................................................................... 81
3.9.1 General aspects................................................................................................. 81
3.9.2 The systematization of soil combinations .......................................................... 82
3.10 Some examples of soil cover partition on soil criteria ............................................. 86
3.10.1 The soil partition of Europe .............................................................................. 86
3.10.2 The soil cover partition in Romania.................................................................. 93
3.10.3 The soil cover partition of the Danube Delta .................................................... 93
3.11 The soil facies, local-regional completion of the soil taxa. ...................................... 94
3.11.1 The pedogeographical facies. .......................................................................... 94
3.11.2 The individualization of each soil area ............................................................. 95
3.12 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................... 95
4. PEDODIVERSITY. THE PEDOGEOGRAPHICAL ASSEMBLAGE................................ 98
4.1 Historical considerations .......................................................................................... 98
4.2 Forms of pedological diversity and variability ......................................................... 101
4.2.1 Pedodiversity, analogous to biodiversity .......................................................... 101
4.2.2 Pedodiversity and soil variability ...................................................................... 102
4.2.3 Forms of soil variabilities.................................................................................. 103
4.2.4 Some aspects concerning pedodiversity indices ............................................. 104
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4.3 Genetic pedodiversity ............................................................................................. 105

4.3.1 Definition .......................................................................................................... 105
4.3.2 Indices of genetic (taxonomic) pedodiversity ................................................... 106
4.3.2.1 Soil (numerical) richness, S (or soil occurrence). ...................................... 106
4.3.2.2 Soil relative abundance or dominance, D .................................................. 108
4.3.2.3 Distribution index of component soil abundance, d. .................................. 108
4.3.2.4 The nature of dominant soils ..................................................................... 112
4.3.2.5 The Shannon index of pedodiversity, H, or entropy measure of the soil
equipartition........................................................................................................... 112
4.3.2.6 Topopedogeographical index, Itp .............................................................. 113
4.3.2.7 The nature of local soils ............................................................................ 114
4.3.2.8 Uniformity coefficient of taxonomic partitioning, UCTP and taxonomic
differentiating coefficient of soil-cover components, TDSC ................................... 114
4.3.3 Pedodiversity indices for different areas .......................................................... 114
4.3.3.1 Pedodiversity indices at the terrestrial globes level .................................. 114
4.3.3.2 Pedodiversity indices for some European countries.................................. 115
4.3.3.3 Pedodiversity indices for different regions of Romania.............................. 116
4.4 Spatial pedodiversity. Pedogeographical assemblage, expression of soilscapes
organization and diversity............................................................................................. 119
4.4.1 Introductory notions ......................................................................................... 119
4.4.2 The pedogeographical assemblage, expression of pedodiversity and of the soilcovers organization .................................................................................................. 121
4.4.3 Main characteristics of the pedogeographical assemblages ............................ 122
4.4.3.1 The conformation of the soil cover or general land physiognomy ............. 123
4.4.3.2 The content of the pedogeographical assemblage.................................... 123
4.3.3.3 The configuration of the pedogeographical assemblage or the soil spatial
distribution............................................................................................................. 124
4.4.3.4 Internal differentiation of the pedogeographical assemblage .................... 126
4.4.4 The characterization and nomenclature of the pedogeographical assemblages
.................................................................................................................................. 132
4.4.4.1 The characterization of the pedogeographical assemblages .................... 132
4.4.4.2 The nomenclature of the pedogeographical assemblages ........................ 134
4.4.5 Guide for the pedogeographical assemblages characterization...................... 135
4.4.5.1 The relation between the soil-map and the territory-reality........................ 135
4.4.5.2. Description ............................................................................................... 135
4.4.5.3 Basic notions ............................................................................................. 136
4.4.5.4 General criteria of description ................................................................... 137
4.4.5.5 Final remarks ............................................................................................ 139
4.4.6 Comparative geographical analysis of the pedodiversity ................................. 139
4.4.6.1 Coefficients of comparison ........................................................................ 139
4.4.6.2 Comparative analysis of some territories .................................................. 144
5. THE CYCLIC PROCESS OF SOIL GENESIS AND EVOLUTION ............................... 146
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 146
5.2 General aspects on cyclic processes ..................................................................... 147
5.3 Soil genesis, very complex cyclic process.............................................................. 148
5.4 Soil forming factors, motive power of the cyclic process of soil-forming and evolution
..................................................................................................................................... 154
5.4.1 The action of the soil forming factors ............................................................... 154
5.4.2 Soil evolutions the issue of the annual balance sum of the soil genesis process
(annual pedorhythm)................................................................................................. 156
5.5 Repetitive variations of cosmic phenomena, conditioning factor of the cyclic
evolution of the soil and soil-cover ............................................................................... 160
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5.6 The main principles and regularities in the soil world ............................................. 163
5.7 Some energy considerations. The antientropic character. ..................................... 165
6. PEDORHYTHMICITY, CYCLIC FEATURE OF COMMON SOIL DYNAMICS.
PEDORHYTHMS. ............................................................................................................ 168
6.1 Definitions .............................................................................................................. 168
6.2 The causes of the pedorhythms ............................................................................. 168
6.3 The general classification of pedorhythms ............................................................. 169
6.4 Soil genesis as a rhythmic process of long duration............................................... 170
6.5 Soil development, a consequence of long time totalized changes by annual
pedorhythms ................................................................................................................ 172
6.6 The pedorhythmicity and polygenetic soil evolution ............................................... 173
6.7 The classification of the annual pedorhythms ........................................................ 173
6.7.1 The classification criteria of annual pedorhythms ............................................ 173
6.7.2 The main annual pedorhythms reflecting the dynamics of different soil-forming
processes ................................................................................................................. 174
6.8 Pedosystem stability requires pedorhythms with equilibrated balance ................... 176
6.9 Anthropical modifications of pedorhythms and its influence on soils fertility .......... 177
6.10 Succinct summary ................................................................................................ 178
7. PEDOPERIODICITY, CYCLIC FEATURE OF SOILS EVOLUTION AT A GEOLOGICAL
SCALE. PEDOFLUCTUATIONS. .................................................................................... 180
7.1 General geological considerations ......................................................................... 180
7.1.1 Chronology of different soils formation............................................................ 180
7.1.2 Geological aspects of soil evolution ................................................................. 183
7.3 Pedofluctuation....................................................................................................... 187
7.3.1 Definition and classification.............................................................................. 187
7.3.2 Continuous and discontinuous pedofluctuations .............................................. 188
7.4 Types of territories with different ratios pedogenesis-reliefogenesis ...................... 188
7.5 Some terms meaning ............................................................................................ 189
7.6 Sequences of loesses and fossil soils, mirroring of the environmental conditions
oscillations and pedocyclicity during the Quaternary.................................................... 190
7.6.1 Loess layers..................................................................................................... 191
7.6.1.1 What is the loess ....................................................................................... 191
7.6.1.2 Opinions related to loess formation ........................................................... 192
7.6.1.3 Conditions necessary for loess formation.................................................. 194
7.6.1.4 A new scenario of loess genesis by concomitant sedimentation soil
forming accretion and then diagenesis of the inferior part of the soil which became
profound. ............................................................................................................... 194
7.6.2 Fossil soils ....................................................................................................... 197
7.6.2.1 Burried and present-day paleosols (or fossil soils) .................................... 197
7.6.2.2 Recognition features of the paleosols ....................................................... 199
7.6.2.3 Changes in buried (fossil) soils (diagenesis) ............................................. 200
7.6.2.4 Paleosols classification ............................................................................. 201
7.6.3 Sequences of loesses and fossil soils (of pedoliths) ........................................ 202
7.6.3.1 Some definitions........................................................................................ 202
7.6.3.2 Some characteristics of loess-fossil soil sequences (pedoliths sequences)
.............................................................................................................................. 202
7.6.3.3 A model for the formation of loesses and fossil soils sequences and their
distribution in territory ............................................................................................ 203
7.6.3.4 Forms and areas of loessification in the periglacial region ........................ 207
7.6.3.6 Geological interpretations of the loess-fossil soil sequences .................... 211
7.6.4 Soil-cover fluctuation during Pleistocene on the Romanian territory ................ 212
7.6.4.1 Altitudinal oscillations of the soil-forming domains .................................... 213
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7.6.4.2 Fluctuations of the soils distribution in territory.......................................... 215

7.6.4.3 General remarks ....................................................................................... 217
7.3.4.4 Reconstitution of the climatic evolution during Quaternary. Examples. ..... 218
8. WORLD SOIL DIVERSITY .......................................................................................... 222
8.1 Soil variety and distribution on the globe ................................................................ 222
8.1.1 FAO-UNESCO World Soil Map........................................................................ 222
8.1.2 The World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB-SR).............................. 225
8.1.3 The world soil map according to the terminology of the Soil Taxonomy .......... 227
8.1.4 The main regularities of soil geographical distribution ..................................... 232
9. MAIN FACTORS OF LIFE SUPPORTING. THE ESSENTIAL ROLE OF THE SOIL ... 240
9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 240
9.2 Chemical elements of living matter......................................................................... 241
9.3 Nutrition, the primordial condition for life ................................................................ 246
9.4 Accumulation and transformation of organic matter and energy ............................ 246
9.5 Energy flow and nutrient biologic cycle. Information program ................................ 248
9.6 The main factors indispensable for nutrition and life .............................................. 250
9.7 The nodal role of soil for sustaining life and its quality ........................................... 252
9.8 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................... 257
10. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS ....................................................................................... 258
10.1 The problem of soil preservation .......................................................................... 258
10.2 The importance of the pedodiversity research...................................................... 259
10.3 The utility of the pedocyclicity research ................................................................ 261
10.4 New horizons........................................................................................................ 261
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................. 264

13

FOREWORD

Phenomena from Nature do not appear somewhere and at various times with the
same look and they dont always develop with the same intensity, but they have spatial
and temporal variations that are usually perceptible. The cyclic development of natural
phenomena is a general characteristic both of the mineral, inanimate world, and of the
living world. The cyclicity of the living world derives from the fact that vital processes need
an amount of energy that comes from the cosmic space, with a certain rhythmicity; and
this rhythmicity is conveyed as a universal feature for all processes. There are well known
biological rhythms of living organisms and their cyclicity, which are correlated with the
cosmic ones.
The soil cover, that links the inanimate world with the living world, is also
characterized by a development with a certain cyclicity of its processes, as well as with a
certain variable (rhythmic) intensity, aspects too little approached and studied until now.
The soils and their properties, the forming processes and causes, their variation and their
distribution in space are well known, unlike the soil dynamics or the rate of soil evolution.
However, the soil maps link in a certain extent space with pedological time, as background
of the soil forming and soil cover existence, because these maps describe the great soil
diversity in space at the moment of their elaboration.
The research and knowledge of soils and their distribution in territory as natural
entities represents the way of understanding the concretization mode of the pedological
space diversity, while the study of the cyclic rhythm of soil processes and their evolutionrate represents the way of perception of the pedological-times materialization, which must
be considered an element of the soil-covers fundamental structure.
The whole terrestrial surface consists of soil fragments (areas) juxtaposed in
different patterns that form soil continuums (as part of the pedosphere). These ways of
soil-associations (spatial arrangements) that correspond to different soil complex entities
(soil combinations or other soil communities) are obviously determined both by zonal
climatic factors and by regional lithological or topographical factors. The different spatial
(territorial) arrangements met in a territory are not distributed at random or aleatory, on the
contrary, they are interconnected by various relations both with geographical conditions
(position) and with genetic and evolution processes (static and dynamic relations). The
14

arrangement of the soil units (areas) in territory constitutes the soil cover assemblage or
pedogeographical assemblage, which reflects in fact the soil diversity and soil spatial
organization, closely correlated with topography and lithology conditions, differentiated
upon each climatic zone.
As a matter of fact, the soil cover moulding the earth surface acquires itself the
spatial conformation of the relief, which becomes an intrinsic feature of the soil cover. It
results, therefore, that delimitation of territories with different spatial conformations (which
show the evenness or declivity of the land forms) is absolutely necessary as a specific
character of the soil cover, character which reflects the different ways of waters and other
substances circulation in the soil and at its surface. The water circulation, for example,
can take different forms from those constructive (as soil forming and evolving or water
accumulation), to those impeding the soil development or even destroying soil by erosion.
As a consequence, the irregularities of the earth surface (topography) have an important
role in the soil genesis and soil distribution in territory or in the so called gedogeographical
assemblage as an expression of soil diversity and spatial organization of soil entities.
Each zone and region of the land is characterized by a heterogeneous soil cover
which also presents in its diversity the mark of the actual and the old (paleogeographical)
events cyclicly developed; these events have contributed during the irreversible time to the
soil formation and diversification, to the existence and evolution of the soil cover, so
essential for life itself by its functions in the terrestrial ecosystems.
As a matter of fact, the soil cover is perceived at a given moment of the irreversible
time as a result of various pedogenesis and reliefogenesis processes generated by the
combination of various environmental factors, processes which develop with a certain
cyclicity and various intensities in time.
Space and time are not causes of soil forming processes and do not modify these
processes - they represent only the background of these ones, respectively the soil covers
existence conditions. The space is the background of the various soils which form the soil
cover, three-dimensional and very shallow, which covers the land as a skin (or membrane),
forming the pedosphere. The time which passes irreversibly has to be regarded as
duration needed so that the pedogenetic processes can act and imprint their effects,
leading to the soil-forming and soil-cover diversification.
Pedological time is determined by the dynamic relations between soil and
environment, the pedogenetic processes and their effect being developed in correlation
with cyclic (rhythmic) evolution of the environmental factors. The pedological time,
materialized by the pedogenetic rhythm or pedorhythm, contributes to soil diversification in
15

space, which can not be fully understood without the pedocyclicity approach. This fact
explains the dealing with the two aspects (problems) together. They need much more
attention in research activity, being in fact the materialization of the pedological space and,
respectively, pedological time.
Besides the scientific importance (for the soil-cover concept as a system), the
development of the pedodiversity, pedocyclicity and the soil-cover assemblage concepts
have a special practical importance. This is because the land use and its sustainable
management, the land development and soil improvement, as well as the productive
capacity of soils depend not only on the soil nature, but also on the pattern of soil
association (juxtaposition) and distribution in territory, forming pedogeographical
assemblages with specific features. All the problems of soil resources management are
conditioned in a more or less degree by these soil-cover assemblages and by the rhythmic
dynamics of the processes from the soil-cover (pedosphere).
These concepts orient and stimulate in the same time the development of new
research in the fields of soil-science, soil geography, environment, leading to a thorough
substantiation of the zoning-activity, regioning and using of soil cover on the basis of soil
cover analysis, based in its turn on soil diversity and spatial organization and on the
rhythmicity of soil processes, viewed through the soil-system concept.
Also, the geographical informatic system (GIS), in its pedological site, is based on
soil territorial entities (soilscapes) which are in fact entities of pedogeographical
assemblage whose characterization is based on elements exposed in this paper.
The work represents not only an update of the information regarding the discussed
questions, but also a synthesis of my own previous papers with some notes or even some
modification of the initial meaning of certain notions. This was considered useful in order to
clarify and update the knowledge which evolves so rapidly in the present time.
Finally, I am of the opinion that the approach of the intricate question of soil in
space and time on the basis of incomplete information because I do not know all the
literature represented a daring and difficult initiative felt throughout the writing of this
paper. I am convinced that this volume was completed with many lackings. However, I
took upon myself the responsibility of printing and also the risks of righteous criticism,
having in view the firm hope that these pages will stimulate constructive discussions and
research and will render service to other people as starting point for a new approach and
development at another level.
Ive also included in the work a chapter about the essential factors of life supporting,
in order to underline the extremely important role of the soil, still too little known and
16

appreciated, to ensure life perpetuance. Although this chapter has no direct link with this
volumes topic, the soil itself, as a non-replaceable sustainer of life on land, is a result of
the living organism activity developing in space and over time in a cyclic way and with a
clear rhythmicity (biorhythms), which are also conveyed in the dynamics of the soil
processes, influencing decisively the morphological expression, properties and evolution of
soils.

The author.

17

1. THE PEDOSPHERE OR THE SOIL COVER

In the sanctuary of Nature, the soil is like a
stained-glass window revealing the present landscape, a
clear window for the past and a streak of light towards
the future.
(N. Florea, 2007).
The pedosphere represents the cover of loose material from the land surface, more
or less continuous, named soil. It constitutes the upper part, thin, very sensitive and fragile,
moulding the land (relief) forms, so that the features of relief are also features of the soil
cover (pedosphere). Just like the reliefosphere, the pedosphere the most reactive part of
the reliefosphere has a continuous dynamic character and varies in space and time as
intensity and direction; it is always subjected to the action of the external and internal
natural factors, as well as of anthropological factors, adapting itself depending on the
integrated action of all factors.
Like the relief, the soil cover is an essential component of the landscape. The relief
and climatic conditions are coordinating elements of the geographical landscape
(environment), while the soil as interface of different geospheres is the integrating
element of the landscape, which includes the action of the whole complex of
environmental factors, so that it reflects synthetically and expressively the geographical
landscape.
The pedosphere as interface of the other geospheres represents a regulation factor
of the landscape dynamics, because it receives and transfers modifying and regulating
substances and energy (input and output) from/and to all geographical components of
landscape (geosystem); in this way, it continuously participates to the landscape dynamics.
Speaking about soil and landscape, Ch. E. Kellogg said many years ago (1938): All
features of the natural landscapeexpress themselves in soilby which the nature of the
landscape can be better characterized, more completely and more direct than by any other
factor or combination of factors (p. 864).
At the same time, the soil cover is an indicator of the environments quality.

1.1 General characterization

1.1.1 Definition. The relations with the other geospheres
The pedosphere or soil cover is represented by the loose (unconsolidated) material
forming a thin layer at the surface of the Earth that serves as natural support and
environment for plant-growing; it is the interface, the interpenetration zone of lithosphere
with the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere. This layer is often considered a soil
continuum, although there are some discontinuities represented by bare rocks, shifting
sands, river bed, deep lakes etc.
The pedosphere (Murgoci, 1910, 1924; Mattson, 1938; Kovda and Rozanov, 1988;
and others) is formed as a result of the interaction of the mentioned geospheres; it has
features varied from a place to another on the globe depending on the joining and
interacting of the geospheres on the land surface.
According to Murgoci (1924), pedology is a science which treats the phenomena
which take place in the pedosphere, in the crust of the earthPhenomena of this region
18

are phenomena of complex contact of the lithosphere with the other coverings of the earth
(hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere). Pedology is then the science of transition
between the mineral world and the organic one. It treats not only the substances of contact,
in particular of soils, but considers also the life, so far as this comes in contact with the
mineral world and as regards its beginning and development in the soil. It is here, at the
surface of contact, where the most interesting phenomena are found: transformation of
rocks and minerals by contact with water, air, organisms, etc; here plants and animals live
and die; here the soil is formed from which man gains his bread. And all this is a very thin
covering. Pedology is a science which treats of a world nearly in two dimensions: going
deeper down under the soil we find rocks; rising above the crust of the earth we are in the
atmosphere or, e.g., in the biosphere.
Sante Mattson (1938), dealing with the pedosphere as interference of the four
geospheres, considers that the lacunar (porous) space, moisture and mineral and organic
matter of soil (at which we add the soil living organisms) represent the participationproportion of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere to the make-up of
the soil.
The pedosphere acts as a membrane being considered the skin of the Earth
(geoderm or geoepidermis) through which a permanent exchange of substances and
energy takes place among the different geospheres; it plays the role of regulation of these
exchanges, permitting some substances and energy to pass, reflecting or accumulating
other ones at its surface or within a proper layer (fig. 1.1). Therefore, the pedosphere
represents an essential support of the living organisms activity; at the same time, the
pedosphere is in a great extent a result of the activity of living organisms.
The pedosphere makes up in fact a pellicle or thin cover, with some interruptions,
that wraps the land and which differs from other geospheres firstly by extremely thin
volume in comparison with these ones. The soil-components of the pedosphere are
relatively stable, are formed and remain in situ; they are subjected in time to the
environmental condition changes, evolving gradually (little by little) depending on these
changes (of climate, vegetation, topography, etc). The atmosphere is profoundly different
because its components are very mobile and mingle very easily in its huge volume; the
hydrosphere is characterized by the continual renovation (refreshing) and circulation of the
water at land surface, so that in the case of the hydrosphere, as well as of the atmosphere,
a relatively rapid dilution of some possible local concentrations of substances can be
realized. The biosphere distinguishes itself by the fact that living organisms can choose
the convenient site for living, avoiding the unfavourable sites. As opposed to the
lithosphere, the pedoshere differs by the accumulation of the biophilic elements and the
presence of the thermal, moisture and air conditions propitious to life.
The pedosphere has a limited size both as spatial extension, the land area being
the maximum surface and as the soil cover thickness, the soil depth varying between few
millimeters and some meters, the frequent values being between 1 and 2 m.
The upper limit of the pedosphere is the air (or atmosphere) or the water in the case
of the shallow lakes with limnosols (submerged soils). The lower limit that separates soil
from the non-soil is difficult to define. It is normally considered to be either the lower limit
of the biological activity which generally corresponds with the common rooting depth of
native perennial plants, or the depth of extension of pedogenetic processes (Soil
Taxonomy); in most cases, the two depths coincide. If, however, the mentioned limits
exceed 200 cm, the lower limit of the soil is conventionally set at 200 cm. Nevertheless, if
the layers that are deeper than 200 cm affect the content and circulation of water, air and
nutrients in the soil, in this case they are described and investigated for the soil studies
concerning land development and soil improvement and management.
Regarding the limit of the pedosphere fragments (soilscapes), this one corresponds
to the limit of passing to deep water, bare compact rock or glacier.
19

Figure 1.1 Two ways of sketching the pedosphere as an integrating system which
makes the link among the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere,
constituting the interface (geoderm) among these geospheres, interface which
intermediates the exchange of substances and energy among them in the
framework of the terrestrial ecosystems (and continental geosystems).
The term of soil is used at least with two meanings in soil science, namely as soil
cover (without differentiation of different soil types) and as distinct entity, component of the
soil cover (pedosphere). The first meaning is met, for example, in expressions like soil
forming, soil evolution, soil erosion, soil degradation, soil fertility, soil physics, etc. The
20

second meaning is encountered, for instance, in the denominations Chernozem, Podzol,

Rendzine, Gleysol, Solonets, etc. A distinction is made in the Soil Taxonomy between the
term soil and the term a soil; soil is soil cover (or soil continuum) as the collection of
soils which form the pedosphere, and a soil (or certain soils) are distinct soils (natural
bodies), components of the soil cover.
The meaning of soil as outer layer of the earth (making up the natural environment
for the growth of land plants) is thought of as complete units on the earths surface that
must have living matter in them and must be capable of supporting plants (Arnold, 1983)
and in this sense it covers the land as a continuum.
The meaning of soil as a collection of natural bodies focuses on subdivisions of a
continuum as discrete definable parts that can be treated as members of a whole, and the
whole is considered to be an organized collection of its parts; these parts or individuals in
the continuum have properties due to integrated effect of climate and living matter, acting
upon parental material as conditioned by relief over periods of time (Arnold, 1983).
Indeed, the soil may be and is conceived either as a soil continuum whose
properties vary continuously in territory but in which can be delineated conventionally
component parts, relatively homogeneous, considered soil entities delimited one from
another by diffuse boundaries, or as a juxtaposition of different soil entities or individuals
(elementary soil unit) which represent an organized throng of soils (or soil associations)
forming soil cover fragments (soilscapes).
The meaning of the term soil (and the concept of soil) evolved in time from outer
layer or soil continuum (Marbut, 1935), to those of collection of natural bodies on the
surface of the earth. The perspective of soil has changed from one in which the whole
was emphasized and its parts were loosely defined, to one in which the parts are sharply
defined and the whole is an organized collection of these parts (Soil Survey Manual, 1993,
p.8).
Soil entities occur at land surface on large areas which can not be studied directly
on the whole surface, therefore only small fragments of soil cover are taken into account.
These very small fragments soil samples (fig. 1.2) which appear as three-dimensional
bodies are named pedons (or soil profiles) and represent a prisme or column of soil (with
its horizons) between parent material and land surface. The surface of a pedon ranges
from 1 to 10 m2 in area, depending on the soil type and its properties variability. The pedon
is in fact the smallest body of one kind of soil large enough to represent the nature and
arrangement of horizons and variability in the other properties that are preserved in
samples (Soil Survey Manual, 1993).
The polypedon is the group of contiguous similar pedons that are bordered on all
sides by pedons of unlike character or non-soils. The boundary from the polipedons may
not be everywhere clear; more commonly, it stretches gradually over a distance of several
meters or more, even kilometers (differing thus from the case of a plant or animal
individuals).
The vertical two-dimensional section in soil which shows the soil horizon succession
and properties represents the soil profile (analogous to pedon). The soil is studied in the
fields on pedons or soil profiles that represent a unit of soil sampling, while the polypedon
is considered the basic unit of soil classification. The notion of polypedon links the real soil
body from nature with the abstract (mental) concept of taxonomic unit (taxon). It must be
underlined that the soil unit does not identify with the soil profile (pedon), which is only a
point, a soil sample from the soil cover. The soil unit (on the map) represents an area that
is characterized by information obtained from the soil profiles (pedons) study, as well as
from the corresponding environmental conditions.
Generally, between two soil entities there is a continuous transition that makes the
delineation of the respective soils difficult. Based on this situation, the real existence itself
of the soil entities was contested, these ones being considered as results of the human
21

mind, very useful for practical purposes or didactic reasons. However, among the different
soil entities there are clear differences, easily distinguishable, even if the transition among
them is diffuse. This specificity of the soil entities (individuals), differing from those of
biological individuals, marked by a certain degree of indetermination, needs the
establishment of some thresholds (indices) of delimitation, often just conventional, but
corresponding to real situations. The soil entities, therefore, are characterized by a
discrete-continuous transition among them, while the biological individuals are
characterized by a discrete transition, being sharply distinct entities.

Figure 1.2 The pedon as the minimum volume, representative for the elementary soil
unit (polypedon), a distinct elementary part of the pedosphere (each lateral face of
the pedon shows the soil profile with its horizons).
1.1.2 Soil components, organization and forming
The pedosphere is made up of a variable intimate mixture of mineral components,
organic components, water and air, to which one can add numerous specific living
organisms (edaphon); this thin layer supports the vegetal cover (from a physical, moisture
and nutrient point of view) and fulfills various functions and services for the environment
and society.
Among the different substances that make up the soil (and soil cover) one can find
the biopedoplasme or pedostructural matter, a specific substance for soil formed by
combination of the mineral colloids (especially clay) and organic colloids (humic
substances) with living organisms (especially soil microorganisms) which control the soil
biochemical processes.
All these substances, very varied, that make up the soil, do not form a simple
mixture, but present a constitutive organization or inner organization reflected by the
components arrangement in the soil material and the component distribution on the
vertical. The arrangement of the component-particles determines the formation of micro
and macro-aggregates of particles (structure aggregates or peds) of which the micro and
macro-porosity of soil material depends, and of course physical properties, water and air
regime and the whole dynamics of soil. Vertical organization is reflected by the
differentiated distribution of components at various depths of the soil cover forming layers
(called pedogenetic horizons); these pedogenetic horizons are richer or poorer in some
components or have different properties, or local accumulations of some compounds
(named neoformations or pedoconcetrations). The horizon differentiation confers to the
soil a specific morphology and new properties.
22

Solar energy

Time

Vegetation and fauna

Climate and relief

(topography)

Time

Soil + land
(soil cover)

Inputs of
substances (additons)

Pedogenetic
processes (including
pedobiological)
Anthropical
influences

Outputs of
Transformations
Translocations
Haploidizations
etc

Denudation
Sedimentation
Accretion
etc

substances (losses)

Reliefogenetic
(geomorphic)
processes

Parent material
Rock and geological
processes

Gravitational force

Reactive biogeochemical system with cyclic dynamics

over time (pedorhythms, pedofluctuations)
Figure 1.3 Generalized scheme of the conditions, factors and processes of soil
forming.
The soil forming is the result of some long term processes under action of natural
external factors (climate and vegetation) upon natural internal factors (parent material and
relief) (fig. 1.3). There is, therefore, a continuous interaction between lithosphere and the
other geospheres (atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere) at the earths surface; the soil
and land forms are in a non-interrupted dynamics. Of course, as a consequence of the
different climate, parental material, topography and vegetation conditions on the globe, the
formed soils will be much diversified as composition, organization, morphology and
properties from one place to another.
The life, soil, air (atmosphere), water (hydrosphere) and land forms have evolved
and evolve together, influencing one another. But the soil connects them, intermediating
the exchange of substances and energy and assuring the evolution of each one and of the
whole (ecosystem, geosystem).
The forming of the soil cover needs, among other things, the formation of a mineral
loose layer through rocks weathering with the emergence of new mineral compounds, and
also the formation and accumulation of humus, by transformation of organic remnants
through biochemical processes by means of soil fauna and flora, as well as the
solubilization or mobilization of different soil components and their implication in various
biochemical and geochemical cycles.
The processes that have developed in the soil, named pedogenetic processes, take
place under the action of solar energy, gravity force and soil living organisms, as well as
under actions of the climate and vegetation factors on parent-material in different
23

conditions of topography (see also chapters 5 and 6). They lead in time to the above
mentioned transformations so that finally the various soil profiles specific to each soil types
are carried out.
The main elementary pedogenetic processes of soil forming can be grouped in 5
categories, namely:
- pedogenetic processes of transformation of mineral compounds in situ by
weathering, synthesis;
- pedogenetic processes of transformation of organic compounds (dead) and
humus forming in the upper horizon (bioaccumulation);
- pedogenetic processes of translocation of some components and vertical soil
differentiating, developing horizons enriched or impoverished in different compounds
(eluviation-iluviation, leaching, etc);
- pedogenetic processes of soils material haploidization (homogeneizing) with the
trend to counteract the action of processes from the above category;
- reliefogenetic processes (of denudation, sedimentation, etc) which interfere with
the pedogenetic processes with a trend to oppose them.
Besides these, one can add the anthropogenetic processes which lead to an
intensive modification of the above mentioned processes, as well as of the soil properties.
The pedogenesis is, therefore, counteracted by reliefogenesis, so that the tandem
pedogenesis-reliefogenesis, of which the soil cover itself depends on, acts in various
proportions so that territories with different features arise, due to land modeling factors
(territorial systems).
Subatomic particles
Atoms
Molecules, crystals, ions

Living organisms (esp.

microorganisms)

Mineral and organic

colloids (pedoplasme)
Biopedoplasme
(pedostructural
matter)
Constitutive
levels unspecific
for soil, but
existing in soil

Basic matter of soils phases

Peds
(soil
(solid, liquid,
gaseous),
aggregates)
grains and aggregates
arrangement, and voids

Horizons

Polypedon
(soil
individual)

Constitutive levels
specific to the soil

Figure 1.4 The hierarchy of the constitutive levels or of the matter-integration

levels within the soil individual (by Florea, 1998).
The various effects of all factors and pedogenetic processes which lead to the soilformation are materialized at each matter-integration level in the morphological features
specific to each soil and in its properties (fig. 1.4).
Studying the soil morphology and the perceptible soil properties one can obtain
precious information about the environment and its evolution (the soil being considered
since long ago the mirror of the landscape), as well as about the bioproductive potential of
the soil or about the most proper management in order to avoid deterioration or
degradation.
24

In the WRB-SR (1998), the soil cover is considered a continuous natural body
which has three spatial dimensions and one temporal. It is formed by mineral and organic
constituents, organized in specific structures, making up the morphological aspect
(equivalent to the anatomy of a living organisms) and being in constant evolution, thus
giving the soil its forth dimension time. Soils characteristics or its simple properties are
parameters which are observable or measurable in the field or in the laboratory. The soils
general or complex properties are combinations of related soil characteristics (or simple
properties) which occur in the soil indicating some soil qualities; often they are named soil
qualities. The soil horizon is also considered a layer of the soil, approximatelly parallel to
the soil surface, differing in properties from the adjacent layers below and above it; and
soil profile consists of the vertical succession of horizons occurring within a defined depth
(WRB-SR, 1998).
The pedosphere also has a spatial organization in territory. Indeed, the elementary
soil units (areas) which make up the pedosphere polypedons are not widespread at
random on the land, but they are set in an order determined by natural conditions, so that
the different soils form a natural territory from soil communities (soilscapes) with certain
relations among them and with a certain functionality as a whole.
These soil communities, having the polypedon as basic unit, are more and more
complex constituting a hierarchical suite, beginning with the polypedon and ending with the
pedosphere as the sum of all communities (the pedosphere may be considered as a
closed system, which however receives energy from the Sun and has various exchanges
with the aquatic basins).
Between the two steps initial and final one can distinguish the following steps:
pedosocion, pediom and peditory. The pedosocion is the simplest soil association of two
or a few soils on a land form. The pediom is a more complex soil community, represented
by an elementary soilscape, specific to a relief unit with the same genetico-geographical
evolution and features. The peditory consists of soilscapes grouped on large territories,
either of the same kind on a vast geographical zone, or of different kinds on a great region,
continent or hydrographic basins forming a succession of composite soilscapes (soil
spectra) (fig. 1.5, Florea, 1998). Their sum constitutes the pedosphere.

Polypedon
(elementary
soil area)

Pedosocions
(elementary soil
association)

Compound soilscape
(homeopeditory):
district, region,
province, domain,
zone of soils

Pediom
(elementary
soilscape)

PEDOSPHERE

Composite soilscape
(heteropeditory):
interconnected soilscapes
forming the soil
spectrum (sequence) on
great regions, continents,
hydrographic basins, etc.

Figure 1.5 The hierarchy of the spatial-organization levels of the soil individuals in
compound or composite natural entities at a given moment in time (by Florea, 1998).
Summarizing, one can state that the pedosphere and the component-soils of the
soil cover are natural entities resulted from the transformation (or in course of
transformation) in time of the mineral (sometime organic) material from the earths surface
by physical, chemical and biological processes determined by climate and vegetation in
25

different topographic conditions; they have a specific morphology, certain properties and
organization, and represent the medium for the growth of higher plants (in terrestrial
ecosystems), habitat for edaphon and basis of life for animals and mankind, constituting a
subsystem which pulses continuously as the heart of the terrestrial ecosystems.
The pedosphere consists of different spatio-temporal functional units, in a
continuous dynamics and interaction, both at an individual level of the entity (body) of a
distinct soil, and at a level of community forming soil-associations which join in collective
entities of various soils, forming specific soilscapes more and more complex. This mode of
unitary organization of the pedosphere assures in itself its unity, in spite of its large
diversity.
The morphological characteristics of the soils and their horizon-systems represent
the main content of information on the soil, its signalization system as an individual entity,
while the soil regular wide-spreading in territory (the pedogeographic assemblage) the
main content of the information and evaluation of the soils, their link with the environmental
factors, and their capacity of crop production.
1.1.3 Soils main complex properties
The soils have a set of complex properties, often named qualities, in order to
differentiate them of the common properties. These complex properties are very important
for the soil characterization because they define the soils behaviour in different
circumstances and also the soils functions and, indirectly, the soils management and
protection measures.
Among the most important complex properties, the following can be mentioned:
- the water holding capacity (water that is gradually given up to plants) influenced by
the soil porosity, in its turn depending firstly on the soils texture and structure;
- the absorption - desorbtion capacity of nutrients and other substances, depending
on the content and nature of mineral and organic colloids (especially clay and humic acids)
which form the soils pedoplasma, the most active part of the soil;
- the oxidation-reduction capacity and self-purification capacity, correlated with soils
drenability and, respectively, with soils permeability and soils aeration;
- the availability of nutrients and other substances from the soil, close correlated
with soils reaction (pH), base saturation degree and soluble salt content;
- the soils capacity to answer or adapt itself to the oscillations of environmental
factors or to perturbations (soil reactivity) and soils capacity to revert to the previous state
(soil resilience);
- the soils behaviour from the point of view of engineering properties (when soil is
used in construction: buildings, roads, dams, pipelines) or of agricultural works (soil
workability) and vehicles circulation (soil trafficability);
- the soils erodability and soils regeneration through the parent material
transformation into soil (compensative denudation).
1.1.4 Soils main functions
The soil (the pedosphere) fulfills many functions essential for nature, living world
and human society. The most important ones are the following:
- the function of accumulation and delivery of energy by receiving organic matter
and its gradual decomposition;

26

- the function of regulation of the soil-water and air-regime as participant to the

global hydrological cycle by repartition of the water flow between infiltration and surface
runnings, water storage and seepage in depth;
- the function of available nutrients providing (by soil solution) and continuously
recycling the nutrients necessary for lifes continuity (biogeochemical cycles) by
decomposition of the vegetal and animal remnants with the help of the soil edaphon,
process which leads to the release of chemical elements and humus formation;
- the function of prevention of soils properties (quality) deterioration by buffering
the sudden changes (oscillations), filtering the polluted water, or transforming, immobilizing,
removing and detoxifying different pollutant substances, acting in this way for the
preservation of waters, airs and edapons qualitiy;
- the function of support for different buildings, roads, as well as for historic vestiges
buried in the soil.
Through all these functions, the soil (pedosphere) is intensively implicated in the
following:
- the global climate, due to carbon recycling, emission of gases with green house
effect (water vapours, CO2, NOx, methane), as well as by caloric balance correlated with
the hydrological cycle;
- the hydrological cycle in nature by water storage in soil and its influence on water
accumulation in the ground water, on running water at the soils surface and, implicitly, on
discharge of rivers.;
- the natural cycling of the chemical elements; the disturbance of this cycling can
lead on one hand to the nutrients depletion with unfavourable consequences on general
welfare, and, on the other hand, to the euthrophication of water reservoirs or soil pollution;
- the sediment circulation as a consequence of the accelerated soil erosion if the
soil is unadequately used with unfavourable effects correlated with the silting of the water
reservoirs, estuaries or fertile soils, with the worsening of the water quality by pollution,
with the disfunctionality of the road or railroad network or urban facilities.
It results, therefore, that the pedosphere has a very important role for nature and
mankind, fulfilling essential functions for sustainable development and preservation of vital
resources; the soil is a very reactive cover, but also very sensible and fragile.
Consequently, the protection off soils resources through a proper management is most
necessary, assuring the actual requirements of sustainable development.
1.1.5 The soil as a subsystem of terrestrial ecosystem or continental geosystems
Related to the environment to which it belongs, the soil is in fact a subsystem that
occupies a central place both in the terrestrial ecosystems, either agricultural or forestry
ecosystems (Chiri, 1974), and in the continental geosystems (Florea, 1988), fulfilling
functions of great significance in connection with lifes perpetuation on Terra and with the
continuity of the biosphere and reliefosphere.
The ecosystem represents an entity which includes all living organisms from a
territory which interact with the environment so that the flow of energy leads to a certain
trophic structure, to a species diversity and a cycle of substances, respectively to an
exchange of substances between the biotic and the mineral part (F.P. Odum, 1971). The
ecosystem (concept introduced by Tansley, 1938), consists of the biocoenosis or biota (a
community of biologic individuals of different species specific to a certain territory or
aquatory) and the biotope (habitat) or abiota (which refers to natural conditions, also
including the soil in the case of the terrestrial ecosystems).
The geosystem (concept introduced by Socheava, 1963), represents a territorial
unit characterized by specific structural-functional relations among the geological and the
27

geographical components, which form a particular landscape in space, with its energy
potential and its biological productivity. This concept refers to different landscape units
irrespective of the magnitude order (local, regional, global) which are not considered as
spatial fragments, but as a whole, as a structural-functional aggregate.
Between the ecosystem and the geosystem there are similarities and differences.
Both concepts are based on the systemic functionality and have in view the relations with
the living organisms. Their interpenetration clearly comes from the fact that the abiotic
components of the terrestrial ecosystem are in the same time constitutive components of
the continental geosystem. But the geosystem is more complex than the ecosystem, the
last one being included in the first. If in the ecosystem the living organisms are the
essential component and the environment is lifes framework, in the geosystem all
components form a functional whole,including living organisms which can play a more or
less important role. In the ecosystem, the relations organism-environment are in the first
row of the trophic nature, while in the geosystem the relations among components are
much more comprehensive. The ecosystem refers to the present situation, while the
geosystem is an entity historically-evolutive, also carrying the past imprint. In addition, the
geosystem also includes the anthropical activity, integrating new functions to the
geosystem. These differences lead, of course, to differences in the hierarchical
organization which is based on biocenosis for ecosystems, or based on the whole
territorial features (local, regional, global) for geosystems.
The agriculture, the main economy branch which is biomass producer and in the
same time modifier of natural landscapes by different land-use and land development and
soil improvement works, pays attention to the profound knowledge to both concepts with
the purpose to use, manage and protect more efficiently and sustainably the natural
resources and particulary the soil resources.
In both the two concepts ecosystem or geosystem the soil represents a
subsystem, either integrated to the biotope specific to the terrestrial ecosystem or
constituting a central component of the continental geosystem, irrespective of the
hierarchical level of approach.
The soils role as a subsystem of terrestrial ecosystems, the mode of integration
and the relations with the other components of the ecosystem are sketched in fig. 1.6. The
soil, considered especially from the ecological point of view (concerning the factors and
conditions offered for plant-growth), together with the environment with its features makes
up the pedotope with its specific character (or site, C. Chiri, 1974, in the sylviculture),
which determines the most important soil property, from a bioproductive point of view: the
soils fertility.
In its turn, soils fertility together with the biological potential of green plants (from
biocenosis or agricultural culture), defines the productive capacity of the terrestrial
ecosystem (or agroecosystem in the case of cultivated soils), materialized yearly by
biomass production (or yield) obtained in a cycle of vegetation.
Production capacity for phytomass must be attributed, therefore, to the whole
ecosystem, and not only to the soil or to the plant. The soil has only the property of fertility
or a fertility potential (often called, improperly, productive potential). In natural conditions or
conditions little modified by man, soils fertility is considered natural (or native) fertility;
through a long cultivation, the soils acquire a cultural fertility (or man-made fertility). They
are intensively conditioned by climate, so that the yield of the same ecosystem varies, of
course, from a year to another, depending on the annual meteorological conditions.
The productive capacity of an ecosystem represents only a potential, which
becomes effective by human activity.

28

Solar energy

Climate
Soil

Relief

Biocenosis or crop

Geological
substratum

Soils fertility
(natural,
cultural)

Groundwater
Anthropical
actions

Plants
biological
potential

Pedotope
with its
ecological
specificity

Ecosystems production
capacity (natural, cultural)

Figure 1.6 Soils place in a terrestrial ecosystem

The geosystem is an open oversystem which has a spatial developing and an
existence developed in time. It consists of the abiotic system, biotic system and socialeconomical system (Irina Ungureanu et al., 2003). These component systems include
many constituents among which numerous exchanges of substances, energy and
information take place on the basis of existing resources and conditions.
The geosystems are, therefore, unitary terrestrial ensembles or landscapes
integrated in territorial functional units, each ensemble functioning as a whole from the
point of view of the interaction of its components and of the proper dynamics of each of
them.
They present a certain geographical physiognomy and a certain energy and
ecological potential, reflected in the specific bioproductive potential. The ecological
potential is the result of the integrated combination of the climatic, topographical,
lithological, hydrological, pedological and vegetation factors and conditions, as well as
land-use (Rou, 1987).
Being a dynamic formation, any change or modification of a geosystem component
or of some input or output elements leads to changes or modifications of other geosystem
components or even to the geosystems transformation itself.
The soils place and importance in the geosystems results from its central position.
Situated at the interface of all the other geospheres, the soil intermediates the transfer of
substances and energy among the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere and
particulary between the biosphere and the other geospheres; this is due to the huge
concentration of living organisms in the soil - thus generating intensive biochemical
processes, accelerating the process of weathering, transformation, synthesis, migration,
etc in the Earths crust. The soil realizes, therefore, the unity and the link between all
environmental components and especially between the living world and the lifeless world
in the framework of the natural or anthropical modified landscape. Also, by its position and
functions, the soil represents a factor of stability for the geosystem by its protective action
(together with the vegetation-cover) against external geological agents.
29

Summarizing, between the (continental) geosystem and the (terrestrial) ecosystem,

scientific distinct notions, there are common features which result from the fact that both
are basic units of the geographical landscape and can be influenced by man, but there are
also differences between the two.
The geosystem, fragment of the geographic cover, is not only a natural territorial
ensemble, but also a dynamic entity with a certain organization in which the different
covers of Terra are integrated, and to which the human activity is added. Generally, it
includes more landscapes or parts of landscapes, respectively of ecosystems (B. Strugen,
1982).
The ecosystem represents a fundamental unit of the biosphere in which the
integration of biotope and living organisms is realized, based on interactions of trophic
nature reflected by the substances cycle (trophic chain). The terrestrial ecosystem belongs
to the geosystem in which it is situated, fulfilling the biotic geosystem function, component
part of the substance movement in the geosystem.
1.1.6 The territorial systems and the soil cover
The territorial system, regardless of its naming (geographical cover, territorial
compex, environmental unit, ecosystem, geosystem, etc) was initially characterized by
simple geographical descriptions of each system-components (geology, climate, relief,
vegetation, soil, etc) and later on, also by the territorial units characterization as a whole,
fact that let to a profound and integrated knowledge of different units of terrestrial systems,
contributing in this way to their better turning to account (Mihilescu, 1968, 1977; Donis,
1987; Velcea and al., 1983).
The natural territorial system is a portion of land surface which represents a spatial
functional entity consisting of natural components or factors of climate, vegetation, rock,
relief, soil and relations among them. In the present-day, the natural territorial systems are
affected more or less by the human activity and in a certain extent modified. In these
systems, the soil cover is situated at the land-surface, moulding the land forms.
Consequently, most of the reliefs attributes (altitude, slope, aspect, fragmentation,
uniformity, etc) are in the same time attributes of the soil cover.
The soil covers the land forms with a protecting mantle. Between the soil and the
relief there is, therefore, an inseparable link; they form a tandem, called soil-land
(pedoland or pedoterrain in the case of larger areas) (Florea, 2003; Florea et al., 2004).
As any system, the territorial system units are characterized by flows of substances,
energy and information which define their dynamics by coherence (which marks the
connection among components) and synergism (as feature of the interrelations among
components which control their cooperation in order to assure the functionality and stability
of the whole system).
The main objectives of the study (characterization) of a territorial system or of an
environment unit are: knowledge of the natural factors, their relations, the spatial
organization of the land-surface, delineation of different territorial units (landscape, regions)
and their characterization, ecological and productive potential evaluation, the evaluation of
the support-capacity (for different land-uses and applied technology), influence of human
activity and its consequences, protective measures in order to avoid the quality decrease,
etc. These objectives are practically also objectives of the soil studies, these investigations
being in fact geographical complex studies by the geoecological methodology (I.C.P.A.
1987). Therefore, by studying adequately the soils, the environment itself is studied. The
objectives of a territorial sustainable development cannot be realized efficiently without a
corresponding soil-cover study.

30

For this reason, in present one pays attention not only to the soil elementary units
(polypedons) as regional and local facies (Florea, 2009), but also to the soil communities
or geographical landscapes as functional territorial units, which can be better
characterized through the pedological investigations by complex geoecological
methodology (I.C.P.A., 1987; Florea, 1990).
1.1.7 Energy consideration for soil processes
In all events and processes from the Universe, energy is implicated in one way or
the other; one cannot produce a mechanical work or process without consumption of
energy.
The complex processes from the soils too need energy, for a natural course of
development (Florea, 2005, a, b). The main source of energy for soil is solar energy
which is, as a matter of fact, the mover of all processes from the earths surface.
The earth intercepts from the solar energy only a small fraction, 13*1020 kcal/year
from the total energy radiated by the Sun, 28*1029 kcal/year; the rest is reflected or
dissipated in the cosmic space. From this received energy, considered 100%, a great part
of it, 34% or 4.4*1020 kcal/year are reflected ot dissipated back in extraterrestrial space.
About 18% or 2.3*1020 kcal/year are absorbed in the atmosphere and roughly 48%,
respectively 6.30*1020 kcal/year are used for heating of the water and soil. Out of this last
solar energy about 16.9% or 2.2*1020 kcal/year is consumed in the hydrological cycle
(partly used in hydro-electric power stations) and only 0.1% or 0.009*1020 kcal/year in the
process of photosynthesis and transformed in chemical potential energy of the vegetal
matter (Petrescu and Petrescu, 1981).
A part of this energy of vegetal organic matter incorporated (inserted) annually in
the soil represents the energy that participates to all processes that take place in the soil
(physical, chemical, biochemical). By humus accumulation, the soil becomes a reservoir of
energy.
The annual refreshing of the soil with organic matter (with its chemical energy)
gives the soil the antienthropic character considered specific for the living world (Botnariuc,
1979).
Also, annual precipitations reaching the soil contribute to the antienthropic character,
because water evapo-transpired from the soil as watery vapours with high enthropy
returnes in the soil as water with low enthropy (improving thus the soil enthropy balance).
The solar energy (light, heat) fallen on the earth is very beneficial because it is free,
does not need efforts and expenses and does not produce any hazardous solid wastes, air
or water pollution or noise; also, its not subjected to embargo or other interested business.
But this energy is variable in intensity from region to region and even from day to day as
the weather changes.
Another important source of energy is the gravity force that assures the
substances circulation in the soil, determining the differentiation vertically and horizontally
in the soil cover.
To these ones, the energy of the chemical oxidation reactions of some compounds
and the geothermal energy of the earth can also be added, but their participation to the soil
dynamics is negligible. The geothermal energy originates in the radioactive disintegration
of chemical elements and gravitational compression, giving rise to orogenetic movements,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, lithospheric plates tectonics, etc. Some of these
movements develop rapidly, sometimes catastrophically, after which a period of
quietness follows.

31

1.2 The basic (spatial) components of the pedosphere

1.2.1 The basic components of the terrestrial cover
The basic components that make-up the soil-cover, viewed mostly from the earths
crust perspective (terrestrial cover), are presented in figure 1.7. The terrestrial cover
(Florea, 2001) consists of a soil matrix formed of polypedons (or elementary soil units,
monotaxonic) and pedosocions (polytaxonic soil units or complex soil units or units of soil
association); this matrix consists of soil units (polygons) with a varied arrangement,
development degree, proportion in territory and different use. To these soil units a soil unit
called metasoil (metapolypedon) can be added, which has completely or partially altered
specific functions (for example, areas used for roads, railways, different buildings,
installations, etc, or cities).
The basic
components
of the
terrestrial
cover

Polypedons
(monotaxonic soil
units)
Pedosocions
(polytaxonic soil
units)
Metasoils (soil
units with altered
specific
functions)

According to the soil

taxonomy (classification)
According to the soil
combinations grouping
Partially altered

Completely altered

Under forest
Under lawn
Under cultivated plants
Under forest
Under lawn
Under cultivated plants
Precincts of a village
Parks
Playing fields
Airports
Cemeteries, etc.
Roads, railways
Embankments
Buildings
Installations (plants)
Water reservoir

Non-soils (pedo- Lithic (lithodiscontinuities) Rock outcrops

discontinuities)
Gravel detritus
Gravelly deposits
Psammic
Shifting sands
(psammodiscontinuities) Sandy beach
Rivers (linear d.)
Hydrological
(hydrodiscontinuities)
Lakes, Ponds (areal d.)
Anthropic (anthropoCanals
discontinuitites)
Excavated ditches

(linear
units)
(areal
units)

(linear
d.)

Quarries
(areal
Excavations
disc.)
Tanks (septic, cleaning, etc.)
Areas with gang and steril
Transition among Net
the basic
Clear
components
Gradual

Figure 1.7 The basic components of the terrestrial cover (Florea, 2001).
The soil matrix (or the soil cover, more properly called) may have interruptions,
presenting voids (lacunae) called non-soils or pedodiscontinuities; they can be formed
from areas without soils such as lithodiscontinuities made up from rock outcrops or gravel
32

detritus, psammodiscontinuitites represented by shifting sands, hydrodiscontinuitites

formed by rivers, lakes, ponds (except the bigger water bodies), erodiscontinuities or areas
without soils due to natural erosion, as well as anthropodiscontinuities such as canals,
excavated drains, areas with gang and steril, polluted or disturbed areas, etc.
In addition to these, the transition from one component to another component of the
soil cover can represent an area that has to be taken into account especially in the case of
the gradual transition.
The basic components of the terrestrial cover form the bricks or paving blocks of
which the pavement, i.e. the soil cover (or soil assemblage) is made up and organized in
territorial units more and more complex, that will be discussed further. However, the
polypedon as a basic unit of the soil cover, needs a special comment.
In one of his works, Fridland (1965, 1972) introduced the notion of soil elementary
areal defined as a pedological formation without pedogeographical limits in the interior of
its surface, that can have very different areas depending on its nature. Johnson (1963)
proposed the terms pedon and polypedon, that were later on made known by the
American Soil Classification (Soil Taxonomy, 1975, and the next editions). Boulaine (1980)
also introduced the idea of evolution in time, considering the pedon as an elementary
volume necessary and sufficient, which can define at a given moment the structural
characteristics and mineral constituents of the soil. The notion of polypedon is equivalent
to the term of the simply (monotaxonic) soil unit used in the Romanian soil survey at a
large scale.
In this fields literature there are many terms for designating the soil elementary
territorial units, simple or complex. Among these ones, one can mention the term of genon
(Boulaine, 1980) considered as soil volume comprising all pedons having the same
structure, the same characteristics and resulting from the same pedogenesis (the
homogeneous genon corresponding to the polypedon) or the terms of pedotope (as
territorial homogeneous unit) and pedochore and pedoregion (as heterogeneous unit) of
the soil cover used in the German literature (Lieberoth, 1982, Bodenkundliche Kartierung,
2005).
Although the initial notion of pedon and implicitly polypedon was conceived as an
elementary unit of soil taxonomy, it has also been extended to a territorial elementary unit
of soil geography by Dijkermann (1974), who considers the polypedon as unit of soil
landscape for which the criteria of soil taxonomic unit delimitation was used. In this
extended sense, one can use in the followings the term of polypedon (the best defined)
considered as an elementary unit both for the soil taxonomy and for the pedological
assemblage, including soil regionalization (the polypedon being the smallest indivisible unit
of the soil cover).
The polypedon, as mapping unit, can be homogeneous (consisting of pedons
belonging to the same taxonomic unit), polypedon with inclusions or impure (including also
polypedons belonging to other taxonomic units in small proportion) or polypedon variant
(with properties which vary noticeably on distances less than 7 m).
1.2.2 The soil map, source-document referring to the soil cover
The soil map represents the most important documentary instrument which offers
pertinent and useful information on soils, soil cover, soil diversity, etc.
Soil maps, as maps showing the distribution of soil types or other soil taxa or soil
mapping units (soil associations, soilscapes) in relation to soil properties, soil cover
features, environmental factors, pedogenetic and geomorphic processes, land use and
land cover, anthropic impact and bioproductive capacity are, indeed, of great utility in
different purposes.
33

In soil survey or soil cartography, both the soils and the environmental factors (state
factors) under which the soils are found are investigated and delineated on maps. In
consequence, these soil studies bring precious information about the following:
- environmental factors or conditions for each delineated area;
- soil forming processes materialized in soil morphology and properties, also
including their variation on profile;
- soil distribution in the territory and the relations among soils, as well as between
soils and environmental factors;
- reasons for the differentiation in space of the soil cover;
- history of the development of different soils and soil cover;
- fertility potential and production capacity;
- optimum way of land use and management;
- prognosis of soil modifications in different conditions of land use, the risks of
degradations and recommendations of measures and improvement works in order to avoid
these risks with the aim to protect the soil cover.
The most used method of soil survey is the integrated soil survey or land system
approach, which is as a matter of fact a complex environment investigation with accent on
the soil cover. The data obtained by this method (approach) can be used in various
purposes applying rules of information transfer.
1.2.2.1 Geometric elements of the map. Plotting in a horizontal projection.
A map is a representation in horizontal plan of a terrestrial surface, generalized and
also reduced according to a proportion-scale and achieved on the base of projectionsystems. The soil map represents a special map on which the distribution of soils on the
land surface is rendered. On this map, the different soils that are three-dimensional
bodies are represented in a horizontal plan as areas (two-dimensional).
The simplest geometric entities rendered on maps are the following: point, line,
polygonal area, soil polyhedron (fig. 1.8).
The point, considered as the intersection of two lines (or three edges), is
dimensionless, but has a position in space, with coordinates (in a system of axis of
coordinates), or on the terrestrial globe by latitude, longitude and altitude. Through points,
one renders the location of the studied soil profiles, springs, wells, etc.
The line, considered an intersection of two surfaces of a solid, is one-dimensional,
having only length; its position is defined by two or more sets of coordinates (points).
Through lines one renders on the soil map the border among soil areas or positions of
roads, rivers, channels, underground pipelines, etc.
The polygon or polygonal surface is two-dimensional, having length and width and,
of course, area. The polygon is the geometric entity very much used on the soil map, but in
nature it generally doesnt have a plane surface, but a curve one. However, on the map,
the soil areas are represented through a horizontal projection. The polygons from the soil
map can be juxtaposed (adjacent) when the border of a polygon is common with at least
two other polygons, or perforated when in a bigger polygon smaller polygons are included.
Through polygons one renders on the soil map the extension of different soil entities (soil
units), of lakes, of villages or towns, etc.
The polyhedron, or solid, is three-dimensional, having length, width and height and,
of course, a volume. In the soil cover, the simplest polyhedrons are represented by the
polyhedrons corresponding to different soil entities. The lakes are also three-dimensional
bodies. But these three-dimensional bodies cannot be rendered on three-dimensional
maps; they are rendered on maps as polygons. Only on topographic maps with contour
lines can this three-dimensional feature be seen (the relief).

34

Figure 1.8 Simple geometric entities (above) and complex (below) rendered on soil
maps (explanations in text)
The meaning of some commonly-used notions is underlined even from the
beginning. The term of soil (for example, Chernozem, Podzol, etc) or of soil combination
(pedosocion) can have an abstract significance of taxonomic units (taxon) without
dimensions, represented conventionally by the generalized image (concept) of polyhedron
corresponding to different soils, or of soil combinations; they are used as reference entities.
Another significance is the concrete one of territorial (chorological) unit, having dimensions
and position in space and which corresponds to the real polyhedron or pedosocion,
existing in nature.
The territorial units of soils are rendered on maps by mapping units (cartographic
units) for which Boulaine (1980) proposed the term mapon; this mapon does not always
represent the exact graphical reproduction of the real territorial unit, because it has a
certain degree of lack of precision in delineation and it comprises some soil-inclusions
(having a certain degree of generalization and abstractization). The entire treating that
follows on the soil cover has in view, of course, the territorial units, firstly the mapping units
(mapons), so that the assemblage of the soil cover will be examined according to the soil
maps that express the reality in a generalized way. The mentioned generalization does not
affect the essential looks of the topics coming into question. It must also be emphasized
that notions such as the pedon, polypedon, chernozem, luvisol, territorial-units, etc refer to
crowds (collections) that correspond to the respective notions and not to an individual of
these crowds; for the individual unit the term delineation has already been proposed.
1.2.2.2 The soil-covers conformation and its role in the substance circulation
The soil map expresses the soil cover variation at land-surface by a horizontal twodimensional projection of a three-dimensional body (soil-cover); the third dimension (the
depth of the soil cover) is extremely minute by comparison with the other two. The lack of
the third-dimension (the soil depth) on the soil map is compensated in a great extent by
35

the soil denomination itself and its inherent attributes, so that for a soil connoisseur it is not
a difficulty to read it out.
The same thing cannot be said about the soils position and the soil-covers
conformation (model de la couverture du sol, in French). The soils position (location) at
the non-uniform surface of the terrestrial geoid is given on the common soil maps by
latitudes and longitudes without mentioning the height, nor the soil-covers conformation
(land form). This drawback is partially compensated by cross-sections of the territory
reflecting in this way the relief, parent material, soil, land use, etc or by soil-relief
regionalization. Irrespective of scale and generalization, it is useful to group the soil
territorial units according to the kind of geomorphic units and also climatic zones for a
better characterization of the natural conditions. In this purpose, a proper hierarchical
partition of the soil-cover is necessary for example, a partition in districts, regions,
domains, zones of soils (see chapter 3).
The soil, as a thin mantle at land surface, moulds the relief so that the soil cover
also has the reliefs form. In fact, the soil and the landform on which it is situated form
together an indissoluble unit (entity) named soil-land or pedoland or pedoterrain (Florea et
al., 2004). One cannot characterize a soil leaving the soil cover conformation aside. This
conformation of the soil cover has a great importance in the soil forming and evolution,
influencing intensively the substances moving in territory. From this point of view, at least
three categories of soil cover conformation can be distinguished, namely level, sloping and
steep, corresponding to plains and tablelands, hills and dissected tablelands, and
mountains and high hills.
The level soil cover is characterized by insignificant differences of elevations and
unimportant potential energy, so that the substances (and energy) circulation in a
horizontal direction is practically null; but there is a vertical circulation in vertical direction
through the soil layer, depending on the environmental conditions.
The sloping soil cover presents a considerable potential energy (due to the slope
gradient), so that besides the vertical circulation of substances, the horizontal (lateral)
circulation of substances (and energy) becomes significant, both at the lands surface and
through the soils layer; this fact entails an accentuated spatial variation of soil properties
and a certain instability of the soils cover.
The steep soil cover is characterized by a high potential energy and a very active
lateral circulation of substances, fact that determines a significant instability of the soil
cover (and relief).
Of course, the circulation of substances (and energy) in the soil cover takes place
from the higher parts towards the lower parts, with a rate which depends especially on the
slope-gradient and altitude differences; the rendering on the map of the watersheds and
valleys is useful because it offers an image on the substances dynamics in the soil cover.
The mode of substances circulation in the soil cover can be local (transmigrative)
or transsectorial.
The local substances circulation takes place on the vertical direction, descending or
ascending, or it can be local transmigrative (slanting) (fig. 1.9).
The local vertical circulation of substances takes place in regions with a flat relief
and refers to the migration of some soil constituents throughout the profile, in most cases
in a descending direction, but also in an ascending direction, especially in arid regions and
areas with shallow ground water.

36

Figure 1.9 Some ways of the substances circulation in the soil-cover

a- local transmigrative cross circulation, symmetrical (a1) or asymmetrical
(a2);
b- divergent circulation, symmetrical (b1) or asymmetrical (b2);
c- convergent circulation, symmetrical (c1) or asymmetrical (c2);
d- transsectorial circulation
The local transmigrative circulation of substances takes place in regions with
slanting relief. It consists of the circulation of different materials, in solid or solution state,
37

on slopes at the soils surface or even through the soil layer. Due to a continuous migration
of substances, the removal of substances from the upper part of the soils cover takes
place, associated with nutrients and base-cations depletion; in the same time, the lower
part of the soils cover is enriched in these substances. This circulation in territory can take
different ways: cross, divergent, convergent (fig. 1.9, a, b and c).
The local transmigrative cross circulation (fig. 1.9, a1 and a2) takes place on the line
of the greatest gradient on the slope surfaces between the watershed and the valley; it
may be symmetrical (a1) or asymetrical (a2). In the particular case of some rounded
hillocks, the transmigrative circulation of substances becomes divergent, symmetrical (b1)
or asymetrical (b2); the substances are dispersed increasingly with the altitude decrease.
In other particular cases of depressions or close lawer areas, the transmigrative circulation
of substances becomes convergent, symmetrical (c1) or asymmetrical (c2); in these cases,
the substances tend to concentrate in the lower areas.
The transsectorial circulation of substances refers to the part of substances
involved in the transmigrative circulation and which is taken by running waters and
transported to long distances. Such a substances transfer takes place on large scale
between mountains and hilly regions and adjacent depressions or plain regions; also, the
deposition of the transported substances can take place in flow-plains (fig. 1.9, d), in
divagation areas or some other lower areas.
(It is, therefore, very useful to separate on the soil maps at small scales at least
three categories of soil cover, referring to its conformation. At a larger scale, five or more
categories of soil cover conformations can be used; also, the territorial soil unit is
characterized by slope, aspect, altitude, drainage, etc, as attributes of position (setting)
and ecological conditions belonging to the soil cover. These features of the soil cover are
very important because they influence not only the pedogenesis and reliefogenesis, but
also the drainage, soil functionality and bioproductive potential and determine the
conditions and restrictions of the soil-covers practical use.)
1.2.3 The main geometric characteristics of the soil map units (polygons)
The soil maps show the distribution of soils as a natural entities and not single soilproperties (the geographical distribution of different individual soil properties simple or
complex can be deduced from the soil map and rendered on interpretative maps).
The elementary components of the soil cover, mentioned above (polypedon,
pedosocion, etc) are supplementary defined in detailed soil-survey, qualitatively and/or
quantitatively, also taking into account the below mentioned characteristics, especially the
geometric ones; not only each category of terrestrial soil unit (according to the map
legend), but also all territorial units of a territory (as a whole) can be characterized by
these parameters (applied to each and all delineations rendered on the soil map).
But the different kinds of soil components of the soils cover cannot always be
surveyed as a single entity on the map, except the soil map at a very large scale or for
uniform territory. Generally, the soil map unit comprises areas (polygons) occupied by
different kinds of sols. Therefore, a soil map unit consists of one or more soils. The soil
map unit consisting of one soil is designated by the nature (kind) of the component-soil
(soil taxon). If the soil map unit comprises many soils, this unit is defined (designated) by
names of the dominant soil and associated soils in a significant proportion; the component
soils with a reduced extent (under 5-15%) are considered inclusions and are, as a rule,
neglected. Soil denomination takes place, of course, according to the terminology of the
system of the soil taxonomy adopted.
The following considerations refer to the delineations (polygons) of soil maps
(irrespective of their composition) from a geometric point of view:
38

a) Indices of size of the polygons delineated on the map: average areas,

maximum area, minimum area, variation coefficient, standard deviation, classes of polygon
size and its distribution curve, etc, according to statistic criteria. This calculation is applied
to each kind of map unit according to the map legend, and also for distinct geographic
units and total area.
The mean (average) area (Sm) is given by the relation:
n

Sm =

i=1

Si

Si being the area of each delineation of the soil map unit corresponding to each unit
of the map legend and n the corresponding number of delineations.
The size of the average area of different soil map units varies in general depending
on the type of soil, topographical, lithological and drainage conditions of various natural
regions.
The variation coefficient (CV) of the area of different soil map units (polygons) is
established by the following formula:
n

S -S
i

CV =

i =1

n Sm

This index shows the uniformity degree of the polygon size (sorting degree).
b) The indices of polygons shape delineated on the map are very important for
characterization. According to Fridland (1972, 1978) the soil map units (elementary soil
areal) can be subdivided in monolithic or compact and perforated or pierced units (fig.
1.10), with or without other components within.

Figure 1.10 Monolithic and perforated soil map units (according to Fridland, 1972)
I and II perforated soil map units
III and IV monolithic soil map units

39

Figure 1.11 Some models of soil map unit shapes determined by the lengthening
and sinuosity of the contour (according to Buol et al, 1997)
The polygon (soil map units) can be classified in some categories of shape,
according to the ration between the big and the small axis: circular or disks (<2), oval or
spots (2-5), strips (>5), dendritic (branched) and lobate. According to contour smoothness,
the following categories are used: rounded, subrounded, subangular and angular.
Combining the two criteria it results in different shapes of polygons, as for example oval
subangular, dendritic angular shape, etc. (fig. 1.11). Other terms can also be used, such
as acicular, flattened, lenticular, digited, palmate, dentate. Also, the polygons can be
grouped according to their symmetrical or asymmetrical relations with an axis.
The main shape indices for polygons are based on the ration between lengths or
between areas (the following two and the next two).
The flattening index, Rf, established by the ratio between the big axis (L) and small
axis (l) of the polygon:
Rf = L / l
This index has only values greater than 1.
The lengthening index, Rl, is given by the ratio between the diameter of a circle
with the same area, A, of the polygon (soil map unit) and the polygons big axis (L):
A

2
R=

The values near 1 mean circular areas, while values far from 1 are specific for
polygon shapes distant from the circle.
The squarity index, Rp, is calculated by the ratio between the polygons aria A and
the area of a square having the size equal to the polygons great axis L:
A
A
Rp =
Rp =
2
2
or
(P / 4)
L
(P being the polygons perimeter).
The value of 1 for Rp corresponds to a square; for the other shapes of polygon, the
values are less than 1, the more so as the shape is flattened.
The circularity index, Rc, is given by the ratio between the polygons area A and
the area of a circle whose perimeter corresponds to the polygons perimeter (P):
40

A
4pA
= 2
P 2
P
p( )
2p
The circularity index gets values near 1 in the case of a circle and values less than
1 for shapes distant from the circle.
In addition, the following can also be calculated:
The sinuosity coefficient, Cs, by the ratio between the polygons perimeter P and
the perimeter of a circle having the area A of the respective polygon ( 2 pA ):
P
Cs =
2 pA
Between Cs and Rc there are the following relations:
Rc =

Rc =

1
Cs

Cs =

1
Rc

Cs =

Rc
The classes of polygon sinuosity may be very slightly, slightly, moderately, strongly
and very strongly sinuous according to the value of Cs: 1-1.3, 1.3-1.7, 1.7-2.3, 2.7-3.7, 3.75.5 and over 5.5.
All the above mentioned indices are calculated taking into account dimensions from
the map (horizontal projection), making abstraction of the surface declivity or arched
surface. If the case, one can make the proper corrections for declivity through indices of
concavity and convexity.
For the perforated polygons one also establishes the mentioned indices and in
addition, the frequency of the perforation (as number per hectare or, better, as percentage
from perforated polygon area).
The altitude of the polygons and their position on the relief forms
(geographical setting) is of great utility. The altitude is given taking into account the
classes of elevation (their number depends on the scale). The position on the relief forms
is given by specification of the polygons location: high land, low land, upper, intermediate
or lower part of a slope, etc. It is useful that map is accompanied by some cross sections
through different specific parts of a region.
The orientation of polygons in relation with the cardinal points or other reference
marks (mountain ranges, valleys, rivers, etc) is useful because it reflects the specific
feature of the soil cover or of the pedogeographical assemblage.
Concerning the polygon content, this one is specified in the soil map legend, but the
way of transition between polygons can be deduced only partially. If the case, this aspect
may be expressed qualitatively by the classes net, clear or gradual, and quantitatively by
the proportion of different classes (for example 20% clear, 30% gradual and 50% net).

41

2. SPACE AND TIME, BACKGROUND OF THE SOIL-COVER

The soil science deals with the study of the soil characteristics and spatial variation
of the soil cover, which forms territorial dynamic systems of soil-land at earths surface.
These systems are differentiated both on the vertical (the succession of pedogenetic
horizons) and on the horizontal direction (the pedogeographical assemblage of the
juxtaposed soil entities). The soil science deals therefore with the dynamic phenomena
from nature distributed on the whole globe, so that it operates very much like other earthrelated sciences with the notions of space and time, much discussed from a
philosophical point of view.
A division namely the main section of the IUSS (the International Union of Soil
Sciences) is Soil in space and time with the following commissions: soil morphology, soil
geography, soil genesis, soil classification, pedometrics and paleopedology. This fact
emphasizes the importance of the concepts of space and time, concepts that interest not
only activities specific for the mentioned division, but also for the other divisions of the
IUSS preoccupied with features, properties, processes, utilization and management of the
soil-resources, as well as with the soil functions in the environment and society; all these
activities and events take place in space and develop in time.

2.1 What are space and time?

According to the classic conception of Isaac Newton (1642-1727), the space and
time exist eternally (are absolute), regardless of what exists and irrespective of what
happens in the Universe; they are places - both of them themselves and of all other
things.
Apart from some of the common meanings as those of cosmic space, terrestrial
space, air space or of a limited extent, the notion of space from a philosophical point of
view represents (DEX, 1998) the objective and universal form of the matter, inseparable
of matter, which has the aspect of an uninterrupted whole with three dimensions and which
expresses the order of the coexistence of real world objects, their position, distance, size,
shape, extent.
The notion of time, which also has many meanings in the current speech, among
them being that of duration, represents from a philosophical point of view (DEX, 1998) the
Universes dimension according to which the succession or simultaneousness of the
different stages of the material process or of material processes are ordered in their
passing one after another. One considers that movement, as matters mode of existence,
is achieved in space and time, representing fundamental forms of matter-existence,
constituting objective realities which surround us irrespective of our conscience and are
reflected through this conscience.
Space has three dimensions, the time has one dimension (its duration), being
irreversible, passing unceasingly in one direction, from past through present towards future,
so that the time is unidirectional.
One often speaks of an arrow of time that emphasizes the irreversibility and
unidirectionality of the continuous passing in one direction; it is, therefore, impossible to
remake the route back (inverse) due to the causal links (successive cause-effect).
However, there can be a partial reversibility, in the framework of a fundamental reversibility;
in simpler systems, one can observe a repetition of the general (type) processes, not
concrete ones, in the framework of the general cyclicity, the time arrow continuing its
direction in the evolution process.
42

In the continuous succession in time of events, processes, etc, an irrevocable

energy consumption takes place, evaluated by entropy increase that means not only an
energy degradation in time, but also a development, an evolution. The character of open
system of the terrestrial soil cover allows the solar energy to be constantly received, fact
which counterbalances the entropy increase and impedes the reach of a maximum value
which would corespond to the inactive state.
Is the absolute time uniform or differentiated? During the previous century, one
discussed on cosmic or astronomic time, physical time, biological time, human time the
geological time was also added, as well as pedological time etc. It has been proved that
these types of time cannot be measured through the conventional unit of time (seconds,
hours, years), due to the different rate of process-development in various circumstances.
Albert Einsteins (1879-1955) relativity theory brings new visions concerning the link
between space and time. In the theory of restricted relativity, applicable to inertial systems
in a uniform movement of one versus the other, space and time are described without
taking into account the law of gravity. The theory of generalized relativity, applicable to the
non-inertial systems which shift accelerated one against the other, also takes into
consideration the law of gravity. The principle of equivalency between forces, acceleration
forces and gravitational forces (which cannot be distinguished one from the other) was
introduced (inertia of an object is proportional to its mass). These forces are regarded as
a space property. One considers that the structure and geometric properties of the spacetime quadrimensional continuum vary depending on substance mass concentration and
gravitational field intensity, generated from them. Space and time are therefore considered
in close correlation with moving-matters forms of existence, being an indissoluble
connection with matter and very closely linked together.
Gravity, which in the context of generalized relativity theory is regarded as a
manifestation of the space-time structure, was not clearly enough taken into account in
relation with soil genesis; generally, one discussed on the gravitational water form and on
the gravitational potential of the soil water, but one hasnt emphasized the role of gravity in
relation with substances circulation both on the vertical direction, leading to the
differentiation of soil types, and on the horizontal direction, leading to the diversity in the
soil cover.
Otherwise, not even the role of solar energy in the formation of soil and soil-cover
(pedosphere) is presented adequately.
The Minkowsky space (space-time continuum), known by the name of the
mathematician and physicist Herman Minkowsky (1964-1909), is considered to have four
dimensions that correspond to the Universe-events. The first three dimensions correspond
to the x, y, z coordinates of the common three-dimensional space, while the fourth is equal
to ct, c being the light velocity and t corresponding to events. In this system of space-time,
adapted to the relativity theory, gravity corresponds to the curvature value in a non
Euclidian quadrimensional space (in the vicinity of huge mass, space becomes curved and
the objects which move in the proximity of the respective mass will follow the curved
trajectory of space).
At present, one attempts the elaboration of a theory of quantum gravity which would
unify the quantum theory with generalized relativity theory, fact that also has implications
on the concepts of space and time (Smolin, 2000). In this line of thought, the Universe is
regarded as a network, as a knitting of interweaved relations in evolution and one
considers that the space exists only in the extent in which orders the relations which link
things in the Universe, and the time does not exit out of changes being possible to be
described in terms of changes in the relations network that describe space, having the
meaning of measure of changes (slow, rapid). The relations from the Universe are causal
relations, especially among processes that contain information on events through which
they interact giving rise to new processes (Smolin, 2006).
43

The relation system that forms the space and time is treated as a dynamic entity
which would have 6, 9 or more dimensions, besides that of time (compacted to three)
without being fixed to something and not as a fixed and unchanged background. The
space would be discrete by view of the relational thinking, in which the world appears as a
sum of relations not among things, but among processes and events (event being the
smallest unit of a process change) which form the world history in which the relations of
causality and the way of information-transfer have an important role.
The observer who examines the world describe only the state of a system at a
given moment (the state being the system configuration at the respective moment), that is
the sum of information necessary for a complete characterization (position, movement,
etc). The systems state also implies the knowledge of elements from the outside of the
system concerning its past and present context. Space and time would be discontinuous at
a Plank scale, being composed by crumbs with a certain absolute dimension (10-33 of a cm
and 10-43 of a second). This world would, therefore, be very different from actual visions,
which appear to be sufficient enough for describing the perceptible world.
After this very succinct incursion in the philosophical domain concerning the
theoretical concepts of space and time, we come back in the following sections to the
classical ideas of a continuous three-dimensional space and irreversible unidirectional time,
as they are approached in physics and geometry, with their measure units of length and
duration (physical space, physical time), rectangular axis of coordinates (Cartesian) and
world reference system (geographical). In the WRB-RS (1998) it is mentioned that the soil
is a natural continuous body which has three spatial dimensions and one temporal
dimension; the soil cover is in a constant evolution that gives to the soil the fourth
dimension the time.

2.2 Space and time, background of the soil-cover

In most courses and textbooks of pedology, time is considered as one of the
pedogenetic factors beside climate, biocenosis, parent material and relief; however, time
has an different situation, being considered in general a condition of genesis which is
difficult to isolate with certainty. The role of time may be assumed in many ways (Buntung,
1965) by the relative state in the soil development, by the rate of the soil-forming, by
reference to the age of the landscape, by absolute dating. Jenny (1941), dealing with the
factors of soil forming, shows that they could be different today in comparison with the
period of the first stages of the soil-formation; therefore, the present factors that we study
today should rather be named state-factors. The link between soil and environmental
factors was formulated (1941) by Jennys equation:
S = f (c, b, p, r, t)
in which the symbols stand for: S - soil, c - climate, b - biocenosis, p - parent material, r
relief, t time (duration). This relation soil-state factors must not be regarded as a
mathematical relation, but as the soils dependence on the combined actions in time of the
mentioned factors, emphasizing the interactive links between the soil cover and the main
factors of the geographical landscape (environment).
If for a monogenetic soil the above relation would be adequate, for polygenetic soils
dominant in the landscape the relation would better be expressed in the following
manner:
S = f (c, b, p, r) t
This was presented for the first time by Craker (1952, quoted by Bunting, 1969).
Kovda (1973) and Stasiev (2006) as well, based on the writings of V.V. Dokuchaev (18461903), who is credited with the concept of soil-forming factors, think in the same way. Time
appears, therefore, as a duration necessary for the soils development, because the
44

processes - that take place in the soil under the action of the soil factors need a certain
period of time (duration) for giving rise to changes in the mineral substratum, changes
which lead to the soils development from incipient stages to the climax state (steady state).
As a matter of fact, Dokuchaev named this soil duration soil age.
Also, as far back as in 1947, Rode considered that the territorys age is not a
pedogenetic factor, time and space being matters ways of existence (according to Stasiev,
2006).
However, space wasnt taken into account as a pedogenetic factor. Taking into
account the concept of space-time continuum in which all things and events exist, a
consideration of space as soil-forming factor is useful, or more accurate as soil state factor,
beside time, for the soil cover fact suggested already by Buol et al (1997) and by Florea
and Buza (2004). Space and time must be regarded as background of the soil cover
formation or more accurately as the mode (form) of existence of the soil-cover (like any
object of the Universe) and not as soil-forming factors. However, the different durations of
soil development at the earths surface can entail variations in the soil cover, constituting
their indirect cause (correlated with differences in the duration of soil genesis).
In connection with the processes of soil formation, one finds the development of the
cyclic or repetitive processes of different durations. In this sense, the concepts of
pedocyclicity and pedorhythm (Florea, 1996, 2009) and pedofluctuation (Munteanu, 2002)
were defined (see chapters 5, 6, 7).

2.3 Space and the soil cover

For the soil cover, space represents an aspect of its mode of objective existence
(the other aspect being time), meaning the coexistence of different soil entities (soil bodies
and their position, dimensions, shapes, extent at a given moment in time). Recently,
Stasiev (2006) said that the three dimensional soil has a vertical and a horizontal location,
that is planetary.
Space has not been considered as a condition or a factor of soil forming, so that
pedologists overlooked it; however, Buol et al (1997) considered that space may now be
added as a state factor.
In the space continuum, the soil cover occupies a finite thin layer that coats like a
membrane the surface of the earths weathering crust, forming the pedosphere. Although
the pedosphere is considered a three-dimensional continuum, it presents different
interruptions (discontinuities) determined by rivers, water bodies, rock outcrops; these
ones belong to the soil cover in the enlarged sense of terrestrial cover (Florea, 1986,
2001). The soil continuum includes in its diversity the imprint of paleogeographical events
cyclically developed, as well as the imprint of the actual events which have participated
during the irreversible time to the soils formation and evolution.
This three-dimensional continuum consists of a collection of dynamic entities or soil
bodies and non-soils, which have resulted in continuous soil (and relief) forming processes
generated by the so different joinings of the environmental factors at land surface. The
spatial distribution of these entities at a given moment of time is rendered on soil maps (in
horizontal projection) under the form of juxtaposed soil unit associations, forming patters of
soil distribution or pedogeographical assemblages (Florea, 2002) with a certain territorial
soil organization specific to different soilscapes.
By their content, the soil maps offer precious information both on relations soilenvironment factors (and anthropogenic) deduced from the soil profile characteristics (on a
vertical direction) and on relations among different soil units from territory (on a horizontal
direction) deduced from the pedogeographical assemblage which expresses the joining
way (organization) in territory of different soil units in relation with spatial variation of the
45

environmental factors. Generally, one pays attention especially to the first category of
relations (soil-environment), neglecting the second category (between soil units). Only a
profound approach and understanding of all relations (on vertical and horizontal directions)
will assure a more adequate knowledge of the soil resource of each territory and its role in
environment and society, as well as a more suitable turning to good account.
Of course, in the current activity it is very important the delineation in the territorial
space of each unit (or fragment) of soil-land with the specification of its parameters
(attributes) of topographic characterization (latitude, longitude, altitude, slope, aspect, area,
perimeter, etc) and of soil features from the morphological point of view, genetical,
functional, etc as basic elements for evaluation of the ecological conditions of each area
(soil unit) in which the plants grow or other activities take place. Only on this basis may the
vocation of each area for different uses be established (agriculture, forestry, construction,
etc).

2.4 Time and the soil cover

Time represents the other aspect of the soil-covers mode of objective existence,
which expresses the order of the irreversible processes which take place in the soil.
Because time was considered to be either a factor, either a condition of soil forming,
the study of the time-soil relation was a preoccupation for many soil scientists. The soil,
being a dynamic system that evolves continuously in time, the investigation of soil-time
relations referred especially to soil forming and soil evolution, development rate, relict
features of soil, fossil soils. A different preoccupation was that of soil age determination.
Time doesnt influence the soil forming process in its essence, but it represents
together with space the background of this process development. For this reason, we
consider that the simple aspect that has to be studied concerning the time is the soil age,
respectively the age of the soil forming process, the other aspects belonging to the domain
of soil evolution (dynamic pedology). Yaalon (1971) said this very clearly in his paper on
soil forming process in time and space. Also, although Kovda, in his book on soil science
from 1973, considers time as being a pedogenetic factor, in the book from 1988 (Kovda
and Rozanov) time is treated in the chapter of soil forming process as the age of the soil
forming and not as a pedogenetic factor. The single argument that time would be a
pedogenetic factor is the fact that the evolution stage of the soil cover at a givent moment
in time is differentiated in territory depending on the age of different land forms, but this
fact is due to the duration of the soil genesis and not to the influence of the time itself as
an active factor in soil genesis.
In this sense is it important to remember the known curve of shape of the soil
development in time. If in the first stages of soil genesis one can notice an apparent
correlation between soil development and time, no link between them can be observed
beginning with the climax stage of soil development. This fact is a piece of evidence that
the time is only the background of soil existence.
The absolute age of the soil. The soil, result of a long and intricate process at
earths crust surface, has a continuous evolution in time from incipient forming stages
towards maturity stages, evaluated through the differentiation degree of the soil profile. To
reach a certain stage of soil development a certain period of time is needed, a duration, for
the concretization of soil profile features under the action of the soil forming process. This
duration of soil forming is known as absolute age of soil.
For the measurement of the soils absolute age a time zero must be named. That
is the moment of the beginning of the soil-forming. This moment depends on the age of the
sediment situated at the land surface on which the soil is located. The soils absolute age
can vary from practically zero for the territories (and deposits) emerged from under water
46

or ice, recently covered by volcanic materials, recently cropped out by geological

phenomena, excavation, etc, to 10 000 years in the Quaternary (postglacial) plains or even
over 1 000 000 years in the continental shields from the equatorial regions. The absolute
age may be very small in the accidented regions (mountains, hills) due to relief
transformation by denudation or in flood plains due to recent sedimentations.
In fact, the soils absolute age is not clearly defined (Beckmann, 1971); it is
considered from the beginning of the pedogenetic process, from soil profile outlining or
from the climax stage reaching. These elements are, in fact, difficult or impossible to be
pinpointed, except for some areas for which the beginning of the genesis process was
exactly dated.
The determination of the absolute age is made especially by geological and
stratigrafical methods associated sometimes with radiometrical datation (Beckmann, 1971;
Scharpenseel, 1971; Geyh et al, 1971) used commonly for the determination of the
geomorphic surface age. But these methods are difficult to use everywhere and they often
lead to only relative results. More precise and, of course, more utilized is the datation
method with 14C (Scharpenseel, 1971), suitable for soils with ages under 40 000 years,
using organic matter from the soil, organic inclusions or secondary carbonates from the
soil.

Figure 2.1 Correlation between age and depth of organic matter in some different
soils (after Scharpenseel, 1972, quoted by Buol et al, 1997).
The obtained date on the basis of C from humus shows ages from 100 to 840 years
in the soil A horizon (from Chernisols between 350 and 450 years). On the basis of C from
carbonates, the ages obtained for the arid region soils varied from 2300 years at 100 cm
depth to 9800 years at 150 cm and 32000 years at 213 cm depth (Buol et al., 1997).
47

Table 2.1 The chronological scale of geological formations (Chambers, 1999;

Romanias Geological map,1:1 000 000; Druschin and Verescheagin, 1981)
Era
Cenozoic

Sub-era, period

Age (106 years)

Series
Holocene

Quaternary

0.01
Pleistocene
1.64

Tertiary

Pliocene
Neogene

5.2
Miocene
23.3
Oligocene

Paleogene

35.4
Eocene
56.5
Paleocene

Meozoic

Upper

65.0

Lower

97

Upper (Malm)

146

Middle (Dogger)

161

Lower (Lias)

178

Upper

208

Middle

210

Lower

241

Cretaceous

Jurassic

Triassic

Paleozoic

Pernian

245

Carboniferous

290

Devonian

362

Silurian

408

Ordovician

439

Cambrian

510

Precambrian

Proterozoic

570

Archaean

2500
4600

48

Table 2.2 Quarternary subdivisions

Age
103
years
+2

Glaciations
successions
at N of Alpes
Postglacial

Stage Name

Holocene

Black Sea stages

Modun

Actual
transgression (0
m)

Middle age (feudal)

Subatlantic

-2

Archeological stage
name

La Terre (Iron Age II)

Dacic regression
(-4 m)

Hallstatt (Iron Age I)

Transgression (+5
m)

Sub-boreal
Bronze Age

-4

Atlantic

-6

Eneolithic

Regression (-2 m)

Neolithic

Transgression
(Climatic
optimum)

Boreal
Preboreal

Epipaleolithic
(Mezolithic)

Upper

Paleolithic

-8
Tardiglacial
- 10

Wrm

Upper

Pleistocene
(Gravetian,

Middle
113 (118)

Neoeuxinic
Regression, -100
(-150) m
Postkarangat

Aurignacian,

Lower

Karangat
Musterian, etc)

Riss-Wrm
118 (132)
Riss

Middle

Uzunlar
Paleoeuxinic

234 (300)
Mindel-Riss
430 (440)

Paleouzunlar
Paleoeuxinic

Mindel
Lower

477 (562)

Gnz-Mindel

546 (630)

Gnz

692 (892)

Donau-Gnz

1300

Donau

Chenda Upper
Chenda (Gavia)
Eopleistocene

?
?

1800

Studying many Chernisols from Central Europe, Scharpenseel (1971) establishes

the mean residence time of C between 1000 and 3000 years for A horizon, between 4000
and 6000 years for B or AC horizon (50-100 cm depth), between 5000 and 6000 years at
150 cm depth and about 13000 years at 250 cm depth.
49

In figure 2.1 a correlation between age and depth of organic matter in some
different soils is presented by Scharpenseel, 1972 (quoted by Buol et al., 1997).
A difficulty of the soil absolute age determination results from the above data,
because the obtained data shows that the different horizons of the same soil have different
ages as the depth increases; this represents an argument that the soil formed in a long
period of time (and cannot establish a certain age). In addition, the measurement on the
basis of C from the the soil organic matter represents in fact the mean residence time of C
in soil (and not the soils age), which is much smaller in the upper horizons than in the
lower horizons. The obtained values have to be considered as minimum average absolute
age (Scharpenseel, 1971), nearer from reality than data from the profound horizons.
Effectuated measurements show that the soil age from the upper 30 cm of different soils
(Podzols, Vertisols, Luvisols, Chernisols) is of less than 1500 years; it increases to 15005000 years at 100 cm depths and 5000-8000 years at 150 cm depth, except for Podzols
for which it does not exceed 2000-3000 years on profile (180-1500 years in Bh.).
Table 2.3 Time changeability of various soil characteristics (by Arnold et al, 1990)
Time
changeability
categories and
their characteristic
time (CRT)
1
< 10-1 year

10-1 - 100 year

10 - 10 year

101 - 102 year

Soil parameter

Properties and
characteristics

Bulk density
Total porosity
Moisture content
Infiltration rate
Permeability
Composition of soil air
Nitrate content
Total water capacity
Field capacity
Hydraulic conductivity
pH
Nutrient status
Composition of soil
solution

Compaction

Aeration
Heat regime

Microbiota

Microbial
activity

Wilting percentage
Type of soil structure
Soil acidity
Annual roots biota
Cation exchange
Mezofauna
capacity
Exchangeable cations
Litter
Properties
Ion composition of
Fluvic
extracts
Gleyic
Stagnic
Slickensides
Specific surface
Soil biota tree roots
Clay mineral
Salic
Gilgai
association
Calcareous
Placic
Organic matter content
Sodic
Sodic
Takyric
Vertic
Properties

Horizons and phases

Sulphuric horizon
Gelundic
Inundic
Salic
yermic

/fine earth properties

only/
Histic
Ochric
Gypsic
Albic
Natric
Spodic
Gilgai
Placic
Sodic
Takyric

50

Phases

/<20 cm/
horizons
Immature
Phases

Regimes

Human
controlled
plant
nutrient
regime
Moisture
Natural
fertility
Salinity
Alkalinity
Permafrost

102 103 year

> 10 year

Primary mineral
composition
Chemical composition
of the mineral part

Texture
Particle-size
distribution
SP, hy
Particle density

Tree roots
colour /yellowish,
reddish/
Iron concretions
Depth of soil
Cracking
Soft powdered line
Indurated subsoil

Histic
Mollic
Umbric
Calcic
Albic
Natric
Cambic
Spodic
Nitic
Plinthite
Placic
Yermic

Horizons

Phases

/stone surfaces/
Parent material
Argic
Depth
Oxic
Abrupt textural change Petrocalcic Horizons
Petrogypsic
Duripan
Cragipan
Skeletic
Petroferric
Lithic
Rudic

Phases

However, the soils age is often rendered indirectly in relation with the geological
age of the geomorphic surface from the moment of the pedogenesis beginning (Wurm,
Riss, Holocene, Pleistocene, etc). For this reason, a correlation between the chronology of
geological and archeological periods is necessary (table 2.1 and 2.2).
Chronosequences. On the fluviatile or maritime terraces, uncovered by the loess
mantle, one can find soils with increasing stages of development; their succession forms
the so-called soil chronosequence, or sometimes improperly called chronocatena. A clear
soil chronosequence can be seen on Teleajen terraces, upstream of Vlenii de Munte. But
in those regions in which the different terraces (and also upperland) were covered by postglaciar loess, the developed present-day soils have practically the same absolute age
(correlated with the last loess), not being differentiated by the terrace age; it is the case,
for example, of the terraces of the Mostistea Plain.
Soil forming rate. This rate or speed of soil formation is very important especially
in correlation with tolerable (admissible) losses of soil by erosion in cultivated lands; they
are expressed in cm/year, t/year/ha or in year/cm. For the soils of Arizona, 8 cm in 100
years (Simonson) were found to have been formed.
Estimating from the transported materials by rivers, Clarke (1924) considered that
earths surface decreases with 1 cm at 1000 years. By balance calculus for parent
materials, soils and river waters it has been estimated that for 1 cm of soil formation 178
years are necessary (Buol et al., 1997), but with regional variations, for example 50 years
on granit or even 25 years on piroclastic rocks. The same authors estimate that the soil
forming rate is comprised between 1.3 and 40 years for 1 cm soil (for tropical soils 97-750
years for 1 cm), but 1 cm from A horizons only 0.1 to 12 years (table 2.3).
However, these values are just averages for all the duration of the soil forming
development. It is known that in the first stages of the soil forming, the rate of soil
development is higher and tends to decrease until extinction towards the climax stage of
development. The existing data confirm the idea; indeed, on a scraped land (and removed
soil) 15 cm of A horizon, dark coloured, have developed in 50 years (in North Dakota,
Simonson, 1959); that could mean, if the rate maintains the same, 30 cm in 100 years.
51

Also, it has been found that 300-400 years are necessary for the transformation of an
ochric horizon in a mollic one by replacement of forest vegetation with grassy vegetation.
The researches carried out in Romania (Munteanu et al., 1997) show that the rate
of loess forming by aeolian accretion was 0.6-1 cm per century, increasing to 1.5-2.1 cm in
the Holocene and 2.1 per century in the last 2500 years.
My personal observations at the archeological site of Chitila (near Bucharest),
effectuated with professor Boronean, showed that from the Dacian period until now, the
humus horizon of the soil has increased with 20-25 cm (by aeolian accretion, the dust
being integrated to soil-sedintegrating pedogenesis); that means 2.1-2.3 cm per century.
Although the time is not a pedogenetic factor, it has a great importance in the soil
development, because its properties are aquired after a long duration and with a variable
rate (Yaalon, 1983). Useful deductions have been made regarding the rate of change of
different soil properties (Bockheim, 1980, quoted by Yaalon, 1983), by establishing the
chronofunctions of logistic shape (considering the time at a logarithmic scale, like in fig.
6.3); rapid changes are observed near the inflexion point, after which the curve gradually
decreases tending to become asymptotic. It is however very difficult to establish such an
equation starting from the soil chronosequencecs from the territory, due to the difficulty of
the quantitative evaluation of the changes (parameters), variation of these changes during
the previous time and lack of precision of sites datation.
It is however useful to accentuate that the time (the duration) necessary for the
changes of some soil properties and their rate of change are very different. The
changeability of soil properties can be approximately described (Arnold et al., 1990) by the
following time-sequence (of properties connected with different soil phases):
gaseous phase > liquid phase > biotic phase > soild phase.
Each soil property and regime which characterize these phases needs a proper
duration to reach the (quasi)equilibrium with the environment (steady state, climax stage).
This duration is defined as the characteristic response time (CRT) or, more correctly, it
may be the characteristic response duration. A ranged sequences of soil properties
according to their CRT (or time changeabilities) is summarized in table 2.3 (Arnold et al.,
1990); all soil properties where grouped in six categories of time changeability (see the
table).
The soil changes (soil evolution) depend to a great extent on the reversibility of
different soil processes, conditioned (controlled) especially by phisico-geographical
conditions (climate, relief, etc) and by local microenvironmental conditions. Cyclic
processes (e.g. salt regime, moisture regime, carbonate moving within steppe and desert
soils, etc) result in reversible or nearly reversible consequences. On the contrary, trend
processes (such as soil horizon formation, most of the soil degradation processes, water
or wind soil erosion, etc) lead to irreversible or slightly reversible changes. Some examples
of reversible and irreversible processes are presented in table 2.4 (after Arnold et al.,
1990); they have a special importance in the case of the human influence on soil
processes.
For a better understanding of soils temporal variability, it is necessary to stress
that the pedosphere is an immobile and patchy sphere, formed by many in situ processes.
In contrast with other spheres, the pedosphere can neither quickly intermix and circulate
its own volume (as atmosphere can), nor quickly move laterally along land surface (as
water solutions can), nor even avoid uncomfortable environmental changes (as biota).
Therefore, each soil, as immovable and formed in situ body, is fated to endure all
environmental changes at each site specific place, and to transform itself according to
climate, biota and relief changes (Arnold et al., 1990, p. 49).

52

Table 2.4 The reversibility of soil processes (by Arnold et al., 1990)
Reversibility Rate and velocity
of change
Primary reverse
change
R
q
q

Ir

Ir

Type of
changes

Example of soil samples

Actions required

Quick
changes

Susceptibility of soils But their control is Acidification of soils with low Permanent control and low
to acidification
simple and efficient
buffer capacity
dosage liming
Drought sensitivity
Wetting and drying
Frequent irrigation
S
Stability
Favourable conditions are stable,
Slow changes in the
Maintainance of the given
unfavourable changes are not probable
properties of fertile
conditions
chernozems
Unfavourable conditions are stable, their
Slow changes in the
Radical soil reclamation
improvement is difficult, slow and
unfavourable properties of
complicated
solonetz
S
Quick
Quick favourable changes (e.g. irreversible Leaching of salts from lightHigh efficiency of
changes
desalinization)
textured soils and transport
measures for the
with low
them away by horizontal
improvement of soil
rate of
drainage
properties
reversibility
Complex amelioration,
Quick unfavourable changes, soil
Intensive secondary
damages, serious soil degradations
salinization-alkalization due including the prevention of
to improper irrigation
further deterioration
practices; water erosion
O
Slow, but
or very S practically Tendencious, but slow favourable changes Maintenance of the given General soil development:
irreversible
conditions
formation of horizon and
changes:
soil structure
Slow trend

R = reversible

Consequences

Ir = irreversible

Tendencious, but slow unfavourable

changes

q = quick

S = slow

O = zero

Slow development or
Preventive measures;
solonetz with unfavourable solonetz reclamation with
properties
low doses of amendments

The question of soil forming rate becomes more complicate if one takes into
account: 1. the process of compensative denudation; 2. the process of accretion; 3. the
change in time of different properties of soil itself in the previous development period and 4.
the change in time of the environmental conditions. These aspects belong to the domain of
soil evolution (dynamic pedology).
Soils relative age. The notion of soils relative age was used by Viliams (1949) in
order to explain the different stages of development of soils existing in the territories with
the same absolute age. Soils development is evaluated in this way through the result of
the action and interaction of pedogenetic factors and processes and not by the duration of
soil genesis. One considers, therefore, that the action of time depends on the material
systems and the rhythm of pedogenetic processes given by environmental factors.
In contrast to the soils absolute age which is expresses in duration (years), the
soils relative age is evaluated by the development degree of the soil profile and is
expressed by the soil maturity degree (young, immature, semi-mature, mature). This
concept of soils maturity was introduced by Marbut and Nikiforov. A soil is considered
mature if it reaches the climax stage of development in the given conditions (steady state);
the previous stage of development is evaluated depending on the soil profile evolution as
incipient soil, young soil, semi-mature soil, mature soil (Jenny, 1941). The soils relative
age is not correlated with the soils absolute age, as soils with the same absolute age but
with a different relative age exist.
The criteria for the estimation of soils relative age are especially qualitative, taking
into account the degree of soils profile differentiation, the degree of weathering, the
degree of organic matters accumulation, all in relation with the environmental factors of the
respective place.

2.5 The soil in the space-time continuum

The soil representation on a map in continuous evolution in the space-time
continuum can not be realized. However, one can form an idea of this complex evolution
from the diagram conceived by Buol et al. (1997), reproduced in fig. 2.2 with the
corresponding explanations. In this figure the time-space field in which things exist is
represented as a segment of the infinite time-arrow and a segment of endless space. A
given soil body exists between two events in space, e0 and eu, (space 0 and space
terminus) and two events, t0 and tu, during which the time interval negenthropy is
maintained in response to incoming radiant energy. The terminus of the soil body (the
shaded position in the figure) is depicted as having been reached by removal of the solum
when the rate of erosion plus dissolution exceeds that of soil formation.
The initiation of the soil formation (t0-e0) may be said to have been a response to
exposure to the till by melting away a glacial ice lobe. By time interval t1, an immature soil
(Entisol) had formed. At time interval t2 through t5, mature soil profiles were in place. The
profile steadily developed into P1 at the same rate as erosion and soil formation lowered
the land surface. At t5 the bottom of the solum had reached the resistant shale (P2) and the
downward shift of solum was slowed down.

54

Figure 2.2 Diagram of the space-time continuum (e-t) in which any given soil body
exists from its timezero (t0) and spacezero (e0) to its timeterminus (tu) and spaceterminus (eu).
The shaded area represents a space-time sequence (chorochronosequence) of
selected soil profiles (in outline) to illustrate spatial and temporal changes in the
course of formation and extinction of a soil body.
IS = immature soil; MS = mature soil; D = rate of dissolution processes; E = rate of erosion
processes; W = rate of soil formation processes. Wedge X (upper left) represents a cover of
glacial ice that prevented the soil formation before t0-e0 (from Buol et al, 1997).

At t6 the dissolution (weathering of P2) proceeded at a slower rate than the soil
formation did, and the solum thinned. At t7 the effect of soil erosion further thinned the
solum, which had become that of an Entisol. Within the space-time relationship a mature
soil is considered to exist when
W(E+D)=0
where W is the rate at which pedogenetic processes form a pedogenetic feature, E
represents the erosion (or deposition) rate and D represents the dissolution removal rate.
(Buol et al., 1997, pag 176-177).
Of course, other situations of the soils existence and evolution in the space-time
background could be imagined or conceived.

2.6 Conclusions
Pedology, dealing with the soils cover consisting of three-dimensional natural
bodies which form complex dynamic systems at the earths surface, makes use of space
and time.
From a philosophical point of view, space is an objective and universal form of
matter which expresses the coexistence order of objects, and the time the Universes
dimension which arrays the irreversible succession of events. They all form together
according to the relativity theory a quadrimensional continuum. According to the new
relational thought about the world as a network of relations in evolution, the space and
55

time represent the background of all that happens in the Universe. In the present-day, the
theory of quantic gravity can also be applied, which would unify the quantic theory with the
generalized relativity theory which has implications on space and time.
Generally, in the soil science, time is considered a factor or a condition of the soils
forming, together with the climate, vegetation, parent material and relief. Space is not
taken into account; only lately some pedologists have suggested that space should also be
considered a state factor of soils existence.
But space and time do not interfere in the soil forming process and do not modify its
development. They represent only the background of the soil forming and evolution
processes, respectively the existence mode of the soil-cover. Therefore, space and time
cannot be considered factors of soil forming (or state factors), even if the different ages of
some terrestrial surfaces can enter variation in the soil-cover (due to various durations of
the pedogenesis process).
Space appears as the background of soil systems which form a very thin threedimensional layer which covers the land as a membrane (thus forming the pedosphere).
Space is present in a way in the soil maps which render the soils diversity and
variability in the territory. It is necessary to pay more attention to the relations among soils
in territory on a horizontal direction; these ones are expressed by the pedogeographical
assemblage which refers to the configuration and systemic organization (arrangement) of
soils in the soilscapes which form the pedosphere (see the following chapters).
The adequate understanding of the pedogeographical assemblage will contribute to
clarifying the spatial relation among different soils and between the soil cover and
environment conditions, as well as to the better use and management of the soil resources.
Time should be regarded as the duration of the soil forming process necessary for
the materialization in the soil profile of the action of various processes that take place in
the superficial layer of the earth, under influence of the environmental (pedogenetic)
factors; this action leads to the soil formation from the initial stages of development to the
mature soil (climax stage). This duration of the pedogenesis is often given by absolute age
of soil determined by different methods and the formation speed by soil evolution rate. In
addition, the notion of soils relative age is used; it is given by the stage of the soil
development (immature, semi-mature, mature, senile soils); these terms are not yet clearly
prcised.
The duration of the soil formation was estimated as ranging from several centuries
to ten thousands years for the soils of the Quaternary plains from the temperate zone, or
to millions of years for the old continental shields of the equatorial zone. The time needed
for the soil (or its feature) to reach the equilibrium stage with the environment is termed
characteristic response time. In this long period of time, the natural conditions and,
implicitly, pedogenesis processes changed with the corresponding effects in the soil-cover
(polygenetic soils, relict features, etc), discussed in the following chapters.

56

57

3. THE SOIL COVER PARTITION. TERRITORIAL

PEDOGEOGRAPHICAL ENTITIES.
At present, the delimitation of the high pedogeographical units of different
magnitude levels (soil zones, soil domains, soil regions, soil districts, etc) is achieved
especially based on geological, geomorphological and/or climatic criteria (FAO-UNESCO,
1971; Soil Survey Manual, 1993; Georeferenced Soil Database for Europe, 1996) because,
of course, lithology, relief and climatic conditions are the main factors that determine the
nature of soils and the pattern of their distribution in territory. But these territorial large
units represent pedogeographical units, are communities or populations of soils and they
have to be defined and determined (discriminated) using soil criteria. Consequently, the
essential features of the soil cover should be selected and taken into account for the
delimitation of pedogeographical units. Of course, it is necessary to establish these
essential features of the soil cover, their hierarchization and their parametrization without
breaking the link with the environmental factors, pedogenetic processes and soil cover, but
on the contrary, correlating them.
In order to cover this deficiency, a system of hierarchical pedogeographical units
and the respective determination soil criteria are proposed for the systematization of the
various partition entities of the soil-cover (terrestrial cover).

3.1 Succinct history

The traditional meaning of soil was that of a natural medium for the growth of
plants covering the land more or less continuously (except the bare rock and areas of
perpetual frost).
The concept of soil introduced by the Russian School, led by V.V. Dokuchaev
(1983), was a revolutionary one and made Pedology as a science possible (Soil Survey
Manual, 1951, Soil Taxonomy, 1975). According to this concept, soils are conceived to be
independent natural bodies, each with a unique morphology resulting from the unique
combination of climate, living matter, earthy parent material, relief and age of land form
(Glinka, 1914, 1927, quoted in Soil Taxonomy, 1975, and Soil Survey Manual, 1993). Each
soil is characterized by its morphology, as expressed by a vertical section through the
different horizons (named soil profile) which allows the knowledge of the soil constituents
and properties, as well as the vertical soil organization (G. Munteanu-Murgoci, 1911). At
that time the most important advance in pedology has been the recognition of the soil
profile as the unit of study (G.W. Robinson, 1937), being an expression of the soil forming
processes.
According to C.F. Marbut (1935, quoted from Soil Survey Manual, 1993), the soil as
outer layer of the Earths crust implies a concept of soil as continuum. American
pedologists (Soil Survey Manual, 1951) consider the soil as a collection of natural bodies
that occupy portions of the Earhts surface capable of supporting plants. They make a
difference between soil and a soil; the soil is a collection of natural bodies on the
Earths surface (in the sense of soil continuum) and a soil (in the sense of natural body)
is a component of the soil continuum that we classify (Soil Taxonomy, 1975). V.A. Kovda
(1973) also makes a clear difference between the soil cover and soils as component parts.
The current definition according to the Soil Survey Manual (1993) refers to soil as a
collection of natural bodies in the surface of the Earth, which divides Marbuts continuum
into discrete defined parts that can be treated as members of a population. The soils
perspective has changed from one in which the whole was emphasized and its parts were
58

loosely defined, to one in which the parts are sharply defined and the whole is an
organized collection of these parts.
It results, consequently, that the concept and term of soil means either the natural
formation, relatively continuous, situated at the Earths surface, in which component parts
with diffuse limits can be conventionally delimited, or the natural entities that represent
distinct bodies (with conventional limits) juxtaposed in territory forming different organized
collections of various complexities that constitute the soil cover varying from a place to
another. The soil has to be studied from the two complementary view-points, both as an
individual and as a collection (population). Just as different kinds of soils are commonly
associated in a landscape, several landscapes are commonly associated in still larger
areas (Soil Survey Manual, 1993).
The soil maps (products of soil survey) show the distribution of different soils in
territory as natural elementary entities or soil combinations.
The elaboration of the soil maps for the different continents and for the terrestrial
globe, printed in the last decade, the realization of the soil data-banks for large regions, as
well as the availability of satellite images of the land, raise more and more the question of
the partitioning of the soil cover in territorial units of different dimensions, levels of
generalization and degrees of heterogenity, with their specific features. The problem is not
new, it has its roots in numerous editions of the world soil map compiled in Russia and in
the former USSR and in other parts.
The first soil map of a part of the globe (the northern hemisphere) was compiled by
V.V. Dokuchaev and presented at the international exhibition from Paris in 1900 (nonpublished, but reproduced later on in black-and-white by Gerasimov and Rozov in 1939).
K.D. Glinka compiled in 1909 the first soil map of the world on genetic basis. Later on,
beginning with the 1927s (Gerasimov, 1974; Lobova, 1977) many editions of the world soil
map were compiled by G.D. Glinka, D.G. Vilenski, L.I. Prasolov, I.P. Gerasimov, V.A.
Kovda and E.V. Lobova and were presented at different world soil congresses, or
published in the Great Soviet Atlas of the World (1937), in the physico-geographic Atlas of
the World (1964) or in the journal Priroda (1968, in a simplified form). In all these soil
maps, the soils legends were grouped depending on the relief regions (plains and
tablelands, mountains, etc) and later also depending on the bioclimatic zones. The same
grouping was also applied in the first map of Europe compiled by a large cooperation
under the coordination of H. Stremme in 1972 (1:10 000 000 scale) and 1938 (1:2 500 000
scale) E.H. Stremme, 1997.
In Germany, in the soil map for Niedersachsen und Bremen (1975), soils are
grouped on landscapes (Landschaften, Grosslandschaften) and soil regions
(Bodenregions). Also in the text concerning FAO-Unesco soil maps (1971), soils are
presented on larger territories separated by physico-geographical criteria, as sub-units of
great structural regions (plains, tablelands, mountains). The same principles are also
recommended in the Soil Survey Manual (1993) in which terms of physico-geographical
unit, geomorphic region and great geomorpho-climatic region are used. Therefore, as one
observes, the soil grouping in higher territorial units is made on geomorphic or climatic
criteria.
Generalizations of soil survey data were also made, either as maps of soil zones or
as maps of pedological regionalization. But, the preoccupations concerning the manner of
the association of soils in territory forming soilscapes and other peculiarities of the soil
cover were developed only in the last decade, without becoming a general concept.
Arnold (1990) shows that the worlds knowledge of soil is primary based on the
examination of soil profiles in soil combinations (associations of the basic units). The
various approaches for defining and designating the various kinds of combinations are not
readily discussed and evaluated throughout the world. That is a pity.

59

Milne (1935) has defined the soil catena and then also other soil combinations were
described (toposequence, chronosequence). Fridland has defined the soil combinations in
his book on the Structure of the soil cover and maps with soil combinations were published.
Fridland (1972) shows that, alongside the zonality-provinciality criterion, used for
establishing a regional unit set, the criterion of the soil cover structure and soil
combinations should be used for the definition of the pedogeographical unit set too.
Glazovskaia (1973) underlined the fact that soil combinations and pedogeochemical
sequences (catenas) represent pedogeographical units that genetically link the soils of the
upper and lower part of the relief (as a consequence of the lateral circulation of substances
due to the redistribution of heat and moisture).
Huggett (1995, quoted by Smeck et al., 1983) suggested the utilization of the
functional three-dimensional units of soil systems, very important in the case of modeling,
either of a valley basin or of a soil landscape system.
Florea (1983, 1987), considering the soil cover as a system with different spatial
organization levels, distinguished alongside the basic pedogeographical units (polypedon
and pedosocion) an immediately higher organization level, a structural-functional unit of
soilscape, named elementary soilscape or pediom. He also introduced the notion of
pedological (pedogeographical) assemblage for the whole characterization of the soil
cover of a certain large area by the soil cover configuration, nature and proportion of
component soils, pattern of soil distribution and heterogeneity of the soil cover; this
concept is useful for the delimitation and characterization of soil geographical units of
different levels, expressing the pattern of spatial organization of soils at ground surface.
In the SOTER methodology (FAO, 1993), it is utilized the term of terrain as a
fragment of landscape. In ROMSOTER methodology (Munteanu, in Heinicke et al., 1998),
the basic soil units (STU, SMU) are grouped in pedolandscape unit (PLU) and these ones
in physiographic units (PGU), but defined by geologico-geomorphic criteria.
Recently, through the work Georeferenced Soil Database for Europe (1998), the
terms soilscape and soil region were introduced for a better understanding of the spatial
variability of soils and to provide tools for managing and rationalizing data on the
continent scale. This is a step forward because both the soil region unit was defined as
higher unit (grouping similar soilscapes) of soil cover partition and the soilscape unit
defined as an area with a unitary geologico-geomorphic development characterized by an
association of dominant soils formed from a certain association of parent materials and
under a certain climate.
The 176 soil regions separated in Western Europe resulted from the combination of
79 units of dominant soil associations and 14 parent-material types and distributed on four
climatic zones (boreal, cold-temperate, temperate, Mediterranean) and their subdivisions
(using, therefore, at a higher level of generalization a criterion taken from the climatic
domain).
In the second version (2005) of Europes soil map, the 284 soils association units
from the legend (without Fluvisols and Anthrosols units, undifferentiated), units considered
regions of soils, formed in certain parent materials, were also grouped on large climatic
areas (sub-polar, boreal, temperate, Mediterranean) and their subdivisions (continental,
sub-continental, oceanic, sub-oceanic, mountain), also using the climatic criterion for
grouping the soil units at a high level. The term of soil region is used in this map for the soil
association unit in a certain climatic area and not in the sense of territorial unit of
regionalization (or zoning) of the soil cover (as sub-division of the soil domain, a part of the
soil zone and sub-zone).
As a rule, therefore, at a higher level of grouping (generalization) of soil area units
(STU or SMU), these units are grouped in geographical units discriminated on geologicogeomorphic or physiographical criteria.

60

It results that, at the current moment, there is no unitary systematization of

categories of different levels for the soil cover units of various heterogeneities and
generalizations based consistently on soil criteria.
However, Florea recently proposed (2000, 2002, 2003, 2009) a sequence of
hierarchical pedogeographical units, as collective communities of soils, based on
pedological criteria that is presented further in an improved form.

3.2 The principles and basic ideas for a soil cover consistent partition
Two principles have been kept in view:
- All factors of the natural landscape express themselves in the soil, which is the
final synthetic expression of the forces in the natural landscape working together, and by
which the nature of the landscape can be characterized better, more complete and more
directly than by other factor or combination of factors (Kellogg, 1938);
- All soil cover entities (spatial geographical units) are defined, delineated and
denominated by proper (intrinsic) properties of the soil cover.
In fact, the second principle is a consistent extension of the first principle of the
close relationships between soil and natural landscape, so clearly and beautiful exposed
by Charles E. Kellogg long ago.
The basic idea of the system of a consistent partition of soil cover (Florea, 2007,
2009) originated from finding that in nature all the landscapes, including the soilscapes,
are the consequence of the long action of two categories of forces or natural factors:
cosmic (or external) factors and telluric (or internal) factors (action which can be influenced
by mans activity which has been very intensive lately in some areas).
Suns radiation, as a main cosmic factor, is distributed differentiated on the globes
surface, depending on the location against the equator, so that it determines the ununiform heating of the Earths surface and the circulation of the air masses and oceanic
water. This fact leads to the differentiation of large zones of soil and atmosphere heating
(climatic zones) which have generally a latitudinal orientation.
On the other hand, the geological factors (internal) had determine geologicalgeomorphic structures very differentiated on large areas on the Earths surface, whose
distribution does not take into account climatic zones, being regional or local. These
geologico-geomorphic structures, represented at a general level by plains, tablelands, hills
and mountains, influence very much the development of all natural processes, including
those of soil forming in any climatic zone.
Therefore, by combining the two categories of large areas climatic zones and
large geologico-geomomrphic units complex units result with specific characteristics,
named in general great physiographic units or physio-geographic regions. The soil cover
of these large units is characterized by a great variety of conditions of genesis, evolution,
morphogenetic features, properties and spatial soil distribution in close correlation with the
environmental peculiarities of each large unit; therefore, these large territorial units are
also regions or large pedogeographic units.
On limited territories, the first category of factors are combined specifically with
parts or different elements (of relief, altitude, lithology) of the second category of factors (in
general non-uniform), forming spatial combinations very varied on small distances, which
determine the local character (topologic) of the territory. From a pedological point of view,
this local character is given by the concrete soil, by soil combination specific to different
forms of relief or by the elementary soilscape (which corresponds to a geographic or
physiographic unit with unitary evolution and functionality).
It must be underlined that zonal features of the soil cover are consequences of the
first category of factors (cosmic), the regional features of the second category (telluric)
61

against the background of the first category, while the local (topologic) character is the
result of the combination of the two categories of factors which acquires varied forms
depending on various land forms, position on relief, nature of parent material.
The vertical zonality presents a different situation, as altitude is added to the cosmic
factors.
Summarizing, the following main ideas have been considered:
- Consideration of the combined action of the external factors generally zonal
distributed and the internal factors distributed irrespective of zonality at the origin of the
variation of soils and soilscapes at the Earths surface (as discussed above);
- Consideration of the soil bodies as elements of a huge collection of soils (soil
cover or pedosphere) organized in soil sub-collections of different orders of organization
(segments of soil cover at different levels), defined by the presence of different soils in
various proportions and distribution patterns;
- Definition of an elementary spatial and functional soil unit, which is the elementary
soil landscape, as the smalles unit of soilscape. The soil landscape (or soilscape) in a
generic sense is defined as a territory (terrain) formed by several soil combinations and
even non-soils, constituting together a distinct entity in the environment both
physiographical and functional, with a certain bio-production capacity and certain land-use
capacity in the context of the sustainable management of the soil (and other natural
resources). The elementary soil landscape is the smallest one that cannot be subdivised.
Having many variables with many classes, the soil landscapes (soilscapes) require
constant effort for typifying and classification.
- Introduction and utilization of the idea (concept) that the soil and relief are
indissolubly bound in any ground surface (the relief as support of soils and soil and
vegetation as protecting garment of the relief), under the name of pedodomain or
pedoterrain (as tandem soil-relief); according to this concept, the attributes of the surface
of geomorphic unit (landforms) are in the same time attributes of soil cover (and implicitly
of soil communities of the different large areas). The introduction of this concept has the
advantage that the soil unit groupings are also groupings according to the intensity
processes controlled by base level (geomorphic processes contributing also to the soil
formation), of course induced climatic at local and global level.
- Utilization of the soil temperature regime and soil moisture regime that determine
the annual pedorhythm of pedogenetic processes as criterion of soil grouping in
geographical units (entities) of high level.

3.3 Basic soil units of the soil cover

The notion of pedoterrain
The practice of carrying out and utilizing the soil survey in Romania led to the need
of the association of the soil characterization with that of the corresponding environment
conditions, so that conjugate units soil-land at large scale were defined (with all attributes
specific to soil and its environment), as well as complex territorial units of pedological
regionalization at middle scale characterized by a heterogeneity between certain limits of
the conditions of soil, relief, climate, vegetation and land use (Teaci, 1970, 1980,
Methodology of the elaboration of soil studies, 1987, in Romanian; Florea et al., 1989,
1999, Florea, 1990).
Also, at world scale a new similarity approach was introduced both by SOTER
methodology (FAO, 1993) and by the new soil maps of Europe and the corresponding
databases (E.U., Bureau of soils), similarity approach through which the soils are
correlated with land forms (being considered as component of these ones) and with the
62

parent material grouping. On the same line stand the works of Munteanu et al. (1998, 2001)
on the soil databanks and digital soil map for the Romanian territory.
Therefore, the necessity of developing an integrated concept of soil-environment
has appeared, concept which combines organically the soil and the land (environmental)
attributes; for this concept the term pedoterrain was proposed (Florea, 2003) and that of
pedotop for the elementary territorial unit (area), taken from literature (Chiri, 1974, Haase,
1980).
The pedoterrain units become thus spatial units of environment, components of the
terrestrial ecosystems (and also of agroecosystems and forest ecosystems) as well as
continental geosystems.
The pedoterrain is defined as a three-dimensional body, unconsolidated, milieu and
resource for terrestrial vegetation development, which forms at land surface a distinct
cover (mantle) of geospheres interference, having a proper vertical organization and
surface conformation. The spatial elementary pedoterrain the pedotope refers to an
area from the soil cover with uniform characteristics and proper topographical position,
having distinct functions within terrestrial ecosystems and continental geosystems (natural
or anthropical modified).
The notion of pedoterrain integrates both soil attributes and land attributes (fig. 3.1)
not only with regard to the extent, shape, etc, but also concerning the climatic and
hydrological processes (on the vertical) are completed by the space study (on the
horizontal) of the soil cover, including pedodiversity and soil changes produces by man.
The term of pedoterrain is used as generic term like the term soil. At a very large
scale, this term corresponds to the term of territory ecologically homogenous (TEO)
introduced by Teaci (1970, 1980) and as a rule it overlaps to some elements of land forms.
Surface of the
terrestrial crust
Parent material (surface
deposits)

Soil properties

Soil profile (sequence

of the pedogenetic
horizons)

Elementary area of
sol cover or
pedoterrain
(polypedon,
pedotop)

Land forms

Geological, lithological
and hydrogeological
conditions

Bioclimatic conditions
and land use

Figure 3.1 Indissoluble unity between soil and land form (and the other
environmental conditions) in the framework of the pedoterrain area (unit)
The pedoterrain units, as constitutive components of soil cover, integrate in a
unitary whole the soil, the parent material, land form (land conformation) and hydrologic
behaviour (fig. 3.1). This concept answers more adequately to present requirements of
sustenable utilization of soil resources and their protection. It is more comprehensive
concerning the dynamics of geomorphic and pedogenetic processes with reflecting of the
water circulation and substances and their redistribution, soil erosion, soil pollution, etc,

63

very important in connexion with an optimized land use and establishing the soil resources
protection.
This concept does not minimize the role of climate and vegetation concerning the
soil formation and evolution. On the contrary, it facilitates a better knowledge of the
direction and intensity of the processes that take place at the crust surface in the
environment.
It must be underlined the fact that soil study is and remains essential in the
characterization of the pedoterrain units, because the knowledge of soil itself is
indispensable for the evaluation of the land use and land management.
The soil cover basic units
Any domain of geography and geology investigates natural territorial systems, more
or less influenced by man, which can be either elementary territorial entities (which can not
be divided without losing their identity) or aggregates of elementary territorial entities which
form complex territorial entities with specific features.
Table 3.1 The basic pedogeographical units of the soil cover (pedosphere)
Unit

Definition

Elementary
unit of soil
(or
pedoterrain)
Polypedon
(Pedotope)

Homogenous
area of soil (or
terrain) which
cannot be
divided without
loss of its
identity

Simple soil Elementary unit

of the
combination
unit
association
Pedosocion (juxtaposition )
of few soil
entities in
territory
(landscapes)
Elementary
soilscape
unit
Pediom

Characterized by

Criteria of
delimitation
Morphological,
The criteria of
physical, chemical
the soil
and biological
taxonomic
properties and
system
(combined with
environmental
characteristics
the
relatively
topographic
homogeneous
criterion)
Relatively
Nature and
simple land
proportion of
component soils, form with some
topographic position
soil
of soils and relations combinations
among component
soils

Climatic,
Paragenetic
geomorphological,
grouping of
lithological,
pedosocions
hydrological and
and/or
vegetation data;
polypedons
soil (pedoterrain)
developed on
geographical proportion and soiltopography
unit of low levels
with the same correlation; relations
genesis and
among soils in
functionality and
landscape;
having the same parameters of the
soil distribution soil cover fabric (soil
pattern
cover assemblage)

Relatively
homogeneous
physicogeographical
(physiographic)
unit with the
same soil
combinations
and the same
pattern of soil
distribution

Denomination

Remarks

According to the
nomenclature of
the soil
taxonomic
system (and of
land forms) at
different degree
of detail
According to the
classification of
the soil
combinations
(taking into
account the
component soils
nature and land
forms)
According to the
dominant soil
combination
(and eventually
indicatory
combination)
and soil cover
conformation

Basic
territorial unit,
object of the
classification
of the soil
(pedoterrain)
individual
entities
Basic
territorial
association
(juxtaposition)
of soils,
object of the
classification
of soil
combinations
Basic
territorial
functional unit
in landscape,
component of
the
landscapes
(and
soilscapes) of
higher level of
generalization

In pedology and pedogeography, the soil cover essential component of the

environment is one of the most complex and various natural territorial systems due to the
diversity of the vertical and horizontal organizations of component soils. The soil cover
64

consists, in the last analysis, of elementary soil entities (or elementary soil bodies) and
often of simple combinations (associations) of elementary soil entities and even areas of
non-soils, which can be rendered on soil maps at large scale.
However, the soil cover is structured in segments or parts which form territorial
entities (areas) of different dimensions, shapes and complexity, lately named generically
soilscapes which can be rendered only on soil maps at average and small scales. They
represent territorial communities of elementary soil entities (juxtaposed in the respective
areas) which function as a whole.
It must be underlined that the elementary soil (or pedoterrain) entity to which in
the territory the polypedon (or pedotope) corresponds is the basic pedogeographic unit
of the pedosphere (soil cover). But the pedosphere is made up of coherent associations
(juxtapositions) of polypedons (or pedotopes) forming simple soil combinations to which in
territory different pedosocion correspond (juxtapositions of 2-3 soils). Also, the soil
combinations are component parts of larger territorial communities which function as
unitary spatial aggregates, constituting functional territorial systems of the geographical
landscape. The smallest community (aggregate) that function as a whole forms the
elementary soilscape; its territorial correspondent is named pediom and it is the basic
component of soilscapes.
The elementary soil unit (polypedon, pedotope), the simple soil combination unit
(pedosocion) and the elementary soilscape unit (pediom) are all pedogeographical basic
entities that function in the framework of the pedosphere (table 3.1). These entities can be
the object of specific classifications (taxonomies) that take into consideration three aspects
of the soil cover: the individual components of the soil cover, the basic units of soil
juxtaposition (combinations) in landscape, the basic functional role of the soilscape. The
three mentioned aspects complete themselves reciprocally.
Therefore, in the soil science one puts the problem of the classification not only of
the elemenetary soil units but also of the basic entities of the different soil communities:
soil combinations entities and elementary soilscapes (Florea, 2005). Attempts of
classification are showed in subchapters 3.9.2 and 4.4.
Systematization of the elementary soil entities
There are some discussions in the speciality literature concerning the
understanding and implicitly classification of the soils as discrete entities (individual areas),
due to the fact that the soils in contrast with plants and animals do not appear as
separated individuals (distinct areas), but as territorial continua in soil cover consisting of
successive juxtapositions of areas of different soil entities, and the transitions between soil
(elementary) entities are not clear, but continuous and diffuse. In addition, the content of
the notion of soil individual is different depending on the scale of study. From this reason
there are two mode of consideration of the soil cover making up (Arnold, 1983), mentioned
already above:
- as a soil continuum at land surface which is segmented in different soil classes
among which conventional limits have to be established;
- as a collection of natural bodies which make up the soil continuum, the accent in
this case is put on the characterization of the central concepts of the natural bodies which
are different from one place to another.
Irrespective of the approach mode, it is clear that the world of soils has a certain
specific: among soil individuals (entities) there are continuous transitions (discretecontinuous character) with a certain degree of indetermination; from this reason the soil
entities delineation is somewhat difficult, the establishment of some threshold (limits) of
separation being necessary, thresholds often conventional, but which have a real support
because they correspond to real positions of the soil cover, even if the geographical limits
are not precisely delineated (outlined). Also, it must be said that sols cannot change their
65

place, cannot be constructed as natural entities and cannot multiply (themselves), but can
regenerate if they are partially deteriorated (or can be remade over time if they are
destroyed).
The soil classification, as any classification of elementary entities, represents a
systematization (ordering) and distribution of the respective entities in categories or
classes (orders), in conformity with certain criteria and in a certain order. The soil
classification can be realized, therefore, from many points of view. The most important
classification from a scientific point of view is the natural (or naturalistic) classification, that
is the classification that take into consideration the essential features of soils, reflecting
their genesis and evolution (development); on this basis, genetic types of soils are
separated, as results of the action of the pedogenetic processes generated by the
conjugated influence of environmental factors in the territory. At present, this scientific
classification of soils is named soil taxonomy.
Soil taxonomy is based in the present on essential intrinsic characteristics of soils,
in fact genetico-evolutive criteria, which derive from the soil profile (pedon) with its vertical
organization given by its succession of genetic horizons with their properties, considered
as a whole. But soil profile is only one sample whose study provides the knowledge of the
soil properties from the area (soil taxonomic unit, STU, or polypedon) with the same soil;
these elementary soil units are very different from one place to the other and make up the
bricks of the soil cover and provide its features.
Being the simplest territorial soil systems, the elementary soil units (polypedons)
were relatively well studied, characterized and classified. There currently are many
national and international systems of soil classification (taxonomy). The most important
international systems are:
- the World reference base for soil resources (WRB-SR), elaborated by FAO and by
the Soil Bureau of European Commission and other agencies, which comprises major soil
groupings, soil units and soil sub-units (see also chapter 8);
- the Soil Taxonomy, elaborated by USDA, NRCS, Soil Survey Staff, in which soil
orders, suborders, great groups and subgroups are distinguished (see also chapter 8):
- French Pedological Referential;
- Russian System of Soil Classification in course of bringing up to date.
In Romania, the first soil classification based on genetic criteria was made by
Murgoci (1911); a national system of soil classification was introduced in 1980, in a great
extent correlated with the FAO-UNESCO soil nomenclature. This system was updated in
2003 under the name of Romanian System of Soil Taxonomy (Sistemul romn de
taxonomie a solurilor, SRTS-2003).
The soil taxonomic units (entities) or soil taxa are abstract concepts, hierarchically
systematized on genetic and relation criteria, that are used as reference units, reference
term, reference basis) for the framing of concrete soil areas of the soil cover. Soil
taxonomy is, therefore, a hierarchically typological (genetico-tipological) systematization of
abstract reference units of different level of detailing; however, these units have as real
correspondents the concrete soil areas from the territory more or less homogeneous and
unitary functional. The soil taxonomy, based on certain concepts and corresponding
discrimination criteria, is one.
In the soil taxonomy, the accent was put especially on the soil properties derived
from vertical soil organization, neglecting some characteristics of the soil area, above all
land configuration linked to topography. But the soil, being at terrestrial surface, cannot be
separated from the land form on which it exists, so that the soil area has also attributed of
the respective territorial area. For this reason, Florea (2003) proposed the concept and
term of pedoterrain (see sub-chapter 3.2) which integrates the concept of the soil with
concept of land; this concept is very close to the term earth (pmnt, in Romanian) in
the sense used by peasants (landed property). The pedoterrain taxonomy involves the
66

completion of the soil taxonomy with the classes of the elementary relief forms (Florea and
al., 2004).
The soil (and pedoterrain) taxonomy is the tool by which the soils are
diagnosticated, characterized and marked out on pedological maps.
The soil maps, especially those at middles and small scales, often include in their
legend units of soil combinations and also areas of soil combinations on the map, names
as a rule through the names of the soils which make up the soil combination. A
systematics of soil combination was elaborated by Florea and Udrescu (2000), inspired
from systematics of plants associations (see the sub-chapter 3.9). The finalizing of a
classification of soil combinations and of their constitution criteria would be very useful for
soil cover presentation on the soil maps at different scales.

3.4 The soilscapes and their systematization

The soil cover consists of spatial juxtapositions of different elementary soil entities,
interrupted sporadically by non soils (rivers, lakes, barren rocks etc); however, in large
areas of the soil cover one can distinguish territories characterized both by gradual soil
changes on large distances due especially to the variation of climate and by soil changes
on short distances, determined often by the modifications of the relief or parent material.
The two ways of soil changes can be considered as two distinct phenomena, provincialzonal and local-regional (Fridland, 1976; Buol et al., 1997) only from a didactic point of
view, because they make up an unitary whole of spatial organization of the soil cover
(pedosphere); this soil cover organization is expressed by its pedogeographic assemblage
(pedogeographic fabric) (Florea, 1989, 2001, 2009). Otherwise, Fridland (1974)
considered that the forms of the structure of the soil cover depend on the entire sum of
the factors of soil formation, but lithological-geomorphical conditions are expressed more
clearly in them (page 40).
The study of these complex territorial units (areas), as natural segments of soil
cover having a specific spatial organization, named generally soilscapes, necessitates
much more attention. The systematization of these soilscapes, both on the vertical
(hierarchically) and on the horizontal (at the same hierarchical level) is an actual problem
of great scientific and applied concern. Buol et al., as far back as in the 1980, mentioned
that the soilscapes, as fragments of soil cover, can be considered as organisms and
therefore studied as open systems like polypedons. The great variety and complexity of
the soilscapes explain the lack of a system of this systematization that can be applied
anywhere.
By its nature, the pedosphere has a certain organization in space and variation in
time. The spatial organization cannot be reflected by the soil taxonomy. Some aspects can
be discerned by contemplation of the soil distribution on the soil map, but partially and not
essentially. Only the study of the soilscapes takes into account the assemblage (fabric) of
soil cover of the concrete territory, making in this way a link between abstract notions from
soil taxonomy and real soil cover. In the same time, the attention in the soil survey oriented
especially on points (soil profiles) and elementary areas (or soil units) extends in equal
measure also on the whole territory and the relations among soils. The world of soils is
taken into consideration thus at the level of juxtaposition of elementary soil units (areas) in
territory.
Concerning the variation in time of the soil cover, often indiscernible at the scale of
a mans life, they are reflected in soilscapes by different stages of soil evolution, existing
on different land forms, correlated with the age of relief and parent material; these changes
in time represent a basis of forecast of soil evolution in the future.
67

The soilscape is defined as a territory more or less homogeneous, consisting of

different soils or simple soil combinations or even non-soils, whose distribution is
correlated with a certain assemblage of land forms, types of lithology and climate and
vegetation conditions; all these make up together a distinct entity of environment, with a
certain physiognomy and functionality as a result of the environmental factors. The
homogeneity of the soil scapes is given especially by the pattern of the combination in
space (juxtaposition) of the component soils and its repetition in territory; it assures the
unity of the soilscape. The cohesion of the whole landscape is given by the relation among
its components and their stability.
The soilscapes represent, therefore, territorial complex soil aggregates with a
certain spatio-temporal organization, expressed by their pedogeographical assemblage
(fabric) (discussed in the next chapter).
The limit between the different soilscapes is given by the transition from one kind of
physiognomy and functionality to another one, fact marked by the appearance of a
discontinuity in heterogeneity associated, of course, with modifications in nature and
intensity of the pedogenetic factors and processes (including geologico-geomorphological
ones).
Each soilscape also has a certain energy and bioproductive potential and a certain
capability of land use, in the condition of a sustainable utilization and development of soil
resources.
The soilscapes, being aggregates of land forms and inherent soils, cannot be
characterized without the study of actual and previous geomorphic and pedogenetic
processes, as well as of the land forms with soil types, all in close correlation because it is
known that flows of substances (water, solutions, suspensions) move through soil and its
surface, not only in the extent of one soil unit, but crossing sequences of soil units in the
extent of the soil landscape.
The term of soilscape is used in a generic sense, like terms of climate, vegetation,
relief, soil, without designating a certain kind of soilscape. However, one can define an
elementary soilscape, that is the smallest soilscape that functions as a whole having
geographical individuality. The elementary soilscapes associate in territory one with
another forming more and more complex soilscapes, which can be hierarchically
systematized, reflecting variation and heterogeneity of environmental factors as well as the
size of the territory. The following set of systematization units of soilscapes (or units of soil
territorial systems as segments of soil cover) was proposed (Florea et al., 2003, Florea,
2003): elementary soilscape or pediom, pedodistrict or pedophysiographic unit,
pedoregion or soil region, pedodomain or soil domain, pedozone or soil zone. In this
taxonomic succession of territorial units (soil territorial systems) the soil cover complexity
is more and more higher, having ever more soil components, increasing heterogeneity and
increasing area.
The units of higher levels answer to the concept of zoning and regionalization
(division in smaller and smaller territorial segments, the smallest ones being included in
those higher). The thermal zones of soils are unique on Terra; they are divided in few
domains, so that the question of their systematization (classification) is irrelevant. Soil
regions (pedoregions) are more numerous so that their generalization and typization would
be realized.
In exchange, the units of lower level are especially groupings of elementary soil
units (pedoterrain) or groupings of simple soil combinations units, which function as unitary
soilscapes; being many, they can also make the object of a classification based on the
peculiarities of the pedogeographical assemblage inherent to each unit (taxonomic level).
Therefore, although these taxonomic units of soilscapes are complex topological (territorial)
groupings, by generalization and abstractization they can also be considered from a
typological point of view, being in the same time elementary functional entities and
68

classified as such. This classification (taxonomy) of soilscape of the lower level does not
exist, it has to be developed.
PEDOSPHERE
Systematization of areas of
elementary bodies (entities) of soils
or pedoterrains

Systematization of areas of complex

entities (communities) of soils
(pedoterrains) or soilscapes

Soil (and pedoterrain) taxonomy

Hierarchical set of abstract entities
(taxa) which systemathizes the
areas of elementary soil bodies or
pedoterrains, based on intrinsic
genetico-evolutive criteria. It is a
scientific classification, typologiconaturalistic, used as system of
reference units for the
diagnostication, delimitation and
transposing on maps of real soil and
pedoterrain units (areas)

Soilscape taxonomy. Hierarchical set

of abstract units of systematization of
areas of pedoterrains communities
with different heterogeneity degrees,
based on genetico-evolutive and
geographical criteria. The taxa refers
to topological (territorial) groupings
(communities) of soils (pedoterrains)
which present spatial organization
and therefore specific
pedogeographical assemblage
(fabric). Taxa of lower level are used
in soil cover partitioning in unitary
natural and functional segments and
the taxa of higher level in
pedogeographical zoning and
regionalization. Soilscape taxonomy
of lower level would be developed
typologically, reaching an adequate
systematization at each level (on
horizontal); soilscapes of higher
levels, being practically unique or in
small numbers, do not need
typological systematization.

Soil combination systematics

Set of abstract hierarchical taxa
which systematizes the simple soil
(pedoterrain) combinations based
on the nature of components and
their proportion in territory. It is
utilized as reference system for soil
combination, especially for the soil
maps at middle and small scales.
Pragmatic classification of soils or
pedoterrains (land classifications).
Systematization of areas of
pedoterrains in categories or
classes depending on the
expression degree of some
properties, behaviour at a certain
utilization, reaction to an external
action (impact), quality assessed for
a certain aim. Pragmatic
classifications are used to elaborate
various interpretative soil maps in
different aims or for various
scientific and technical purposes

Pragmatic systematization of
soilscapes or pedogeographical
regionalization in various purposes.
Definition, delimitation and
characterization of unitary territorial
areas and relatively large, depending
on soil characteristics and behaviours
of pedoterrains considered from the
point of view of a systematization or
regionalization purpose (agriculture,
sylviculture, environment, land
development, vulnerability to soil and
land degradation, etc.

Figure 3.2 Different ways of soil and soilscapes systematization

69

Besides the naturalistic classifications (taxonomies), pragmatic or technical

classifications are used; they are made for various purposes (land capabilities, soil
pretability for different uses or activities, production potential, suitability for irrigation,
drainage, requirements for soil improvement, corrosive action of soils, etc) or for selection
in a certain order. These classifications are based only on soil properties and land features
which answer to the purpose of classification. They require the identification and ordering
of the soil units (areas) in classes (categories) according to the degree of suitability of soil
and land properties for the purpose of classification; in this way, the territorial units are
delimited, grouped according to their behaviour (answer) for a respective purpose and land
use or according to their quality for the considered aim. Generally, these classifications are
known as land classifications. They have a large utility in practice for different problems of
agriculture, sylviculture, land and soil improvement, environment protection, economy, etc
for which the interpretative soil maps for different aims are very useful.
Not only the basic soil units can be pragmatically classified for different purposes;
although the soilscapes (soil regions) can be grouped in the same way for the problems of
strategy of land development.
A synthesis of the discussed chapters is presented in fig. 3.2. Unlike the soil
taxonomy which is one the soil pragmatic classifications are very numerous (like
variety of soil and land use and services, as well as of soil and land evaluation).

3.5 Hierarchy of the units of geographical partition (segmentation) of soil

cover
The elementary soil units (polypedons), as well as elementary soil combination
units (pedosocions), delineated on soil maps are easily perceived as pedogeographical
entities, being relative simple entities. However, these entities are often included in more
complex entities, less directly perceptible as soilscapes, ecosystemic units, soil regions or
zones. Soil cover is therefore segmented in territorial units of different magnitudes and
generalization with specific characteristics. This soil cover segmentation was realized until
now especially on the basis of experience and intuition of soil scientists, the soil grouping
being made on geologico-geomorphic units. The increase of knowledge on soils led to the
idea that each level of generalization of the territorial soil units (taxa) has to be established
on the basis of specific phenomena, factors and processes dominant in the soil cover,
which are representative for the respective level and map scale; also criteria for
delimitation (discrimination) are necessary.
A coherent system of hierarchical pedogeographical units for the soil cover partition
on consistent pedological basis and the corresponding criteria were discussed by Florea
(2000, 2002, 2003, 2009); this system is presented in table 3.2. The pedogeographical
units are grouped in three categories: zonal pedogeographical units (taxa) correlated with
zonal natural conditions of climate and vegetation (determined by cosmic factors); regional
pedogeographical units (taxa) correlated especially with major relief (geomorphic) units
associated with geological conditions (determined by telluric factors); local
pedogeographical units (taxa) which reflects the cumulative action of all factors in the
actual conditions of the respective territory.
The last group of pedogeographical units is made of basic soil units that make the
object of a different taxonomy, aspects discussed above. The other two groups of
pedogeographical units are systems (territories) more and more complex and
heterogeneous, consisting of different pedogeographical units from the last group.

70

Table 3.2 The hierarchy of pedogeographical partition units of the soil cover
established on soil criteria
Units of pedogeographical
Defining criteria
Remarks
partition
Continental (zonal) pedogeographical units
(determined especially by the cosmic factors)
Pedothermal zone
Soil communities having the same
Generally, it corresponds to
(soil thermal zone)
class of:
great geographical zones
(Thermoterriom)
- solar radiation
At the present moment, the
- temperature regime (pergelic,
delimitation can be made by
cryic, frigid, mesic, thermic,
atmosphere yearly average
hyperthermic)
temperature and temperature
variation during the year, and
solar energy
Soil domain
The dominant soil(s) of the soil
It corresponds to a soil zone
(Pedoterriom)
communities that correspond to
segment, generally with the
large areas having the same class same major category of relief
of:
One can utilize for the soil
domains delimitation the annual
- moisture regime,
pedorhythm (a synthesis of
- vegetation,
temperature and moisture
- pedoterrain conformation
regimes) and the irregularity
categories of the relief
Regional pedogeographical units
(influenced by telluric factors in the framework of zonal units)
Soil region
The dominant soils of the soil
Generally, it corresponds to
(Pedoregion)
communities depending on the
major geologico-geomorphic
units differentiated by conditions
groups of:
- rocks or
of genesis, relief and rock
- parent material
Soil district
The dominant soil combinations in
Generally, it corresponds to
(Pedophysiom)
the soil cover correlated with the: geologico-geomorphic units of
- landforms and the
medium level (with similar
- parent material associations
bioclimatic conditions)
Local (basic) pedogeographical units
(determined by all factors)
Elementary pedolandscape Paragenetic soil combinations and It corresponds to a geologico(elementary soilscape)
diagnostic soil combinations. The geomorphic unit of low level or
(Pediom)
characterization of the soilscape is
part of this one, relatively
made taking into account the
homogeneous, with same
pedogeographical assemblage
genesis, functionality and
anthropic influence
Simple soil combination unit A simple combination of different
It corresponds to a simple
(Pedosocion)
soils (in the soil combination maps) landform or to an association of
minor landforms.
Soil elementary unit
A soil specific to an unitary area (in It corresponds to an element of
(Polypedon)
the soil maps)
the relief form.
Notes:
- Except for the pedothermal zone, all the pedogeographical units are subdivided at least in
level, sloping and steep subunits, according to their ground surface (and soil cover) conformation.
- The pedothermal zone can be subdivided according to moisture regime in some
pedohydrothermal zone (soil hydrothermal zone) (hydrotermoterriom)
- If the large pedogeographical units acquire geographical denomination, they become
individual pedogeographical units.

71

There are two ways of partitioning the soil cover. The first one is achieved by the
segmentation of the soil cover in a descending way (top to bottom) according to the
model of the genealogical tree that corresponds to classical regionalization. This partition
shows clearly the filiation of delimited units and present knots of spreading. The accent in
delimitation is put on the specific of the territory and the difference from neighbouring units
(and not on the kind of units). As a rule, these pedogeographical units are concrete units,
geographically nominalized.
The second way of soil cover partition is achieved by the ascending way (bottom to
top) by passing from the particular to the general; elementary soil areas and elementary
soilscapes are grouped in units of higher level by generalization. As a rule, the two ways
are combined.
The pedogeographical partition units of the soil cover are presented in table 3.2 in
hierarchical order, each unit also having a special denomination (thermoterriom,
pedoterriom, pedoregion, pedophysiom, pediom, pedosocion, polypedon) which refers to
the area corresponding to the different pedogeographical units.
The pedothermal zone (soil thermal zone) is defined by the soil temperature
regime and intensity of solar radiation and the length of the growing period of plants. Using
the classes of soil temperature regime (Soil Taxonomy, 1975, 1999) the following soil
thermal zones can be distinguished: pergelic, cryic, frigid, mesic, thermic and hyperthermic
soil zones.
The soil domain is a part of the thermal soil zone defined both by the conformation
(nonuniformity) of the soil cover and relief (ground surface conformation), and by dominant
soil or soils (and implicitly by soil moisture regime), or by the annual pedorhythm of
pedogenetic processes and dominant substance circulation water included. For the
conformation (or ground surface shape) of the soil domain three categories are proposed
at small scale: level, sloping and steep. The categories of dominant soil(s) are defined by
the one or two soils rendered at the high level of classification (class to type or order to
suborder). The soil domain is denominated by the two characteristics, for instance: sloping
domains of Luvisols, level domain of Chernozems, etc (or Luvisols sloping domain, etc).
The soil region is defined, in the framework of the soil domain, by lithological
characteristics and, naturally by the general peculiarities of the assemblage of the soil
cover. For each soil region, the geographical names of the physiographic units that belong
to that soil region can be mentioned; in this way the soil region becomes unique.
The soil district is a subdivision of the soil region based especially on the
quantitative elements.
The elementary soilscape unit corresponds, generally, to a relatively
homogeneous geomorphic unit with unitary geological evolution and functionality and is
characterized by different soil combinations associated to different landforms (also
including the diagnostic soil combination).
The other soil (geographical) units, namely the soil combination unit (pedosocion)
and the soil unit (polypedon) are basic elements of the soil cover that correspond to
simple landforms or to elements of landforms. These ones are commonly presented on
detailed soil maps (the maps with soil regions and zones do not replace detailed soil maps,
but they complete them).
In the case of the continental (global) partition of the soil cover, the soil domain or
soil region is commonly the last (simplest) entity, but in the case of a regional partition of
the soil cover, the soil region is the major unit. In this case, the soil pedogeographical units
are defined and characterized by more detailed parameters (for example, sub-zones and
provinces or more detailed classes of ground surface conformation, etc) and by other
parameters as hypsometry, regional slope, etc, and also the dominant soils (and soil
combinations) are presented at a more detailed level (great group, subgroup, etc) and on a
quantitative base.
72

Otherwise, the characterization of the elementary soilscape and soil regions can be
made on the basis of their pedogeographical assemblage that take into account, besides
the non-uniformity of the soil cover and relief (pedoterrain), the kind of soils and their
proportion, the pattern of soil distribution and the complexity and heterogeneity of the soil
cover (see next chapters). The pedogeographical partition entities are defined especially
by their horizontal (spatial) organization (reflected by their soil cover assemblage), unlike
soil bodies and pedosocions that are defined especially by their vertical organization
reflected by the soil profile (pedon) or simple soil juxtaposition.
In connexion with the database of Europes soil, based on the soil map of this
continent (Base de donnes georferencie de sols pour lEurope, Manuel de Procedures,
version 1.1, 2001), the following soil units were defined: STU, SMU, soilscape, soil region.
Soil typological unit (STU) or soil body is a segment of soil cover having the diagnostic
horizons and properties specific for a soil taxonomic unit; on soil maps it can be found in
different polygons (soil units) either alone or in association with other STU. Soil mapping
unit (SMU) is any segment of the soil cover represented on the soil map by a polygon
which consists either of one STU or of many different STU. Soilscape is a segment of soil
cover which consists of many polygons with different soil units having functional relations,
old and recent. Soil region is a part of the soil cover limited to a region characterized by a
peculiar association of climate and parent material.

3.6 Some characteristics of the main pedogeographical partition units

The elementary soil (pedoterrain) unit or the polypedon (pedotope) is in the
same time basic soil reference unit of the soil taxonomy (soil systematization based on its
essential intrinsic properties), considered as a concept, and basic geographical soil unit
which participates to the making up and organization of different territorial soil entities or
soilscapes, more and more complex, that form the soil cover.
Unlike hierarchical soil taxonomy system that is integrative, the hierarchical systems
of pedogeographical partition units is summative or additive, non including physically
the subordinate units which continue to exist as such. Only the polypedon (elementary soil
unit) makes an exception being both summative and integrative (some attributes are
subordinate to the taxonomic higher level).
The soil maps which show the elementary soil body express in fact the most
detailed segmentation (partition) of the soil cover.
The simple soil combination (pedosociation and pedosocion) is the elementary
soil combination consisting of few (2-4) soils in the same area. In general, for large
territories, only soil combinations are reproduced on maps (often not being possible to
render elementary soil areas). It must be underlined that any soil combination is
juxtaposition of different soil areas, between soils being of course often soils of transition
(intergrades).
The pedosocion is the area of the simplest soil combination in soilscape,
corresponding to a relatively simple relief unit. Otherwise, the soil maps at small scale
reproduce soil combinations, generally not simple but complex, though often in the legend
only the dominant soil is specified. It is the case of the world soil maps presented in the
chapter 8.
The elementary soilscape (or pediom) is the smallest complex unitary community
that functions as a whole.
Huggett (1975, quoted by Smeck et al., 1983), finding the lack of some clear
functional limits of soil systems, very important for modeling, suggests to use as threedimensional functional units of soil systems either a valley basin or a soil landscape
system. According to Huggett these units are delimitated by drainage divides, of which the
73

following depend: the direction of circulation of water and other materials through the soil
system and especially lateral movement at the soil surface or even through soil.
On the other hand, considering soil cover as a system with different levels of spatial
organization, Florea (1983, 1985, 1989, 1998, 2009) distinguishes besides basic
geographical soil unit, polypedons and pedosocions an immediately higher level of
organization, as a matter of fact a functional structural entity of soilscape as geographical
unit (area) named pediom.
The pediom is defined as a community of soil consisting of different polypedos
and/or pedosocions and even non-soils, which belong to the same relief unit and has
relations of co-existence and contiguity; it represents a collective geographical entity, more
or less complex, characterized by the same features (though the soil components are
varied) of the soil community concerning genesis, evolution, functionality, exchange of
energy and substances, behaviour and way of response to external actions. All these
characteristics give an apart individuality of the area that corresponds to pediom, as unit of
elementary soilscape, more or less homogeneous, having a certain bioproductive potential.
The pediom corresponds from geomorphic point of view to an interfluve (or part of
this one), a small geomorphic unit, a main relief form (piedmont, fan, floodplain, etc), a
small valley basin, a slope, etc. Otherwise, Schlichting (1986) clearly underlines that soil
cover of geomorphic units are not a simple sum of polypedons, but veritable natural bodies
with a high level of organization that can be considered geographical entities.
The delimitation of the elementary soilscapes (pedioms) on pedological maps is
very adequate for attempts of modeling of soil cover, having clear spatial limits (marked by
a discontinuity in heterogeneity).
Buol et al. (1980) show two possibilities to make up the soilscapes depending of the
purpose:
- delimitation of soilscapes as dynamic units having limit on water divide, distributing
the soils on the slopes of one or another part of the drainage water (the soils from a slope,
although varied, are connected by pedological and geomorphological processes);
- delimitation of soilscapes fairly homogeneous (on watersheds, slopes, valleys,
separately) as territorial units with similar potential of land use, having properties and
bioproductive potential which vary relatively little within the respective units (therefore not
taking into account the dynamic links among the soil units from a respective territory).
The first possibility interests especially soil scientist, geographers, naturalists,
engineers while the second one interest especially land users in connection with soil
management.

3.7 Grouping of the elementary soilscapes in major pedogeographical units

The soil cover may be considered as a huge organized community of different
soilscapes. One can perceive the association in space of the soilscape in at least two
ways: on the principle of soilscape similitude and on the principle of the relations among
soilscapes. The grouping of soilscapes according to ther similitude is used for
pedogeographic regionalization maps and for soil pretability maps in different purposes,
very much utilized for various problems of soil and land resources used for various
exploitations or services. This grouping is an aggregational organization. The hierarchy of
organization corresponds to the hierarchy of the regional and continental
pedogeographical partition units of the soil cover discussed above (see subchapter 3.5
and table 3.2).
The grouping of soilscapes according to their interaction and interrelations takes
into consideration especially the movement of energy, water, and substances in the
territory. This grouping is a geosystemic organization of elementary soilscapes (or a
74

geosystemic division of the soil cover), very useful for the question of modeling and
prognosis of soilscapes evolution (fig. 3.3).
The elementary soilscapes (pedioms) can be considered as territorial functional
compartment or blocks by whose juxtaposition the soil cover is formed. The grouping of
similar soilscapes at different levels result in the zoning or regionalization of the territory;
spatial pedogeographical soil units, larger and less homogenous are distinguished having
various denominations (districts, regions, domains, zones of soils) as mentioned above.
The grouping of elementary soilscape on geosystemic base is characterized by
juxtaposition of the soilscapes (or a fragment of them), different among them by criteria of
genetic and geomorphic relations, forming composite soilscapes, named peditories (Florea,
1983, 1985, 1998). A peditory represents in fact a unitary varied large territory consisting
of some soilscapes of different kinds, but intercorrelated and genetically kindred and also
adjacent (forming a succession of soilscapes). The peditories correspond in general to
large hydrographic basins, associations of large geologico-geomorphic region, conjugate
with common evolution (mountain-piedmont, mountain-intermountain depression, dune
areas-loess plains areas with glacial deposits, periglaciar plains etc). These peditories
(very large composite soil systems) can be grouped on soil zones, continents, etc, but a
specific systematization of them is not realized.
The soil cover
(Pedosphere)

Units of geosystemic
regionalization

Units of aggregational
regionalization
Groupings based
on simmilitude

Grouping based on
interconnections

Elementary soilscape
(pedioms)
Figure 3.3 Two ways of elementary soilscape grouping in the soil cover
This gouping of soilscape is in fact an extension on large areas of the two
possibilities to make up the soilscapes mentioned above by Buol et al (1980).
Generally, the soilscape grouping, discussed above, is also a partition of the soil
cover in territorial units (areas) of different levels and heterogeneity on typological
pedogeographical base, without assigning a concrete geographical name. In some cases
the territorial units (soilscapes) of different levels also acquire a concrete geographical
name; in this case, the regionalization becomes geographical nominative. Often, the
regionalization can be mixed, being typological at some levels and nominative at other
levels, generally at higher levels.
The regionalization of a territory can be achieved from top to bottom or from
bottom to top, as shown above.

75

3.8 Consistent soil criteria for pedogeographical units differentiation

The soil thermal zone (pedothermal zone) is defined according to the temperature
regime (and non climatic zone) and the hydrothermal subzone according to the moisture
regime (in framework of the same thermal zone) which reflects in the annual rhythm of soil
dynamic processes (pedorhythm, see chapter 6). These pedogeographical units, defined
by pedological parameters, are characterized, among other things, also by a certain solar
radiation intensity, a certain length of the vegetation period, a certain day duration, a
certain seasonal contrast of temperature and moisture, a certain photosynthesis capacity
of the different plans adapted to the respective hydrothermal conditions, etc.
The use of temperature and moisture soil parameters, correlated with the
atmosphere climate, is very useful not only from a pedological point of view, but also
practically, because the climate is one of the most important factors that influences very
much the pedogenetic processes, soil properties and their dynamics, as well as the plant
growth, aspects very well known. It must be mentioned that the soil temperature and
moisture control the intensity and the rate of weathering of the soil mineral part, the
biochemical processes of decomposition of plant remnants or of the organic substances,
the substances movement in the soil, the accumulation of different components, the soil
reaction, etc. The evaluation or interpretation of the soil resources in agriculture and
sylviculture purposes cannot be made without a good knowledge of the temperature and
moisture soil regime.
Guy Smith, the artisan of the new American Soil Taxonomy, in 1952 (according to
Eswaran, 1998) argued, long ago, that the soil temperature and moisture are soil
properties that can be measured and be used as criteria for differentiation of soil zones.
Even in the manual Georeferenced Soil Database for Europe (1998) these soil
parameters are not used for differentiating the higher pedogeographical units of soil
communities. But Purnel (1990), a representative of FAO, discussing the world soil map
revision, considered that it is necessary to have a sustained effort for developing an
adequate classification of the soil climate and that the system used in Soil Taxonomy in
the USA could be the starting point.
In this sense, the criterion of soil temperature regime, defined in the Soil
Taxonomies (1975, 1999) could be applied successfully for the separation of soil thermal
zones; therefore one can distinguish the following thermal zones:
- pergelic (in boreal zone) soils with annual average temperatures below 0o C
(with permafrost or dry frost);
- cryic (in boreal zone) soils with annual average temperatures between 0o C and
o
8 C and cold summers;
- frigid (in cold temperate and temperate zone) soils with annual average
temperature under 8o C and warm summers;
- mesic (in temperate zone and Mediterranean zone) soils with annual average
temperature between 8o C and 15o C;
- thermic (in Mediterranean zone and subtropical zone) soils with annual average
temperature between 15o C and 22o C;
- hyperhtermic (in tropical zone) soils with annual average temperature over 22o C.
For the soil moisture regime, as differentiation criterion for the upper
pedogeographical unit, could be used either the classes of soil moisture regime from the
Soil Taxonomy (udic, ustic, xeric, aridic) or, maybe more adequately, the different soil
annual pedorhythm (Florea, 1996, see also chapter 6). This pedorhytm reflects very well
the existence of the frost period and of the dry period during the year which tallies with the
period of slacking to ceasing of pedogenetic processes, especially biological and
biochemical. The following subzones in the framework of different soil thermal zones can
be distinguished on the basis of pedorhythms:
76

- with cryoruptic pedorhythms: humid subzone with cold season (appears in boreal,
cold temperate, temperate zones)
- with aridocryoruptic pedorhythm: subzones with cold season and dry and warm
season (appears in temperate, Mediterranean and subtropical zones);
- with aridoruptic pedorhythm: subzone with dry season, moderately warm or warm
(in temperate, Mediterranean, subtropical and tropical zones);
- with continuous non-uniform pedorhythm: subzones with relatively humid seasons
and moderately warm or warm (in oceanic temperate and subtropical zones);
- with continuous uniform pedorhythm: subzones humid and warm (appear in humid
tropical-equatorial zone).
Due to the lack of enough information on soil temperature regime and annual
pedorhythms, the delimitation of the great pedogeographic units is made by correlation
with the information existing for the atmosphere climate. For the future, investigations are
necessary for the filling of this lacuna.
For West Europe, the following soil thermal zones and hydrothermal sub-zones
exist:
- pergelic zone
- with cryoruptic pedorhythm
- cryic zone
- with cryoruptic pedorhythm
- frigid zone
- with cryoruptic pedorhythm
- mesic zone
- with cryoruptic pedorhythm
- with aridoruptic pedorhythm
- with aridocryoruptic pedorhythm
- with continuous nonuniform pedorhythm
- thermic zone
- with aridoruptic pedorhythm
The description of the above great pedogeographical units has to include
information on the length of frost period or day period, that can also be used as a
subdivision criteria. However, as a rule, these ones are associated with soil thermal zone.
The frost period varies from 1 to 3 months in the mesic zone, 3 to 5 months in the frigid
zone, 5 to 7 months in the cryic zone and 9 months and over in the pergelic zone. The arid
period is non-existent in the pergelic, cryic and frigid and partially in the mesic zone,
between 1 to 2 months in a part of the mesic zone (from the temperate climate), between
2-4 months in other parts of the mesic zone and thermic zone from mediteranean climate
and more than 4 months in thermic zone from subtropical climate.
For the other pedogeographical units, criteria of delimitation are based on the soil
cover characteristics, therefore the soil criteria (mentioned in table 3.2) and they do not
need clearings. However, the reasoning of the introduction of the major relief (and inherent
lithology) as important factor or criterion seems to be useful in the delimitation of the
pedogeographical units of the soil communities or even basic soil units.
In the soil literature (Soil Survey Manual, 1951, 1993; Baize, 1996) it is shown that
slope, aspect, altitude, land fragmentation must be considered essential characteristics of
the soil cover, namely features of location (situation) or ecological, of alike importance as
the soil features, because they influence the pedogenesis and reliefogenesis, the soil
drainage and its functionality, as well as the conditions (limitations) of the use of the soil
cover.
Otherwise, in the present day, the soil and the land cover are considered to be the
result (balance) of the action of pedogenetic processes and geomorphic processes (which
oppose to the soil forming) (Schelling, 1970, Florea, 1983), the relief being inseparable of
the soil cover and evolving together (Florea and Geanana, 2000) and determining the
evolution rate and soil developing stage, as well as the soil properties, water and air
regime, microclimate, vegetation. As a consequence, the different relief (geomorphic) units
are characterized by some soil combinations that represent their specific feature.
77

Indeed, topography, by declivity and slope aspect and land form, modifies, between
certain limits, the zonal climatic conditions determining a differentiated assimilation of
radiant energy, a non-uniform repartition of water and air current at land surface,
influencing strongly the land and soil drainage, etc. Therefore, all soil properties and soil
dynamics as well as the geomorphic processes are influenced.
The soil cover, like the relief, is characterized by different forms at land surface,
correlated with the topography of the territory; as a consequence, one can say very well
sloping soil, flat soil, etc (Sol Survey manual, 1951, 1993).
At the highest level of generalization, only three categories of major relief forms can
be separated: level, sloping, steep; they are very different from a pedological point of view.
In the level regions (plains, tablelands, piedmonts, etc), the water and substances
movement in the soil cover takes place especially on the vertical and the pedogenesis is
active, leading to a clear differentiation of the soil bodies; the soil cover is relatively uniform
on large areas, the pattern of soil distribution (pedogeographical assemblage or fabric)
being relatively simple. The geomorphic processes are insignificant and parent material is
made up from weathering products, transported and sedimented; the parent material
granulometry and carbonate content influence the soil cover very much.
In low areas (valleys, depressions, low plains), undissected and undrained, the
ground water is at shallow depth and influence the soil formation and soil moisture regime;
more or less locally swamps and peats are present in humid or cold regions, and salt
affected soils in arid regions. A special situation is characteristic for floodplains and delta
as well as for regions with permafrost.
In sloping regions (hills, dissected tablelands and piedmonts), the water and
substances movement in the soil cover is dominantly from the higher parts (summits) to
lower parts (valleys, depressions), both on the vertical and by lateral seepage through soil
or by running at the soil surface; the pedogenesis interferes with the reliefogenesis, the
geomorphic processes becoming active and modeling the relief. A pedogeochemical and
lithological differentiation of the soil cover takes place. The soils from the high parts are
coarser, more desatured of basic cations, more acid, less thick than soils from lower parts
and valleys. This depletivo-accumulative movement of substancecs can be divergent in
the case of rounded hillocks or hilly massifs or convergent in the case of areas of
confluence or depressions.
The soil cover in sloping regions is therefore much more varied from the point of
view of a development stage (and soil type) and parent material and soil distribution
pattern is also more complex, with different soil toposequences (catena), lithosequences,
chronosequences.
In steep regions (mountains, high hills), the movement of water and substance
takes place more energically, especially by surface running, but also through soil on
slopes; often, landslides and soilfluctions associate, yielding an important movement of
material from the higher parts to the lower parts, from where as a rule this material is
transported in a great extent - by the hydrographic network outside the region. Only a
small part from weathered materials remain in the region, especially in the lower parts of
the slopes; as a rule, the material is more or less coarse. It is a dissipative movement
which has as result the displacement of material and its deposition in neighbouring areas.
The geomorphic processes interfere very actively with pedogenetic, and parent materials
often originate from compact rocks.
Therefore, the soil is more or less shallow, frequent with coarse granulometry
(texture), rich in rock fragments, with properties influenced very much by parent rock; the
soil cover present a soil distribution pattern (pedogeographical assemblage) very varied
composed by soil sequences of various thickness, texture, skeleton (rock fragments)
content, development degree, rock nature, etc. The great pedogeographical diversity is

78

also increased by the changes with the altitudes of the climatic conditions which
determines a vertical zonality of the soil cover.
Summarizing, the differentiation of the great pedogeographical units (of soil
communities) depending on major categories of relief and inherent lithology is justified,
because the soil cover presents specific features determined by the differentiated
interference of the pedogenetic processes and geomorphic processes. However, the
criteria of delimitation have to be the features of the soil cover itself (soil combinations, soil
pattern, other soil characteristics) specific for each unit.
The three categories of major form of relief taken into consideration at high level
have the following parameters (according to the Methodology of pedological study
elaboration, 1987).
Density of fragmentation
Depth of
Dominant
(dissection)
fragmentation (relief
slope
intensity) - m
%
Level
below 5 (8)
below 100 (150)
very weak (< 10 km/km2)
(from which floodplain)
below 1
below 10
(extremely week)
Sloping
5 (8) 20 (30)
150-500
weak to moderate (10-25
km/km2)
Steep
over 20(30)
over 500
strong
(> 25 km/km2)
Relief category

For detailed studies, the categories of the second level mentioned in table 3.3 can
be used.
Table 3.3 Categories of territory conformation and major land forms
Territory conformations
Level I
Level II
N Level land
L Floodplains

S Plain (flat)

O Undulated land

Main land forms

Category
Subdivision
River plain
1. According to altitude,
Delta plain
drainage, presence of
Divagation plain
terraces, lakes, etc.
Low littoral plain
2. According to the
Tabular plain (weakly
surface deposits: loess
fragmented)
and
aeolian sediments,
Piedmont plain (weakly
proluvial
deposits,
fragmented)
glacial
deposits,
Depression (large)
covering clay, etc.
Dune plain
Pediment
Tableland (weakly
fragmented)

Tabular plain
(fragmented)
Piedmont plain
(fragmented)
High dune plain
Tableland (moderately
fragmented)

79

F Sloping land

C Rolling land

Tableland (strongly
fragmented)
Gently hill
Plain (fragmented)

Tableland (hilly)
Hill
Low mountain

High hill
Mountain
Combinations of the
above land forms

D Hilly land

A Steep land

M Accidented land

X Composite land

K Combined (mixed)
land

1. According to lithology

Concerning the lithological grouping of parent materials and subjacent rocks, one
can use the categories (major classes and groups) from table 3.4 that was applied for
Romanias territory.
Table 3.4 Association of consolidated and unconsolidated surficial material (used
for Romanias territory)
Major class
Group
A
Igneous and metamorphic 1 Crystalline rocks
rocks
2 Crystalline rocks, partially covered with sedimentary
rocks (Mesozoic)
3 Volcanic rocks
4 Igneous and old sedimentary rocks, partially covered
by loess formations
B Sedimentary rocks
5 Sedimentary rocks (Mesozoic, Neozoic) and
(consolidated)
crystalline rocks
6 Sedimentary rocks (Mesozoic), clastic consolidated
7 Sedimentary rocks (Mesozoic), predominantly
calcareous, partially covered by loess formations
8 Sedimentary rocks (Neozoic)
9 Sedimentary rocks, partially covered by loess
formations and fluvial deposits in large valleys
C Unconsolidated sedimentary 10 Loess formations covering prequaternary rocks
rocks
(often with buried fossil soils)
11 Loess formations covering fluvio-lacustrine deposits
(often with buried fossil soils)
12 Sandy aeolian deposits
13 Clay deposits (of different origins)
14 Fluvial deposits
15 Marine deposits (Quaternary), partially covered by
sands
16 Local outcrops of limestone

80

3.9 Soil combinations

3.9.1 General aspects
The soil maps at middle and small scale and sometimes even at large scale render
complex soil units (areas) in which different juxtapositions of soils appear, mentioned in
the map legend starting with the dominant soil in the respective area. Indeed, the soil
cover is characterized by associations of different soils (as areas) making up specific
territorial configurations, in which various soils are juxtaposed (because soils cannot
coexist on the same surface, like plants), forming the so-called soil associations, soil
combinations (Fridland, 1972) or pedosociations (Florea, 1983).
These soil juxtapositions are not at random, theyre well determined, with
composition, proportion and arrangement of the component soils closely correlated with
the environmental conditions and their evolution. They reiterate in similar territories.
The first person who characterized an association of soil in territory was Neustruev
(1915, quoted by Fridland, 1972) in Russia; he defined the soil associations and soil
complexes.
In Canada, J.H.Ellis (quoted by Rutherford, 1997) shows in 1932 that individual soil
types are associated, forming distribution patterns in a certain landscape in which they are
grouped in soil associations. He defined and used for soil maps the term of soil association
for all soils developed on the same surface geological deposit; the component soil of the
association were denominated soil associates.
Later, Fridland (1972) substantiates the concept of soil cover structure on the base
of soil combinations considered as component elements of the soil cover (the soil
combination being a term for any forms of soil associations); at the same time, he
developed the concept of pedogeographical regionalization on the base of soil
combinations.
Also, in this case, one can distinguish for the term soil combination an aspect of
generalization, as reference soil grouping type, beside the geographical (territorial) aspect,
so that one may make a difference between the abstract term of soil association, soil
combination or pedosociation and the corresponding territorial term of pedosocion (Florea,
1983, 1998).
As a rule, the presence of a soil combination is correlated especially with an
association of land forms; this is explained by the fact that different relief elements of small
extent modify the action of the climate and implicitly the vegetation kind, as well as the
geomorphic processes, leading to the appearance of variations in the soil cover
(concerning the temperature and moisture regimes, profile development and morphology,
age, properties, etc). Sometimes, the type of some soils from the soil combination is
determined by the parent material nature, but also in this case the relief intervenes in the
soil cover variation. Therefore, the relief conformation is an important factor in the
determination of the soil combinations and also in their delineation.
The soil combination or pedosociation is defined as a juxtaposition of two or more
soils, well individualized, more or less genetically linked, which appear together and share
a certain relief unit; it is characterized by a soil distribution pattern and its reiteration in
territory and also by certain environmental and ecological conditions. The area occupied
by a soil combination (pedosociation) is defined as pedosocion.
The specific character of the soil combination is given by the relations among the
component soils and by interdependence between component soils and environmental
factors.
The definition of soil combinations accentuates four aspects: taxonomic (by
component soil specification), genetic, geographical-evolutive and ecological.
81

The pedosocion, as elementary areal of a pedosociation, corresponds to a simple

combination of polypedons and is correlated with a simple unit of relief. It has to be
characterized through extent (size), nature of component soils, their proportion and the
mode of occurence in territory. The pedosocions are basic units which make the soil
territorial formations known under the generic term of soilscapes.
As a rule, the agriculture land of a farm is never formed of a single soil, but by a soil
combination (one or more); therefore, the pedosocion is in general the smallest fragment
of land which has to be taken into consideration for evaluation, use and improvement of a
farm-territory.
The simple soil combination is the basic unit in the soil communities systematization
(considered conceptual), just as the soil (genetic) type represents a basic unit in the soil
taxonomy. There exists, however, a big difference between the two situations, because in
the case of the soil combination one works not with soil entities but with organized
structures of spatio-temporal self standing entities, which influence each other.
In addition, the unit of soil combination (pedosocion) can be made up from
juxtapositions of soils considered at different taxonomic levels, depending on the degree of
detail or soil map scale. For example, at small scale, the pedosocion can be represented
by soil classes (major groups of soils), at middle scale by genetic types (soil units) and at
large scales by subtypes or varieties of soil (or subunits of soils and their subdivisions in
FAO terminology).
There are some rules of making up and defining the soil combinations and implicitly
the map units of the soil map, resulted from current practice:
- Soil combination has to be made up in such a way so as to include the soils
existing on a certain form of relief or its element;
- Soil combination specification is made firstly through the dominant soil, without
neglecting the associated (juxtaposed) soils;
- Soil combination definition is made by specification of the component soils
(according to the adopted taxonomy), but not more than 2-3 soils (rarely more); the soils
are mentioned in order of their proportion. Only the main soils are mentioned, the transition
soils are understood;
- Among soils of soil combination it is useful to include a diagnostic soil1, even if
this one has a reduced extent; the diagnostic soil is that soil which reveals a certain
specific (feature) of the pedosociation in its entirety. For example, a gleysol shows
conditions of poor drainage and shallow ground water, a solonetz - conditions of sodization
and salinization, leptosols conditions of erosion and massive rocks, stagnosol
conditions of surface water logging, etc).
It is useful at a larger scale to also define the pedosociations from a quantitative
point of view, taking into account the different proportion of the component soils. (As a rule,
the soils with a proportion below 5-15% are neglected; the low percentage for diagnostic
soils.)
The presence of diagnostics soils in the definition and systematization of the
pedosociations is very expressive because these ones mark the main features of the soil
combination and its environment.
3.9.2 The systematization of soil combinations
The problem of soil combinations classifications is yet under discussion. Fridland
(1972, 1974) classifies the soil combinations in complex, spottiness (motley), catena,
variations, mosaics and pattern, taking into consideration the genetic link among
1

The term diagnostic soil was first used by E. Schlichting

82

components, the pattern of the soil distribution, the presence of symmetry elements, the
contrast among components (table 3.5).
Table 3.5 Soil combinations grouping according to Fridland (1974)
Types of soil combinations depending on:
Contrast degree
Relations among components
Bilateral
Unilateral
Weak or without
High
Soil complex
Soil catena
Soil mosaic
Weak
Soil spotiness
Soil variation
Soil tachet
In USA (Soil Survey Manual, 1962, 1993) four kinds of map units are used in soil
survey: consociations, complexes, associations and undifferentiated groups. In a
consociation, delineated areas are dominated by a simple soil taxon and similar soils. The
delineated map unit consists of soil components so similar that major interpretations are
not affected significantly. The dissimilar inclusions of other components in a map unit do
not exceed about 15% if limiting and 25% if nonlimiting. A simple component of dissimilar
limiting inclusion generally does not exceed 10% if very contrasting. Complexes and
associations consist of two or more dissimilar components of a soil complex, which cannot
be rendered separately at a scale of about 1:24 000, while those of an association can be.
Undifferentiated groups consist of two or more taxa components that are not consistently
associated geographically and, therefore, do not always occur together in the same map
delineation.
Simonson (1971) divides soil maps at small scale, less 1:100000, in schematic
maps and maps of soil associations; in the first case, only the dominant soil is represented,
while in the second the soil associations are defined by main soils and their associationmode: megasociations for scales smaller than 1:1000000 in which soils are presented at
order, suborder or great group level; macrosociations for scale between 1:300000 and
1:1000000 in which soils are presented at subgroup level; mesosociations for the scales
between 1:1000000 and 1:300000 in which soils are represented at series level;
microsociations for scale below 1:000000 with denomination in terms of soil series.
There also are other propositions of soil combination systematization, such as those
of Boulain (1980), Buol et al. (1980), Lieberoth (1982) and others.
A proposition of the systematization of the pedosocions presented by Florea and
Udrescu (2000), based on dominant soil and co-dominant soils and accessory soils (table
3.6). The soil combinations (pedosociations) are systematized in three hierarchical
categories: group, great group and order. The pedosocions are basic units, defined by
component soils. The group of pedosociation joins all pedosociations with the same
dominant soil having co-dominant and/or accessory soils more or less similar (table 3.6).
The great group of pedosociations comprises all pedosociations which are
characterized by the same dominant soil type and the order of pedosociations includes all
pedosociations with the same dominant soil class (order); their names is given by the
respective soil type or soil class (order).
In general, the proposed name for the type and group of pedosociation (table 3.6)
consists of the name of the dominant soil at which the name of the associated soil or soils
has been added. Also, alternative (optional) names were suggested (according to the
model of the vegetal association) using Latin suffixes: -etum, etalia, etea added to the soil
name, for example: Chernozemetum, Podzoletalia, Chernisoletea (table 3.6).
The subdivisions of pedosociation type are determined by the accessory soils
(subpedosociation) or by the inclusion soil (variety of pedosociation) (table 3.6).

83

Table 3.6 Hierarchical levels used for pedosociations systematization on taxonomico-genetic criteria (Florea and Udrescu, 2000)
Units of
systematization
of pedosocions

Higher categories
Great group of
Group of pedosociation
Order of
pedosociation
pedosociation
Criteria of
Sum of
Sum of
Sum of pedosociations
definition
pedosociations
pedosociations
having both the same
corresponding to all having the same dominant soil and the same
dominant soil
group of codominant (see
soils belonging to a
soil class (order)
table 3.7)
Denomimnation
Denomination of the pedosociation grouping
-etea
-etelia
-etum with

At small scale

At middle scale

At large scale

Remarks:

Pedosociations of
Cambisols
(Cambisoletea)

EXAMPLES
-

Pedosociation and its subdivisions

Type of
Variety of
Subpedosociationx
pedosociation
pedosociation
The dominant soil and the soil/soils:
Codominant
Accesory
Which appears as
inclusions
Denomination of the pedosociation
One adds:
Dominant soil and
One adds variety
codominant soils
with.(accesory
with(soil
soils)
inclusion)
Cambisols and
andisols

With leptosols

Variety with
rendzinas

Cambisols
predominant
Variety with eroded
Pedosociations of Pedosociations of
Pedosocions of
Chermozems and
With haplic
Chernisols
Chernisols
Chernozems
Chernozems
Regosols
Chernozems
(Chernisoletea) (Chernozemetalia) (Chernozemetum) with soils
Chernozems
affected by erosion
predominant
Leptic Podzols,
Pedosociations of Pedosociations of
Pedosociations of leptic
With andic distric
Variety with rocks
Leptosols and Entic
Podzols
Spodisols
Podzols
Cambosols
(Podzoletum lepticae) with
(Podzoletalia)
(Spodisoletea)
Podzols
undeveloped soils
1. Dominant soil: the soil with the higher percentage; codominant soil 25-50%, accessory soil 10-25%, inclusion soil below 10%.
2. At small scale, one can also render the soil bioclimatic facies
3. At middle and large scale, the texture of the dominant soil can be rendered by an index added to the symbol.

The type of association may be considered at small scale by soil class, at middle scale by the soil type and a large scale by soil
subtype and its subdivisions.

84

Table 3.7 Groups of similar co-dominant (or accessory) soils used for the generalization of pedosocions at group-level (Florea
and Udrescu, 2000)
Group of similar soils
Component soils (examples)2
Name
Symbol
Affected soils by excess of moisture from
/g
Different gleysols, different gleyic soil subtypes
ground water
Affected soils by stagnant moisture
/w
Stagnosols, Planosols, different stagnic soil subtypes
Affected soils by soluble salts
/s
Solonchaks, Solonetz, different salic or sodic (alkalic) soil
subtypes
Lithomorphic soils
/l
Pelosols, Vertosols, Andosols
Undeveloped soils
/n
Regosols, Fluvisols
Automorphic soils (especially zonal soils)
/z
Different zonal soils
as soil classes
Soils from microdepressions
/
Cummulic soils very profound
Peaty soils
/t
Histosols and different histic soils
Shallow soils or very skeleton soils
/q
Leptosols, leptic soils, skeleton soils, Redzinas
Coarse soils on dune relief
/
Varied soils (depending on the climatic zone) with coarse
dominant texture, Arenosols
Affected soils by water erosion
/e
Eroded soils
Strongly affected soils by erosion and
/a
Regosols, rocks, contortioned soil cover
landslides
Covered soils by different deposits
/c
Fluvisols, deposited materials, etc
Anthropically degraded soils
/d
Strongly degraded soils by mans activity
Lack of co-dominant (or accessory) soils
/-

The soils from the last column may make up co-dominant (or accessory) components of the pedosociation; they can be particularized by adding a
number (as index) to the group symbol.

85

Although the pedosociation name would be complicate, however it is useful to add

to the name of the pedosociation the name of the land form corresponding to the
respective pedosociation (or it is mentioned in the table with the pedosociations units
description).
Table 3.7 comprises the main categories of similarly co-dominant (or accessory)
soils used for distinguishing the pedosociation group.
Pedosociations are represented on maps in different ways. The simplest and most
frequent is the name of the pedosociation (including names of component soils) in the
maps legend and on the map appearing as an adopted symbol or a number. On coloured
map, as a rule, the soil polygons are coloured according only to the dominant soils, the
differences among units being marked by symbols or numbers, or by the combined way of
literal symbol with a number (see soil maps of FAO). In Romania, the type of relief was
marked by a Greek letter (, , ) in the legend and on the map.
In the end, the necessity and utility to develop the studies on pedosociations and
pedosocions must be emphasized, as well as the necessity of studying their participation
in soilscacpes, with the purpose of better understanding the spatial soil organization and
for a more adequate land development.

3.10 Some examples of soil cover partition on soil criteria

The soil cover regionalization (partition) at different levels (scales) for Europe,
Romania and a region of Romania (the Danube Delta) is shown as examples (by Piciu and
Florea, 2003) in the following lines.
3.10.1 The soil partition of Europe
At this very small scale, only thermal soil zones and soil domains (fig. 3.4 and table
3.8) were delineated. The following soil thermal zones were delineated in Europe: zone of
soils with cryinc to pergelic temperature regime with annually cryoruptic pedorhythm (I),
zone of soils with frigid temperature regime with annually cryoruptic pedorhythm, subzones
in cold (climatic) zone (II1) and in mountain areas (II2), zone of soils with mesic
temperature regime, subzones in temperate (climatic) zone having an annual cryo or
aridocryoruptic pedorhythm (III1), annual pedorhythm continuous nonuniform (III2) or in
Mediterraneean (climatic) zone having annual arido or aridocryoruptic pedorhythm (III3)
and zone of soils with thermic temperature regime and annually aridoruptic pedorhytm in
Mediterranean (climatic) zone (IV).
For the definition and delineating soil thermal zones and soil domains, the soil
temperature regimes (Soil Taxonomy, 1975) and information about Europe from FAO
(1993), European Soil Bureau (1998) and about the Russian territory regionalization (1962,
1984) were utilized.

86

Figure 3.4 The soil thermal zones and soil domains of Europe (for explanations see table 3.8)

Table 3.8 The thermal zones and main soils domains of Europe
I Zone of soils with cryic to pergelic temperature regime (in climatic boreal zone) having
annually cryoruptic pedorhythm
1. Cryosols level domain
5. Histosols level domain
2. Podzols level domain
6. Andosols sloping domain
3. Podzols sloping domain
7. Leptosols steep domain
4. Podzols steep domain
II Zone of soils with frigid temperature regime
II1 Subzone of soils with frigid temperature regime (in climatic cold zone) having annually
cryoruptic pedorhythm
8. Podzols level domain
15. Luvisols level to sloping domain
9. Podzols level to sloping domain
16. Luvisols sloping domain
10. Podzols sloping domain
17. Phaeozems level domain
11. Podzols steep domain
18. Gleysols level domain
12. Podzoluvisols level domain
19. Histosols level domain
13. Podzoluvisols sloping domain
20. Leptosols steep domain
14. Luvisols level domain
II2 Subzone of soils with frigid (to cryic in high mountains) temperature regime (in climatic
temperate zone) having annually cryoruptic pedorhythm
21. Cambisols steep to sloping domain
22. Leptosols steep domain
III Zone of soils with mesic temperature regime
III1 Subzone of soils with mesic temperature regime (in climatic temperate zone) having
annual pedorhythms cryoruptic (23-27) or aridocryoruptic (28-35)
23. Podzol level domain
30. Chernozems sloping domain
24. Luvisols level to sloping domain
31. Kastanozems level domain
25. Luvisols sloping domain
32. Calcisols level domain
26. Cambisols sloping domain
33. Vertisols level domain
27. Cambisols steep to sloping domain
34. Arenosols level domain
28. Phaeozems level to sloping domain
35. Fluvisols level domain
29. Chernozems level to sloping domain
III2 Subzone of soils with mesic temperature regime (in climatic temperate zone) having
annual pedorhythm continuous nonuniform
36. Podzols level domain
40. Cambisols sloping to steep domain
37. Luvisols level domain
41. Leptosols sloping to level domain
38. Cambisols level to sloping domain
42. Leptosols steep domain
39. Cambisols sloping domain
III3 Subzone of soils with mesic temperature regime (in climatic Mediterranean zone)
having annual pedorhythm aridoruptic or aridocryoruptic
43. Luvisols sloping domain
46. Calcisols sloping domain
44. Cambisols sloping domain
47. Fluvisols level domain
45. Cambisols steep domain
48. Leptosols steep domain
IV Zone of soils with thermic temperature regime (in climatic Mediterranean zone) having
annually aridoruptic pedorhythm)
49. Podzols level to sloping domain
52. Vertisols level domain
50. Acrisols level to sloping domain
53. Cambisols sloping domain
51. Calcisols level to sloping domain
54. Leptosols steep domain

88

Figure 3.5 Soil zones, domains and regions of Romania (explanations in table 3.9)

Table 3.9 Soil thermal zones, soil domains and regions of Romania
II2 Zone of soils with frigid to cryic temperature regime
21* -1** Steep region of Cambisols and Podzols
Igneous and metamorphic rocks, and
developed from:
consolidated clastic sedimentary rocks
21 -2 Steep region of Cambisols and Podzols
Consolidated clastic sedimentary rocks and
developed from:
metamorphic rocks
21 -3 Steep region of Cambisols, Andosols and
Igneous (predominant volcanic), metamorphic
Podzols developed from:
and consolidated clastic sedimentary rocks
III3 Zone of soils with mesic temperature regime
Cambisols (steep) domain
21 -4 Steep region of Cambisols and Luvisols
Igneous and metamorphic rocks and
developed from:
consolidated clastic sedimentary rocks
Luvisols (steep to level) domains
- -5 Steep region of Luvisols, Cambisols, Regosols Various tertiary sedimentary rocks
developed from:
25 -6 Sloping to steep region of Luvisols, Cambisols, Various tertiary sedimentary rocks and fluvial
Regosols and Fluvisols developed from:
deposits
25 -7 Sloping region of Luvisols, Phaeozems and
Various tertiary sedimentaray rocks, covered
(locally) Vertisols developed from:
partially with loess
25 -8 Sloping region of Luvisols and Fluvisols
Various tertiary sedimentary rocks, covered
developed from:
partially with loess and fluvial deposits
- -9 Level region of Luvisols and Phaeozems
Fluvial deposits, predominant loam and clay
associated with Gleysols and Fluvisols
developed from:
- -10 Level region of Luvisols and Fluvisols
Aeolian deposits (loess), clay deposits
associated (locally) with Vertisols formed from: (lacustrian) and fluvial deposits
Phaeozems (sloping to level) domain)
- -11 Sloping region of Phaeozems and Luvisols
Various tertiary sedimentary rocks, covered
associated locally with Regosols developed
partially with loess and fluvial deposits
from:
25 -12 Sloping region of Phaeozems and Luvisols
Aeolian deposits (loess), tertiary sedimentary
associated locally with Fluvisols developed
rocks and fluvial deposits
from:
- -13 Sloping region of Phaeozems, Leptosols and Aeolian deposits, Mesozoic sedimentary rocks
Luvisols developed from:
and igneous and metamorphic rocks
28 -14 Level region of Phaeozems, Fluvisols and
Fluvial deposits (predominant loam and clay)
Gleysols formed from:
and aeolian deposits (loess and sand)
Chernozems (sloping to level) domains)
29 -15 Sloping region of Chernozems, Greyzems and Various tertiary sedimentary rocks, covered
(locally) Regosols, developed from:
partially with loess
29 -16 Level region of Chernozems and Fluvisols
Aeolian deposits (loess and sand)
associated locally with Arenosols, formed from:
29 -17 Level region of Chernozems and Kastanozems Loess deposits with local occurrence of
associated locally with Regosols, developed
limestone, greenschists and other consolidated
from:
rocks or of sand deposits
Fluvisols and Gleysols (level) domain
- -18 Level region of Fluvisols, Gleysols and
Fluvial deposits (predominant loam and clay)
Solonetz, formed from:
- -19 Level region of Fluvisols, Gleysols associated Recent fluvial deposits, locally aeolian sands
locally with Arenosols, formed from:
(dune sands)
35 -20 Level region of Gleysols, Histosols and
Recent fluvio-lacustrian and fluvial deposits
Arenosols associated with Fluvisols, formed
and aeolian sands (dune sands)
from:
* The numbers of this column represent the number of soil domain of Table 3.8 and 3.4 (Europe)
**The numbers of this column represent the number of soil region in Romania, fig. 3.5 with soil
domains and regions separated at this scale

90

Figure 3.6 Soil subregions, soilscapes and soil combinations of the Danube Delta region (for explanations see table 3.10)

Table 3.10 Subunits of the level soil region 20 (Danube Delta Level Regions
of Gleysols, Histosols and Arenosols)
Soilscape (Ss)

Soil combinationsx

Land forms

Geographical
denomination
20 a Subregion of Gleysols, Histosols and FLuvisols formed from recent fluvio-lacustrine
deposits (Fluvial Danube Delta)
1
Ss. of Fluvisols
FL1, FL2, GC1 (T1) Riverine levels
Ceatal Tulcea
2.
Ss. of Fluvisols, saline
FL3, FL4, (GC1)
Riverine levels, flat areas, Pardina-Ttaru
phase (emerged soils)
depressions (former lake
bottoms)
3
Ss. of Kastanozems
KS1, KS2, SC1
Loess plain
Chilia field
4
Ss. of Gleysols
GC1, L
Low riverine levels and
Maliuc
transitional areas
5
Ss. of Gleysols and
5/1 GC1, GC2, (T1)
Depressionary areas
E Chilia
Histosols
5/2 GC1, GC2, (T1, L)
S Gorgova lake
6
Ss. of Gleysols,
GC2, L, (T1)
Depressionary areas and Fortuna
Histosols and
shallow lakes
Limnosols
7
Ss. of Histosols
7/1 T1, L, (GC2)
Low lying
Matia
Depression areas
7/2 T1, L, GC2
Gorgova-Isac
7/3 T1, GC1
S Caraorman
20 b Subregion of Arenosols, Histosols and Gleysols formed from Aeolian sands and
fluvio-lacustrine and fluvial deposits (Fluvio-marine Danube Delta)
8
Ss. of Arenosols and
8/1 N1, N2, PS1, PS2,
Half fixed dunes, fixed
N Letea
sands
SC2
dunes and interdune areas
8/2 N1, N2, PS1, SC2
Caraorman
central part
9
Ss. of Arenosols
9/1 PS4, PS3, PS2, (T1) Low dones and interdune S Letea
areas
9/2 PS4, (GC2)
Caraorman
periphery part
PS2, N1, T1, SC2
Low dunes and large
10 Ss. of Arenosols,
Srturile
saline phase
interdune areas, and low
lying depressionary areas
Popina
11 Ss. of Gleysols and
GC1, GC3, FL3
Low riverine levels and
Fluvisols, saline phase
transitional areas
12 Ss. of Histosols
T1, L, GC1 (N1, PS4, Low lying depressionary
SE Sulina
SC2)
areas
* Simbols of soils according to the Soil Map of the Danube Delta (Munteanu, Curelariu,
1995) labeled on the map; indices 1, 2, 3 and 4 represent different soil combinations of the
dominant soil, generalized on the basis of the mentioned map.

The annual pedorhythm is an integration of the soil temperature and moisture

regimes and represents a general characterization of the dynamcs of the pedogenetic
process that can or can not be interrupted during the year due to freeze cryoruptic
pedorhythm or to drought aridoruptic pedorhythm or due to both aridocryoruptic
pedorhythm (Florea, 1996) (see chapter 6).
In each soil thermal zone or subzone, several soil domains (between 2 and 20)
were separated; in total, 54. One finds that the most frequent soil domains are those of
Podzols, Luvisols, Cambisols and Leptosols (this one only steep domain) (table 3.8).

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3.10.2 The soil cover partition in Romania

In the case of a country, Romania, at a much smaller scale, the soil regions were
also being delineated. In Romania, there are only 2 soil thermal zones: II, subzone II1 and
III, subzone III1 (see table 3.8). The soil regions discriminated in the framework of the two
subzones are presented in the map of fig. 3.5 and the table 3.9 (that represent the legend
of the map). The soil regions were delineated taking into account as criteria the
association of rocks or parent materials and association soil(s) or the dominant soil (Florea
et al., 1989).
The map represents a detailing of the soil domains at soil region level, but in the
same time a more accurate delineation of the soil cover units. The map scale also allowed
the delimitation of some new soil domains and regions (that could not be delineated at
continental scale).
In total, 20 soil regions were distinguished (fig. 3.5 and table 3.9). Within the steep
soil regions some intramountainous depressions were shown on the map with a view to
drawing attention to the great difference of the soil cover.
3.10.3 The soil cover partition of the Danube Delta
In fig. 3.6, an example of the pedogeographic partition of the soil cover of a soil
region is presented, namely the region nr. 20 from Romania (table 3.9), level region of
Gleysols, Histosols and Arenosols associated with Fluvisols belonging to the zone of soils
with mesic temperature regime, subzone III1. This region corresponds to the Danube Delta.
The following subunits were delineated at this scale in this soil region: 2 soil
subregions characterized by dominant, co-dominant and subsidiary soils and in the
framekwork of each subregion, 5-7 elementary soilscapes (in total 12) characterized by
specific soil combinations (fig. 3.6 and table 3.10).
It must be underlined that both the soil subregions and the elementary soilscapes
can be much different by dominant soils from the pedogeographical unit of a superior
rank, as one can see from tables 3.9 and 3.10.
The soil and the soil cover changes due to the socio-economical activities,
consequence of the long term land use, industrial and mining activities, drainage, irrigation
and other land improvement works, etc, also represent criteria for spatial unit delineation,
especially in the case of the lower units (soilscapes, subregions).
In table 3.10 the soil combinations of each soilscape are also specified, as well as
the correspondent land forms and local geographical denomination (the pedogeographical
unit becoming unique in this way. Summarizing, the three maps represent an illustrative
example of segmentation (regionalization) of the soil cover based on pedological criteria.
The soil combinations are also shown, clearly distributed, on the map from fig. 3.6
and marked by their symobols.
The delineated pedogeographical units become less heterogeneous as the map
scale becomes larger and the lower pedogeographical units soil regions and subregions,
soilscapes can be represented.
Besides the characterization of each soil as a natural body and resource at any
level of regionalization, a characterization of the soil cover as a spatial unit, as a
pedogeographical assemblage must be added, at least for the soil regions and subregions
and soilscapes. This characterization takes into account the nature of soils and their
features and fertility, spatial distribution of soils (soils pattern), relationships among soils,
relationships between soils and natural (environmental) factors, anthropic influence.
93

This characterization, as far as possible quantitative, should facilitate the evaluation

of the optimum land-use, productive potential, risks of soil degradation or vulnerability and
the ways of prevention of these risks, aspects which can get proper solutions only in the
framework of pedogeographical units.

3.11 The soil facies, local-regional completion of the soil taxa.

3.11.1 The pedogeographical facies.
Soil major groupings and soil units and subunits (or in American terminology soil
orders and suborders) defined at world level, and their associations (combinations)
represent the means by which the distribution of the soils for the large areas (soil mapping
units) is evinced. But these kinds of soils, alongside their essential properties specific to
each taxonomic unit, also have some features induced by some differences of
environment conditions existing in the area occupied by the respective soils; these ones
influence in the same time the range of native or cultivated plants and therefore the land
use, with consequences of practical avail. For this reason, a characterization not only at a
general level (global, continental), but also at regional and local level is very useful. Of
course, the storage of the soil data should be organized correspondingly.
In this purpose, Florea (2009) proposed the completion of the soil taxonomy system
with more features of regional and local significance under the form of an entity of soil
based on these environmental criteria, added to the taxonomico-genetic entity (at any
taxonomic level). This new entity was named geographical soil facies or simple soil facies,
denomination used in the past in a close meaning; the term is justified because it
represents one of the different physiognomy of the respective soil in various geographical
and historico-evolutive conditions.
The name of soil facies is obtained by adding to the name of the soil taxon a
regional geographical reference point and a local name from the territory, where it was
described as, for example, Danubian (loamy) Calcaric Chernozem of Feteti, or Moldavian
(loamy) Haplic Chernozem of Neam or Transylvanian (clay loam) Stagnic-Albic Luvisol of
Sighioara.
In this way, the soil entity acquires a double identity, taxonomic and geographical.
The soil facies represent a restricted collection of very similar soils, characterized
by some specific peculiarities, linked both from regional bioclimatic conditions and from the
properties of parent material or from the soil evolution in the local territorial circumstances;
it is distinguished by narrow ranges of variations of soils diagnostic characteristics specific
to the taxon to which it belongs or/and by some proper local features.
The soil facies take two shapes: regional soil facies and local soil facies.
The regional soil facies represent the soil facies defined by soil characteristics
determined and formed under the influence of some specific environmental conditions, that
acted and still act on large areas. The term is analogous with the term of bioclimatic facies,
but the term of regional soil facies also takes into account features correlated with the
geological and lithological conditions, as well as the paleogeographical evolution of the
territory.
The local soil facies represent the soil forms defined in the framework of regional
soil facies but which are distinguished by peculiarities of detail marked by fine differences
concerning diagnostic properties used at the respective taxon delimitation or other soil
properties nonused for diagnostics. The most used criteria are: soil texture and its variation
on profile, parent material origin, mineralogo-chemical characteristics, salt content, organic
matter content, soil reaction, exchange capacity and others.

94

The soil local facies are the most detailed soil entities, nearer of the concrete soil
body. To the name of local soil facies one can add some relevant soil features. For
example, in the case of the Transylvanian Stagno-albic Luvisol of Sighioara: profound
profile, slightly humiferous, strongly differentiated on the vertical, loamy clay / clay, mixic,
acid, hipomesic.
The introduction of the soil facies completes the classical soil taxonomy
approaching the soil entities to the different problems of agriculture, land improvement and
environment protection.
3.11.2 The individualization of each soil area
The richest information on soil can be obtained by a complete characterization of
each soil area from territory, represented on the map by a polygon. Each soil individual
component of the soil entity represented on the map has to be described, characterized
and evaluated from different points of view, with all its peculiarities (topographical,
geographical, geometric, properties, quality, pretabilities for different uses, risks of
degradation, protection measures, etc). This big amount of data can be in the present
stored due to information technologies.
Each individual area (polygon) will receive a number or code for identification which
should be correlated with the system of cadastral survey, and also each soil profile should
be reloaded in a soil databank.
The organization of a soil databank in close correlation with the system of the
cadastral survey and respective databank is very useful.

3.12 Concluding remarks

The soils form a more or less continuous cover in which one can delimitate
segments that represent geographically functional and systemic hierarchized entities that
have limited and defined ranges in their properties corresponding to the hierarchical level
but also regional (and local) features. It is useful and necessary to identify such
pedogrographical entities (units), to classify and to describe them with their regional
pecucliarities.
The proposed concept and methodology of the soil cover partition in
pedogeographical units (entities) of different levels of spatial organization represent a
manner of unitary integration of the concept of soils as natural bodies with that one of soil
continuum at Earths surface as collections of soils.
This methodology results in integration of the soil and soil cover with the natural and
anhropic factors and conditions in geographical units of environment with specific
functionality. It is in the same time consistently pedogeographical.
The characterization of the different pedogeographical entities from the temperature
and moisture point of view supplies the lack of the climatic criteria in the FAO and different
European soil taxonomies.
The geographical partition at global and continental level underlines the spatial
differences and helps to the best definition of the land-use, to the sustainable exploitation,
to the hierarchy of objectives, etc. The regional level of partitions emphasized the spatial
similarities and dissimilarities, the vicinity aspecs, the exchange relationships, etc. The
local level of partition reflects best the reality. The punctual relations among the different
elements at this local level represents the basis for clarifying relations and behaviour at
regional and continental level, because all processes of exchange, transformation,
translocation, renovation, etc take place at a local level.
95

The global level mitigates in a certain extent the regional and local levels, but does
not efface the personality of county or site. The global and regional problems are
studied and planned at regional level, but they have solutions based on investigations at a
local level.
The characterization of each soil domain, soil region and elementary soilscape from
the environment point of view and especially climatic, topographical, lithological, affords
useful and specific information that completes the soil information, absolutely necessary
for any kind of an adequate decision of sustainable land use and soil exploitation.
All these discussed aspects emphasize the study necessity of the criteria of soil
cover partition (soil regionalization) based on pedological features even at high level
(continental, global) correlated of course with the environment factors, but laying emphasis
on the result of their action upon the soil cover, reflecting very well the whole
environmental ensemble and its evolution.
The hierarchization of the soil cover (pedogeographical) entities confers many
advantages from the informatics systems point of view: adequate soil and environmental
data storage, the possibility for complex data to be viewed at many levels of the hierarchy,
efficient data retrieval. But a proper (accurate) choice and grouping of the discriminating
criteria used is necessary.
The question of mapping and classifying spatial and functional soilsccape entities of
various orders, as well as that of regional features, became at present a challenge for the
soil survey, soil geography and soil taxonomy.

96

97

4. PEDODIVERSITY. THE PEDOGEOGRAPHICAL ASSEMBLAGE

Motto:
A soil mapshows firstly the nature, the variety
and the geographical distribution of the soils and of soil
combinations in a territory. At a more attentive
examination, the map also discloses other important
characteristics of the soil cover, reflected by its spatial
arrangement (size, shape, distribution and orientation of
the soil units), as well as the relationships among
different soil units or between soil units and the
environmental conditions; this aspect which refers to the
soil-cover considered as a whole that forms a system,
though more difficult to perceive than the previous one,
has a great importance because it offers information of
great scientific and applied value about the complexity
and heterogeneity of the respective territory.
(N. Florea, 1987).
In the biology domain, the diversity of the living beings from a territory or the
biodiversity represents an essential feature of the living world and implicitly of the
environment; its research was intensified lately as a consequence of the increasing peril of
some species extinction. The multiple value of the biodiversity and its components
(ecological, genetical, social, economic, scientific, educative, cultural, recreative and
aesthetic) is recognized at present on an international scale, as well as biodiversitys
importance for the conservation of the life-maintenance systems. An ample international
program of research for these aspects is in course of being developed.
The research and characterization of the biodiversity envisaged especially the
biocenoses and the ecosystems (Borza and Boscaiu, 1965; Stugren, 1982; Mohan and
Ardelean, 1993; Sombroek, 1990, Ibaez et al., 1995).
Recently, two synthesis works concerning the biodiversity were printed by the
Publishing House of the Romanian Academy, one on the subject of the Conservation of
vegetal and animal species biodiversity (edt. David Davidescu, 2002) and the other on the
subject of Biodiversity and nature protection (by Bavaru,, Godeanu, Butnaru and Bogdan,
2007).
Although the soil is a subsystem of terrestrial ecosystems, the soil cover, as well as
other components of the environment (geological, geomorphological) do not rejoice of an
adequate attention regarding diversity (Ibaez et al., 1995).

4.1 Historical considerations

The spatial variety of soils is an essential characteristics of the soil cover, rendered
evident by soil maps at different scales; in these maps, the soil distribution in the territory
(with their specific characteristics) is expressed by means of the soil taxonomy system and
its corresponding terminology. The preoccupations regarding the knowledge of the soils
diversity and their spatial variation appeared in the same time with the development of the
soil science and soil survey, although information on soil properties dates from long ago.
The system of soil taxonomy with its numerous classification units (taxa) at different
hierarchical levels represent in fact the synthesis of the knowledge concerning soil
98

diversity; on the other hand, the soil maps as cartographic expression of soil diversity
and their variation in territory represent an useful visual synthesis of soil cover which
permits an efficient analysis of soil diversity and the pattern of soil distribution in territory.
At the beginning, soil variation and especially soil properties variability, either of
genetic and taxonomic importance or of applied significance, were approached especially
from a quantitative point of view, having in view the characterization and definition of the
soil or map units, the understanding of the soil genesis and answering to different applied
problems, including protective measures.
Only in the second part of the XXth century, quantitative methods were developed
as a means of quantification of the pedogenetic concepts and for a better understanding of
causal factors of soil forming and soil distribution in soilscape. Especially by the works of
P.H.T. Beckett, R. Webster, L.P. Wilding, L.R. Dress, A van Wambeke and others,
different statistical methods of analysis and comparison were applied, to describe the
spatial variability of the soil. Attention was also paid to the genetic variability within
pedological taxon and among pedological taxa, to the variability within complex units of
different soils (complex map units), to forecast methods, etc.
Concerning the varied way of arrangement of elementary soil units in territory, the
accumulated knowledge was synthesized by V.M. Fridland (1919-1983) in his volume
Structure of soil cover (1972) in correlation on one hand with zonal environment factors
and on another hand with regional and local factors (geologico-geomorphic); this synthesis
stimulated new researches on soil associations (combinations) and soil spatial
arrangement (Simonson, Boulaine, Dijkerman, Buol, Lieberoth, Nemecek, Godelman,
Florea and others). In Russia, the research on the soil-covers structure took a great
importance and a true school in this domain was created, initiated by Fridland. The notion
of the pedogeographical assemblage as expression of spatio-temporal organization of soil
cover of a territory was proposed by Florea (1986, 1987, 2009) and an example of
characterization of pedogeographical assemblage for a reduced area was presented
(Florea et al., 1987).
In the past few years, an increased attention was given to soilscapes
(pedopaysages in French, Bodenlandschaften in German), especially in correlation with
implementing the information system of Europes soil resources by FAO (Food and
Agriculture Organization), ISRIC (International Soil Reference and Informatic Center) and
European Bureau of Soils. The soilscape is considered a grouping of adjacent soil units
having old and current functional relations, defined by the proportion of component soils,
their location and their distribution pattern in territory.
Parallel with the informatics development, a new branch of research in soil science
was founded, pedometrics, having as objective the quantitative characterization of soil and
its properties diversity. Pedometrics is defined as the application of mathematical and
statistical methods, as well as information techniques and modeling for the genesis of soils
and their spatial distribution, having in view the examination of soil properties. Synthesis
works in this domain were presented by Wilding and Dress (1983) and Burrough et al.
(1994).
McBratnei (1955), Odeh (1955) and Ibaez (1955) quoted by Ibaez (1998)
introduce and define almost in the same time the term of pedodiversity on the analogy of
biodiversity. Ibaez et al (1995, 1998) consider that pedodiversity, different than spatial
diversity of soil properties, represents a method to explore, quantify and compare the
soilscapes complexity in different areas and environments, in the same time presenting
indices for pedodiversity evaluation. Discussing the work presented by Ibaez et al (1998),
different soil scientists (Yaalon, Wilding and Nordt, van Meirvenne, Odeh, Vespraskas,
1998) consider that pedodiversity measuring and analyzing are useful especially for a
better understanding of spatial distribution at different scales, for comparing different

99

regions, for development of models of distribution predicting some pedological phenomena

and their evolution for the stimulation of a new approach in soil cover research.
In this initial phase of utilization of the term pedodiversity, there are some vague
notions. Sometimes, the pedodiversity is regarded in a large sense also including the
spatial variation of soil and soil properties, while in other cases it has a restricted sense,
not-including the variability of the soil properties. Pedodiversity, in the strict sense of the
word analogous to the biodiversity, refers to the differences of genetico-evolutive nature of
soils and in an extended sense also includes the spatial diversity of soils, but not spatial
variability of soil properties (Florea, 1997a, 1997b; Ibaez et al., 1998)
In Romania, there were and there still are preoccupations concerning the soil
variability, like in other countries, but unfortunately theyre little known in other countries
due to the reduced circulation of the published works from Romania.
Even from the beginning of soil researches in Romania in the first part of the XXth
century a certain spatial variation of some soil properties could be found (different form
the taxonomic variation), variation determined by some soil characteristics, particulary
physical ones. This variation in space and time of soil features and the changes of soil
properties under the influence of the agrotechnical and soil and water improvement works,
as well as the correlation among different properties, makes the object of various
researches in different regions, especially by current statistical methods. From the
synthesis of the variability of some soil physical properties (Canarache, 1990) resulted that
most properties have a normal distribution, except for the properties linked with soils
permeability which have a log-normal distribution; the different physical soil properties
were grouped depending on the size class of variation coefficients (low, medium, high), the
highest variabilities being found in the case of macroporosity, compaction degree,
hydraulic conductivity.
The preoccupation concerning quantitative characterization of soil entities
(genetico-taxonomic) was restricted especially to the describing of morphological, physical,
chemical, biological and fertility properties.
In a regional synthesis work for the Dobrudja from Romania (Florea and Vlad, 1970),
statistical indices of variation of morphological, physical and chemical properties of soil
taxa (with intrataxonic and intertaxonic variability) were presented. For the main taxonomic
soil units (Kastanozem, Calcareous Chernozem, Haplic Chernozem, Greyzem), statistical
morphological indices (based on data of hundreds of profiles) and statistical physical and
chemical indices were established (based on data from tens of profiles). The mean values
and standard deviation (xmed Sxmed), limits of variation (variation interval) and implicitly
amplitude, and the average error of each property on profile for were calculated for
different horizons of soil profiles for: thickness (and depths) of each pedogenetic horizon,
contents of clay, humus and total nitrogen, humus and nitrogen stocks, C:N ratio, contents
of total P2O5 and carbonates, pH value, cationic exchange capacity. Diagrams with
variation on vertical (profile) of different properties were drawn. The significance of the
differences between average values of two soil units, contiguous from a taxonomic point of
view, was calculated; the pH values, content of CaCO3 and its variation on profile, as well
as clay content, humus and nitrogen contents in the upper horizon and cationic exchange
capacity (CEC) discriminate very well Kastanozems of Chernozems, but less the different
Chernozems among themselves. The cultivated soils are differentiated from the soils
under the native vegetation through humus and nitrogen contents, the C:N ration and
cationic exchange capacity.
Therefore, not only a statistical characterization of the main soil taxa from Dobrudja
was made, but also an establishment of the most discriminant soil properties for taxa
differentiation.
Concerning the soil variation in the territory, the preoccupations have had in view
the describing of the genesis and distribution of soils and their correlation with
100

environmental factors, establishing the extent of different soils and general geographical
laws of soil spreading in Romania.
However, the variation of the soil cover was approached on the basis of the
pedogeographical assemblage concept (Florea, 1987), expression of the spatial
organization of soils, reflected in the soil maps. This concept was exemplified by the
examination of the soil cover organization in a soilscape of sand dunes (Florea et al., 1987)
at large scale. Firstly, for each soil unit (polypedon), the number of delineations (polygons),
the average area and variation interval, indices of the polygons shape, the type of polygon
outlines, the place in soilscape and the type of transition between polygons are specified
on the map. Then, for each physiographic unit (soilscape) the make-up of the soil cover is
shown by specifying the dominant and co-dominant soils or soil combination and their
proportion, assemblage, configuration (soil distribution pattern) and some quantitative
parameters: number of soil units per km2, number of limits per km, distance of repetition of
the elementary soil catena, degree of partition map, sinuosity coefficient, complexity
coefficient, contrast, heterogeneity coefficient and contiguity coefficient.
Recently, after the introduction of the pedodiversity concept (Ibaez et al., 1995,
1998) the problem of soil cover variation was also approached from this point of view.
Thus, the notion of pedodiveresity and indices of pedodiversity characterization were
discussed (Florea, 1997a, 1997b) and indices of pedodiversity were presented at continent
and natural zone level, as well as for European countries and high relief units of Romania
(Florea, 1998) (see subchapter 4.3).

4.2 Forms of pedological diversity and variability

4.2.1 Pedodiversity, analogous to biodiversity
The extension of the biodiversity concept, officialized through the Convention of
Biologic Diversity of the United Nations in 1992, also entails new approaches in other
domains, such as the aspects connected with spatial variation of the soil cover.
Generally, biodiversity is defined as the natural variation of taxonomic life forms,
within a specified geographical region or for the entire Earth. This concept of biodiversity
takes into account the variation of organisms forms both within and among species and
even among ecosystems, so that three levels of biological organization are envisaged:
genetic diversity (diversity of genes within a species), species diversity (in an ecosystem
from a territory), ecosystem diversity (diversity at a higher level of organization).
The most common term by which diversity can be measured refers to the
number of different species in a given area, these ones being the key working parts of
natural ecosystems. Generally, the species biodiversity is evaluated by species, richness
and species evenness (expressed by the Simpson index and Shannon index).
The introduction of the pedodiversity concept in soil science through analogy with
the biodiversity concept poses some question-signs connected with the particularities of
soil science, because the soil entities are very different from the entities from the living
beings domain.
Firstly, among the entities from the biological domain, specified in the living
organisms classification, there are discrete transitions, clear differences, from an entity
(species) to another, determined by heredity. In the case of genetic entities from the soil
world, one cannot speak of heredity and the transition between two adjacent entities is
generally a gradual one (vague).
Secondly, the soil entities are not clearly delineated and displaceable (moving)
individuals, as is the case of biological individuals; the soil entities are spread in territory,

101

forming (through joining) landscapes with soil continuum, so that the soil attributes have
large variation limits against the central concept of each genetic unit.
Thirdly, unlike living organisms that can live in great numbers (and variedly) on the
same segment of the territory, the soils as natural entities distinguish themselves
essentially, because they can co-exist only juxtaposed in territory, adjacent one to the
other, never more than one on the same surface.
In biology, the species is considered the basis for the biodiversity assessment. In
the soil science, the genetic type was taken as reference basis for the estimation of the
pedodiversity at global and regional level; but, for more detailed studies it seems that the
soil genetic subtype is more suitable.
The reticenses exposed above do not impede the use of the pedodiversity concept,
because between the notion of soil continuum and the existence of soil as a natural entity
(body) there is no incompatibility, the soil cover being a discrete-continuous formation
(Fridland, 1970). However, the concept of pedodiversity should be regarded taken into
account the soil domain particularities.
The extension of the concept of diversity to the soils domain is actually usefully
sustained by the following arguments:
- there is a very close connection between the soil and living organisms
communities, the soil being the life medium for plants and even habitat for some species
(edaphon); therefore, there is a qualitative and quantitative influence of the soil on
biocenoses, ecosystems and soilscapes, as well as an inverse (reciprocal) influence of
biocenoses on soils;
- requirements of biodiversity conservation presume requirements of adequate
conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and, implicitely, of soils, among them
existing an indissoluble bind;
- the sustainable use of biodiversity and environment also includes the sustainable
soil management; of course, one cannot evaluate the land use potential or of any
terrestrial ecosystem, component of biodiversity, without knowledge on the nature and
diversity of soils;
- pedodiversity represents the most efficient complementary way to study, quantify
and compare the variation of soilscape in different regions in relation with the biodiversity.
In consequence, the knowledge and characterization of the diversity of soils
subsystems of terrestrial ecosystems is essential for understanding and interpreting the
structure, organization, dynamics and evolution of any segments of terrestrial ecosphere.
4.2.2 Pedodiversity and soil variability
The new term of pedodiversity, as analogous in the soil universe to the biodiversity
from the living beings world, refers only to certain aspects of soil variability studied before,
where the problem of the differentiation of the pedodiversity did not appear. Unlike the soil
spatial variability which takes into consideration the soil variation under multiple aspects,
pedodiversity (in a strict sense) has in view only aspects connected with the essence
(nature) of soil entities as genetic formation concerning the presence, richness and
abundance of these entities.
It is necessary, therefore, to differentiate various forms of soil variabilities. The
pedodiversity or soil diversity refers to the variability due to genetic differences, especially
qualitative, essential, of soil entities, without taking into account their spatial organization
and arrangement; this pedodiversity may be considered genetic (or taxonomic)
pedodiversity. Concerning the spatial variation of soil properties in territory or even in
framework of soil unit (area) itself, this is known as soil spatial variability that is different
than the genetic pedodiversity; this one should be better named spatial variation of soil
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properties. This is because there is a soil spatial variability, as systemic entities, very
different from the spatial variation of the soil properties, which refers to both soil genetic
variation (genetic diversity) and also to soil spatial distribution and arrangement of soil
units (soil pattern); this complex variability may be considered spatial or geographical
pedodiversity. All these forms of soil variabilities make up the pedological variability of
pedovariability (fig. 4.1).
Genetic (taxonomic)
pedodiversity
Pedological
variability
(pedovariability)

Spatial pedodiversity

Pedogeographical
assemblage of soil cover

Spatial variation of soil

properties
Figure 4.1 Different forms of soil variability
The genetic pedodiversity and spatial pedodiversity are very closely interrelated and
are materialized in territory by distribution and arrangement of the soil units (pattern)
known as pedogeographical assemblage (fabric) of soil cover (see subchapter 4.4).
4.2.3 Forms of soil variabilities
Pedological variability (or soil variability) presents different aspects shown in fig. 4.1.
It is a complex concept which expresses synthetically and integratedly the soil variety and
differences among sols of a territory under genetic and spatial aspect; it referrs especially
to types of soils, weight of participation and soil patter distribution.
One can distinguish (fig. 4.1) a pedodiversity in a restricted sense and in a large
sense. In the restricted sense, pedodiversity analogous to biodiversity refers to the
genetic aspect and represents taxonomic pedodiversity (Bratney, 1955) or genetic
pedodiversity or genetico-taxonomic pedodiversity (Florea, 1997 a, b). In a large sense,
the pedodiversity also includes the spatial variability of soil entities, thus becoming spatial
pedodiversity (Florea, 1997 a, b), which refers both to soil geometric distribution and
qualitative differences among component soils of a territory.
Genetic pedodiversity pedodiversity in a restricted sense represents variability
of soil entities in a certain region determined by the number and richness of soil genetic
entities (units), different among them by constitution, internal organization and
environmental conditions in a way in which they are reflected through soil taxonomic
system. Especially the variability among soil taxonomic entities is envisaged, but also the
differences within a taxonomic unit (taxon), depending on the scale.
This genetic pedodiversity presents two sides, one inherited from the rock or parent
material (derived from mineral substratum) and other acquired by pedogenesis process,
these processes being able to also modify the side inherited from the parent material. This
aspect is a main specific attribute that differentiates the pedodiversity from biodiversity
(which is based on heredity).
The term of functional pedodiversity was also proposed, but though attractive the content of the notion is diverted away from the essence of the pedodiversity concept,
being subjective, anthropomorphic, defined by attributes connected with mans land use.
Because the soil systems are subsystems of terrestrial ecosystems, the
pedodiversity may be considered an aspect of ecosystem diversity and implicitly of
biodiversity. Due to the fact that knowledge (information) on the soil cover is relatively
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easily attainable for a territory, the pedodiversity can be evaluated more easily than the
ecosystem diversity and can substitute it because ecosystems are faithfully reflected by
territorial soil units (entities). As a matter of fact, Sombroeck (1909) presented the
ecosystem diversity by characterization of the different pedoclimatic districts.
Spatial pedodiversity of a territory also includes, beside the genetic (taxonomic)
pedodiversity, the soils spatial variability determined by territorial soil entities organization
within soilscape estimated through number, arrangement and pattern of distribution of soil
entities.
The soil unit arrangement in soilscape is known in general as soil pattern and
spatial organization of the soil cover was named structure of soils cover (Fridland, 1972)
or by the more comprehensive term of soil cover assemblage (Florea, 1986, 1987, 2001,
2009), which reflects the spatial pedodiversity for different units of soilscape. Each type of
pedogeographical assemblage is defined and particularized by parameters of content, of
spatial arrangement and of internal differentiation (see subchapter 4.4).
Spatial variation of different soil properties, although is closely connected with
the pedodiversity, presents other specificities, because the soil properties change in
territory depending on the territorys nature, on the nature of the parent material, on
topography and on the soil depth (horizon). Also, different properties vary in a different
way in the same area. According to their coefficient of variation, the soil properties can be
with high (>50%), moderate (50-15%) and low (<15%) variability. Some properties vary
very much in time. The nature of soil is multivariate and continuous in space and time.
This spatial variation of soil properties is studied by statistical methods (Beckett and
Webster, 1971, Campbell, 1979; Wilding and Drees, 1983).
4.2.4 Some aspects concerning pedodiversity indices
For the pedodiversity characterization, a set of parameters of indices (as far as
possible quantitative) are needed. The following aspects are to be underlined:
- the number of components of the soil cover of the examined area, which
represent distinct functional natural entities; depending on the scale, these components
are taken into consideration at various hierarchical levels of soil taxonomy (class, type,
subtype, etc). For soil studies at medium scale it seems that the soil subtype could be the
most adequate level of reference for pedodiversity (more or less analogous to species in
biology); for the soil studies at large scale, the soil form or family could be taken into
account;
- the distribution of the soil components (entities) of the soil cover of a territory
generally expressed by the component proportion (frequency in % of each component) as
well as the component distribution pattern;
- the degree of the soil covers complexity and heterogeneity, depending on the
number of components and their parceling, the component characteristics and relations
among components.
The necessary data for pedodiversitys indices calculation come from results of
pedological studies concretized in soil maps and information attributes. The basic
components of the soil cover are represented by the map delineations (polygons) which
correspond either to polypedons (elementary soil entities) or to soil combinations(specified
in the soil map legend). The complete characterization of these polygons is necessary for
the evaluation of the spatial pedodiversity of any territory. In some cases, lists of soils can
also be used, with the soils characteristics obtained by investigations of a large enough
number of soil profiles on different transversal sections (itineraries).
The utilization of these indices is very useful for the characterization and
comparisons of different territories from a pedodiversity point of view. The quantitative side
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which shows the specific aspects of each territory is very useful but the qualitative side
must not be neglected. In this aim, other indices were added where the case and
possibility existed , namely the nature of dominant soils and even of local soils having
ecological signification (soils ecosignificant).
In the following pages the genetic and spatial pedodiversity will be discussed.

4.3 Genetic pedodiversity

4.3.1 Definition

The genetic pedodiversity or taxonomic pedodiversity refers to the variety of soils

from a genetic point of view and to the evenness of the soil distribution (abundance) in
territory. It is defined by the variability of soil entities from a given area expressed through
number and way of participation (uniform or not) of soil entities, estimated on the bass of
their relative distribution.
The genetic (taxonomic) pedodiversity is evaluated (calculated) taking into account
the soil entities from the soil cover as it results from the soil maps traverses. Soil entities
are defined and named according to the soil taxonomy system adopted; they can be
designed on maps either as single soil units (monotaxonic unit, area with the same soil) or
soil combination unit (polytaxonic unit).
The genetic pedodiversity characterizes the soil resources of the terrestrial
environment and represents a main genofund of the biosphere by the great variey of soil
microorganisms and fauna species which are living in the soil all the time or a certain time.
It is the result of a long development of the soil cover as a consequence of variation in time
and space of the ensamble (constellation) of natural conditions and of terrestrial
ecosystems, as well as of the continuous adaptation of the soil cover to these changes.
Unlike biodiversity, which deals with biotic elements and their inventory, the
pedodiversity implies not only soil entities but also environmental conditions, because the
soils are the result of genetic processes generated by these conditions and co-exists in the
context of natural factors with which form an indissoluble unity in the framework of
ecosystems. Therefore, the pedodiversity describes not only soil entities the static
aspect but also processes (generated by environmental factors) which condition the
respective soils existence the dynamic aspect. The pedodiversity seems to be more
comprehensive having in view the dynamic side in the framework of ecosystems or
geosystems.
Therefore, it follows that the strategy of soil resource protection has to be based on
an integrated approach that implies measures concerning both soils and conditions of
soil-life and processes generated by these conditions.
As the soil is a dynamic system which evolved and still evolves in time, one can
speak of a pedodiversity that takes into account the soil evolution. This genetico-evolutive
pedodiversity or historico-genetic pedodiversity is connected in the first place by a different
evolution in previous periods with environmental conditions differing from the present state
of conditions. The different features of this pedodiversity are found in the coexistence of
the soils relict characteristics (or inherited) with acquired characteristics during the actual
evolution period; they are specific for polygenetic soils. Also, under intensive man
influence, many soils change their features, affecting the pedodiversity.
The effect of mans action on the soil can be different. In some cases, a uniform
creation of soils takes place, resulting in a decrease of pedodiversity. But in many cases,
especially of improved soils or of soils from developed lands, as well as by different land

105

use, new characteristics appear, much different from the initial soils, so that the
pedodiversity is diversified.
Also, in the domain of genetico-evolutive pedodiversity must be included the known
sequences (chronosequences) or soil genetic successions found in the regions with land
forms of different ages (systems of floodplain, terraces, hills etc). For example, the known
soil genetic series are Leptosols-Cambisols-Podzols or Regosols-Cambisols-Luvisols in
accidented regions, or Fluvisols-Gleysols-Histosols or Fluvisols-Chernozems in the river
valleys, etc.
The indices for characterization of the genetico-evolutive pedodiversity are not yet
established. The definition of such indices could take into account the relict features of
some soils (Bt horizon dark coloured, relict crotovinas, fragmented argilans, etc), as well as
new features aquired under the influence of human activity (by cultivation, improving,
irrigation, fertilizing, degradation including pollution, etc), as well as the area relatively
occupied by these features. The pursuit in time of the evolution of these features could
also reveal their favourable or unfavourable dynamics.
Also, the knowledge of the components of the soil genetic successions and of the
participation of these components to the soil cover from different territories could constitute
a quantitative basis for the evaluation of the genetico-evolutive pedodiversity of the
territories with land forms of different ages.
The transition from a soil entity to other soil entity, as it was underlined above, is
generally gradual (and rarely clear-cut); therefore, one can put in discussion a
pedodiversity among soil genetic entities, that is intertaxonic pedodiversity. This
pedodiversity could refer to the variety of spatial transitions ways among taxonomic soil
entities to which a variety of spatial transitions correspond in most cases relief forms or
type of parent materials; in some cases, the transition between two soils is very large so
that the transition soil unit can be separated (soil intergrade).
For the characterization of the transition ways, it is necessary to specify a contiguity
index based on number and proportion of each component with which are adjacent
different soil units (components) and also on transition way.
It is useful to pay attention to the intertaxonic pedodiversity because of the contrast
areas between ecosystems or habitats (ecotons), which are very important for living
organisms and implicitly for biodiversity due to the presence in these area of the so-called
effect of the edge.
4.3.2 Indices of genetic (taxonomic) pedodiversity
The pedogenetic pedodiversity is evaluated on the basis of actual soil entities such
as they are desgined on the soil maps. The hierarchical level of soil entities depends on
the scale of the soil survey.
In general, the below mentioned indices are used for the characterization of the
genetic (taxonomic) pedodiversity, the most important for the pedodiversity.
4.3.2.1 Soil (numerical) richness, S (or soil occurrence).
This index is represented by the number of soil entities that can be met in an area.
It is necessary to specify the taxonomic level of the respective soil entities (class or order,
type, subtype, etc), without which one cannot compare two areas (soilscapes). Soil
richness shows the degree of genetic variety of soils (zemela 3 ) characteristic to the
examined area, which reflects at the same time the variety of the environmental conditions.
3

Zemela represents the term from soil world, analogous to flora and fauna form the living organism world.

106

Soil distribution in Romania at class level

Lakes 1.1%
ANT 3.5%
SAL 0.9%
HID 3.3%

Swamps 0.7%
PRO 11.0%

AND 3.7%
PEL 3.1%

SPO 5.6%

CER 25.4%

PRO = Protisols
CER = Chernisols
UMB = Umbrisols
CAM = Cambisols
LUV = Luvisols
SPO = Spodisols
PEL = Pelisols
AND = Andisols
HID = Hydrisols
SAL = Salsodisols
ANT = Anthrisols

LUV 25.5%
UMB 0.1%

CAM 16.1%

Figure 4.2 Soil distribution in Romania at class level

Figure 4.3 Distribution of soil groupings on Terra, Northern and Central Asia and
Europe (soil order according to taxonomc criterion (data according to FAO, 1993)
(soil symbols according to FAO soil list)
107

4.3.2.2 Soil relative abundance or dominance, D

This index represents the proportion of participation (generally in percentage) of
each soil component in the soil cover composition and it is rendered by tables with soil
frequencies (%) or as a circular diagram (fig. 4.2), histograme (fig. 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5) or
frequency curve. The diagrams give a visual image of the proportion in percentages
(relative abundance) with which each soil component participates to the soil cover. There
is not a criterion according to which the soils are ordered in diagrams. The arrangement of
soils according to taxonomic or genetic criteria leads to irregular and inexpressive
diagrams, difficult to compare (fig. 4.3); therefore, the arrangement of soils in diagrams
according to the abundance size is more used in this case, one obtains diagrams which
remind of hyperbole (fig 4.4 and 4.5), but there is the disadvantage that the soil
arrangement (order) is modified from one area to another.
4.3.2.3 Distribution index of component soil abundance, d.
This index shows synthetically the dominance of one or more soils in the examined
area; it depends on the frequency of each component soil and is calculated by the formula:
d = ( pi2) / P2 = ( pi2) / 10000
in which pi is the abundance (or frequency) in percentages of each component (soil
entities) of soil cover and P is the sum of the percentages of all components (equal to 100).
The d index takes subunitary values between 1 (when only a single component
exists) and 0 (when the number of components tends to infinite, theoretically). The values
of the d index depend on the magnitude of soil abundances and number of soils
(components). The significance of d values and their interpretation can be better
understood by means of table 4.1 and diagram from fig. 4.6, in which the number of
components and their dominance is shown depending on the values of the d index.

Figure 4.4 Distribution of soil groupings on Terra and Europe (soil order according
to frequency) (data according to FAO, 1993)
(soil symbols according to FAO soil list)
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The values from table 4.1 (and those from the curves from fig. 4.6) are minimum
values for the distribution index d corresponding to the dominant component and given
number of component of soil cover, because the calculation was made considering that
associated components participate in equal proportions. In the case of inequal
participation of associated components, the values of d increase a little or somewhat more
if one or two associated components acquire values higher than the other associated
components. The difference between d values of the two cases (equal or inequal
proportion of the associated components) is relatively small for the abundance of the
dominant component over 60% and becomes significant at reduced abundances (below
40%).

Figure 4.5 Distribution of soil groupings on some territories from Terra (data
according to FAO, 1993)

109

Figure 4.6 Values of d distribution index of component soils abundances for some
soil combinations and soil abundancies.
From the examination of fig 4.6, the following must be mentioned:
- close values of the distribution index d for abundances of the dominant component
higher than 70% (and very close at abundances higher than 80%) irrespective of the
associated component number, and also a proportional increase of d with the abundance
increase of dominant components (at high values of abundance);
- relatively dispersed values of d for abundances below 60% of the dominant
component;
- at the same values of d more than 60%, the differences of abundances are
reduced irrespective of the component number, at values of 60-40% the differences
increase and become high enough at values below 30% (20%) of d (depending on the
number of components;
- at the same abundance of the dominant component, the differences among d
values for cases with different associated components are unimportant for abundances
over 60% of the dominant component and become high enough at lower abundances.
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Table 4.1 Distribution indices for some combinations and proportions of component
soils of the landscape (pedogeographical assemblage)
Distribution index of component soil abundances, d, for:
Abundance of
the dominant
2
3
4
5
10
20
50
100
component (%)
comp. comp. comp. comp. comp. comp. comp. comp.
99
0.980 0.981 0.982 0.983 0.984 0.985 0.986
0.987
97
0.941 0.942 0.943 0.944 0.945 0.946 0.947
0.948
95
0.905 0.904 0.903 0.904 0.905 0.906 0.907
0.908
90
0.820 0.815 0.813 0.812 0.811 0.810 0.811
0.812
85
0.745 0.734 0.730 0.728 0.725 0.724 0.723
0.724
80
0,680 0.660 0.653 0.650 0.645 0.642 0.641
0.640
75
0.625 0.594 0.583 0.578 0.570 0.566 0.564
0.563
70
0.580 0.535 0.520 0.513 0.500 0.495 0.491
0.491
60
0.520 0.440 0.413 0.400 0.378 0.368 0.363
0.362
50
0.500 0.375 0.333 0.313 0.278 0.263 0.255
0.253
40
0.340 0.280 0.250 0.200 0.178 0.167
0.164
34
0.333 0.261 0.225 0.164 0.137 0.124
0.117
30
0.253 0.213 0.145 0.115 0.099
0.095
25
0.250 0.203 0.125 0.096 0.074
0.068
20
0.200 0.111 0.072 0.053
0.046
10
0.100 0.051 0.026
0.018
Note:
- The associated components of dominant component were considered as participating in
equal proportions (in which case the value of d is minimum for the respective combination)
- The following preliminary graduation of the distribution index d has been proposed:
< 0,20
very low
0.51 0.62
high
0.21 0.33
low
0.64 0.81
very high
0.34 0.50
moderate
0.82
extremely high

The values of the distribution index d have the following significations:

Abundence of
Significance
d values
Number of the dominant
components component
> 0.82
--2
> 90%
There is a net dominant component (>90%)
0.64 0.81 --2
78-90%
There is a dominant component (78-90%)
0.51 0.63 --2
50-78%
There is a moderately-dominant component
(50-75% or 65-78% in the case of more
than 3 components)
0.34 0.50 --3
33-65%
There are 3 or n components, one of them
moderately dominant (40-50%) or weakly
dominant (50-65%)
0.21 0.33 --4
20-50%
There are more than 3 components, one of
them weakly dominant (20-50%)
0.10 0.20 --5
10-40%
There are more than 5 components, one of
them weakly-very weakly dominant (1040%)
< 0.10
-- 10
< 30%
There are more than 10 components, one
of them the dominant one being very
weakly dominant (10-30%)
111

4.3.2.4 The nature of dominant soils

In a separate column, the denomination of soils with high abundances are
mentioned, generally only 2 to 4 soils with the highest abundances. In this aim, the soil
symbols are used (according to the soil taxonomic system adopted) (tables 4.3, 4.5 and
4.6). The specification of soils with high abundances completes the significance of the
distribution index of component soil abundance from a qualitative point of view.
4.3.2.5 The Shannon index of pedodiversity, H, or entropy measure of the soil
equipartition
This index is based on the information theory and it shows the degree of
organization in territory.
It is known that the entropy is among other things a measure of the degree of
indetermination, of disorder or of irreversibility of the systems. The antientropy or
negentropy, according to the information theory, is a measure of the systems order and is
adequate, according to Shannon, for the calculation of the diversity of ecosystems and
biocenoses. The relation of the entropy is:
H = ln A ( ai ln ai) / A
in which the parameters adapted to calculation for the soil cover represent:
A the total area of the territory
ai the area of each of the S soil components
It is necessary that:
ai = A = constant > 0
The formula of negentropy H`, adapted to the entire area considered equal with
unity is:
H = - qi ln qi = - 2,3026 qi log qi
in which qi represents the unity fraction with which each soil component - from the total
number of soil components (S) - participates in the soil cover.
The values of H` vary between 0, for the case when a single component exists (qi =
1 and therefore H` = 0), and a maximum value (varying depending on S) which
corresponds to the distribution of soils in equal parts (S parts, each part with the same
value). In this case:
q 1 = q2 = = qs = 1/S
H = S*1/S * ln (1/S) = - ln (1/S) = ln S
To interprete the data, the H` relative(H`rel) must be calculated, given by the relation:
Hrel = H / Hmax = H / ln S
the maximum value of negentropy depending on the S magnitude.
The maximum diversity is considered the value corresponding to H`rel = 1,
irrespective of the component number. Therefore, an area will be the most diverse when
H`rel is nearer 1, namely different component present values of abundances nearer among
them.
The hypothetical examples from table 4.2 facilitate a better understanding and
interpretiation of the Shannon pedodiversity indices. There are big differences among
soilscapes with the same richness (the same S), but different distribution of components.
The territories (soilscapes) a to e with the same S have indices of diversity H`rel very
different, from minimum values cases in which a component is more or less dominant
to maximum value equal with 1 case in which the eight components have abundances
practically equal. In exchange, the distribution index of abundances, d, varies inversely.
From the other cases one observes that the diversity index H`rel is not influenced by S size,
but only by the degree of components equiparticipation in territory. It must however be
underlined that at the same value of H`rel (Shannon index) the area with the higher S
presents a more accentuated pedodiversity, H`rel estimating only pedodiversity due to
component equipartition. It is completed by the soil (numerical) richness.
112

The Shannon index of pedodiversity estimates, therefore, the degree of

organization of the territory regarded as a system, evaluating synthetically the structure of
the whole; it represents a parameter for evaluation of the pedosystems structure better
than a simple table with the abundances of the respective soils.
Table 4.2 Pedodiversity indices for some hypothetical make-up of the soilscape
(pedogeographical assemblage)
Territorial
unit
(soilscape)
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j

Relative abundances (% of area) of soil units (soil

components) nr.:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
93
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
44
44
2
2
2
2
2
2
30
30
30
2
2
2
2
2
20
20
20
20
5
5
5
5
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
13
94
1
1
1
1
1
1
48
48
1
1
1
1
30
30
30
5
5
25
25
25
25
33
33
33
-

8
8
8
8
8
7
6
5
4
3

0.87
0.39
0.27
0.17
0.14
0.88
0.46
0.27
0.25
0.33

Hmax Hrel

0.39 2.08 0.19

0.19 2.08 0.57
1.47 2.08 0.71
1.89 2.08 0.91
2.08 2.08 1.00
0.33 1.95 0.17
0.89 1.797 0.50
1.38 1.61 0.86
1.39 1.39 1.00
1.10 1.11 1.00

Notes:
S = the number of soil units or components (types, subtypes, etc, depending on the scale)
considered as soil richness for the examined area;
d = the distribution index of soil component abundances, d, calculated with the relation
d = ( pi) / P2 for the respective area;
`
H = the Shannon index or entropy index of evenness of soil equipartition
H`max = corresponds to a H` of the area divided in S equal parts and it is equal with lnS.
H`rel = H` / H`max (represents the Shannon pedodiversity index for the respective area soilscape,
pedogeographical assemblage).

4.3.2.6 Topopedogeographical index, Itp

This index or coefficient represents the ratio between abundance (or area) of nonzonal soils (azonal plus intrazonal soils) and abundance (or area) of zonal units (Florea et
al, 1986). It reflects very well the pedodiversity of the soil cover determined by the
influence of the local condition and their weigh. It is calculated with the relation:
Itp = non-zonal soils (% on area) / zonal soils (% on area)
The value 1 of this index corresponds to an equal distribution of the two categories
of soils. The value of 0 means the presence of only zonal soils, while the values of 10 to
100 signify the dominance of the non-zonal soils (and evidently, local conditions). For
other values of Itp, the percentages of non-zonal and zonal soils are the following:
Itp
99
19
9
4
3
2
1

% soils
non-zonal
zonal
99
1
95
5
90
10
80
20
75
25
66.6
33.3
50
50

Itp
0.5
0.33
0.25
0.11
0.053
0.011
-

% soils
non-zonal
zonal
33.3
66.6
25
75
20
80
10
90
5
95
1
99
-

Generally, this index is applied for an area that is large enough; in the case of a
floodplain, for example, it is not applicable because it becomes infinite (presence of zonal
113

soils being 0). As a rule, Itp is subunitary (zonal soils are predominant) or supraunitary
(non-zonal soils are predominant), but not far from 1. The maximum pedodiversity is
considered the pedodivevrsity with value of 1.
4.3.2.7 The nature of local soils
The topographical index is in general organically completed mentioning, beside the
Itp vaue, the nature of intrazonal and azonal soils by a literal symbol corresponding to
some large soil groups. The following soil groups and notations are proposed: A
floodplain soils; E eroded soils and undeveloped soils; H soils affected by excess of
moisture; L intrazonal soils determined by parent material; S salsodic soils; T
histosols.
4.3.2.8 Uniformity coefficient of taxonomic partitioning, UCTP and taxonomic
differentiating coefficient of soil-cover components, TDSC
These two coefficients or indices, adapted according to Ostrovski and Jankovski
(1969, quoted by Fridland, 1972), are useful when the delineation of the soil units in an
area was not made at the same degree of detail, so that soil units are not equivalent from
a taxonomic point of view. This case is very frequent when different detailed soil surveys
are compiled for a larger region.
These coefficients are calculated by the following relations:
UCTP = ei / mn and TDCS = Ei / mn
in which:
n = the number of taxonomic level used to characterize the soil cover
m = the total number of soil units, separated
e = the number of soil units (of m units) which present subdivisions at all n
taxonomic levels
E = the number of soil taxonomic units which belong to different taxa at each level
of taxonomy.
The values of these coefficients are subunitary. The maximum value equal with 1
means in the case of UCTP that all soil units are identically detailed and, in the case of
TDCS, that each soil unit is different from the other soil units at all levels of the taxonomy
(or with other words each soil unit belongs to other taxonomic unit of a higher level).
The value of UCTP equal with 1 denotes a maximum pedodiversity.
4.3.3 Pedodiversity indices for different areas
In the following subchapters, some examples of pedodiversity indices for different
regions and scale of approach are presented.
4.3.3.1 Pedodiversity indices at the terrestrial globes level
In table 4.3, a set of pedodiversity indices are rendered for the soil cover of Terra,
considered both on continents and on the great climatic zones, calculated on the basis of
FAO data (1993, World Soil Res. Rep. 66, Rev.1) at the level of major soil groups.
Examining these data some remarks can be pointed out.
The soil richness of different continents is nearly the same, 20-23, and very close to
that of the Earth (26). The distribution index, d, has low values, close to 0.1, values that
are common for large territories with numerous soils. Some differences among continents
are marked by the nature of the dominant soils: Podzols in Europe, Ferralsols in South
America, Acrisols in South and Southeast Asia, Leptosols in North and Central Asia,
114

Arenosols in Africa and Australia and Regosols (in an extended measure Cryosols) and
Podzols in North America.
The Shannon index (H) too has values non differentiated from one continent to
another, being high enough (0.8) so as to show a relatively good equipartition of different
soils in each continent. The Earth presents the best equipartition (H = 0.90) and the lowest
d index (0.067)
Table 4.3 Indices of pedodiversity for the soil cover of the continents and climatic
zones of the Earth1) (calculated according to FAO data)
Continent or zone
S
d
Dominant
H
Hmax Hrel
Itp Nonzonal
soils2)
dominant
soils3)
Earth
26 0.067 LP, CM, AC 2.922 3.258 0.90 0.72 E, L
Europe
22 0.114 PZ, PD, CM 2.415 3.091 0.78 0.23 E, A
N and Central Asia
22 0.134 LP, CM, GL 2.398 3.091 0.78 1.07 E, H
S and SE Asia
20 0.104 CA, CL, CM 2.506 2.996 0.84 0.63 E, L
Australasia
20 0.129 AR, LV, CL 2.301 2.996 0.77 0.98 L
Africa
23 0.098 AR, LP, CM 2.547 3.135 0.81 1.08 L, E
North America
22 0.092 RG, PZ, LV 2.562 3.091 0.83 0.62 E, H
S and Central America 22 0.103 FR, AC, LP 2.617 3.091 0.85 0.57 E, L
Boreal and Polar zone 16 0.147 LP, CM, GL 2.077 2.773 0.75 1.61 E, H
Cold zone
19 0.113 PZ, PD, CH 2.426 2.994 0.82 0.28 T, H
Temperate zone
24 0.097 LV, CM, AC 2.577 3.178 0.81 0.19 H, A
Mediterranean zone
21 0.113 CL, CM, LV 2.481 3.045 0.81 0.63 E, L
Arid (seasonally dry)
24 0.122 CL, CM, LP 2.347 3.178 0.74 1.03 E, L
zone
Tropics and
23 0.085 LX, AR, AC 2.678 3.135 0.85 0.79 L
Subtropics zone
Humid Tropics and
22 0.183 AC, FR, GL 2.129 3.091 0.69 0.42 H, L
Subtropics zone
Mountaineous zone
26 0.363 LP, CM, CL 1.683 3.258 0.52 2.08 E
1)

S = Soil (numerical) richness; d = distribution index of soil abundances; H = Shannon indices

(Entropy measure of the soil equipartition); Itp = topopedogeographical index
2)
The symobols of major soil groups, according to the FAO legend, 1988
3)
See page 95 (chapter 4.3.2.7).

The topopedogeographical index differentiates Australasia, Africa and North and

Central Asia, with relatively high values; Europe has the most reduced value (0.23). The
high values of the topopedogeographical index are associated with the predominance of
the Leptosols or Arenosols in the soil cover.
The soil cover of different climatic zones is characterized by a more differentiated
richness, between 16 and 26, and by somewhat higher values for d and somewhat lower
values for H. Only the zones of humid Tropics and Subtropics and the Mountaineous zone
are very distinct from the other zones by their values of pedodiversity indices. Of course,
the different zones are clearly differentiated by the dominant soils.
4.3.3.2 Pedodiversity indices for some European countries
In the case of the European Community Countries (table 4.4), the values of the
index d increases and the values of the index H decreases, compared with the values for
continents, but without there being a great discrepancy among different countries. The soil
115

richness varies very much, from 8 to 19, and also Itp presents various values (0.23-1.87)
from country to country, reflecting relatively high differences of physiographic conditions.
The values of various indices of pedodiversity render evident similarities of the
Mediterranean countries (Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Greece) or of the country group
formed by Belgium, Germany and Denmark or by Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland.
Luxembourg is distinguished by the highest d and the lowest Hrel , marking the most distant
distribution of soils, from an equipartition point of view. Greece, Holland, Scotland and
Northern Ireland are differentiated by a high Itp, consequence of strong influences of the
local conditions on the soil cover. These aspects were also noticed by Ibaez et al. (1995).
Table 4.4 Indices of pedodiversity for the soil cover of the European Community
countries, by comparison with Europe, Romania and the Danube Delta1)
Country or
S
d
Dominant
H
Hmax Hrel
Itp
Nonzonal
territory
soils2)
dominant soils2)
SP (Spain)
19 0.266 B, I, U 1.904 2.944 0.65 0.64
I, U, R
P (Portugal)
17 0.216
B, L, I
1.828 2.833 0.65 0.51
I, R, J
F (France)
18 0.213 B, L, E 1.943 2.890 0.67 0.44
E, J, I
ENG (England)
15 0.192 B, L, G 1.967 2.708 0.73 0.67
G, J, O
D (Germany)
15 0.193 B, L, P 1.967 2.708 0.73 0.34
J, O, G
GR (Greece)
15 0.240
L, I, B
1.670 2.708 0.62 1.14
I, R, J
B (Belgium)
12 0.185 L, B, P 1.901 2.485 0.77 0.36
J, Q, G
I (Italy)
14 0.265
B, L, I
1.784 2.639 0.68 0.54
I, R, E
L (Luxembourg)
11 0.342 B, L, Q 1.356 2.398 0.57 0.76
Q, I, J
NL (Netherlands)
11 0.230 J, P, G 1.677 2.398 0.70 1.87
J, G, O
SCO (Scotland)
12 0.203 P, O, G 1.753 2.485 0.71 1.41
O, G, U
DK (Denmark)
8 0.247 P, B, L 1.615 2.079 0.78 0.23
O, G, J
S-IRL (Irish Rep.)
10 0.183 G, L, B 1.802 2.303 0.78 0.92
G, O, I
N-IRL (N. Ireland)
9 0.309 G, B, O 1.408 2.197 0.64 1.53
G, O, I
EC (Europeean
22 0.185
B, L, I
2.170 3.091 0.70 0.58
I, J, E
Community)
Europe
24 0.112 P, D, B 2.451 3.178 0.77 0.23
I, J, O
R (Romania)
21 0.154 L, B, C 2.207 3.045 0.72 0.32
J, R, G
The Danube Delta
7 0.267 G, O, Q 1.486 1.946 0.76 130.7
G, O, Q

1)

S = soil (numerical) richness); d = distribution index of soil abundances; H = Shannon index

(entropy measure of the soil equipartition); Itp = topopedogeographical index
2)
The symbols of major soil groups, according to the FAO legend, 1974

Romania is very similar, by the values of S, d, H, with the whole territory of the
European Community, but has other dominant soils and also Itp values more reduced. By
contrary, the Danube Delta is very different from the EC and its countries, having a very
low soil richness (7) and an extremely high Itp.
Romania distinguishes itself from other European countries by having the higest S
(21), very close to the one of Europe (soil museum country) and by having the lowest
value d.
4.3.3.3 Pedodiversity indices for different regions of Romania
The soil richness of the different geomorphic units in Romania varies between 20
and 23, like on the globe (but at another taxonomic level), except for the Danube flood
plain (only 11) and is much different from that of all other countries (37), fact that
underlines the considerable differences concerning pedodiversity (table 4.5).
116

The distribution index of soil abundances in Romania, d, higher than that of the
globe, means that some soil participate with a higher percentage, fact also reflected by the
H`rel which is more reduced (0.55-0.75). A good differentiation among different geomorphic
units is achieved by the topogeographical index, as well as by the nature of the dominant
soils and of the local soils.
Also, in Romania, like on the globe, the mountain region is clearly differentiated
from the other regions from the pedodiversity point of view (table 4.5)
Table 4.5 Indices of pedodiversity for the soil cover of the main geomorphic units of
Romania (at level of soil genetic type according to the Romanian soil classification,
1980)1)
Geomorphic unit

Dominant soils2)

Hmax

Hrel

Itp

Nonzonal
dominant
soils2)
LS, RZ
SA, GC

Mountains
20 0.40
BO, PB
1.664 2.996 0.55 0.18
Intramountaineous
23 0.27
BP, SP, BM, SA
2.188 3.135 0.70 0.92
depressions
Hills
25 0.36
BP, SP, RS, BM
2.235 3.219 0.69 0.60
RS, SA, VS
Intrahilly depressions 22 0.24
BP, SP, SA
2.304 3.091 0.75 0.99 SA, GC, RS
Tablelands
24 0.52 CZ, CC (CN, BP) 2.310 3.178 0.73 0.20
RS, SA
Plains
23 0.31
CZ, CC, SA
2.420 3.135 0.77 0.31 SA,GC,VS,PS
The Danube floodplain 11 0.36
SA, ML, GC
1.708 2.398 0.71 20.10 SA, GC, PS
Total per country
37 0.19 BP, BO (SA, CZ, CC) 2.895 3.611 0.80 0.45 SA,RS,GC,RZ
1)
S = soil (numerical) richness); d = distribution index of soil abundances; H = Shannon index
(entropy measure of the soil equipartition); Itp = topopedogeographical index
2)
PB = Cambic Podzols; BO = Dystric Cambisols; BM = Eutric Cambisols; BP Haplic and Stagnic
Luvisols; SP = Albic Luvisols; CZ = Calcaric Calcic Chernozems; CC = Haplic Chernozems; CN =
Greyzems; RS = Regosols; SA = Fluvisols; GC = Gleysols; LS = Dystric and Umbric Leptosols; PS
= Arenosols; VS = Vertisols; SB = Kastanozems.

In table 4.6, a set of parameters of pedodiversity are presented, concerning some

areas of smaller and smaller dimensions, on the basis of an information more and more
detailed namely for Dobrudja at a scale 1:500000, a dune area from Scrioara (Tissa
plain) at scale 1:50000 and territories of the communes ndrei and Manasia (Danube
plain) at a scale of 1:20000.
The richness index varies, generally, with the size of the area, but without a
correlation betweem area and richness index values. The distribution index d depends on
the number of components and their proportion participation. South and Central Dobrodjea
have d values very close one to the other, but different from those of the Northern
Dobrudja. The Scrioara area, with a very varied soil cover specific to a dune area, has a
very low distribution index d (0.14-0.16), while the area of plains with more uniform soil
cover have values of 0.5-0.7 for d.
The Shannon index of pedodiversity has high values only in fragmented areas like
Babadag and Niculiel tablelands or the dune area, with values of 0.8-0.9, because an
equipartition of different soils is realized in a great extent.
The topopedogeographical index, low in flat plain areas, becomes high in nonuniform regions (Norther Dobrudja, dune area).
The CUTP coefficient increases with the scale of research of the soil cover tending
towards 1 for larger scales. The TDCS coefficient is often much different formt he CUTP
coefficient, depending on the number of subdivisions that appear at different levels of the
soil taxonomy.
With the aim to obtain comparable results is useful to analyze the soil cover at the
same degree of detail.
117

Table 4.6 Pedodiversity indices for soil cover (pedogeographical assemblage) of

some areas from Romania (at different scales)
Territorial unit

S
Type Subtype

d Dominant H Hmax Hrel Itp Local UCTP TDCS

Total
soils
soils
subdivisions
DOBRUDJA (1:500000)
and 7
8
10
0.19 CN, LS 1.756 1.946 0.90 0.56 E, L 0.66

Babadag
Niculiel-Mcin
tablelands
Northern Dobrudja 13
16
24
0.15 CZ, SB 2.076 2.565
Central Dobrudja
11
13
17
0.39 CZ, (SB) 1.280 2.398
Southern Dobrudja 11
15
20
0.36 CZ, (SB) 1.426 2.398
Dobrudja
14
21
30
0.27 CZ, (SB) 1.770 2.639
SCRIOARA, DUNE AREA (TISSA PLAIN) (1:50000)
West Scrioara
7
13
0.16
BP
2.055 2.565
Est Scrioara
6
13
0.16 BM, PS 2.180 2.565
Total
7
14
0.14 BM, PS 2.206 2.639
NDREI TOWN (DANUBE PLAIN) (1:20000)
Interfluve (field)
1
2
7
0.53
CZ
0.939 1.946
Floodplain
3
7
13
0.26
SA
1.774 2.565
Total
4
9
20
0.41 CZ, SA 1.420 2.996
MANASIA COMMUNE (DANUBE PLAIN) (1:20000)
Interfluve (field)
3
3
7
0.73 CC ti 0.546 1.946
Floodplain
1
2
7
0.20 SA gz 1.688 1.946
Total
4
5
14
0.54 CC ti 1.118 2.639

0.81
0.53
0.59
0.67

0.26
0.18
0.13
0.18

E, L
E, L
E, L
E, L

0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77

0.80 0.92 L, H 0.861 0.892

0.85 1.94 L, H 0.861 0.900
0.84 1.38 L, H 0.857 0.900
0.48 0
0.69 0.47 0.72

0.28 0.02 H
0.87 0.42 0.18 A, H

1.0
1.0
1.0

0.685
0.676
0.680

0.98
1.00
0.99

0.771
0.624
0.700

See the explanations from table 4.5

UCTP = Uniformity coefficient of taxonomic partitioning
TDCS = Taxonomic differentiating coefficient of soil cover components

Concluding remarks
The use of pedodiversity indices in soil science proved to be useful to understand
more clearly the structure and organization of the soilscape on different map scales.
Therefore, these indices have to be taken into account in any kind of soil and land
information system.
The finding of Ibaez et al. (1995) has been confirmed, that the soil richness of
soilscapes generally increases as the area increases and that this increase is as a rule not
dependent on the areas size. According to our observation, the geomorphic, lithological
and hydrological diversity is much more important in determining the soil richness than the
areas size.
The entropy index (Shannon index) is high in the areas having component soils with
more or less equal abundances. As a rule, in very large areas, such as continents, climatic
zones or other vast regions, this index has high values because the soil cover comprises
very numerous components and is crumbled in small parts that tend to be equal, so that
the soil abundances become of close-size. Therefore, in these cases, the Shannon index
does not separate very well the different areas among themselves.
The soil abundances distribution index varies inversely and seems to have a better
resolution (separation capacity) by comparison with the Shannon index.
The topopedogeographical index proved to be a good index that draws attention to
the regional and local features of the territory and therefore it separates relatively well the
different areas irrespective of their size, especially if the nature of the dominant soils is
mentioned too.

118

The nature of the dominant soils (zonal or nonzonal) as an index of pedodiversity

has a good capacity of separation for large areas, but this one gradually decreases as
the area decreases, because of the soil range diminution with the area decrease.
The soil abundances distribution index and topopedogeographical index, not
considered by Ibaez, differentiate the various large areas better than the Shannon index
from a diversity point of view and consequently their use in information systems is
desirable. The addition of the nature of 2-3 dominant soils (zonal and nonzonal) also
confers a qualitative aspect on the characterization of the pedodiversity.
The pedodiversity indices find various applications in soil survey (different mapping
units), interpreting of soil maps, analyze of soilscapes, soil and land information system
and modeling of the soil cover assemblage.
Of course, further investigation work is necessary from a methodological point of
view in order to make comparable the pedodiversity indices for different parts of the Earth
and their subunits and at different scales of research, as well as from a fractal approach
point of view applied to pedodiversity.

4.4 Spatial pedodiversity. Pedogeographical assemblage, expression of

soilscapes organization and diversity
4.4.1 Introductory notions
The spatial pedodiversity completes the information offered by the genetic
pedodiversity, completing the data concerning the soil richness and the equipartition of soil
abundances with a set of parameters regarding the arrangement mode of soil units
specific to different soilscapes, which take into account the way of association and joining
(juxtaposition) of soil units as well as the model (pattern) of soil units distribution.
This spatial organization of soil units (polypedons) in the soil cover was conceived
in simple terms by the notion of pedogeographical assemblage (fabric) or soil cover
assemblage (fabric) (Florea, 1986, 1987, 2001, 2009). This concept (notion) refers to the
way of concrete arrangement in territory of the different soils (soil units) and takes into
account the nature of those respective soils, their present arrangement (juxtaposition), the
geometry of soil units (areas), contiguity relations. This general look is obtained from soil
maps with soil distribution and therefore the spatial repartition of different soil units,
respectively the pedogeographical assemblage, can be visualized at a detailed degree
depending on the soil map scale. The pedogeographical assemblage (or soil spatial fabric),
which partially corresponds to the known term of soil patter (that is only the soil repartition
model), appears, therefore, as an expression of spatial concrete organization of soil units
at the moment-in-time of the soil survey, regarded from a genetic (taxonomic), geometric
and relational point of view. The pedogeographical assemblage reflects very well the
pedodiversity and includes all data necessary to calculate the pedodiversity indices. In fact,
the parameters of the pedogeographical assemblage are practically indices of spatial
pedodivevrsity and in the same time the pedogeographical assemblage contains data
necessary for the calculation of the genetic pedodiversity indices.
Related to the spatial organization of the soil cover, Fridland (1972) distinguished
three categories of structures of the soil cover, whose geographical regularities are
governing through three groups of factors: geomorphic-geological, bioclimatic and
anthropogenic. The structure of the soil cover, determined especially by geomorphicgeological factor is studied at large scale; the accent is put on the organization in territory
of the soil elementary units and soil combination units (as basic units of the soil cover) as
well as on the relationships among different component soils and their evolution in time
and space correlated with environmental condition changes at geological time.
119

The zonal-provincial structure of the soil cover, made evident at small scale on
large areas, distinguishes itself from the previous ones not only by scale and the
determinant factor (the bioclimatic factor), but also by some attributes. The zonal-provincial
structure of the component elements are unique, irrepetitive and without genetic
connexions, but with spatial relations, while in the case of the structure of soil cover
governed by geomorphic-geological factor the component elements are repetitive, having
spatial simmetrical distribution and genetic interactions and connexions (Fridland, 1972,
1974).
The structure of the soil cover determined especially by anthropogenic factor, little
investigated, is generally characterized by an increase of the soil cover complexity and
contrast in lands under crops, but in some cases (of drained lands), by an increase of the
soil cover homogeneity.
The notion of pedogeographical assemblage does not make distinction between
different soil covers depending on the group of pedogenetic factors, considering them
integratedly, because the soil cover organization is unitary, irrespective of the scale of
examination and irrespective of the influencing factor of the soil cover.
The different models (patterns) of variation and juxtaposition (arrangement) of
various soil units which form the varied pedogeographical assemblages (fabrics),
expression of territorial organization of soil cover for different soilscapes, are made evident
by soil maps. They practically represent the basis of the estimation of the genetic and
spatial pedodiversity of any segment of the soil cover, a more or less extensive part of the
pedosphere.
The soil maps of different territories are carried out by soil surveyors, specialists in
soil cartography, which render on maps the distribution of different soils (and their
characterization) on the basis of special studies in the field and in laboratory. A soil map
(as a graphic representation of the soil as natural entities and implicitly their main
properties and environmental conditions) shows mainly the type, variety and distribution of
soils (polypedons) or soil associations in an area of land; this aspect, regarding the
constituents of the soil cover, is easily perceptible by a simple map examination. At a more
attentive examination, a soil map also reveals a set of other main characteristics of the soil
cover, reflected especially by the spatial arrangements of polypedons (size, shape,
distribution and orientation of soil units and the relations among them); this second aspect,
regarding the soil cover considered as a whole forming a system, has a remarkable
importance because it supplies data very valuable from a scientific and practical point of
view, concerning the complexity and heterogeneity of the land area.
After the publication of Fridlands work Structure of soil cover (1972), this second
aspect on soil covers structure (organization) began to be more and more studied.
Boulaine (1975, 1980) deals with the question of field soil units (polypedons), mapping
units (genons, mappons) and soil combinations. Dijkerman (1974) notes the question of
soil landscapes as level of spatial organization of the soil cover and Buol et al (1980),
speaking about the soil landscape arrangement (soilscape fabric), shows that the soil
landscape is the true assemblage of polypedons. Lieberoth (1982) brings contributions to
the characterization of soil heterogeneous units, Nemecek and Tomasek (1983)
synthesize the knowledge about former Czechoslovakia, and Belobrev and Vaskez of a
region from Cuba (1986). Girard (1984) presents an analysis of the spatial aspects of the
soil cover and Schlichting (1986) introduces the concept of diagnostic soils for soilscape.
Florea (1986, 1987, 2001) formulates the notion of soil cover (or pedogeographical)
assemblage (fabric) as expression of the spatial organization of pedosystems which is
developed in other works (Florea et al, 1987, 1988, 1989, 2009) and deals with the soil
combinations (Florea and Udrescu, 2000).
The approach of the soil cover study from the two points of view constitutes a more
solid base of characterization and regionalization of the soil cover of a territory for a better
120

use of the soil resources. Therefore, at the European level, by FAO, ISRIC or Soil
European Bureau, different aspects of the soil cover were approached, as a
pedolandscape unit (soilscape unit), terrain unit, pattern of spatial soil distribution, soil
region and its delimitation on lithological geomorphological and pedological criteria (FAO,
1933, Jamagne et al, 1996, Heineke et al, 1998, Fink et al, 1998; Munteanu et al, 1998,
2000, 2001) in the framework of the program for the database-organization for the
European Soil Resources, having in view their sustainable development.
4.4.2 The pedogeographical assemblage, expression of pedodiversity and of the
soil-covers organization
The concept of pedogeographical assemblage is derived from the systemic
approach of the soil cover (Florea, 1983, 1985) and it is based on the concept of the soilcovers structure (Fridland, 1972); it refers to the soil distribution in a land area (considered
as an unitary ensemble) at different levels of spatio-temporal organizations of
pedosystems, irrespective of determinant factors (geomorphologico-geological or
bioclimatic). The pedogeographical assemblage is the existence form of the soil cover,
represented by an association (juxtaposition) in territory of soil units (polypedons,
pedosocions) making up higher organization units in landscapes in close correlation with
environmental factors and their evolution in space and time. The pedogeographical
assemblage of the soil cover is defined as the spatial organization of the component parts
of the soil cover, considered as systemic constituents, namely under the aspect of type,
proportion, distribution pattern, pedogenetic and geographical relations, functionality and
changes together with modifications of the environmental conditions, irrespective of the
size, development stages or hierarchical levels of the respective constituents.
As a matter of fact, the concept of pedogeographic assemblage (fabric) represents
the spatio-temporal organization of soils expressed by the relations and territorial
arrangement of the components of the soil cover at Earths surface, varied as shape,
altitude and heterogeneity. The model (pattern) of the juxtaposition of the soil units is taken
into consideration, as constitutive elements (polypedons, polypedons combinations of
different levels), irrespective of the size, soil development degree or hierarchical level, as
well as the mode of soilscape-formation (as collective formations) having in view the
nature, frequency, size, shape, orientation and repetitivity of component soil units, which
determine patterns of soil units distribution, all these regarded from a configurational,
functional and genetico-evolutive point of view; on this basis, different soilscape units can
be differentiated, delineated and characterized accentuating the genetico-geographical
relations and circulation or exchange of substances (water included), energy and
information within the environment.
The pedogeographical assemblage is the result of the combined actions of
pedogenetic processes generated by the natural factors in time and space as well as of
reliefogenetic processes (as denudation, sedimentation, land slides, volcanism, etc) which
cooperate to the formation and evolution of the land forms and of the soil cover. At the
same time, it represents the natural mirroring of the pedosystems capacity of reflecting
through the composition and organization of the soil cover both spatial variety of the
ensemble of environmental factors and its previous evolution.
It must be emphasized that the pedogeographical assemblage is not only a simple
juxtaposition of territorial soil units, but also an organic association of soil units with an
organized configuration having a specific structure differing from one territory to another
(by basic constituents and their arrangement and relations) forming a mantle that moulds
the terrestrial relief (soil and land-form being an indissoluble unit, named soil-terrain or
pedoterrain).

121

The whole pedogeographical assemblage is not static, but it changes in time and
space parallel with the modification of bioclimatic and geomorphologico-geological
conditions, as well as of those anthropogenetic.
The concept of pedogeographical assemblage assures a more adequate
understanding of the soil in the landscape, not only on the vertical by features of
pedogenetic horizons (of soil profile), but also on the horizontal direction by interrelations
among component soils, fact that contributes to obtain a clear image of the true
functionality of the soil cover from a local level to a regional and zonal one, or to a global
level. In addition, the parameters that show the pedogeographical assemblage also reveal
important characteristics about the soil covers stability, behaviour and evolution,
degradation risk, conditions of sustainable use, etc.
One of the aims of the research on pedodiversity and pedogeographical
assemblage of different landscapes is the delimitation and description of the territorial units,
clearly individualized by the peculiarities of the soil cover, ecological conditions and the
bioproductive potential, as well as the conditions of sustainable use of soil and natural
resources (taking into account the soils vulnerability and risks of degradation in different
conditions of land use).
A very eloquent example of different kinds of pedogeographical assemblage one
can see on the soil map of Iassy surroundings (Barbu and Brndu, 1967) in which three
forms of soil cover assemblage correspond to three geomorphic units (river valley
terraces and slopes included, undulating plain and tableland).
4.4.3 Main characteristics of the pedogeographical assemblages
The elementary soil units (polypedons) or map units (polypedons, pedosocions) and
non-soil units, which are basic components of the soil cover (as terrestrial mantle) were
described in chapter 1, from the point of view of their geometry and their parameter
characterization as individual delineations. In this chapter, the discussion will be directed
to the characteristics of the collective soil units resulted by juxtaposition of the basic soil
unit (or map units) mentioned above, which represent different soilscapes with their
specific soil cover assemblages. The characteristics of these assemblages can be
emphasized only in the cases of distinct geomorphic units or of large territories. They refer
to four aspects: territory conformation, content, spatial arrangement of the territory and the
internal differentiation of the soil cover assemblage (fig. 4.7).
Group of
parameters

Parameters of the
pedogeographical assemblage

Observations

Parameters of Conformation of the soil cover Tabular or level (flat, gently

assemblage (at high level) undulating): bas-assemblage
physiognomy (of
Sloping or hilly: meso-assemblage
(model in French)
presentation)
Steep or accidented: alto-assemblage
Nature, according to the soil taxonomic
Composition: nature and
system
proportion
Parameters of
Proportion in percentages (%)
content
Mode of participation in the As background; associated to the
background; inclusion in the
assemblage
background; as transition; local

122

Distribution mode (pattern)

Parameters of
spatial
arrangement (or
configuration)

Concentric, un-oriented, oriented

in spots, motley, acicular, dendritic, etc.
Toposequences, chronosequences, etc

Asymmetry

Ias =

Contiguity

Sst - Sdr
Stot

Number of neighbouring units or

proportion of common border with
neigbouring units
GN = 25

Complexity
(degree of non-uniformity)
Or

CC =

1
Sm

1 Cs ( A - S max)
Sm
A

Parameters of
Pedological (pedoecological) Between two soil units or average
internal
contrast for an area
contrast
differentiation of
the
Complexity x contrast
Heterogeneity
pedogeographical
assemblage
Figure 4.7 Main characteristics of the soil cover assemblage
4.4.3.1 The conformation of the soil cover or general land physiognomy
This is expressed by the model of the soil cover and rendered by the following
categories: level, sloping and steep (or more detailed), presented in chapter 1.
The model of the soil cover refers to the mode of spatial development of the soil
cover moulding the relief shapes. This term introduces the idea or image of shape of the
terrestrial surface, which is currently named conformation.
4.4.3.2 The content of the pedogeographical assemblage
The content of the pedogeographical assemblage is given by the composition and
the participation mode of components. The composition is defined by the nature and
proportion (frequency) of basic elements composing the respective assemblage (the
information about composition may be completed with data on polygons corresponding to
different components, mentioned in chapter 1). As a rule, the number of soil component of
the assemblage increases with the size and complexity of the territory.
It is necessary to specify for each assemblage the dominant component (with over
50% net dominant if over 80%), co-dominant (with 25-50%) and subsidiary components
(10-25% from the area). The soil components with proportions less than 10% (or less than
5-3% if the component is strong contrasting against the others) are not taken into account
(being considered inclusions which are neglected).
Concerning the mode of participation of different components to the soil cover
assemblage, Fridland (1972) distinguished 4 shapes: as background (main component of
background), as (small) area entering background (perforation); as alternating
components (associated components of background), as transition components. To
these ones one can add the sporadic and isolated componenents (insular and local) with a
very reduced spreading. As a rule, the soil components of the above groups distinguish
themselves also by size, shape and other parameters.
123

4.3.3.3 The configuration of the pedogeographical assemblage or the soil spatial

distribution
The configuration of the pedogeographical assemblage or the soil spatial
distribution refers to the model (pattern) of component soil distribution, from which the soil
cover complexity, asymmetry and contiguity result.
The model (pattern) of component soils distribution, main aspect of the assemblage
configuration, refers to the shape and mode of display of soil units in territory, to their
orientation (geometrical aspect of distribution); with other words the peculiar configuration
of the distribution of each component of the soil cover is emphasized, from the simplest
juxtaposition of some different soils to the most complicate juxtaposition of many and
varied soils.
In figure 4.8 some models of spatial distribution for different soil cover assemblages
are reproduced after Schmidt (1975, quoted by Lieberoth, 1982) concentric, unoriented,
oriented in bands, in spots, elongated, dendritic). These ones may be completed with the
frequency, spot or band size, orientation, etc, as well as with the presence of
discontinuities, etc.

Figure 4.8 Some models of soil distribution (by I. Schmidt, 1975, quoted by
Lieberoth, 1982)
The distribution models of soils in pedogeographical assemblages can acquire
various forms known as toposequences or proper catena, chronosequences,
bioclimasequences, storeyed soil distribution, etc. Other distribution models may be met in
different land forms.
Very important for the assemblage characterization is the repetitivity in territory of
certain models of soil distribution.
The asymmetry of the pedogeographical assemblage can be taken into discussion
if the different components of the soil cover are distributed differentiatedly as against an
axis or a dividing line, for example a river, a hill, a summit, a mountain crest, etc. One can
calculate an index of asymmetry, Ias, making the ratio between the difference of the areas
situated laterally from the dividing line and the total area:
Ias =

Sr - Sl
Stot

Ias =

SN - SS
Stot

Ias =

124

SE - SW
Stot

in which Sr and Sl are the areas from the right and left part, SN and SS the areas from the
northern and southern part and SE and SW the areas from the eastern and western part
of the respective dividing lines, and Stot the whole area.
The value 0 corresponds to a symmetric distribution; the maximum value of +1 or -1
corespond theoretically to a maximum asymmetry when all components are situated in
only one part or the other of the dividing line.
The contiguity of the assemblage components refers to aspects of vicinity of the
constituent areas (units) of soil cover assemblage. It is expressed by the number of areas
(components) with which each soil unit is adjacent or by the proportion (percentage) of
each type of soil units adjoining a certain soil unit. The data is presented in tables or
diagrams.
The complexity of the pedogeographical assemblage is an important characteristic
which completes the image given by the composition of the soil cover assemblage,
because at the same composition the complexity of the soil cover can be very different,
depending on the size of the component units (areas) and their interpenetration. It reflects
the mosaic distribution of soils which is conditioned in nature especially by the relief
fragmentation.
The soil cover complexity can be expressed by simple indices as for instance the
average number of components per km2, the average number of units (polygons) per km2,
the average number of intersected limits of soil units (polygons) per km, the average
distance between two intersected limits, the average size of soil units (polygons) and
distribution of the frequency of size classes of soil units, etc or by more complex indices.
One of these is the fractionation index or partition degree of soil cover assemblage, PD,
given by the relation:
PD =

i=1

1
Sm

Si

(because Sm = Si / n and Si = n Sm), in which n is the number of soil units or polygons,

Si the area of each polygon and Sm the average area for the respective polygon.
This index corresponds to the inverse of the average value of the polygons areas,
which make up the soil cover assemblage (if on soil maps some polygons are polygenetic
units, in this case it needs to introduce in the above relaton some data on the soil cover
obtained from the study of a key area).
This index was improved (Fridland, 1972) taking into account the variation of size of
the soil units (polygon, area) as well as the sinuosity coefficient of the area contour. This
improved index, the coefficient of complexity, CC, is expressed by the relation:
CC =

1
Sm

Cs(A - Smax)
A

= PD

Cs(A - Smax)
A

in which Cs is the average sinuosity coefficient, Sm the average surface of polygons and
A the area of the whole territory.
There are also other indices for the characterization of the soil-covers complexity
as degree of differentiation and degree of uniformity of the differentiation applied by
Fridland (1972).
A simple index for the exprimation of the soil covers complexity is also the nonuniformity degree, ND, given by the relation:
ND = 25 / Sm
in which Sm is the average area (in hectares) of soil units (polygons) and 25 the size (in
hectares) of the reference conventional area for which ND = 1. The complexity of
125

pedogeographical assemblage (soil cover) can be described according to the values of ND,
such as:
ND>100
100-25
25-5
5-1
1-0.25
0.25-01
<0.1

Extremely high
Very high
High
Moderate
Low
Very low
Extremely low

(Sm<0.25 ha)
(Sm 0.25-1 ha)
(Sm 1-5 ha)
(Sm 5-25 ha)
(Sm 25-100 ha)
(Sm 100-250 ha)
(Sm>250 ha)

The ND index can be improved by multiplying with the above mentioned factor:
Cs ( A - S max)
A
The scheme proposed by Lieberoth (1982) is very useful for the rapid estimation of
the soil cover complexity at large scale on the basis of the total number of soil units
(components) and number of dominant soil units (components) and their relative occupied
area (fig. 4.9).
The number of
dominant components
1 component with 80%
of the total area
1 component with 4080% of the area
2
3

Total number of components

1-4
5-8
Distribution in polygons with large areas
1-4 units / km2

Distribution in polygons
with average areas
4-16 units / km2
(> 16 units / km2)
Distribution in polygons with small areas

Figure 4.9 Scheme of estimation of the soil-covers spatial complexity (by Lieberoth,
1982)
4.4.3.4 Internal differentiation of the pedogeographical assemblage
The internal differentiation of the soil cover is characterized by the contrast among
component soils and its heterogeneity.
The contrast of the soil cover expresses the qualitative differences existing among
component soils. Although a soil map presents in a certain extent the differences among
soils, it does not specify their nature and intensity. The differences between two soil units
or among soil units from a territory can be of different kinds: of morphogenetic or
taxonomic nature, from the physical properties point of view (texture, permeability, water
retention capacity, etc); from the chemical properties point of view (humus content, pH,
cationic exchange capacity, etc); from the point of view of slope, microrelief (or land nonuniformity), hydrogeological conditions, drainage, salinization, etc; from the soils fertility
and productive potential point of view, etc.
Of course, an applied importance has the differences which determine or reflect
different behaviours or the capacity of land use, a different answer (solution) for agriculture
technologies (of cultivation, of improving, of land planning, etc); a different capacity to put
up resistence or to buffer the action of outside agents, etc. These differences between
neighbouring soil units have important practical implications concerning the land use and
planning of agricultural territory, because one of the principles of agriculture-land planning
is to not include in the same parcel soils with too different properties, which would need
distinct technologies.
126

These differences among soil units (land units) are expressed by a pedological or
pedoecological contrast (see later on); for the taxonomic differences, see subchapter
4.3.2.8.
With regard to the differences between soils from an agronomical point of view, the
determination of the contrast between dominant soils and each of the other soils has been
proposed, on a scale of 5 graduations established on the basis of agroproductive soil
classes (Fridland, 1972). The contrast between two soil units is given by the difference in
absolute value between figures corresponding to the agroproductive (or quality) classes to
which the respective soil units belong (in a system of 6 classes). The method gives good
results only if a single factor intervenes in the determination of differences between soils. If
the differences are due to many factors, it has been proposed to take into account only
one factor, the most specific one for the respective territory: texture, hydromorphic degree,
podzolization degree, erosion degree or textural differentiation.
For some territories from the Moldavia Republic, the arithmetical average of three
contrasts has been proposed, established on the basis of taxonomy, texture and erosionacumulation, to express the qualitative differences of the soil cover (Godelman, 1969).
In the Anglo-Saxon countries, the soil pattern is taken into consideration to express
the differentiation and complexity of the soil cover with the aim to evidentiate the difficulties
of the agriculture, difficulties which have increased with the complexity increase (Bocin,
Shipley, 1982).
The method of pedological contrast evaluation of the soil cover proposed in
Romania (Florea et al, 1989) will be presented in the following lines.
The pedological contrast (pedogeographical contrast or pedoecological contrast)
refers to the differences from a qualitative point of view between two adjacent soil (or
land) units or among soil (land) units of a territory considered as a whole. The value of the
pedological contrast expresses in (semi)quantitative conventional way the degree of
differences between two soil (land units) or, in the case of a territory, among soil (land)
units which make up the soil cover (pedogeographical assemblage).
The pedological (pedoecological) contrast between two soil (land) units is given in
conventional scale of 5 graduations (values of 1 to 5). The values of contrast that graduate
its intensity are established on the basis of the criteria presented in table 4.7; as a rule, 10
elements intervene in the contrast determination. In some (rare) cases, other elements can
intervene as well, as, for instance, pollution, compactness, rocks or rock fragment covering,
soil portance, etc; in this situation, table 4.7 will be completed with the graduations of the
respective elements. For the evaluation of the contrast, each of the two soil units which are
compared is mentally included in the size class (graduation) according to their property
of the each of ten elements of column 1 (table 4.7) and the difference is made between the
classes (gradation) of the two soil units for each of the ten elements; the biggest difference
obtained at one of the elements represents the value of contrasts and the respective
element determines the nature of the contrast between the two units.

127

Table 4.7 Criteria for evaluating the pedological contrast between two soil (land) units (by Florea et al, 1989)
Element taken into
account for the contrast Number of the
evaluation
pedological
indexX
1. Morphogenetic
differentiation of the
pedon
2. Texture in the upper
23
horizon
3. Edaphical volume

Loose rocks Weakly evolved

soils
Protisols

ChernisolsXX

ArgisolsXX

LuvisolsXX
Spodisols

Loamy sand
U

Sandy loam
S

Loam
L

Clay loam
T

Clay
A

133

Extremely low

Very low

Low

Moderately low

High

19

V1

V2
Shallow

V4
Little profound

d1

V3
Moderately
shallow
d2

V5
Moderately
profound
d4

Very high to
extremely high
V6, V7
Strongly to very
strongly profound
d5, d6, d7

4. Global drainage

185

- GleyingXXX

14

- StagnogleyingXXX

Rockiness
Stoniness
Sand
N

Or
Soil depth

Classes, gradation or differentiation stages taken into account for the contrast evaluation and their
respective symbols (1-6)
1
2
3
4
5
6

15

d3

Somewhat
Well drained Moderately well Somewhat poorly Poorly and
excessively to
very poorly
drained
drained
excessively
drained
drained
Non-gleyed or
Low
Moderately to
Very strong
gleyed in
strong
depth
g3, g4
g0, g1
g2
g5
NonLow
Moderately to
Very strong
stagnogleyed
strong
or in depth

Lakes and swamps

Excessively to
submerged
g6, g7
Excessive

Number of indices according to Metodologia elaborrii studiilor pedologice, 1987 (Methodology of the pedological studies elaboration)
Argic subtypes of sols from the Chernisols class form together Preluvosols, the class of Argisols. The Luvisols class does not include Preluvosols. The Histosols
present a contrast 5 by comparison with any mineral soils
XXX
Except the relict ones
XX

128

5. Acidity

(Base saturation degree

CaCO3)

63
69

w0, w1

w2

w3, w4

w5

w6

Extremely to
strongly acid

Moderately
acid

Slightly acid to
neutral

Strongly to
extremely
alkaline

Extremely oligoOligobasic to oligo- mesobasic

basic

Slightly to
moderately
alkaline
Saturated +
CaCO3

V1, V2
Non saline or in
depth
S0, S1

V3
Slight

Mesobasic to
saturated
(without
CaCO3)
V4, V5, V6
Moderate

S2

Non sodic or in
depth

V6, CaCO3
Strong

Very strong

S3

S4

S5

Slight

Moderate

Strong

Very strong
(with soda)

Very strong and fine

texture

A0, A1

A2

A3

A4

A5

A4, A5 and fine

texture

187

Absent

Slight

Moderate

High

Very high

Gully erosion
8. Land slides

37

Absent

Slight

Moderate

High

Very high

Excessive

38

Absent

Stabilized

Semistabilized

Active (little
profound)

Active
(profound)

Flowing unstabilized
gravels

9. Land slope

33

Level

Slightly
inclined

Moderately
inclined

10. Land non-uniformity

Uniform, very
slightly nonuniform
U0, U1

Slightly nonuniform

Moderately
non-uniform

Strongly nonuniform

Very strongly
non-uniform

U2

U3

U4

U5

6. Salinization

16

and / or
17
Sodization
(alkalization)
7. Erosion and / or risk
of surface erosion

129

Strongly inclined Very strongly

inclined

Steep

In the case of element 1 (morphogenetic differentiation of the pedon) one

consideres the value of contrast 1 also for the different soils noted in table 4.7 in the same
class (gradation).
In the case of some elements, the alternative properties were also taken into
consideration, like the edaphic volume for soil depth and content of rock fragments, global
drainage, gleying and stagnoleying, for soil acidity, for the base saturation status of the soil,
etc. In other cases, such as salt affected soils and erosion, one takes into consideration
the highest value of contrast of one of the alternative properties of the respective element
(salinization or sodization in the first case or erosion plus risk of surface erosion or gully
erosion in the second mentioned case).
The pedological (pedoecologic) contrast between two soil units can take values
between 0 and 5. In the case in which a reference soil unit is selected as that against
which the contrast is evaluated (the frequent case of evaluation of the contrast of a
territory) the values of contrast evaluated can be positive or negative, depending on the
differences between class (gradation) of the respective soil unit and that of the reference
unit (the respective soil unit is situated according to its properties at right or left by
comparison with the reference soil). It is also useful to note, beside the contrast value, the
nature of the factor (property) that determines the contrast.
The different classes of the pedological (pedoecological) contrast between two soil
(land) units and their significance are presented in table 4.8.
Table 4.8 The classes of pedoecological contrast and their significance
Value of
Value of
contrast for Variation of soil properties and
Class of contrast
contrast
a territory
of edaphical conditions in the
between 2
territory
soil units
Without contrast
0
0.2
There is no variation
Very low contrast
1
0.3-0.7
Insignificant variation
Low contrast

0.8-1.2

Little variation

Moderate contrast

1.3-1.8

Significant variation

High contrast

1.9-2.5

Very high contrast

2.6

Strong variation and on short

distances
Very strong variation and on
very short distances

The pedological (pedoecological) contrast of a territory is evaluated in relation with

a soil (land) unit of reference, as a rule the most extended soil in the respective territory.
It is calculated with the formula:
Kt = aKa+bK b +cKc+...+nKn
100
in which Kt = the total contrast of a territory, a, b, cn represent proportions (%) of each
soil unit from the territory (their sum being 100 minus the dominant soil proportion) and Ka,
Kb, Kc Kn the pedologic contrasts of each soil unit (in absolute value) evaluated by
comparison with the reference unit (the dominant soil does not appear in the sum from the
numerator because its contrast is zero).
As a matter of fact, this formula gives an arithmetical average of the contrast values
of the respective territory among the dominant soils and the other soils; this average value
varies between 0 and 5, theoretically (in the average value, the dominant soil has a great
influence because its contrast value is zero).
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Beside the average value, it is useful to mention the maximum value of

pedoecological contrast and the amplitude of the contrast values between two soil units for
the respective territory.
The methodology of the evaluation of the contrast values has some drawbacks due
to the fact that divisions (classes) of the elements taken into account in the evaluation are
not always rigorously quantitative, and also that different elements taken into consideration
for the evaluation do not present the same relative importance. Another drawback consists
of the fact that two territorial units can not always be compared from a pedoecological
contrast point of view, because the reference unit (the most extended) varies from a
territory to another; with the purpose of avoiding this drawback two types of contrasts have
been introduced: relative contrast and standard contrast.
The relative pedoecological contrast of a territory is established as against the
dominant soil unit in the soil cover. It is useful at level of farm, parcel etc, reflecting the
difference degree among component soils and therefore the need to applicate
differentiated technology.
The standard pedoecological contrast of a territory is established as against the
most extended soil unit or more fertile soil in each country or natural great region as
reference soil that is in the case of Romania the Haplic Chernozem (Typic Hapludoll). It
permits the comparison of different territories (areas) from this point of view for the whole
country or great region. In this way, one can understand better the results obtained in the
farm production of different natural areas.
The heterogeneity of the pedogeographical assemblage as is conceived in this
context refers and joins the differences among soils existing in a territory, both under
quantitative and qualitative aspects. In consequence, it is determined on one hand by the
assemblage complexity (which reflects the quantitative aspect of the spatial nonuniformity), and on the other hand by the pedoecological contrast of the pedogeographical
assemblage (which reflects the qualitative aspect). The higher the complexity and contrast
of soil cover, the higher will be the heterogeneity of the pedogeographical assemblage.
By multiplication of the ND (non-uniformity degree) by Kt (pedological contrast) of a
territory, one can obtain the heterogeneity coefficient, as quantitative exprimation. The
classes of heterogeneity, as qualitative exprimation of the heterogeneity of soil cover
(pedogeographical assemblage), are deduced from classes of complexity and those of
contrast of the same soil cover according to criteria from figure 4.10. The significance of
these heterogeneity classes from an edaphic, geographical and agrotechnical point of view
is presented in table 4.9.
Contrast

Without or
Very
extremely low low

Low

Moderate

High

Very high

Complexity
Extremely weak
Very low
Very weak
heterogeneity
Weak
Low heterogeneity
Moderate
Moderate
Strong
heterogeneity
High
Very strong
heterogeneity Very high
Extremely strong
heterogeneity
Figure 4.10 The classes of heterogeneity of the soil cover, depending on the degree
of pedoecoclogical contrast and complexity degree

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Table 4.9 Significance of the classes of the soil covers heterogeneity

Class of
heterogeneity
Significance
1
Very low
heterogeneity
2
Low
heterogeneity
3
Moderate
heterogeneity
4
High
heterogeneity
5
Very high
heterogeneity

Edaphical conditions non-differentiated in territory

Uniform vegetation
Territory can be used unitary; the same technology and
agrotechnical measures can be applied
Edaphical conditions very weakly differentiated in territory
Relatively uniform vegetation
Territory can be unitary used; the same technology can be applied,
but with some agrotechnical measures differentiated
Edaphical conditions weak moderately differentiated in territory
Relatively non-uniform vegetation
Territory can be unitary used with the same technology, but with
many agrotechnical measures differentiated
Edaphical conditions moderate strongly differentiated in territory
Clearly non-uniform vegetation
Territory is used differentiated, with technologies little differentiated
but with many agrotechnical measures clearly differentiated
Edaphical conditions very differentiated in territory
Great differences in nature or growth and vigour of the vegetation
Territory is used differentiated and the technologies and
agrotechnical measures are very differentiated as well

4.4.4 The characterization and nomenclature of the pedogeographical assemblages

4.4.4.1 The characterization of the pedogeographical assemblages
The pedogeographical assemblages are not self-standing bodies which could make
the object of a taxonomy; they refer to the make-up, conformation and configuration of the
soil cover of a landscape or of a territory, as well as to the differences and relations among
its components. Therefore, they offer data (information) on the description and
characterization of pedogeographical entities (units) of different levels of organization
which represent the segmentation units of the pedosphere. The pedogeographical
assemblages show, with other words, elements of physiognomy (appearance) and internal
structure of different landscapes from the pedological point of view (similar, in a way, with
the morphology of a plant or of an animal); what are classified are the soilscapes, not their
aspects.
One can make, however, characterizations (descriptions) of the pedogeographical
assemblage of the natural units or of pedogeographical units (soilscapes) using adequate
parameters or attributes which can contribute to their defining and individualization. The
following aspects should be taken into consideration for their characterization:
- the nature and proportion of the main soil components, according to the adopted
soil taxonomic system and scale of investigation;
- the nature of the co-dominant and subsidiary soil groups, the different soil entities
being united in this way: automorphic soils, excess moisture affected soils, salt-affected
soils, erosion-affected soils, histosols and peaty soils, soils with specific texture or
morfogenetic properties, non-developed soils, shallow soils, etc (see table 3.7);

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- the internal organization of assemblages: continuous (matricial); with or without

metafunctional polypedons; discontinuous, which can be with lithodiscontinuities,
psammodiscontinuities, erodiscontinuities or mixed; in all cases the discontinuities can be
rare or frequent;
- the character of the exchanges with the environment: open, closed, semi-closed;
- the model (pattern) of spatial distribution of the main associated components: nonoriented (the area of the soil units being circular, ovale, elongated, irregular, etc), oriented
(in simple strips or branched), radial, concentric, compact, symmetric or asymmetric as
against a line, etc;
- the complexity, contrast and heterogeneity of the assemblage;
- genetical relations among component soils (zonal soil spectrum, toposequences,
catena, etc).
However, having in view that the basic elements (entities) which make up the soil
cover are juxtaposed at Earths surface in different ways and have a certain spatial
organization specific for each territory (soilscape). The soil cover assemblages of these
soilscapes are more or less complex depending on the degree of organization of the soil
cover; these levels of the assemblage complication are presented in table 4.10.
Table 4.10 Pedogeographical assemblages corresponding to different soil cover
organization levels
Assemblage
Organization
Corresponds to:
Primary
assemblage
(elementary)

Associations of basic components of earth-crust

(polypedons, metapolypedons, pedodiscontinuities)

Associations of different primary assemblages or

Secondary
associations of primary assemblages with
assemblage
polypedons or other basic components
(complex)
Primary or secondary assemblages similar or
Pediomic
different, which influence and intercondition
assemblage
themselves, and behave and evolve together (in
(composite in
common) as an answer to the external actions or
same natural
factors, in the framework of a pediom
zone)
Associations of several different pediomic
Peditorial
assemblages which are in a close succession and
assemblage
(composite in genesis evolution relation, correlated with a vertical
or horizontal zonality
different adjacent
natural zones)
Global
Ensemble of soil cover assemblages of the Earth
assemblage

Simple soil
combinations
Complex soil
combinations
(order II, III)
Pedioms, grouped
in pedogeographic
zones (domains)

Peditories
(heterosequences
of pedioms)

Pedosphere of
Terra

The simplest soil cover assemblages are the primary and secondary ones, which
correspond to soil combinations (pedosocions) of different levels. They reflect especially
the functional characteristic of soils and correlations between soils and environmental
factors.
The other levels of soil cover assemblage (pediomic, peditorial) are composite
assemblages corresponding to soil communities which share the same territory, influences
and conditions, developing a similar behaviour and evolution tendency under the action of
outside agents, in the framework of geomorphic units higher and more complex, either in
the same natural zone or in the different adjacent natural zone.
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There are also other propositions of systematization of the soil combinations, as for
example those of Boulaine (1980), Buol et al (1980), Lieberoth (1982) and others, taking
into account different properties of these ones.
4.4.4.2 The nomenclature of the pedogeographical assemblages
Besides the general terms used in connection with the soil cover assemblage in the
previous pages, one cannot speak of a specific terminology. At present, the different
assemblages of the soil cover are rather described or characterized from the point of view
of the soil distribution and spatial organization of the soil cover. Of course, the question of
an adequate terminology is an open one.
In the following lines two examples of characterization of the soil cover
assemblages of two territories will be presented. The first refers to a segment of a dune
relief from the Carei Plain, a part of the Tissa Plain (Romania) (Florea, Vespremeanu,
Marian, 1988) and can be described as such: pedogeographical assemblage tabular
(pedogeographical basoassemblage), consisting of a soilscape (pediom, fragment) with
Arenosols and other sandy soils, developed in aeolian coarse deposits, in a dune relief
with risk of deflation (locally, even eroded soils), partially influenced by shallow ground
water and very sporadic phenomena of sodisation (alkalization); the soil cover is
characterized by the prevalence of the soil combinations of a loamy sand gleyic Cambisols
and gleyic Arenosols (in low areas) and of lamellar typic Luvisols and lamellar albic
Luvisols (in high areas) and it forms:
- a secondary open assemblage (but with some small areas with very poor drainage
having closed assemblage);
- in quasi-parallel strips with near N-S direction;
- with high complexity (coefficient 0.4)
- with moderate contrast (average value of 2.7), but also some areas with maximum
contrast (value 5) due to the relief and drainage conditions;
- with significant heterogeneity (coefficient 1.08);
- consisting of microcatena which are repeated with a certain regularity over an
average distance of 0.6-0.9 km, characterized by genetico-geographical, geochemical and
evovlutive relations.
The second example refers to the confluence area Clmui-Donau in the eastern
part of the Romanian Danube Plain, with pedogeographical basoassemblage in which two
subunits can be distinguished, namely:
- a pediom with calcaric Chernozems, gleyied Chernozems and salt-affected
Chernozems with medium to fine texture, developed in fluviatile deposits on a proluvial fan
with intensive influence of shallow ground water at its periphery, and risk of salinization
increased; the whole area is cultivated (arable). The predominant soil association consists
of calcaric Chernozems (31%), gleyied Chernozems (30%) and saline Chernozems (13%)
to which Fluvisols and other salt-affected soils are added, making up together a primary
basoassemblage continuous, open towards adjacent flood-plains, with digitated-divergent
configuration, high complexity, weak contrast due to drainage, salinization or texture
conditions, moderate heterogeneity; it is formed from alternations of soils distributed on
ridges and depressionary areas, with close genetico-geographical and evolutive relations;
- a pediom (fragment) with Gleysols and gleyied Fluvisols more or less salinized,
with medium to fine texture, developed in fluviatile deposits on flood-plain, intensively
influenced by shallow ground water and with risk of salinization especially at the contact
between the proluvial fan and the flood-plain. The dominant association in the soil cover
assemblage consists of chernic Gleysols, saline Gleysols fine textures and calcaric
Fluvisols medium textured (78%) to which other Fluvisols and Solonetz are added,
constituting a continuous basoassemblage; relatively closed with very poor drainage (in
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present with linear anthropodiscontinuities / open drainage canals), with configuration

predominant semicircular, high complexity, weak contrast and low heterogeneity; the soil
cover is made up of alternations of soils distributed differentiatedly on depressionary areas
and ridges, with genetic connections and exchanges between them.
Although the two pedioms have an internal low contrast between them, a moderate
to strong (2.6-3.5) contrast exists, due to the texture, drainage and salinization.
4.4.5 Guide for the pedogeographical assemblages characterization
A sketch of methodology of describing and characterizing the assemblage of the
soil cover for a large area is shortly presented in this subchapter. A special attention is
given to the ecological, genetic and geometric aspects, as well as to the concept of soilterrain (pedoterrain) as an indissoluble unit between the soil and the land form, as well as
to the lines of demarcation of watersheds, valleys, etc off which the drainage, water and
other substances movement, soil units orientation, etc are dependent.
4.4.5.1 The relation between the soil-map and the territory-reality
It must be once again mentioned that a soil map shows the spatial distribution of
soil entities (soil units) or soil combinations and therefore outlines spatial organization of
the soil cover, aspect expressed synthetically by the features of the pedogeographical
assemblage. The characterization of the soil cover assemblage can be achieved only on
the base of the information existing in a soil map (and the accompanying report) for a wide
territory (tens to hundreds of square kilometers), in general geomorphic units or subunits.
Of course, the qualitative level of the characterization will be higher the larger the mapscale is and the better its qualitative level is.
There is always a difference between the reality of the actual soil cover (from the
terrain) and its image rendered on the soil map, which has been generated mostly
because of the need of abstractization, generalization and of classification of the
numerous observations (information) from the territory, as well as because of the need of
approximate some soil units delineations (see also chapters 1-3). Of course, the
differences between reality and the map diminish with the increase of degree of map
detailing (scale), so that the characterization of the pedogeographical assemblage
becomes more accurate at a higher scale.
4.4.5.2. Description
It is recommended to have the description of the pedogeographical assemblage
distinct of the maps interpretation and as much as possible to preceed the interpretation
itself. The interpretation is also based in a great extent on the experience of the soil
scientists.
The terminology used for the soils description is in a great measure usual. However,
some new terms were introduced in order to avoid some confusions (misunderstandings)
and for a better communication among specialists.
For the description, there are two ways of approach, from bottom upwards and from
top downwards (ascending and descending). In the first case one starts with the most
detailed component units and continues with the soil combination units (soilscapes) more
and more complex. In the second case, one starts from the most complex unit (soilscape)
and goes downward to the territorial units less and less complex, until the basic units are
reached. As a rule, the most advantageous approach is the top-downwards approach,
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having the advantage that some information does not repeate for the intermediary units,
the information from the upper levels being sufficient.
The description has to be achieved as much as possible in quantitative terms,
especially concerning the size of areas occupied by different components or componentgroups, perimeters, shapes, slopes, etc. Also, the data must be stored in an adequate
information system, ordered either on major pedogeographical units (zones, domains,
regions, elementary soilscapes) or on administrative units or even mixed.
4.4.5.3 Basic notions
The description of the pedogeographical assemblage is based on some basic
concept whose understanding from the very beginning is important to achieve an adequate
characterization.
The soil cover assemblage or pedogeographical assemblage (fabric) or
pedoassemblage refers to the general soil units organization at Earths terrestrial surface,
expressed by the arrangement of the areas (polygons) of soil units and their shape, size
and frequency, considered from configurational, functional and genetic points of view.
The different parts of the soil cover, complex but relatively homogeneous in its
complexity at a given scale and level of generalization, represents the elementary entitiy of
the pedoassemblage. Many different entities of pedogeographical assemblage can be
associated (juxtaposed) forming complex units of soil coveer, more or less heterogeneous.
In a large sense, the pedogeographical assemplage also includes areas with
altered functionality and also areas without soils considered pedodiscontinuitites in the soil
cover, that can be linear or areal (see also chapter 1).
The conformation of the soil cover (or the model, in French) represents the notion
which refers to the sculptural shape of terrestrial crust which integrates the soil with the
relief (topography), the two elements forming an indissoluble entity, named soil-land or
pedoterrain. Indeed, the soil moulds the relief so that the external attributes of the relief are
at the same time also attributes of the soil cover. The conformation (model) of the soil
cover influences the genesis, evolution and characteristics of the soils, as well as their use
and performance.
From this point of view, the conformation of the soil cover at a general level may be
divided in three categories of assemblages: basoassemblage or tabular assemblage,
mesoassemblage or sloping assemblage and altoassemblage or steep assemblage.
The lines of special demarcation represent lines which delineate different units of
pedogeographical assemblage, which have to be introduced on soil maps, contributing to
the better understanding of the content of the soils map.
Some examples of these lines are: lines of the watersheds, river lines, lines
delineating slopes from plateaus, etc.
The basic components of the soil cover are the simplest soil units represented on a
map. They form the component elements of the pedogeographical assemblage at different
levels; they can be soil units, metasoil units or non-soils (pedodiscontinuities). Therefore,
the basic components are individual areas, at map scale, by whose juxtaposition the
pedogeographical assemblage of different territorial units results in, each one with its
organization of the soil cover. Their knowledge permits a better understanding of the
composition and behaviour of the soil cover, of fertility level and productive potential, of
impact of the human activity, etc.
Basic components can be areas with the same soil (monotaxonic area), as a rule on
the soil maps at large scales, or areas with many soils or combinations of soils
(polytaxonic areas).
The areas of different soils or of soil combinations that are predominant on the soil
map in a territory form the background of the soil cover (occupying as a rule over 50%),
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the other areas being associated to the background or appearing as locally (isolated)
areas in some cases perforating the background areas.
Often, one can distinguish a local appearance of territorial units with reduced
extension, having an apart pedogeographical assemblage which is different from the
assemblage of the major territorial unit. This one is considered as (peculiar)
microassemblage component of the major pedogeographical assemblage.
The configuration of the soil cover or of pedogeographical assemblage refers to the
size, shape and spatial arrangement of the component soil units (pattern of soil
distribution), also including metasoils and non-soils. The configuration can have different
shapes as sequences of soil (catena, toposequences, etc), horizontal or vertical spectra of
soils (soil zones) or other ways of juxtaposition.
4.4.5.4 General criteria of description
For an adequate description of the pedogeographical assemblage of a territory
(soilscape) it is necessary to examine attentively the soil map in order to establish:
- the component soils or soils combinations taking into account the legend of the
soil map, and implicitly the soil variety;
- the correlation of component soils with the environmental factors, especially with
the topography and hydrographical net (often also using maps for different environmental
factors);
- a visual evaluation of the size, shape and arrangement of the areas occupied by
different components (soil units) of the pedogeographical assemblage and their orientation
by comparison with some reference lines from the geographical environment;
- a delineation of different areas (landscapes) with specific soil cover assemblages;
- a quantitative evaluation (calculation) for the areas occupied by different soil units
or soil combination units, of the following parameters: size, perimeter, geometric indices of
each area, number of areas for different component soils (or soil combinations), total
number of areas as well as their reporting to different geomorphic units (soilscapes) and to
the whole territory.
The following criteria or indices are generally used for describing or characterizing
different aassemblages:
The nature of components ie established on the basis of the soil map legend; also,
a grouping of different map units in zonal soil units, non-zonal soil units and non-soil units
is useful. Of course, a correlation of different soil units (map units) with the environmental
factors and with the type of land use is desirable.
The size of the area of the soil (map) units existing on the soil map is measured for
each unit (polygon) and the data are grouped on types of component (on types of soil or
soil combinations), on soil groups, on soilscapes with specific assemblages and on total
territory.
One square cm corresponds to the following areas at different scales:
Scale
2
1 cm

1:10 000
1 ha

1:25 000
6.25 ha

1:50 000
25 ha

1:100 000
100 ha

1:200 000
400 ha

1:500 000 1:1 000 000

2500 ha
10 000 ha

The soil (map) units are also grouped in size classes, an attention being given to
classes of medium size (6.25 to 100 ha); these groupings are correlated with the nature of
the soil components or of other factors of the environment. This soil units grouping in size
classes may be made even for each component soil obtaining in this way a soil sorting;
well sorted are the component soils with areas of approximatively the same size in
proportion over 90%, moderately sorted between 60-90%, weakly sorted between 60-30%
and unsorted below 30%.
The proportion or frequency (%) is calculated from the data concerning the area of
each polygon in the framework of all soil groups and soilscapes. The following classes of
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frequency are used in general: net-dominant (> 80%), very dominant (50-80%), moderately
dominant (25-50%), rare (10-25%), seldom (5-10%), scarce (< 5%).
Also, one can visually estimate the proportion of different components using the
standard charts.
In the case of soil combination units, the proportion of different components
mentioned in the map legend is also taken into considerated.
In the characterization of pedogeographical assemblages, the dominant component
is considered the component with the highest percentages (net dominant over 80%), the
co-dominant components those which have 25-50%, and subsididary components those
which are present in proportion of 10-25%. As a rule, the component soils with low
frequency are considered inclusions and are often neglected, in general, those which have
a frequency under 10%, sometimes 25% (if soils are weakly differentiated) or below 5-3%
(if soils strongly contrast with the adjacent soils).
Shape refers to the contour of the two-dimensional polygons from the map
representing polypedons or pedosocions that are in fact three-dimensional. It is an
important feature of the soil cover assemblage (see subchapter 1.2.3).
Orientation of areas corresponding to soil (map) units offers valuable information
concerning the connection of the component soils and environment.
One distinguishes a general orientation of soil units among them and a local
orientation by comparison with the geographical reference lines.
The general orientation can be a random one (without orientation), parallel,
perpendicular, inclined and the orientation degree can be strong, moderate, weak or nonoriented.
The local orientation (in comparison with a valley, depression, hill, crest, etc) can be
defined as being: without orientation, parallel, perpendicular, inclined, arched, radiar
divergent or convergent, etc, by comparison with a geographical reference element.
Of course, other terms suitable to concrete situations from the field can also be
used.
Altitude and position in relief of the soil (map) units are revealing information
especially linked to the drainage and substances circulation. Therefore, for each soil unit
or soil combination, the absolute altitude (or altitude classes), situation on relief unit or
slope (upper, intermediary or lower part), valley bottom, etc are mentioned. Also, the
conformation for the soil cover is noted.
The cross-sections on different directions through the territory are very useful for
emphasizing the circumstances in which different soils are situated, as well as the
relations among them and between them and the environmental factors (relief, parentmaterial, vegetation, ground water etc).
The character of the limit of soil (map) unit or transition between neighbouring
component soils is registered, the information having genetico-geographical significance. It
can be net, clear or gradual and the proportion of each class of transition for different soil
units may have various values (for example, 50, 30 and 20%).
The spatial distribution model of the soil (map) units in the soil cover or the
configuration of the pedogeographical assemblage refers to the size, shape and
arrangement of the soil (map) units.
Firstly, a general evaluation of the soil cover structure is estimated taking into
account the degree of division in map units, distinguishing three classes: infragmic,
subfragmic and fragmic. Then the model of soil units distribution and/or soil combinations
units that is the soil pattern is evaluated. In fig. 4.8 (Schmidt, 1975) the main models of
spatial distribution of soil units were reproduced, models which can characterize the
different assemblages of soil cover:
- non-oriented or at random (with big or with small areas);
- in strips (bands) that can be regular, arched, sinuous, etc;
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- concentric or conellipsoidal (zonar);

- in patches which can be isolated, scattered or grouped;
- with elongated area;
- dendritic or dendritic branched
To these ones, one can add the models:
- radiar (in general transzonal) which can be divergent, parallel or convergent;
- in fan
Of course, in the future other models can also be described.
According to their particularities, the models of soil unit distribution in soilscapes
can be classified as catena or toposequences, chronosequences, bioclimasequences,
storeyed sequences etc.
4.4.5.5 Final remarks
When the characterization elements of the pedogeographical assemblage (and their
components) lend themselves to a statistical evaluation, it is useful to make a data
processing and estimation of their variability for each soil property class (low, if among
components of the same soil class there are reduced differences for a single characteristic;
moderate, if there are moderate differences for a single characteristic or reduced
differences for more characteristics; high, if there are high differences for a single
characteristic, moderate for more characteristics or reduced for the majority of
characteristics).
For the characterization of the pedogeographical assemblage of the landscapes of
high level, only the ones of the elements mentioned above are used (for example, the
nature, size, proportion, conformation, altitude); the other elements, with their specific
differences from one assemblage to the other, appear in centralizing tables for the
characterization of the respective territory.
The description is completed with the quantitative indices (parameters) specific to
different assemblages as for complexity, pedological contrast, heterogeneity of the soil
cover, etc.
About pedogeographical assemblage one can speak only for large areas or for
physico-geographical (physiographical) units. As in any geographical study, the scale of
investigation has a main importance, because the homogeneity and heterogeneity of the
units delineated on maps depend on the scale of research. Strictly speaking, a perfect
homogeneity does not exist; only a statistical homogeneity can exist. An area (map unit)
can be considered homogeneous if within the respective area the variation of the values
for different properties of the component do not exceed certain limits (conventionally
established). With the increase of the scale of investigation, one can find that what was
homogeneous is in fact heterogeneous, being composed of other homogeneous
components which at their turn examined at a larger scale prove to be heterogeneous. All
conclusions must be therefore regarded with these reticences related to the scale of
approach.
4.4.6 Comparative geographical analysis of the pedodiversity
4.4.6.1 Coefficients of comparison
The aspects concerning the geographical variation of the pedodiversity are different
from a territory to another; they can be emphasized by the characterization of the soil
cover assemblage of the respective territorial units, which in fact represent associations of
habitats (types of sites in which plants and animals live).

139

The geographical analysis can be made on a territorial unit more or less

homogeneous or can be directed to a comparison of two territorial units between them.
The geographical analysis of the pedodiversity of a geomorphic unit or soilscape
unit is achieved in fact by the characterization of the respective unit by means of
pedodiversity indices described above.
The comparative, geographical analysis means the examination of pedodiversity for
different territorial units in order to establish the resemblances and differences by means
of adequate indices (coefficients), emphasizing the specific aspects or peculiarities of each
unit. Of course, the examined units must be investigated at the same detailing degree
concerning the taxonomic level or of very close order.
Such analysis can also contribute to specify some features on the soil-associations
type in catena, sequencecs, zones etc or other shapes of soil combinations.
For a quantitative characterization of the resemblances of two relief units, regions or
segments of territory, one can use three coefficients (indices), adapted from the domain of
geobotanics, to which the fourth parameter is added (which tries to assess the association
degree of two soils in different regions) (Florea, 1997).
4.4.6.1.1 The occurrence homogeneity coefficient, h. This index refers to the
degree of soil cover likeness of the component territorial subunits of a territorial unit from
the soil richness (occurrence) point of view. The general occurrence homogeneity
coefficient, h, is calculated with the relation:
h = (s1 + s2 + . + sn) / nS
in which s1, s2, sn are the number of soils of each territorial subunits, n being the
number of territorial subunits and S being the number of soils in the whole territorial unit.
The h coefficient has a maximum value of 1, when all subunits have the same
number of soils like in the whole unit (s1 = s2 = = sn = S). As a rule, h is less than 1, the
smaller as the differences between S and s1, s2 etc are higher.
In order to also have an image of the degree of closeness of each territorial
subunits as against the whole unit, the partial occurrence homogeneity coefficients h1,
h2hn are calculated with the relations:
h1 = s1 / S
h2 = s2 / S . . . . . . hn = sn / S
The values of these partial coefficients are generally less than 1 or maximum 1 (in
the case of n = 1). By comparison with h the general coefficient which represents the
sum of the partial coefficients, these ones have, of course, values less than the h value (h
= (h1 + h2 + ... + hn )).
4.4.6.1.2 Similarity (resemblance) coefficient, k. This coefficient was adopted
from the floristic community coefficient (Jaccard, 1901) in a modified shape (Nordhagen,
1943, quoted by Stugren, 1982). It allows the comparison of different pairs of territorial
units. The relation for calculus is:
c
k=
a+b-c
in which c is the number of common soils for the two units (regions), a is the number of
soils in one of the units and b is the number of soils in the other unit.
The values of this coefficient vary between 0 (when no common soil exists,
therefore c = 0) and 1 (when a=b=c). When a>b, the maximum value of k is b/a (for c=b)
and decreases with the c diminuation according to the relation:
b - (b - c )
, tending towards 0, for c = 0.
a +b-c
4.4.6.1.3 Kindred (or affinity) coefficient, r. This coefficient was adapted from the
index of kindred of vegetal formation of Kuczynski (1927) (quoted by Borza and Boscaiu,
1965 and Stugren, 1982). This coefficient is more comprehensive, because it takes into
140

account not only the presence of common soil entities, but also the proportion of each soil
entity in the soil cover.
The formula of calculation, adapted in order to use the abundance data (frequency)
of different components, is:
R = 100 P1i P2i and then r = R / 100
in which R is the kindred degree (in percentage), P1i the abundance or frequency (in %) of
each soil in the first territorial unit and P2i the abundance or frequency (in %) of the same
soil in the second territorial unit. Dividing by 100 the value of R, one obtains a kindred
(affinity) coefficient r which varies between 0 and 1 (expression as unity fraction is
preferred, for a similar presentation with the other coefficients).

0,80

0,70

0.60

0.50

0.40

0.85

0.75

0.60

0.45

0.30

0.15

Figure 4.11 Diagram with similarity coefficient (k) and kindred coefficient (r) for
different geomorphic subunits of the Dobrudja region (Romania)
1 Dobrudja region (as a whole); 2 Southern Dobrudja; 3 Central Dobrudja;
4 Northern Dobrudja; 5 Tablelands Babadag and Niculiel-Mcin.
The different physiographical regions have as a rule many distinct subunities. In this
case, in order to see the relationships between different subunits two by two, one draws a
diagram on the base of the calculated coefficients (in a diagram like a chess-table with
columns for different sub-units, both on horizontal and vertical, the values of various
coefficients being noted in small squares from the intersection of the columns of the two
subunits (like in fig. 4.11). The accompaniament coefficient c takes values between 0
(when Nc = 0) and 1 (when N1=N2=Nc). Values of this coefficient for some hyphothetical
situations are presented in table 4.11.
Table 4.11 Accompaniament coefficients of different soils for some hyphothetical
cases of soil cover
Region Frequency (%) of different soils (soils 1 to 5)
a
b
c
d

1
80
70
70
20

2
5
20
30
20

3
5
10
20

4
5
20

5
5
20

c = Nc2 / (N1 * N2)

141

Soil pair
1x2
1x3
1x4; 1x5
2x3
2x4; 2x5
3x4; 3x5

Accompaniament
coefficient c in the four
regions
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.75
0.50
0.66

Table 4.12 Indices for comparison of the continents soil cover and great climatic zones
Terra
Coefficient of
occurrence
homogeneity
0.83
(h) for):
Boreal zone

N and
Australia
N America
Africa
Central Asia
0.85
0.77
0.77
0.85
0.88
Cold
Temperate Mediterranean
Seasonally dry
Arid
zone
zone
zone
zone
Tropics and
Subtropics
0.42
0.69
0.77
0.61
0.58
0.81
Europe Europe and Europe and Europe and Africa and S
Coefficients of Europe and
Terra
and N
and Central
similarity (k)
Africa
Australia
S and
America
America
and kindred
Central
(r) between:
America
k
0.81
0.83
0.65
0.72
0.72
0.91
r
0.54
0.60
0.36
0.48
0.20
0.62
Temperate Temperate Temperate Temperate Temperate Mediterranean
zone and
zone and zone and zone and Arid zone and
zone and
Mountain Seasonally dry
Mediterranean humid Boreal zone
zone
Tropical
region
zone
Tropics and
zone
Subtropics
k
r

0.83
0.60

Europe

0.72
0.35

0.65
0.33

0.76
0.40

0.85
0.33

0.79
0.47

S and SE
S and Central America
Asia
0.77
0.85
Humid
Mountaineous
Tropics and
regions
Subtropiccs
0.69
1.00
Europe and Europe and S and SE Asia
N and
Central Asia
1.00
0.68
0.55
0.40
Boreal zone Temperate Temperate
zone and
and Cold zone and
zone
Cold zone Seasonally
dry Tropics
and
Subtropics
0.56
0.79
0.81
0.44
0.58
0.42

Table 4.13 Indices for comparison on the soil cover for some of the main categories
of relief from Romania
IntraCoefficient The whole Mountains mountaineous Hills and
Intrahilly
of
country
depressions table-lands depressions
occurrence
0.59
0.48
0.70
0.70
0.64
homogeneity
(h) for:

Plains
0.67

Floodplain and
delta
0.27

Coefficients Tablelands Tablelands Tablelands Tablelands Tablelands Tablelands Tablelands

of similarity and whole
and hills and intrahilly and plains and floodand
and intra(k) and
country mountains mountaineous
depressions
plains +
kindred (r)
depressions
delta
between:
k
0.70
0.67
0.60
0.75
0.67
0.88
0.71
r
0.57
0.20
0.35
0.38
0.45
0.80
0.17
Plains and Plains and Plains and Plains and
IntraMountains Mountains
the whole mountains floodplains +
hills
mountain
and the and floodand intrahilly whole
country
plain +
delta
depressions country
delta
k
0.80
0.60
0.62
0.88
0.89
0.80
0.44
r
0.79
0.20
0.22
0.51
0.77
0.42
0.05
Whole
Whole
Whole
Whole country and country and country
country
intraintrahilly
and floodand hills
mountain depressions plains +
depressions
delta
k
0.74
0.68
0.65
0.32
r
0.53
0.46
0.55
0.32

Table 4.14 Indices for comparison for the soil cover on main geomorphic units of
Dobrudja
Coefficient of
occurrence
homogeneity
(h) for::

Whole
Dobrudja

N Dobrudja

Central
Dobrudja

S Dobrudja

Tablelands of
Babadag and
Miculiel-Mcin

0.78

0.93

0.67

0.73

0.50

Coefficients of
Whole Dobrudja
Whole
Whole
N Dobrudja and
Whole
similarity (k) Dobrudja and
and Central Dobrudja and Dobrudja
tablelands
and kindred (r) S Dobrudja
Dobrudja
N Dobrudja
and
between:
tablelands
k

0.73

0.67

0.93

0.60

0.64

0.85

0.82

0.73

0.42

0.49

S Dobrudja
and Central
Dobrudja

Central
S Dobrudja Central Dobrudja
S Dobrudja and
N Dobrudja Dobrudja and
and Tablelands
and
N Dobrudja Tablelands

0.75

0.60

0.60

0.43

0.46

0.87

0.59

0.73

0.16

0.13

143

Table 4.15 Indices for comparison for the soil cover on some small territories from
Romania
A segment of dune territory, Scrioara (Tissa Plain)
Coefficient of occurrence
homogeneity (h) for:

Whole segment

Western part

0.93
0.93
Coefficients of similarity
Whole segment and Whole segment and
(k) and kindred (r)
Western part
Eastern part
between:
k
1.00
0.92
r
0.81
0.72
Territory of ndrei town (Ialomia county)
Coefficients of
occurrence homogeneity
Whole territory
Interfluve
(h) for:
0.50
0.35
Coefficients of similarity
Whole territory and Whole territory and
(k) and kindred (r)
plain (interfluve)
floodplain
between:
k
0.37
0.60
r
0.33
0.06
Territory of Manasia village (Ialomia county)
Coefficient of occurrence
Whole territory
Interfluve (plain)
homogeneity (h) for::
0.50
0.50
Coefficients of similarity
Whole territory and Whole territory and
(k) and kindred (r)
plain (interfluve)
floodplain
between:
k
0.50
0.50
r
0.86
0.14

Eastern part
0.93
Western part and
Eastern part
0.92
0.71
Flood plain
0.65
Interfluve (plain) and
floodplain
0
0
Floodplain
0,50
Interfluve and
floodplain
0
0

4.4.6.1.4 Coefficient of two soils accompaniament (association), c. This index,

named simpler accompaniament coefficient, refers to the degree in which two soils are
always associated (met) in different regions or subunits. It is calculated with the relation:
c = Nc2 / (N1 * N2)
in which Nc is the number of regions (subunits) in which the two soils are found
simultaneously and N1 and N2 are the number of regions (subunits) in which the soil 1 and,
respectively, soil 2 are found.
The accompaniament (association) coefficient has the drawback that it does not
take into account the abundance of soils, but only the soil number.
4.4.6.2 Comparative analysis of some territories
The three coefficients used for the comparative geographical analysis were
calculated for some regions of different sizes (tables 4.12, 4.13, 4.14 and 4.15).
At a continent level (table 4.12) the occurrence homogeneity coefficient presents
values very near, except for Australia and Southern and South-Eastern Asia; but at the
globe-climatic zones this index shows an evident non-homogeneity, its values varying
between 0.42 and 1.
The similarity coefficient (table 4.13) for different associations (pairs) of continents
or climatic zones present values relatively near, between 0.83 and 0.72 (except for pairs in
which the boreal zone is included), so that it does not differentiate adequately the different
144

territories. On the contrary, the kindred coefficient, which varies between 0.60 and 0.20 for
some associations (pairs), gives proof of a better differentiation.
In the case of Romanias territories, the coefficients of occurrence homogeneity and
similarity do not differentiate the various geomorphic units, except for the mountain region
and floodplain and delta region. But the kindred coefficient is more efficient, its values
(0.22-0.80) achieving a good differentiation of the pairs of units, nearer reality (table 4.13).
Similar findings also result from the data concerning Dobrudja region (table 4.14),
from which tablelands differentiate as against the others. Also, the data from table 4.15
confirms the better strength of the kindred coefficient for the differentiation of various
territories.
The diagram chess-table presents the degree of kindred of the main geomorphic
units of Dobrudja concerning the soil cover (fig. 4.13).
In conclusion, the kindred coefficient is the most efficient in comparative
geographical analysis of different soilscapes (territories), but it is more difficult to calculate.
The coefficient of occurrence homogeneity however is relatively easily to calculate.

145

5. THE CYCLIC PROCESS OF SOIL GENESIS AND EVOLUTION

5.1 Introduction
Generally, one considers that the interaction of three processes the organic
matter incorporation and transformation (leading to the formation of the upper humiferous
horizon), the alteration of the mineral material (leading to the formation of the new mineral
compounds through transformation or synthesis) and the migration of some compounds on
vertical (leading to soil profile differentiating) is of an essential importance for the soilformation and soil properties; this interaction is influenced by environmental factors
(pedogenetic factors or ecological factors according to Duchaufour).
From long ago, the cyclic development of the many processes that take place in the
soil and the role of the reversible and irreversible processes in soil evolution was
underlined by Rode (1955), Gerasimov (1968) and not long ago by Arnold et al. (1990).
Recently, the rhythmic nature of the pedogenetic processes, that is the notion of
pedorhythm, was introduced and the role of annual pedorhythms in the soil dynamics and
soil evolution mechanism was specified (Florea, 1994, 1996, 2009). Another concept was
also defined - the concept of pedofluctuation for undulatory variation of the soil cover at a
geological scale (Munteanu, 2002).
Seen in the light of a general theory of systems, the soil has a physical structure
consisting of mineral compounds and their relationships and an energy-structure (subtle
matter) necessary for the vitalization and functionality of the physical structure, which
assures the link between the soil and the Cosmos, mostly the Sun; to these ones, the
informational structure and the specific program for each soil are added (Papacostea,
1976), which guides the soil-formation and evolution (reflection of soils higher
organization). Energy and informational structure implies a cyclic movement of energy
through soil, closely correlated with the periodicity of the cosmic phenomena; this
character is also conveyed to the soil under the form of a cyclic evolution, namely the
pedorhythmicity and pedoperiodicity, phenomena which will be discussed further down.
As a matter of fact, cyclicity is considered now a fundamental feature of the
phenomena from the Universe and each process, also including the activity of the living
beings, develops rhythmically in a structured Universe. The day-night or the summerwinter alternation, high tide low tide, the phases of the moon and others are events
specific to cosmic and telluric environment and represent exogenous rhythms (cycles).
The living organisms have, in addition, a proper rhythm, considered endogenous, an
essential feature of the living matter; this biological rhythm, although independent, is
nevertheless influenced by the exogenous rhythms. For survival, living organisms adapted
themselves to the environment, by synchronizing their endogenous rhythm with the
exogenous rhythms, by means of an environmental factor (such as light or temperature,
for example). Each species of beings and also each type and subtype of soil has its
proper model of rhythmic activity (biorhythm and pedorhythm, respectively), controlled
mostly by the exogenous factors.
Now-a-days, in biology, the study of the biological rhythms represents a
preoccupation of actuality; a new discipline was created, biorhythmology, which has
already contributed to important advances in the field (Simona Apostol, 1988).
As it is mentioned in Soil Taxonomy (1975), the soil has many properties which
are modified with each season that passes. It may be successively cool or warm, moist or
dry, very active or inactive from a biological point of view, etc. Many soil properties, such
as pH, organic matter content, soluble salts content, temperature, moisture, etc change
with each season or after a certain period of time. The soil does not have the same values
146

of the different properties during the whole course of an year. As Yaalon (1990) writes,
the soil is a dynamic system continuously subject to the effect of environmental factors,
which themselves are not steady, but in a dynamic flux, frequently subject to cyclic
variations over a short or long time scale (Global soil change, 1990).
At a geological scale, the soil changes depend on the tectonic movement of the
earth-crust and on the changes of cosmic and environmental factors.

5.2 General aspects on cyclic processes

In a spatial-temporal referring, a cyclic process varies depending on the size of
specific parameters, taking various values in their development in time. After a certain
duration (which defines a period), the specific parameters for the considered process
come back to the initial values. The period of the recurrence of the parameters-values is
denoted by and the number of periods per second represents the frequency F, so that
F=/T
T being the time. The rhythm refers to the more or less rapid development of some
processes which get repeated in time.
Mathematically speaking, rhythms can be of different forms (fig. 5.1): liniar (with
the values-amplitude zero), cycloid, cyclic symmetrical regular (with equal and
amplitudes equal), cyclic symmetrical irregular (with equal and amplitudes unequal),
cyclic asymmetrical irregular (with unequal and amplitudes unequal), spiral (with
amplitude constantly increasing), the last being considered a model of biological evolution.

Figure 5.1 Different types of cyclic processes:

a liniar; b cycloid; c cyclic symmetrical regular, d cyclic symmetrical
irregular; e cyclic asymmetrical irregular; f spiral increasing.
What is specific to most pedological cycles is the fact that after a period passes, the
initial values do not reproduce perfectly, as in the case of a proper cyclic process (fig. 5.2).
147

Not even the processes of warming-cooling, moistening-drying, which could be considered

perfectly repeatable, are not repeated identically the reason being that they are
accompanied by secondary processes that modify over time the soil-system itself, so that
many soil processes, such as the organic matter accumulation and its transformation
within the soil, processes of salinization-desalinization and others are not repeated
identically.

Figure 5.2 Different rhythmic (cyclic) processes in the soil

a perfectly reversible; b imperfectly reversible with minute growths (S > 0); c
imperfectly reversible with minute diminuation (S < 0); d increasing irreversible
spiral; e decreasing irreversible spiral.

5.3 Soil genesis, very complex cyclic process

The soil appeared at the same time with life-emergence, as a mantle covering the
land surface, and it has evolved parallel with the evolution of living beings and with the
changes of the terrestrial crust. This mantle has been renewed continuously in the course
of the earth history, in the same time with tectonical-geological and climatic changes on
Terra.
The soil cover of the old geological epochs wasnt preserved, being involved and
then destroyed in the disturbance provoked by different geological events. The oldest
fragments of soil-cover have been preserved from the Tertiary only on the crystalline
148

shield of the equatorial belt from Africa, Australia and South America. The most part of the
soil cover from the temperate and cold zones dates from the Quaternary, being formed
subsequent to the last orogenetic movements and glacial phenomena, or even in the
Holocene, having in this last case less than 12000 years.
The soil formation from the parent material till the well-developed soil profile is a
slow and complex process, needing a long time to reach soil maturity, which means
pedogenetic horizons and morphological features in equilibrium with the environment, in
the sense that the inputs in the soil system are balanced by the outputs from the soil
system, even if some insignificant variations appear in the system in one sense or another.
The parent material is considered (Jenny, 1941) as being the initial state of the soil
system, the time zero of the soil-formation. For the rock to become soil says Murgoci
(1924) it needs to suffer some complex physical and chemical transformations. But for
this, time is necessary so that the soil acquires a past. In time, the soil gains colloidal
mineral substances and humus. But these transformations are not enough. The soil has a
certain compound arrangement, it has therefore a constitution which permits it to retain
water and air, and also a form, represented by its profile. The soil profile is considered by
Murgoci very important, being the essence of the soil and the study of soil profile is
named soil morphology, a branch which has its undeniable importance like in any other
natural sciences.
The time of soil-formation is not equal with the region age or with the geological
age of territory, but depends on the moment when the rock emerges in daylight and is
subjected to the soil-forming process. These processes and the soil-forming factors were
presented in sub-chapter 1.1.2 and fig. 1.3.

Figure 5.3 Soil property-time functions with reference to degrees of maturity (by
Jenny, 1941)
The concept of a mature soil can be defined in two ways (Jenny, 1941): as a welldeveloped profile and stable over time, or as soil in equilibrium with the environment; in
both cases, time doesnt have any effect (changes) on the soil. The first concept is
morphological (static) and can be easily applied in field studies. The second one is
dynamic, taking into account the soil-forming processes. But the equilibrium state with
environment (climax stadium) is difficult to establish, because the different soil properties
reach maturity after various durations, having a non-uniform evolution rate. For this
reason, one compares different soils taking into consideration the degrees of maturity (fig.
5.3 by Jenny, 1941): immature, one-half mature, mature.
149

It is known that the very complex soil-forming process comprises all physical,
chemical and biological phenomena that take place in the upper layer of the terrestrial
crust, resulting in transformations, translocations and exchanges of substances and
energy, and implicitly in the make-up and properties of the soil itself (soil profile included);
they depend on the duration of the soil-forming process, duration necessary for the effects
of this process to be cumulated.
The elementary phenomena or processes that take place in the soil are reversible
or unidirectional and irreversible (but repeatedly), somewhat irrepetitive.The reversible (but
repetitive) processes develop cyclically having different periods (fig. 5.4):
- daily: soil warming and cooling, soil biological activity during vegetation period; air
composition, evapotranspiration, etc.;
- annually: the seasonal warming and cooling of the soil, yearly average of
evapotranspiration, N-NO3 content, etc.;
- multiannual: some of the soil properties whose values oscillate up and down from
the average multiannual values;
- aleatory: soil modifications due to fires or land slides, volcanic eruptions, etc.

Fig. 5.4 Cyclic variation of soil properties with different periodicity (daily, yearly,
multi-annual, aleatory).
A part of the soil-forming processes are irreversible and not repeated; they are not
reproduced in the soil and their result, once formed, is kept in the soil-profile. As example
can be mentioned the clay-illuvial horizon forming, the placic horizon or other cemented
horizons. These ones can be observed in the soil morphology.
All the processes that converge and lead to the soil-formation, either irreversible or
irrevocable (unrepetitive), develop in one direction, namely the differentiation of soil
150

horizons, and implicitly the development of soil profile in the mode and rhythm determined
by environmental conditions. However, the various properties of the soil can have different
evolution rhythms as shown in the fig. 5.5 (reproduced from Yaalon, 1983).
Also, the soil forming processes develop with different evolution rhythms in different
climatic conditions. Figure 5.6 renders the evolution curves of three soils situated in
different climatic zones: arid, temperate subhumid and temperate humid. One notes that
the soil evolution rhythm is very different in the case of the three situations. After a first
initial phase necessary for the beginning of the process, the evolution rates become rapid,
but differentiated in the three cases, and then gradually attenuate, becoming in time
asymptotic (climax stage). The climax stage is reached after different periods of time,
time periods which are shorter in the case of the soil from the temperate-humid climate
and longer in the case of the arid-climate soil. The beginning of the soil-forming at different
moments of time can explain the coexistence of the soils at different evolution stages in
the same area, if the soil-forming duration was not long enough to reach the climax stage
(curve O`2 Pb`4 as against curve O2 Pb4 from fig. 5.6.

Figure 5.5 Evolution over time of some soil properties (by Yaalon, 1971, and
Birkeland, 1974, quoted by Yaalon, 1983).

151

Fig. 5.6 The ideal evolution curve of three soils in different climatic conditions (O1
arid climate; O2 subhumid temperate climate; O3 humid temperate climate).
The soil evolution in the above mentioned way takes place only if the soil forming
conditions were unchanged for a long time, till the dynamic equilibrium state with the
environment is reached, namely thousands or tens of thousands of years. This case is rare
enough; more frequent are the situations when the changes of the soil forming complex
conditions, especially climatic variations, take place, before the soil would reach the
climax stage (due to the slow rate of profile development); these changes modify the rate
and even the nature of the soil forming processes. In this case the soil evolution (fig. 5.7)
can have one or many discontinuities in one sense or another, depending on the number
and nature of different evolution phases. Soils formed under these conditions, named
polyphasial or polygenetic soils, have a more complicated profile in which certain
morphological features are kept from previous evolution phases. Even soils having the
same evolution stage (e.g. P, P, P, R), besides the common characteristics, will present
evidently a series of specific peculiarities inherited from the previous evolution phases.

152

Fig. 5.7 Scheme of polygenetic soil evolution concomitant with climate evolution (O1,
O2, O3 different climatic conditions; dashed lines relict features).

153

From the angle of the concept of the soil as an open system, the equilibrium state is
not applicable to soil. For this kind of open systems, the steady state or dynamic
equilibrium notions are applicable; at this state, the macroscopic parameters have time
invariant values at every point in the system. That is, soil properties do not change as a
function of time. This is the way in which the climax stage has to be conceived at a
pedological scale of time (hundreds and thousands of years).
But, when considering a geological time scale, wherein there are major changes in
climatic conditions or other environmental factors with corresponding changes in soil
properties, one considers that all soils are in a state of continuous evolution. Soil profile
development can be better understood from the angle of the two concepts of steady state
and continuous evolution with mechanisms of complex response of soil to the soil forming
factors input.
All systems of soil classification contain in one form or another the degree of
maturity. C.F. Shaw (1928, quoted from Jenny, 1941) proposed the following names for
several degrees of soil maturity:
Solum crudum (raw soil)
Solum semicrudum (young soil, only slightly weathered)
Solum immaturum (immature soil only moderately weathered)
Solum semimaturum (semimature soil, already considerable weathered)
Solum maturum (mature soil, fully weathered)
Also, G. Munteanu-Murgoci proposed as far back as in 1924 a soil classification
based on soil morphology, distinguishing between some main categories depending on the
degree of the soil evolution (maturity): soils with undeveloped, slightly developed,
moderately developed, well developed profile; these ideas of soil morphology and soil
features as criteria of soil classification were later applied and developed in the American
Soil Taxonomy (1975).

5.4 Soil forming factors, motive power of the cyclic process of soil-forming
and evolution
5.4.1 The action of the soil forming factors
The soil (and soil cover) was conceived by V.V. Dokuchaev as natural formations at
land surface developed as a result of the interaction of the environmental components,
named soil-forming factors or pedogenetic factors. He mentioned 5 factors of soil
formation: climate, organisms, parent rock, relief and region age. In this way, the basis of
the genetic conception of soil-formation was established. This concept is often illustrated
(A.A. Rode, V.A. Kovda) by the functional relation:
Soil = f (climate, organisms, rock, relief, age)
Although the pedogenetic factors do not directly take part in the soil-formation
process, the soil formation is always associated with these factors, so that the above
mentioned relation designated as fundamental equation of soil-formation factors by
Jenny (1941) acquired different forms:
S = f (c, b, p, r, t, ) (Jenny, 1941)
S = f (c, b, p, r) t (Craker, 1952, quoted by Bunting,1969, Kovda,1973, Florea,1985)
S = f t=0 t=n (c, b, p, r) (Bini and Zillachi, 2005, quoted by Munteanu, 2008)
(in which S = soil, c = climate, b = biological factor, p = rock or parent material, r = relief or
topography, t = time duration).
This situation is due to the fact that the soil formation processes are not directly observed
or measures only after a long period of time their result is visible (the result being the soil
and its properties).
154

These pedogenetic factors (fig. 5.8) influence the essence and direction of the soilformation process, acting as an ensemble of interconnected elements. Although all factors
participate to soil formation, their action being indissociable, they are not considered
equivalent in importance, because in certain situations one or other can influence the soil
properties and specificity more intensely (Stasiev, 2006).
External pedogenetical factors
Vegetation and
fauna
Mans
activity

Climate

Soil

Relief

Parent rock

Time

Phreatic water

Internal pedogenetical factors

Figure 5.8 Soil and soil-formation factors
According to Stasiev (2006), the direct factors of soil-formation are the parentmaterial and organisms, their interaction forming the essence of soil (the unity of the
contradictory process of exchange of substances, energy and information between rock
and soil and organisms). The other factors represent the external conditions of soil
existence, which modify at land surface and geological time, resulting in great soil diversity.
For this reason, the essence of soil must not be taken for or confused with its existence.
The soil profile appears as a form of expression of the essence in different existence
conditions of soil-formation process
A correlation between climate and vegetation has been observed, but in general
each soil-formation factor may vary independently, so that a great variety of factors,
joinings or constellations may be obtained, corresponding to a similar variety of soils.
The above relations suggest the existence of the causal links (chain cause-effect)
between pedogenetic factors and soils, as well as the idea of pluricausal entity for soil.
Some causes can be active (climate, organisms, or even man), others passive (parent
material, topography); there can also be accidental causes (cosmic phenomena,
geological events, etc) which can modify or destroy the soil cover. Modification of causes
entails changes in their effect.
The continuity of the cause-effect chain in the soil evolution (deterministic evolution)
is valid during the time interval between two geological catastrophic events, after which a
new soil cover begins to be formed. At geological scale the soil evolution is, hence,
discontinuous, having an indeterminist character.
As Jenny (1941) has noted in the discussion on soil system and its relation with the
environment, the question immediately arises as to what the precise nature of soil-forming
factors really is. Are the soil properties or environmental factors something entirely
different? Air climate is a property of environment, organisms and topography belong to
both soil and environment, but time to neither of them. (pag. 12).

155

5.4.2 Soil evolutions the issue of the annual balance sum of the soil genesis
process (annual pedorhythm)
In fact, the soil-formation and evolution process generated by pedogenetic factors
act continuously through changes produced in time in the soil system referring to
substances and energy, changes that take place periodically by the balances of the cyclic
annual development of different processes from the soil (pedorhythms) and their addition
over a long period of time.
In the Global Soil Change report (1990), soil changes are divided into three main
groups: non systematic (random), regular periodical (cyclic) and trend changes.
Non-systematic changes do not show a tendencious character; they are connected
with random modifications of air temperature and moisture, wind velocity, microbial activity,
human influences, etc. Their modeling and forecast are rather difficult or impossible.
Regular periodical changes are mostly related to the cyclic changes of climate
(mainly seasonal variation of temperature, precipitations, lightning), vegetation (seasonal
variations in its activity), etc. The common feature of these changes is that after a cycle
the registered value of the given parameter is the same (or similar) as the initial value was
at the beginning of the period. Because of this reason, the well-known cyclic changes can
be forecasted with a high or acceptable probability (page 52).
These changes are correlated with the pedorhythmicity and normal soil evolution.
Trend changes are subdivided in three types: equilibrium, denudational and
accumulation trend. The equilibrium trend corresponds to monogenetic or polygenetic soil
evolution in the stable environment conditions, while the last two trends to discontinuous
pedofluctuations followed often by periods of continuity (among these ones the loessesfossil soils sequences are connected).
The yearly changes (S) are normally very weak, but when added over a period of
hundreds and thousands of years they lead to significant changes in soil, in its features
and its evolution. These changes can be expressed by the relation (Florea, 2009):
S=f (P,I,E,T,O)t or S=ft=0t= (P,I,E,T,O) or S = ft=0t=n (P,I,E,T,O)
in which S is the soil and its properties, P is the initial fund of substances and implicitly
energy, I input, E output, T transformations and translocations within the soil by
pedogenetic processes, O inward organization and t time duration (fig. 5.9).
In general, P corresponds to the soil initial parent material (mineral or organic), with
its stock of elements and properties, which influences both the rate of the soil formation
and the soil properties (chemical and mineralogical composition, texture, etc). I represents
different additions in soils from environment as for example: annual organic matter
incorporation; water; accretion, sedintegration, sedimentation of aeolian dust or other
substances, colluvial material, fluvial sediments, volcanic ash; salts from rains, irrigation or
ground water; fertilizers or manure, etc. E, on the contrary, represents different losses, for
instance: water by evapotranspiration; soil material by water erosion or wind deflation;
dissolved substances (salts, silica, organic compounds) by leaching to ground water or
subjacent layers; organic matter by microbial decomposition; yields, etc. The symbol T
refers to the effect of pedogenetic processes of transformation and translocation within the
soil, as well as to the synthesis of living organic matter and decomposition of dead organic
matter leading to continuous cycling of nutrients and their selective accumulation.

156

Geological and
geomorphic
processes of
disintegrating,
weathering,
residual
accumulation,
erosion, land
slides, tectonic
and cosmic
events, volcanic
activities,
transport,
sorting,
sedimentation,
etc

I
Input
(additions)
Sediment
(alluvial,
colluvial,
aeolian,
volcanic, etc),
organic matter,
water, salts from
ground water or
rain or irrigation
water, subjacent
rock, fertilizers
and manure, etc.
Man

Solar energy
Climate

Vegetation
Topography

P
Parent material

T
Synthesis of living organic matter and
decomposition of dead organic matter
(nutrients cycling and their selective
accumulation).
Transformations: weathering-synthesis,
mineralization-humification, oxidationreduction, etc.
Translocations: migration and accumulation
of salts, clay, organic matter, oxides, etc.
Turbation: bio, hydro and cryoturbation, etc.
-----------------------O
Organization: aggregation and structure
formation, segregation and concentration
formation, exchange of substances and energy
between soil and plant and environment,
horizon formation, etc.
----------------------S
Balance of changes due to annual cycles of
all processes rhythmically carried on.

t
(time and space)

S = f t t==0 (P, I , E , T , O )

Hydrological
cycle
determining
recurrent soil
moistening,
circulation and
loss of water
from soil
Biogeochemical
cycle by
recurrent soil
feeding with
organic matter
and its
transformation
within soil.
E
Output (losses)
Soil material (by
water erosion or
wind deflation),
water, organic
matter, soluble
compounds by
leaching, yields,
etc.
Gravity

Factors
(environmental
conditions)

Initial
fund

Pedogenetic
processes
and
geologicogeomorphic
processes

Systemic
organization
(horizontally
and
vertically)
Changes
due to
annual
dynamics
(annual
pedorhythm)

S
Soil (with
its
properties) and
soil cover
(with its
geographical
assemblage)

Figure 5.9. General scheme of soil (and soil cover) formation, as issue of the
various balances of cyclic pedogenetic and geologico-geomorphic processes depending
on different environmental conditions (soil cover formation needs a long time and
evolves by the continuous minute changes of the parent material and of the soil (S) as a
consequence of the cyclic environment and soil dynamics expressed in annual cycles of
all processes rhythmically carried on). The recurrent soil moistening and recurrent soil
feeding with organic matter in soil forming process is also underlined (Florea, 2009,
completed).
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As examples of transformation one can mention the change of the particles size by
physical weathering, the chemical modification or destruction of some compounds and
new minerals or new chemical compounds formation (clay minerals, iron and aluminium
hydrous oxides, lime and other salts, etc), as well as the synthesis of humus, organic acids
and other products by decomposition of the organic residues incorporated in the soil. The
translocations involve the movement of the inorganic and organic compounds vertically
from one horizon up or down to another, either through percolating water with gravity, or
rising up by capillary action; the translocation implies the mobilization, transport and
immobilization of transported compounds that can be salts, lime, clay and organic matter
and Al, Fe, Mn oxides, especially as chelates. Also, soil material can be translocated by
turbation processes (bioturbation, hydroturbation, cryoturbation).
The letter O has in view on one hand the inner organization of the soil material
vertically, starting with the biopedoplasma (pedostructural matter) formation (the specific
matter for the soil as distinct entity), particles aggregation and structure formation, some
compounds segregation and formation of some concentrations, and finishing with soil
horizons and profile differentiating. On the other hand, the organization of soils horizontally
in the pedosphere is also taken into account, starting with polypedons grouping in simple
soil combinations and elementary soilscapes, and ending with complex soilscapes (soil
regions, soil domains, soil zones).
In all these processes described above, an essential role plays the climate,
vegetation and topography as factors of pedogenesis.
The new scheme (and concept) of soil formation is based on the systemic thought;
the soil is considered a complex system with a continuous flux of substances and energy
which in the stage of climax evolution (steady state) reaches the equilibrium stadium
with the environmental factors of which the pedogenetic and geomorphic (pedological
included) processes depend. The consequence of these processes is the soil profile,
which, over a long period of time, is the result of the balance of accumulation (input),
losses (output), transformations, translocations and material accumulation within the soil
layer.
The scheme also brings in discussion two aspects linked with two natural cycles
very important for the soil dynamics:
- recurrent soil moistening, circulation and loss of water from the soil in a seasonal
rhythm correlated with the hydrological cycle;
- recurrent incorporation with a yearly rhythm of dead organic matter in the soil and
its transformation (accompanied by the delivery of nutrients and energy and partly by
humification) in the framework of the general biochemical cycle of nutrients.
These two cycles bring energy in the soil system and assure the antientropic
character of the soil by adding substances with low entropy and expelling substances with
high entropy.
The connection with these two cycles and with the corresponding processes are
essential for the soil dynamics (with clearly annual cyclic evolution) because they
determine (control) the development of other soil processes and even of the soil cover
evolution.
The discussed equation enlarges the fundamental equation of soil forming factors,
known as the Jenny equation (1941), with the aspects concerning processes of soil
formation and evolution. This new equation can be named fundamental equation of soil
genesis; it is based on the sum of annual balance of the yearly pedorhythms, as
expression of soil genesis. (This relation is in agreement with the conception that the world
is a sum of relations between processes and events and not among things.) The two
equations supplement each other.
The fundamental equation of soil genesis (soil evolution included) based on
balance of substances has the advantage that it can also take into account the changes,
158

due to reliefogenetic processes that interfere with the soil-formation process (through
inputs and outputs or I and E), the soil profile being the result of the balance of the two
categories of processes. It also explains the differences regarding the soil-formation
process of the soils developed in parent-material having different initial funds of
substances (for example, soils developed from acid-rocks as against basic-rocks, or from
sand deposits as against clay deposits etc.).
Hence, in the soil genesis not only the soil-forming factors and soil-forming
processes are essential, but also the minute (infinitesimal) annual growths or diminutions
(S) as a balance of the annual cycles, which vary with environmental conditions and
process nature and also with the soil evolution state, being significant in the phases of soilformation or in the adapting-phases to the new conditions, and negligible in the phase of
equilibrium with environmental factors (climax stage or steady-state). The balance of the
annual cycles of rhythmic processes that take place in the soil plays an important role in
the soil genesis and evolution, much too little investigated until now (see also subchapter
6.6).
Input
State factors

Input
Natural conditions
initial + actual

Previous natural
conditions

Black box

Output

Pedogenetic processes
(including geogenetic)

Soil

Black box

Output

Pedogenetic
(reliefogenetic) processes

Previous
pedogenetical
processes

Current natural
conditions

Parent
material

Soil
(pedon, soil cover)

Current pedogenetic
processes

Figure 5.10 General model of soil formation (above by Schelling, 1970;

below by Florea, 1982, 1985)
Also, the initial (simple) concept of soil formation, rendered by the classic
pedogenetic factors pedogenetic processes soil profile triad, developed in the sense
that the actual soil profile is, in fact, the result not only of actual soil-formation processes,
but also of the previous ones, on one hand, and of the reliefo-genetic processes on the
other hand (fig. 5.10).

159

5.5 Repetitive variations of cosmic phenomena, conditioning factor of the

cyclic evolution of the soil and soil-cover
Soil cover forming and evolution refers to the development, with some oscillations in
time and space, of the component soils (from the point of view of substances and their
organization, energy and information) indifferent of the approaching scale. This
development implicates a certain periodicity, that is an analogous repetition of some
phases previously carried out as a rule in the same order. The periodicity is determined in
a great extent by cyclic development of the cosmic phenomena, including also telluric ones.
This periodicity or cyclicity characterizes the soil-cover (the pedosphere) evolution not only
in time, but also in space, because it determines a territorial oscillation of geographical
zones, especially from a climate and vegetation point of view, with corresponding
consequences in the soil-cover.
Figure 5.11 presents the periods of cyclic evolution of the soil and the soil cover, in
geological time, in correlation with stability or cyclic variability of environmental factors and,
implicitly, with soil-formation processes linked with geofluctuations of the earth-crust.
The soil formation process, consequence of the interaction of the atmosphere and
biosphere with the lithosphere, is permanent, but its result (the pedosphere) on Terra is
different in various areas due to the great variety of factors (conditions) constellation and,
implicitly, of soil-formation diversity to which one adds the different durations of this
interaction on various fragments of lands which have different ages (terrestrial surface
being in an uninterrupted change at a geological scale).
The cyclicity of soil processes and soil-cover evolution acquires different modes of
manifestation, depending on the approaching scale; one can distinguish a cyclic evolution
with short periods (pedorhythmicity) and a cyclic evolution with large to very large periods
(pedoperiodicity).
Pedorhythmicity
Seen at a pedological scale (during a period or evolution phase with relative
environmental stability) one finds a development of pedogenesis process as sum and
result of all simple soil processes (physical, chemical, biological, etc) which develop with a
certain regularity in time, defined by pedogenesis rhythm (or pedorhythm, Florea, 1994,
1996, 2009), determined especially by the annual development (or on short term) of the
environmental conditions and particularly climatic and biological conditions.
The pedorhythmicity or rhythmicity of soil-formation refers to the dynamic, more or
less continuous, but cyclic, of the elementary pedogenetic processes, of which action
leads to soil profile formation and to a homeostatic state (climax stage or steady-state), in
the case in which the soil-formation factors remained the same ones (relatively
unchanged). The yearly pedorhythm refers to an annual dynamics, continuous but with
seasonal oscillations of the general soil-formation process, linked especially to seasonal
variations of temperature and humidity conditions.
The pedorhythmicity is also characteristic to the soil and soil-cover evolution
periods in the course of each evolution period or phase from the immense duration of relief
modeling (and soil cover arising and transforming) at a geological scale. The
pedorhythmicity and, respectively, the annual pedorhythms, varying as intensity, duration
and orientation depending on the environmental conditions existent in diverse geological
periods, are the determinating elements which generate the changes in soil and soil cover
from one period to another, of course with a certain delay as against environmental
changes.
160

Figure 5.11 Scheme of the cyclic development of the soil cover in some regions at a geological scale of time
161

Pedoperiodicity
Examined at a geological scale, the soil and soil cover can present cyclic
modifications in the sense of properties change or transformation of a soil type into
another soil type parallel with periodical change of environmental conditions, especially
climatic ones. In the literature, three astronomic cycles are considered the cause of the
main important changes on Terra, the alternance of the cold periods (glaciations) with
warmer periods (interglaciations). These cycles are: a cycle of about 100000 years
connected with changes in Terras orbit around the Sun; a cycle of about 41000 years
determined by the modification of Terras axis inclination, and another cycle from 19000 to
23000 correlated to changes in equinoxes precession. The close relation between soil and
geological processes has been known for a long time; it was also underlined by the author
(1985, 2009), including the geological and geomorphological processes as an important
factor in the forming of the soil and the soil-cover (see also chapter 7).
As regards the soil cover evolution, Erhart (1956) advanced the theory of
biorhexistasy. By this theory, one can distinguish in the Earth history alternative periods of
soil cover forming and destruction. During the biostasic periods, relative quiet, soil and soil
cover formation take place. During the periods of geological lack of poise (epochs of
orogenesis, periods of intense erosion, glaciations, etc) the destruction of the previously
formed soils takes place; these are periods of rhexistasy. Therefore, the soil cover has
cyclic evolution on the territory which remains or becomes land.

Fig. 5.12 Sequence of ground surfaces in Canberra, Australia (from Butler, 1967,
quoted by Gerard, 1981)
In 1959, B.E. Butler (quoted by Gerard, 1981) proposed the concept of the ground
surface to represent the development of the soil mantle. A succession of buried soils
indicates a k-cycle, which has an unstable phase (ku) of erosion and deposition followed
by a stable phase (ks), accompanied by soil development (fig. 5.12). Yaalon (1961, 1983)
also considers that periods of landscape stability alternate with periods of landscape
instability and that all such changes are recorded in the history of soils through geologic
162

time. The similar cycle phenomena take place on different territories (on even on the same
territory in different places), in stages which do not always overlap in course of time, this
fact explaining the existence of a great variation in space of the soil formation processes
and of a high degree of soil cover heterogeneity.
The landscape is viewed as an assemblage of landforms which are individually
transformed during the process of landscape evolution; because soils are an integrant part
of the landforms and landscape, soil processes are considered by some scientists to be a
part of landscape evolution (Hall, 1983).
The soil cover, as an open system at the land surface, both receives and loses
substances and energy. Some substances are transformed within the pedon and others
are modified in composition or form or both.
According to Simonson (1978), soil formation can be considered as two overlapping
steps, namely accumulation of parent material and horizon differentiation. In time, the
balance among the many processes in soil genesis determines the nature of every soil.
This balance may change or the pathway of horizon differentiation can be shifted with
superposition of new characteristics on the old in the soil profile. The present characters of
Quaternary soils reflect more than one interval of horizon differentiation.

5.6 The main principles and regularities in the soil world

Synthesizing the knowledge about soils one can say that the main principles
(concepts) and laws that reign over the world of soils are those below exposed.
1. Basic principle of inherited and acquired features in the soil world,
according to which the soil characteristics are partly inherited from the parent rock
(material) and partly acquired during the soil development period. As a consequence, a
great attention in the soil characterization is payed both to the parent material in which the
soil is formed and to the pedogenetic conditions and processes and their change in time.
In the soil classification, the nature and origin of the parent material are also taken into
account.
The pecularities of the parent materials will be conveyed in a way or another to the
developing soils. The old axiom according to which on different rocks in the same
climatic conditions the same type of soil will develop, has to be amended in the sense that
the formed soils keep some features inherited from the parent rocks, so that the respective
soils are more or less different among them (even belonging to the same soil type).
In this domain there are known:
a) The Law of the attenuation of the inherited features from the parent
material parallel with the soil development, that is with the intensification of the acquired
features by soil genesis.
2. Principle of continuous interaction between vegetation and other soil
organisms, on one hand, and the upper part of the earths crust, on the other hand
(live-lifeless interaction), which leads to the formation of the thin layer of soil as a result
of this long interaction. The principle is expressed by three general laws:
b) The Law of the migration and turnover of substances (chemical elements,
water) implicated in the biochemical cycle and hydrological cycle in nature, entailing the
differentiation on a vertical direction of the properties and soil horizons;
c) The Law of energy accumulation and delivery, and continuous renovation
of energy by annual incorporation in the soil of the vegetal organic matter synthetised
within the ecosystem and transformed in humus (soil organic matter);
d) The Law of selective accumulation of nutrients in soil, in general in the upper
horizon, also enriched in humus and which is the most bioactive and reactive soil horizon.
163

3. Principle of the continuous interaction and inter-dependance between the

soil and the environmental factors, which leads to the soil development towards the
climax stage of the evolution (steady state), of equilibrium with environmental factors.
From this principles the below law is inferred:
e) The Law of correlation between morphogenetic characteristics of the soil
(soil morphology and properties) and pedogenetic processes generated by the
environmental factors (conditions); it reflects the close connection between the soil and
the environment (soil as a mirror of landscape and its evolution). On the knowledge of
soil morphology the interpretation of soil characteristics is based, from the physicogeographical, ecological and fertility potential points of view and also the forecast of the
soil evolution in the new man-modified or created conditions.
4. Principle of the indissoluble unity between soil and relief, since the soil
doesnt exist without relief, so that the topographic properties of the relief (geomorphic
surface) are in the same time properties of the soil cover. This inseparable connection soilrelief justifies the following:
f) The Law of the soil forming and evolution as the balance between the
results of the pedogenetic processes and geomorphic processes, which develop
continuously at the earths surface concomitant, but with opposite directions (Florea, 1985).
5. Principle of the gravitational repartition of the products resulted by rock
weathering and soil formation with the tendency of high relief parts depleting and low
relief parts enriching. This principle is expressed by:
h) The Law of the increase of the content of bases, salts, etc (and also
moisture) towards the lower parts of the relief (pollutant substances included);
i) The Law of the distribution of hydromorphic soils or salt affected soils
especially in low lands with poor drainage (and arid seasons in the case of salt affected
soils).
6. Principle of the adaptive evolution of the soil cover tending to be changed,
answering to the new modified processes and conditions; the evolution is irreversible,
keeping some characteristics (the stable ones) from the previous development stages
(paleosols with relict features) and developing some new characteristics (that make the
soil cover more and more complex). This principle is illustrated by:
j) The Law of the continuous soil cover adaptation to the changes of the
environmental conditions in stable territories with formation of paleosols at the crust
surface;
k) The Law of the cyclic evolution of the soil cover on a long period of time in
territories with geological fluctuations (for example, periglacial and circumdesert areas,
where successions of buried paleosols and loesses appear).
7. Principle of the soil diversity and differentiation on the globe surface
depending on the distribution of the spatial joining of the environmental conditions,
different from a place to another. This principle is concretized by:
l) The Law of the horizontal soil zonality, specific for the great plains and
tablelands;
m) The Law of the soil vertical zonality, specific for the mountaineous massifs;
n) The Law of the soil intrazonality, which causes the presence of the
discrepancy areas within the soil zone from an edaphic point of view;
o) The Law of soil regionality, which underlines the regional and/or local
peculiarities of the soil from different areas (defining various facies of soils that can be
applied to different taxa; the soil series of the American Soil Taxonomy are in fact soil
facies regional and local at the most detailed taxonomic level.
Concerning this principle it must be mentioned that for the explanation of the spatial
soil distribution one appealed and one still appeals to the bioclimatic zonality, which is very
evident in large areas, known also as the pedo-phyto-climatic parallelism. But at a careful
164

examination, one often finds that the influence of the local factors topography, rock,
hydrology is more potent than the influence of zonal climatic and vegetation factors. The
local and regional conditions leave their mark often on large areas. The soil zonality law
seems to be denied or its influence to be attenuated or differently exerted. The law of the
soil cover diversity and differentiation in the landscape seems to be the most general
(comprehensive) rule for the soil formation and distribution. The laws of different soil
zonalities seem to be particular cases (laws) specific for different high geomorphic units.
8. Principle of the pedological advanced (auto)organization is very important in
the soil science. A characterization of a soil needs not only the knowledge of the soil
components and their content, but also the soil components organization. The pedological
organization refers both to the soil components arrangement within the soil body and to
the soil bodies within the soil cover (pedosphere).
p) The Organization within the soil body (individual) refers to the integration
levels of matter in soil, that is the arrangement of the soil constituents both in the soil mass
and their distribution on vertical (on the soil profile). The pedostructural matter or
biopedoplasma has an important role in this organization and soil dynamics (Florea, 1989)
(see also subchapter 1.1.2);
q) The Organization within the soil cover refers to the adjoining and arrangement
in space (and time) of the soil entities making up different soil communities (pedosocions,
soilscapes of different levels and complexities); these entities (elementary and complex)
are arranged in territory in various configurations (patterns) expressed by the soil cover
assemblage (fabric) (see also chapter 1 and 3).
In both cases, the soil (auto)organization leads to the differentiation of the various
entities with their specificity, acquiring proper identities; these identities can be noted and
named using a classification system for each entity. Only for the soil bodies there is a
comprehensive system of classification; for the entities of the soil communities it is
necessary to make up corresponding suitable classification systems.
Finally, it must not be forgotten that the soil is a very complex system and belongs
as a subsystem to the terrestrial ecosystems and continental geosystems.

5.7 Some energy considerations. The antientropic character.

The forces that act within the environment originate in the following energy sources:
solar radiation, telluric heat, gravity.
The energy of solar radiation (light, heat) that reaches the earths surface is
inequally distributed on Terra due to its shape; this fact determines the existence of
thermal zones. Though non-uniform distributed on Terra, this energy is however
continuously provided with a certain rhythmicity, daily, seasonal or multiannual.
The thermal energy of Terra originates from the disintegration of radioactive
chemical elements and from the gravitational compression. It can manifest itself under
different ways, sometimes generating catastrophic events as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, orogenetic movements, etc, but also noncatastrophic events.
The gravity, within its action field, functions as a force in all processes, orienting the
substances movements and determining differentiations on vertical and horizontal
directions.
Other incoming energies can also act, but their importance is very reduced.
Anthropic energy, in fact a form of natural energy, has an insignificant importance, but
locally the anthropic activity can generate notorious events (by changing or disturbing the
native equilibrium of the environment).
The solar energy is the only one that can be converted in chemical energy by
photosynthesis (see also chapter 9).
165

All processes that take place in nature use up energy. As a consequence of the
irreversible processes development in the environment, an increase of entropy takes place.
The biologists consider that biological systems, unlike the non-biological ones, have an
antientropic behaviour, due to receiving energy from outside the system, namely solar
radiation converted in chemical energy by photosynthesis.
But also, some nonbiological systems, like the hydrological cycle for instance,
develop continuously due to their receiving energy from the Sun. In this cycle, the water is
eliminated as vapours with high entropy and the system gets back liquid (or solid) water
with low energy; this fact prevents reaching the stage of maximum entropy. The
hydrological cycle has, therefore, an anti-entropic behaviour (Florea, 2004, 2005).
Nevertheless, there are differences between non-biological and biological systems.
In the non-biological systems only conversions into mechanical or caloric energy take
place, usually without stocking of energy. The biological systems are characterized by
various conversions of energy (caloric, chemical, mechanical, biological, noesic) by
stocking of energy necessary for the functioning of the system and for the creation of order,
which makes up the premise for development.
The soil systems, including living organisms, present the characters both of abiotic
and biotic systems. Their anti-entropic behaviour is assured by the recurrent organic
matter incorporation in the soil and its transformation in the framework of the biological
cycle, as well as by the recurrent soil water evaporation and recurrent soil moistening, in
the framework of the hydrological cycle in nature; both events take place with the solar
energy addition and have an anti-entropic behaviour (Florea, 2005). Both processes have,
therefore, a favourable entropic balance that prevents the increase of entropy (S), so that
a maximum entropy is not reached.

166

167

6. PEDORHYTHMICITY, CYCLIC FEATURE OF COMMON SOIL

DYNAMICS. PEDORHYTHMS.
6.1 Definitions
The cyclic development of many processes that take part in the soil and the role of
the reversible and irreversible pedological processes involved with soils evolution have
been known for a long time and discussed in the speciality literature. This knowledge was
recently synthesized by Arnold et al. (1990). The rhythmic character of the pedogenetic
processes has also been underlined by Florea (1994, 1996, 2009), which introduced the
notion of pedorhythm as an essential element in the mechanism of soil dynamics.
The pedorhythms or the pedological rhythms refer to the continuous development,
but with periodical variations (cyclic, cycloidal or oscillating) of different activities,
phenomena or processes taking place in soil during the time. These periodical variations
are characterized by a repeating with a definite regularity at equivalent moments within
successive periods (cycles) of some relatively identical states of the soil; within the limits of
cycles, the soil states (or soil constituent states) are generally different in time, their
parameters taking values that vary at each moment and range from a minimum value to a
maximum one. The difference between these values is the amplitude of the pedorhythm
(fig. 5.1 and 5.2).
If soil-changes of annual pedorhythms are expressed in a quantitative form, it is
possible to characterize the dynamics of the pedological phenomena and their evolution
trend on the base of the balances for different soil substances
The pedorhythms refers especially to the ordered repetition of different processes
which lead to soil-formation, estimated in parameters of relatively short duration. The
pedorhythm has to be regarded as an essential side of functional construction of soils, as
mode of the development of pedogenetic processes and exchanges during soil
homeostatic dynamics and as reflection of current cyclicity of vital biorhythm from the
vegetable kingdom.
The most important pedorhythms for the soil-formation processes are the annual
pedorhythms, because the balance of their cycles lies at the basis of the pedogenesis and
soil evolution on the Globe.
The pedorhythmicity has in view the character of the current rhythmic development
of the processes of formation and evolution of soil and soil-cover.

6.2 The causes of the pedorhythms

The causes or factors which determine the pedorhythms can be systematized in
three categories: current variation of environmental conditions in which the soil is situated,
biological rhythm of living beings and modifications produced in the soil itself.
The use of average values or even values of the variation interval to describe the
environmental conditions leads often to the subestimation or even ignoration of the
pedological rhythms.
The appearance of pedorhytms represents in the first place a soil adaptation to the
variation of the cosmic and telluric factors (as lighting, insolation, temperature, moon
phases, cosmic radiation, sun spots, etc). The variation rhythms of many parameters are
frequently described and known as: daily, monthly, yearly or annual, multiannual,
connected of course, firstly with the soils receiving radiant energy from the Sun, which
varies depending on earth rotary motion and revolution movement, as well as on
multiannual variation of solar activity.
168

In the second place, the appearance and development of the pedorhythms is

connected with the biologic rhythm of vegetation, microorganisms included, specific to the
soil, biologic rhythm which in his turn depends on cosmic and telluric factors, to a certain
extent.
In the third place, during the soil formation process some soil properties can be
changed, influencing the pedorhythms, for example permeability, which can influence the
soil hydric regime.
It is underlined that, generally, there is a lag between the environment rhythm and
pedorhythm, due to a certain inertia in the phenomena development, as well as to some
delay in the effect appearance.
It also seems that cosmic periodicity, due to heavenly bodies movement, has an
influence on pedorhythm development, influence which is still unknown.

6.3 The general classification of pedorhythms

The pedorhythms are classified according to the period of repetition (amplitude) and
nature of causing factors. Depending on the length of the repetition period, most
pedorhythms are:
- daily or diurnal rhythms with a period of 24 hours, connected with temperature
variation or light-dark alternance;
- monthly rhythms with a period of about 30 days;
- annual or yearly or seasonal rhythms, with a seasonal evolution of pedological
phenomena or processes conditioned by the revolution movement of the Earth around the
Sun, which produces changes in the insolation, temperature, moisture regime over a
years period, maximum of activity being in the summer and the minimum in winter;
- multiannual pedorhythms with a period of several or numerous years: for example,
the rhythmic solar activity of 10-11 years determines corresponding climatic variations that
influence the rhythm of some pedological processes.
To all these, one can add the irregular or non-systematic pedorhythms with periods
of variable duration; sometimes, they can have a random character as for example the
rhythm changes produced by forest fire or tree-cutting.
Depending on the nature of the factors that generate the pedorhythms, one can
distinguish:
- exogenous pedorhytms, connected with periodical change of the environmental
factors, mentioned above (generally primary causing factors); they represent ways of soil
integraton in the environment to which they belong and in which they evolve. The study of
these pedorhythms is very important for the optimization of pedogenetic processes, as well
as fertilizing, amelioration and measures of protection;
- endogenous pedorhythms conditioned by the energy processes which take place
in the soil, indifferent of the environmental factors (mineralization, weathering, synthesis,
evaporation, etc); they represent ways of action on processes which ensure the
homeostatic state of pedological systems against external influences. The study of
endogenous pedorhythms is very important for the knowledge of the dynamics of
pedogenetic processes, for increasing the efficiency of their adjustment and management.
As a rule, endogenous pedorhythms are synchronized in a great extent with the
exogenous ones, correlation which is obtained by an environmental factor, frequently
temperature or humidity.

169

6.4 Soil genesis as a rhythmic process of long duration

Soil, as a complex organized open-system, has a specific architecture including
many integrated subsystems, genetically connected and functionally interrelated, both
hierarchically (vertically) and co-operating (horizontally) in order to ensure the homeostasy
of the soil systems.
The functioning of the soil systems, as well as their genesis and evolution, is
assured by certain complex pedogenetic processes, consisting of a series of simple
processes (physical, chemical, biological, etc) which develop with various intensity and
which are integrated in the annual pedorhythms. The annual pedorhythms and their
substances and energy balance are essential for the soil systems genesis and stability.
From the classical fundamental relation soil-pedogenetic factors, presented in
subchapter 5.4, it implicitly results that the annual cyclic character of pedogenesis is
determined by the yearly cycle variation of at least two pedogenetic factors, climat and
biological factor.
The global (or complex) pedogenetic processes (that are the ensemble of
pedogenetic processes involved in the formation of the different major soil groups) are in
fact the result of long annual cyclic repetition of the partial pedogenetic processes
(involved in the formation of different horizons or other features of the respective soil
entity), especially under the influence of hydrothermic conditions and biological activities in
the soil which vary in an annually cyclic manner. At the base of these processes and
therefore of the soil genesis, there are the simple processes that take part in the soil,
named elementary pedological processes, such as the varied phenomena, reactions or
simple physical, chemical, physico-chemical, biochemical and biological processes in the
soil. By the way of action of the elementary processes or partial pedogenetical processes
in the soil formation, one can distinguish at least three categories of processes which
participate in a distinct way to the soil pedogenesis.
Some of these processes are cyclic, generally the reversible ones (heating-cooling,
moistening-drying, oxidation-reduction, adsorbtion-desorbtion, etc.); among these
reversible pair-processes there are also pairs of processes that are irreversible if they are
attentively examined, such as the accumulation and decomposition of organic matter in the
soil, but they are therefore apparently reversible, because by their repetition the
continuous cycle of chemical elements takes place in the ecosystem (the small biological
cycle of chemical elements). Some other processes take place in a cycloidal way (rhythmic
variations between zero-value and a maximum one), e.g. decomposition of vegetable
debris or manure, soil liming action, etc. The third category consists of irreversible
processes which are developing in a single direction, but regularly with rhythmic
oscillations along the time (disintegration, alteration of primary minerals, formation of
pedogegnetic horizons, etc).
These three categories of processes (fig. 6.1) are developed under varied forms,
especially correlated with bioclimatic conditions on earths surface and they can be
continuous or discontinuous; the discontinuous processes have some relative interruptions
during the year, either due to soils drying (aridodiscontinuity) or due to soils freezing
(cryodiscontinuity), or owing to the two (bidiscontinuity). The soil formation takes place,
therefore, with a certain rhythmicity determined by the periodical developing with cyclic,
cycloidal or oscillating variations of the partial pedogenetic processes, that form on the
whole the global pedorhytm of pedogenesis (global in order to differentiate it from the
pedorhythm of each partial pedogenetic process).
Annual pedorhythms of different types or major groups of soils are characterized
both by a yearly balance (of substances and energy) and by a specific variation of soil
properties and regimes in the course of a year.
170

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Figure 6.1 The main ways of repeated development of the different

phenomena and processes in soil during the year
Continual cyclic development: 1a uniform; 1b nonuniform
Continual cycloidal development: 2a uniform; 2b nonuniform
Continual irreversible development: 3a uniform; 3b oscillant
Discontinuous cyclic development: 4a cryoruptic; 4b aridoruptic; 4c
biruptic (cryoruptic and aridoruptic)
Discontinuous cycloidal development: 5a cryoruptic; 5b aridoruptic; 5c
biruptic
Discontinuous irreversible development: 6a cryoruptic; 6b aridoruptic;
6c - biruptic
171

6.5 Soil development, a consequence of long time totalized changes by

annual pedorhythms
As presented before in subchapter 5.4, soil formation and evolution is a
consequence of the substances-balance and changes produced in the annual cyclic soil
processes, namely pedorhythms (annually global pedorhythms).
In the case of irreversible processes, after each annual pedorhytm, there will
obviously result a minimum alteration of negative or positive changes. But also in the case
of cyclic and cycloidal processes that are not perfectly reversible, after each annual
pedorhythm imperceptible effects or remanent modifications will appear, which are
scarcely distinguishable (fig. 5.2). Exactly these infinitesimal changes or tiny influences of
annual pedorhythms, having different values with the soil depth, represent the essential
mechanism of soil formation which generally runs to a certain direction (monodirectional)
during long periods until the equilibrium state with environment (climax state) is reached.

Fig. 6.2 Schematic curve with soils forming stages (I-III). Native annual
pedorhythms with balances generating changes in soils:
Differentiating stages:
I incipient
IIa accentuated differentiating
IIb attenuated differentiating
III stability

Balances: soil change rates:

Insignificant slow evolution
Significant

accelerated
evolution
Significant slacked evolution
Equilibrated steady state

Therefore, the pedogenesis (soil dynamics) always depend on these minute

modifications, accumulations, transformations and losses, cyclically produced in the
framework of the annual pedorhythms, repeated uninterruptedly, sometimes partially
compensating each other. Also, it should be taken into account that the pedorhythms
change their parameters with the depth, so that the minute changes are different at various
soil depths. As a consequence, on the long term, by this mechanism of the minute annual
changes the soil profile and its properties evolution take place.
For soils developing in natural conditions, non-influenced by man, the native
pedorhythms can be divided in pedorhythms with cyclic, positive or negative balance, and
pedorhythms with cyclic equilibrated balance; an accidental perturbation of the
172

pedorhythms can also take place in case of the release of some unusual and catastrophic
phenomena in the environmental conditions.
If one watches the soil formation as a function of time from the parent material to
mature soil, one can distinguish three development stages (fig. 6.2): the incipient stadium,
having native annual pedorhythms of the different soil constituents with very weak positive
or negative balances (in this stadium the pedogenesis is activated); the soil active
differentiating stadium with annual pedorhythms which have clearly exceeding or deficient
balances, more marked in the first part and attenuated in the second; the soil stability
stadium in equilibrium with the environment, having annual pedorhythms with equilibrated
balance. In the last stadium (climax) it is necessary to circulate an energy flow in order to
maintain the pedosystem in this state (steady state).
The soil evolution after having reached the steady state will be discussed in the
next chapter.

6.6 The pedorhythmicity and polygenetic soil evolution

One must not equate the rhythmicity of pedogenesis processes to the soils
polycyclic evolution (pedofluctuation) due to the climate changes on Earth at a geological
scale of time (also named astronomical cycles). Although both have periodical character, it
is entirely at another scale. The soil polycyclic evolution involves a radical change of soil
formation direction associated with a certain change of the whole ensemble of natural
conditions, a fact that implies a corresponding change of the annual pedorhythms and
leads over time to soil transformation, its evolution becoming a polycyclic one. On the
contrary, monocyclic pedogenesis is carried on by pedorhythms which have developed
under relatively stable environmental conditions that have not been essentially modified
over time.

6.7 The classification of the annual pedorhythms

6.7.1 The classification criteria of annual pedorhythms
The dynamics of the annual pedorhythms depends, especially, on the climatic
conditions. The manner of combination of the temperature and moisture levels determines
the type and the rate of weathering of soil mineral material, as well as of biochemical
transformation of plant debris or other organic substances, processes that are very
important in soil genesis. The rainfall, both the amount and distribution in space and time,
together with the evapotranspiration rate, influence to a great extent the movement
redistribution and accumulation of soluble salts, clay particles, nutrients and other
substances released or formed by the weathering of mineralization processes in the soil,
as well as, implicitly, the fertility potential of soils. Therefore, for these reasons, the annual
pedorhythms at global-zonal scale can be differentiated and classified according to the
following criteria:
a pedogenesis development during the year (and implicitly pedorhythm
development) can be continuous or discontinuous (that is with periods of relative
interruptions);
b rhythmic (or periodical) variation of continuous pedogenesis parameters: can be
a uniform or a nonuniform one, in consistence with its significant seasonal variations;
c amplitude of annual pedorhythms specific to a nonuniform continuous
pedogenesis: can be weak or moderate;
d relative interruption cause of discontinuous pedogenesis (or of discontinuous
pedorhythms): can be the soil freezing process (cryoruptic pedorhythms), the soil drying
process (aridoruptic pedorhythms) or both of them (biruptic pedorhythms); as such, the
173

pedogenesis corresponding to these pedorhythms present rhythmicities connected to

favourable conditions of humidity (humidorhythmic) or temperature (thermorhythmic) and
can be intense, moderate or weak, depending on the temperatures size;
e duration of soil frost: can be null, short, middle-long, long or a very long one;
f duration and season of soil drying: can be null, short in summer, middle-long (of
average duration) in summer, long in summer or varied in winter.
The relative interruption of pedogenesis is in fact a ceasing of biochemical
processes development, which are essential in pedogenesis, and also of other processes
of weathering, migration, etc.; but some processes like gelifraction weathering,
cryoturbation, hydroturbation and others can be developed, especially during the phase of
the appearance or disappearance of soil freezing or drying.
6.7.2 The main annual pedorhythms reflecting the dynamics of different soilforming processes
Taking into account the mentioned criteria, a series of categories and subcategories
of main annual pedorhythms have been separated they are representative annual
pedorhythms of the pedogenesis processes that characterize the zonal soils. They are
shown in table 6.1, in which both the correlation to climatic zone and to pedogenesis
intensity are also presented.
Table 6.1 The main annual pedorhythms representative of the processes of zonal
pedogenesis
Category

Subcategories (principal and

secondary)
Continual
uniform (1)
pedorhythms nonuniform (2) weak
moderate
Discontinuous aridoruptic
pedorhythms

in winter (3)
in summer* (4)

cryoruptic

Correlation with the

climatic zone
Humid and subhumid
warm zone (equatorial
and subtropical)

Intensity of
pedogenesis
Very intensive
(thermo-rhythmic)
more or less
continuous
Monsoon zone
Periodic very
intensive (humidoSubarid to arid
rhythmic)
subtropical zone
Oceanic-temperate zone Moderate to
Oceanic-subpolar zone intensive

short periods (5)

middle-long periods
(6)
long and very long
Polar zone
Somewhat
periods (7)
intensive
Biruptic (arido- short periods in
Continental temperate Moderate to
cryoruptic)
winter* (8)
zone (subhumid to arid) intensive
middle-long periods Ccontinental subpolar
Somewhat
in winter (9)
zone (cold temperate), intensive
subhumid to arid
long periods in
winter* (10)
*) According to the duration of summer, the arid discontinuity can be subdivided into: short
periods, middle-long periods, long periods, the last one being characterized by a little intensive
pedogenesis.

The continuous pedorhythms, as well as discontinuous ones without

cryodiscontinuity, develop under much higher temperature regimes than the discontinuous
pedorhythms with cryodiscontinuity, a fact that generates important differences among the
pedogenesis character of the different corresponding soils.

174

Fig. 6.3 The scheme with the subcategories of annual pedorhythms

representative of the pedogenesis of some major groups of soils. Numbers 1-10
correspond to the number of the pedorhythm main subcategories from table 6.1.
Numbers 11 and 12 correspond to the pedogenesis in the warm desert and cold
desert, respectively:
= discontinuity of pedogenesis due to soil drying (aridodiscontinuity);
- - - - - = discontinuity of pedogenesis due to soil freezing (cryodiscontinuity).
The curves from fig. 6.3 show the schematic development of the different annual
pedorhythms during the year time, revealing the annual variation and discontinuities of the
pedorhythms of zonal soils. It is obviously and comparatively emphasized the maximum
developments and interruption of the soil forming processes during the year for the
different kinds of soils.
175

6.8 Pedosystem stability requires pedorhythms with equilibrated balance

Soil systems stability at a pedological scale can be discussed only in the climax
stage of the soil development, characterized by pedorhythms having cycles with an
equilibrated balance of substances.
Soils (pedosystems) stability refers to the capacity of these systems to oscillate at
different moments in time around a medium state (steady state) or to come back to a
previous state after they were subjected to a certain perturbation. This capacity depends
on soil properties and on easiness of adaption, so that the effect of the perturbatory factors
is assimilated and in time come back at the normal parameters.
This is often named homeostasy, notion which refers to the pedosystems capacity
of preserving and of carrying on. However, the homeostasy does not refer to an absolute
mode (the same state) and also pedosystem stability is not regarded as a static state, but
a state of dynamic equilibrium or, more correct, as a stationary state, which is more
complex than the dynamic equilibrium classically represented by a chemical reaction that
develops in both senses:
A+BC+D
In the steady state, beside the substances exchange between soil and environment,
there is also a certain flow of energy delivered continuously by the Sun, which makes
possible the pedosystems existence.
Recently, the notion of soil resilience was introduced, being defined as the capacity
of a pedosystem to come back in a short period (by pedorhythms mechanisms) at the
previous state after an accidental perturbation and to maintain common relations among
constitutive compounds or among variable states.
Soil stability is an important property which assures between certain limits the
structural and functional integrity of the pedosystems.
The inertia of the pedosystems refers either to the delay of soil properties
modification after an exterior perturbation or change, either to the capacity of opposing
these ones (for example: buffering capacity).
The self regulation of the pedosystems in order to maintain their stability takes
place through the action of the rhythms of the soil processes involved in the substancesexchanges and energy flows. Therefore, the adequate knowledge of the pedorhythms of
every type of soil is very useful (as dynamics and evolution phases, correlation with
forming conditions which influence the substances balance of the annual pedorhythms).
For this aim, it is necessary to adopt an adequate research methodology and a measuring
technique (pedorhythmometry).
Self-regulation control is realized by a soil program to reach and assure the soils
homeostasy (steady-state) in the context of lots of environmental parameters with cyclic
variation.
Speaking about the pedosystems stability, it must be specified that soils are
subjected to a certain extent to an instability connected with risk phenomena. There is,
therefore, a probability of pedosystems evolution generated by random phenomena of
stupendous proportions, which develop unexpected changes in a short time (disasters,
disfunctionalities, catastrophes, calamities, etc.). In this case, the soil evolution takes
another direction, with changed pedorhythms, becoming in time a different pedosystem
after having answered environmental circumstances.

176

6.9 Anthropical modifications of pedorhythms and its influence on soils

fertility
Soil and land use in national economy entails changes of the native pedorhythms,
reflected by the substances and energy balance of the annual cycles modification, which
affect the pedosystems state and especially soils fertility. From this point of view one can
distinguish anthropical modified pedosystems with a supplemented nutrients balance, with
decompensative nutrients balance, with a disturbed balance and with a canceled balance
(fig. 6.4, Florea and Munteanu, 1988).

Fig. 6.4 Scheme of soils fertility modification under anthropical influence of the
annual pedorhythms.
Anthropical modified pedorhythms with supplemented nutrients balance:
- by fertilization: compensative (Fc), supracompensative (Fs),
equilibrated at optimum level (Fo)
- by amelioration and fertilization: supracompensative (As), equilibrated
at optimum level (Ao)
Anthropical modified pedorhythms with decompensative balance:
- partial: transitional (Dt); equilibrated at low level (Dm)
- total: transitional (Tt); equilibrated at a low level (Tm)
Anthropical modified pedorhythms with disturbed balance:
- increased, with pollutant or toxic substances (P1, P2)
- decreased by soil erosion or removing, having a destructive effect (E)
Anthropical annihilated pedorhythms (N) with cut off balance.
Anthropical modified pedorhythms with supplemented nutrients balance can be
obtained through soil fertilization and through soil-improvement. The fertilization may only
be compensative when soils fertility level is conserved (Fc) and may be
supracompensative (Fs) when it has in view the increase of soil fertility until an optimum
level (Fo) which is maintained by an adequate fertilization (equilibrium at an optimum level).
In the case of improved soils, the nutrients-balances of the annual pedorhythms can be
much changed, the fertility increasing by supracompensative fertilization (As) to an
optimum level (Ao).
177

Anthropical modified pedorhythms with decompensative nutrients balance can be

partially decompensative (and partially compensative, of course) or transitional (Dt) until
the balance reaches a low level of equilibrium (Dm), and totally decompensative (Tt), in
which case the nutrients balance will be equilibrated at a very low level (Tm).
Anthropical modified pedorhythms with disturbed nutrients balance can present an
increased balance, but with adverse substances, pollutant or toxic (P) which can result in
decreased soil productivity (P1) or even increased soil productivity (P2) but with agricultural
farm produces with a lower quality or even toxic. In other cases, the disturbed nutrients
balance in negative (E), when soils destruction takes place (as, for example, the case of
soil accelerated erosion).
Anthropical annihilated pedorhythms (N) are characteristic for the soils of the land
used in non-agricultural and non-sylvicultural aims, that is for other functions than the
natural ones (for example, land for buildings, roads, highways, railways, different platforms
or stadia, etc) or for unproductive lands.

6.10 Succinct summary

The pedological rhythms or pedorhythms refer to the common continuous
development in soil of some reactions, phenomena or processes with periodical variations,
characterized by the repetition of some relative identical states with a certain regularities.
They are generated by cosmic, telluric and biological factors and can be classified,
according to the duration of the reproducing period in daily, monthly, yearly or
multiannually pedorhythms and taking into consideration the generating factors in
exogenous (determined by periodical variation of environmental factors) and endogeneous
pedorhythms (conditioned by the periodic variation of the processes taking place within the
soil).
Soil genesis takes place through a rhythmic process on a long term stage with a
(gradual) development, an essential role having the annual pedorhythms and
corresponding balances of substances and energy for each yearly cycle. The pedological
processes of soil formation are divided in at least three categories: cyclic, generally
reversible; cycloidal, which varies from a zero value to a maximum value; and irreversible
(and in one direction), but with rhythmic variation or oscillation in time. The ensemble of
these processes which develop with a certain annual rhythmicity form the yearly global
pedorhythm of pedogenesis of a certain soil (global to distinguish from the pedorhythm of
each partial pedogenetic process). At the end of each annual cycle of the pedorhythm,
some minute effects or remnant modifications appear in the soil; more precisely, these
infinitesimale modifications, often difficult to discern, lie at the basis of the essential
mechanism of the soil formation process, because by accumulation - in a long duration
of these minute changes one develops the slow process of the gradual differentiation of
soil. In this gradual soil forming process one can distinguish an incipient stage, a
differentiating stage and a stability stage in equilibrium with the environment.
The change of the environmental conditions naturally or anthropically entails the
annual pedorhythm modification and at least a soil change, but only after a period of time
(a lag).
The annual pedorhythms are the most important in soil developing. They can be
subdivided in continuous (uniform or non-uniform) and discontinuous (aridoruptic,
cryoruptic and biruptic or arido-cryoruptic) (table 6.1). Each category or subcategory of
yearly pedorhythm is specific to different kind of zonal soils (fig. 6.3); the amplitudes and
the active period of the annual pedorhythms vary in space and time at a pedological and
geological scale.
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The polycyclic (polygenetic) soil evolution correlated with the global climatic
oscillations at geological scale must not be equated or simplified at the cyclicity of the
pedorhythms, but it has to be regarded as a general development in time due to the
change of the pedorhythms level, connected with the climatic changes or other
environmental parameters. The polygenetic soil evolution takes place through the change
of the annual pedorhythm adapted to the environmental new conditions. Some relict
features that have remained from the previous evolution periods can be observed in the
polygenetic soils; also the succession of the climatic changes in the Quaternary can be
observed in sequences of loesses and fossil soils (see chapter 7).
The pedosystem stability at pedological scale can be discussed only for the climax
stage of soil development or steady-state (equilibrated annual pedorhythms). In this state
though, a flow of energy is necessary (delivered by the Sun) to make the pedorhythm
active.
Soil use in national economy entails some modification of the native annual
pedorhythms and implicitly of the substances and energy balances of the yearly cycles,
with consequences in the pedosystem state and soils fertility level. From this point of view
one can distinguish annual pedorhythms having nutrients balances modified by man in
different ways (fig. 6.3): with supplemented balance by fertilizing, with decompensative
balance, with disturbed balance and with cancelled balance.

179

7. PEDOPERIODICITY, CYCLIC FEATURE OF SOILS EVOLUTION AT A

GEOLOGICAL SCALE. PEDOFLUCTUATIONS.
7.1 General geological considerations
7.1.1 Chronology of different soils formation
The soil and the soil cover evolution on a vast time scale (geological scale) was
discussed in quite a few papers (Fridland and Buyanovski, 1877; Yaalon, 1963, 1971;
Global Soil Change, 1990).
Terra started to be formed about 4.5 billion years ago. The primitive Terra was
characterized by an intensive volcanic activity which delivered gaseous compounds,
generating the reduced atmosphere from this evolution phase of the Earth, rich in water
vapours (about 90%), hydrogen, ammonia, some hydrocarbons and without free oxygen.
After the temperature decreased under 100 oC, the water vapours started to condense and
rains started to take place at the Earths surface (over periods of million of years), the seas
and oceans began to form, the land separation from the ocean also started and a
hydrological drainage appeared. Also, the composition of the atmosphere changed: the
water proportion decreased, the CO2, H2S, NH3 increased and a part of CO2, H2S, NH3
dissolved in the water, the oxygen that resulted from the photochemical decomposition of
water from the upper layers of the atmosphere under the action of the Suns ultraviolet
rays oxidized the NH3 to molecular N and transformed the hydrocarbons in different
organic compounds with oxygen (alcohols, aldeyhydes, cetones, acids). The CO2
dissolved in water led to dicarbonates formation and also to primary carbonates. The
hydrological drainage network transported in seas and oceans great amounts of mineral
salts dissolved from the land adding to those ones existing in the initial seas and ocean
waters, probably having acid reactions (due to the presence of HCl); by the dicarbonates
addition from the land, the water neutralization took place. The sulphates were not found
among the initial salts.
A very important step in the Earths evolution was the appeareance of the
macromolecular organic substances with ordered structure. It seems that a special role in
the formation of these ones had the mud or clay sediment existing at the crusts surface
(primitive regoliths) which represented an environment favourable to the formation and
concentration of the simple compounds with C, as well as of the macromolecular
compounds with C. In this way, the conditions favourable for the appearance of the first
living organism on Terra were created. This moment marks a new period in the Earths
evolution, the biological period of matter development. The first organisms were
characterized by heterotrophic nutrition (oxygen missing), so that the organic matter was
decomposed only on anaerobic ways (fig. 7.1). The humic acid that was formed
contributed to the soil reaction adjustement.
At the same time with the appearance of photosynthesis, the free gaseous oxygen
began to be produced, gradually changing the reducing character of the atmosphere. The
process began 3-3.5 billion years ago, but only about 2 billion yeas ago the free oxygen
started to accumulate in water and air. The free oxygens presence gave the possibility of
a full oxydation of organic matter and therefore of a use of the energy accumulated in
organic matter. The photosynthesis also brings a supplementary source of energy, the
thermal radiation from the Sun. The linear process of organic matter decomposition by
heterotrophic organisms could have become cyclic, due to the fact that the CO2 entered in
the C cycle by organic matter photosynthesis and then decomposition.

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Figure 7.1 Chronology scheme of some soils appearance (formation) during the
Earths history (by Fridland and Buyanovski, 1977, modified).
The appearance of the organisms respiration process represents an important step
in the evolution of the metabolism energy efficiency because it is much more productive
that the fermentation process. At the same time the oxydaton of the reduced anorganic
compounds by the free molecular oxygen became possible; this changes therefore the
nature of the weathering products (regoliths). Finally, a layer of ozone in the upper mantle
of the atmosphere had formed, fact that permited lifes extension in all upper layers of the
hydrosphere and at long the land colonization with different life forms.
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It seems that the first organisms which passed on land were bacteria, about more
than 500 million years ago (in Cambrian, Lower Paleozoic). Under these circumstances,
the primitive soils were formed, very shallow (a few mm), containing rock fragments, silt
and organic matter resulted from dead organisms: primitive lithosols and regosols,
analogous to the ones from rocky regions of the actual deserts. It was a primary phase of
soil development (Global Soil Change, 1990) without a real soil cover.
At the end of Silurian, about 400 million years ago, Psilophytes developed, adapted
to the high moisture conditions of the sea coasts and river banks. Boggy, especially
eutrophic peaty soils, were formed. It seems that many geological shales formed in this
period contain organic matter. Devonian coal deposits have such an origin. This phase of
the soil covers evolution can be named sporadic (Global Soil Change, 1990) because
the primitive soils and peaty soils were sporadically distributed on the land.
At the end of Devonian, about 350-360 million years ago, important changes took
place in vegetation. The ferns and horsetails appeared, plants with rich roots and of
various sizes, from short herbs to huge trees. During Carboniferous these plants occupied
large areas on the land which having a warm and humid climate (similar to the tropical and
subtropical climate from today). Under these conditions, ferrallitic soils (oxisols) were
formed. In Donbas (formerly the Soviet Union), for example, in Carboniferous, among coal
layers, soils of 300 million years old, similar with the red soils from the savanna, were
found (Fridland and Buyanovski, 1977). Of course, peaty soils were present as well and
alluvial soils developed along river valleys. The soil cover was more complex, but still did
not entirely cover the land surface. This phase of evolution of the soil cover can be named
intermittent (Global Soil Change, 1990).
In the Permian, 285-280 million years ago, other great changes took place, leading
to climate and soil differentiation. Besides warm and humid climate, on large areas an arid
and warm climate and on other areas a cold and humid climate had settled. The ferrallitic
soils formation went on and new soils of arid climate appeared: the solonchaks probably
had a large widespreading in arid areas and luvisols and podzols in humid areas, as well
as gelic soils (Cryosols) during the Permian glaciation. The soil cover became in this
phase continuous and can be named the continuum phase (Global Soil Change, 1990).
During the following long periods, corresponding to the Mesozoic era, of about 150
million years ago, huge changes took place on Earth: parts of land submerged, new lands
appeared, mountaineous ranges formed and partially moulded pediplanes. Succesive
changes in climate and vegetation took place. Also, the soil cover was subject of cyclic
transformation, destroying and reconstruction, but new soil types did not appear.
Only in Neozoic, about 40 million years ago, at the same time with the new grassy
landscape formation (especially in the arid regions of Asia), new soils of chernozemic or
phaeozemic types developed.
Finally, 1.5-2 million years ago, at the beginning of Pleistocene, together with tundra
landscapes appeareance, the soils specific for tundra developed, and connected with
the Sphagnum moss development large areas with peaty soils and peat bogs formed on
this vegetation. In Quaternary, the last volcanic eruptions contributed to the diversification
of the soil cover.
In fact, the first soils that appeared in Devonian were boggy soils, followed in
Carboniferous by ferrallitic soils. A first diversification of soils took place in Permian when
many soils developed (Solonchaks, desert soils, Luvisols, Podzols, Cryosols); a second
diversification is produced only in Neozoic when soils of steppe climate appeared. The last
soils, formed in Quaternary, were tundra soils and oligotrophic peaty soils.

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7.1.2 Geological aspects of soil evolution

The soil types gradually evolved in the course of geological periods from simple to
complex, in close connection with the permanent development of life (especially of
vegetation), with changes and differentiations of the Earths relief, with oscillations of
climatic conditions, with pedogenetic processes evolution connected with the development
of the biopedogeochemical cycles of substances in the Earth crust, as well as with the
photosynthesis conditions. The soil entities are therefore historico-geological categories.
In the course of this geological evolution, the soil development took place both as
an increase of the number of genetic soil entities and diversification of inner organization.
This evolution led continuously to the complexity of the soil cover in space and time.
During over 500 million of years, the soils evolved from the regoliths in reducing medium
(protopedosphere) and then oxidizing to the great variety of soil entities of today,
diversification which began 350 million years ago when the plants covered the land and
the atmosphere was warmer and richer in CO2. The very old soil types, although
resembling todays soils, had some differences however, these differences are not
exactly known today.
A great role in the soil evolution played the soil microorganisms and the organic
matter accumulated in soil (humus), which represents both a reservoir and a source of
nutrients and energy. By biological and biochemical processes, all pedogenetic processes
intensified, leading to mineral and organic matter transformation and horizons
differentiation depending on the environmental conditions.
The soil cover evolution was, of course, closely connected with the global
development of environmental factors, especially geological and bioclimatic conditions.
During this long period of time, the soil cover was often destroyed and rebuilt or changed
in parallel with the geological and environmental conditions from the Earths surface.
These changes of the soil cover are not known, except for a few from the last part of the
Quaternary (see the following sub-chapters).
Mans emergence in Quaternary and his intensive action on the soil cover
determined a new phase of soil evolution, the anthropogenic phase of the soil cover
development. This phase is characterized on one hand by a trend of homogenization of
soil properties and soil cover in order to obtain a soil cover suitable for agricultural use,
and on the other hand, by an opposite trend of heterogeneization of the soil cover and its
properties, as a consequence of various anthropogenic activities and due to unadequate
use of soil resource in agriculture or in the national economy, which may lead to depletion,
deterioration or even destruction of the soil cover. The man became now a global, a
geological factor for the environment.
Unconsolidated planetary surface layers existent on the Moon and on Mars and
also on Earth during the Pre-Cambrian era cannot be considered as proper soils, but
rather as regoliths developed under abiotic conditions.
A universal definition of the soil, also valid outside Terra, was proposed by
Johnson (1992). This definition could be the following: friable soild outer layer of any
heavenly body similar with Terra, resulted by rock alteration through physical and chemical
processes, associated or not with biological processes, which represent the interface
interceding the substances and energy exchange between the respective planets and its
surroundings. The soil of Terra is individualized by the presence, as a constitutive part, of
the living organisms which actively participate to the formation and dynamics of the soil.
The soil cover was one of the most researched and discussed topics since
pedology was founded as a science, contributing to the knowledge of the soil properties,
laws of soil distribution and the most adequate ways of soil resources use. All these had in
view especially the actual soils and the soil cover, and less their past evolution at a
geological scale.
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There is, certainly, a lot of information about the soil and the soil cover evolution
considered at a geological scale, in different countries, which we do not know in detail to
be able to discuss them. In Romania and also in other countries, the study of loess
deposits proved the existence of different fossil soils, interlayed in loess. This vertical
succession of soils and loess bands is an evident reason of the peridicity of the soil
formation processes, correlated with the cyclic character of natural phenomena, especially
of the climatic and tectonic ones, on one hand, and it is also an evident reason of the
continuity, but with opposite rates, of the soil formation and silt sedimentation processes,
on the other hand.
In fact, as early as 1910, Murgoci rightly considered that even the loess is an old
soil, more or less metamorphosed, as well as its bands, browner or more reddish,
generally considered as the single fossil soils. Murgocis opinions have been resumed and
developed by Protopopescu Pache, Spirescu, Conea, Barbu and others, who have pointed,
in many places in the plains, terraces and plateau lands covered by loess to the existence
of successions of 1-7 loess bands, and various fossil soils (Chernozem, Argillic
Chernozem, Argillic Brown Soil, Red Soil) which confirm the continuity and the cyclicity of
the soil forming phenomena and of the dust deposition, at least during the Quaternary
period.
On the other hand, archeological researches carried out (by Asvadurov et al, 1970,
1972; Nicolaescu-Plopor et al, 1960, 1966; Crciumaru, 1980, and others) have
established that the different horizons of the same soil profile are of different ages (the
differences can exceed 25,000 years). These findings undoubtedly prove that the aeolian
sedimentation continued without interruption, concomitantly with soil forming, but the
sedimentation rate altered in the course of time simultaneously with the change of climate
(reflected by the different soil horizons).
Yaalon and Ganor (1973, quoted by Yaalon 1983) also distinguish: soils in which
the addition of wind-transportated dust becomes incorporated in the soil, without altering
the direction of soil formation; soils in which the soil forming process is significantly
affected; and soils which grow upwards by addition of new layers. Also, in Romania (on
Argesh terraces) the first category process mentioned by Yaalon was found and
denominated sedintegrating pedogenesis associated with aeolian accretion (Florea et al,
1989). It results from the above that, besides the proper soil forming processes, some
geological processes also participate to the soils and in the soil cover formation, as those
of aeolian sedimentation, in the case of some of the above mentioned territories having a
relative flat relief.
On the contrary, in the case of steep territory, together with the gradual land
modeling, a renewal, a continuous rejuvenation of the soil takes place, the soil evolution
degree being determined by the rate of the rock weathering process and the parent
material transformation within the soil and by the denudation rate which depends, beside
other factors, on the slope; to a certain extent, the thickness and differentiation degree of
the soil profile depend on the dynamic ratio established between these two processes
(pedogenesis and reliefo-modeling).
After Sieffermanns data (1973), in the equatorial zone with 2000-3000 mm annual
rainfall, a slight but continuous removal of the clay, silt and sand from the upper part of the
unindurated soil, even in the afforested zones, takes place, reaching up to 8/10 from the
quantity of the secondary products whch are newly formed in deep layers during the same
period; it represents approximately a rock layer of 2 mm thickness during a 100-year
period. Certainly, in the case of a very steep relief and of easy weatherable rocks a more
intensive development of denudation is to be expected, so that during approximately 5,000
years, the complete renewal of a soil layer of 100 cm thickness (on an average of 0.2
mm/year) would be possible. Therefore, in the soil and soil cover formation process in

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steep territories, the geological erosion process too, respectively the denudation process,
interacts.
During the orogenic epochs, or during glacial activity or other geological
phenomena, the soil cover can be rapidly removed or buried (and fossilized), as
consequence of the rapid intensification of the denudation processes, inclusive of
solifluction, removal of the earth mass, deflation, etc., or of sedimentation.
Among the geological processes which in certain regions interfere with the soil
cover and complicate it, are the volcanic eruptions, neotectonic movements, etc.
Hence, soil and soil cover formation represent a very complicated process. Besides
the soil forming processes (humus or other component accumulation, salt and base
leaching, colloids translocation, soil horizon formation, etc.) in the general process of soil
cover formation, considered at a geological scale, some geological process (and
geomorphic too) take place and interfere with the soil cover forming processes, e.g.
denudational processes and aeolian or fluvial sedimentation. The two categories of
processes have a cyclic development and their balance is reflected in the soil profile and
its properties. Their finding is an aspect still little underlined.
Without knowing the action of these processes, that generally take place so slowly
that it becomes virtually imperceivable on ones life-time, the soil history cannot be
established and the future behaviour of the soil cover cannot be forecast. Actually, the
present behaviour of the soil, considered as an open natural system, is determined not
only by its present conditions and features, but it is influenced also by its history, by the
changes accumulated previously in a gradual manner.

Figure 7.2 Scheme of the environmental conditions and processes which intervene
in the soil and in the soil cover formation. Denudation, sedimentation and other
geological processes interact wih the soil-forming processes and determine the
development degree of the soil profile (pedon) and its nature and also the soil cover
assemblage (Florea, 1985, 1990).
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Figure 7.3 Schematic presentation of the continuous, cyclic and concomitant

evolution, but at opposite rates of soil-forming and relief-forming processes (Florea,
1985, 1990).
The two figures (7.2 and 7.3) emphasize in fact two fundamental regularities (or
trends) of the long-term development of soils and soil cover, namely:
- The harmonization or congruence-bringing of soils and soil cover by continuous
adaptation in time of the pedogenetic processes to the environmental conditions in order to
bring into equilibrium the soil cover with its circumstances, especially climatic conditions.
This principle is a consequence of the paradigm of the general correlation, pedogenetic
factors pedogenetic processes - soil properties. This adaptation takes place with a
certain lag (known as soil inertia) which is necessary for the materialization of the
environmental changes in the soils concrete features and is produced by means of annual
pedorhythms. The rate of adaptation depends on the soils features (especially on the
mineral part) and environmental conditions (particularly topography and climate);
- The unceasing modification of the soil and of the soil cover due to permanent
interference of pedogenesis and reliefogenesis as a result of the continuous evolution,
cyclic and concomitant but at opposite rates, of the soil forming and geomorphic processes;
this concept is schematically presented in fig. 7.3 (Florea, 1985), which also includes the
idea of the rapid modification (catastrophic one) of the soil cover by erosion or covering,
due to the abrupt development of some geological phenomena. In a certain territory, the
soil cover is represented by well developed soils during the periods with intense soil
forming processes and weak geomorphic processes. On the contrary, during the periods
with very active geomorphic processes, the soil forming processes are weak, and the soil
cover is represented by soil in various degree of development, generally weakly
differentiated. It is possible that, during certain periods, the territory would practically lack
soil cover, for example a territory covered by glaciers or in which the erosion, extremely
intense, reveals compact rocks.
This concept of soil cover evolution differs from the previous ones because it does
not separate, does not divide in time the soil forming phases and the erosion186

sedimentation ones (the stable and unstable phases); soil forming processes and the
erosion-sedimentation ones do not alternate successively, but they take place
concomitantly and continuously, with cyclic variations of opposite intensity. This fact is
confirmed by the micromorphological studies which proved that not only the fossil soils, but
even the loess layers situated between fossil soils traversed a soil forming process (Florea
et al., 1983).
The cyclic evolution of the soil forming and geomorphic processes (which takes
place in leaps, periods of intense changes being followed by long relatively stable periods,
with slow changes) assumes therefore a certain recurrence of the mentioned processes,
after certain periods of time. The periodicity of these processes means actually an
analogous recurrence, because the reproduction of the respective phenomena never takes
place exactly in the same conditions. The landscape responds to this periodicity by the
succession of the surfaces with soil bands equivalent as time of soil formation, in the
accumulation regions, which have as correspondent the erosion surfaces in regions with
sculptural relief.
Soils and soil covers can also evolve during short periods of time, but ranging only
between certain limits, reflecting the evolution of the respective territory. Thus,
intensifications of diminutions of the processes of hydromorphy, erosion, salinization or
alkalization, can take place in accordance with the concrete change of the conditions of
soil forming (relief, climate); the rate of soil or soil cover evolution depends on the rate of
soil forming condition changes. Man can often violently intervene in the change of natural
conditions, entailing an adequate evolution of the soil cover.

7.3 Pedofluctuation
7.3.1 Definition and classification
The ondulatory evolution of the soil cover with large periods at a long time scale
was named recently (by Munteanu, 2000) pedofluctuation, on the analogy of the new term
of geofluctuation (Fyfe, 1994). The pedofluctuation refers to the intensive change on the
long term of the pedogenetic processes and soil cover due to ample changes of the
environmental factors at a global or regional level (Munteanu, 2002), unlike the
pedorhythm (Florea, 1996, 2009) which refers to the current variation in the dynamics of
the soil properties and pedogenetic proceses.
It is known that each region of Terra was subjected to intensive geofluctuations and
radical changes at various time scales (hundreds, but frequently thousands of years). For
example, one can mention the tectonic geofluctuations (with earth plates movement and
orogeneses), climatic geofluctuations (with periodical cooling and warming and glaciations
appeareance), seismic geofluctuations (with land deformation and earth-mass slidings),
volcanic geofluctuations (which lead to land surface covering with new deposits), cosmic
geofluctuations (as collision with comets or meteorites, heavenly bodies movement),
geomorphological geofluctuations (such as geological erosion or sedimentation processes),
rejuvenesence of land surface, etc.
Associated with these geofluctuations, different other pedofluctuations took place,
generated by intensive geological erosion and land covering with sediments, by ice-caps,
moraines, glacial or aelian deposits, by being burried with lava or volcanic ashes,
deformation of the soil horizons and distortion of the soil cover, etc. The pedofluctuations
lead to major changes in soil forming processes and implicitly in soil cover.
Pedofluctuations can be classified firstly as continuous (ondulatory or pulsatory)
and discontinuous, with interruptions (intermittent).

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According to the nature of the pedofluctuation factor, the pedofluctuation can be

subdivided in bioclimatic, orogeomorphic and combined pedofluctuations; finally, taking
into account the ampleness of the fluctuation, one can distinguish global, regional and
local pedofluctuations.
7.3.2 Continuous and discontinuous pedofluctuations
The continuous (ondulatory) pedofluctuations are specific for stable geomorphic
surfaces in which the soil cover is conserved for a long time, and the pedofluctuations are
produced after a long period of time. The period of existence of the soil cover with the
same features may be very long, million of years (like the case of old shields from
equatorial regions), long, thousands or tens of thousand of years (as in the case of old
relief units from the temperate zone); short, hundreds or tens of years (as in the case of
some areas relatively recently affected by geological phenomena flood-plains, for
example). The great successive climatic changes (glaciations, interglaciations) from
Quaternary are often associated in the surrounding area of glaciation with glacial deposits
and sequences of loesses and fossil soils (these ones will be especially discussed in
subchapter 7.6).
In the case of the discontinuous pedofluctuation, a destruction of the soil cover
takes place at one time, suddently, due to an intensive action of some geological
phenomena of great amplitude (erosion, sedimentation, volcanic eruption, etc) and gives
rise to other relief forms or geomorphic surfaces. After the cease or attenuation of the
destructive phenomena, the soil formation resumes, of course under the influence of the
new environmental conditions (fig. 5.10) and the soil layer is remade in the new evolution
period.
The duration of the destruction or annihilation of the soil cover may be very short in
the cases of catastrophic phenomena or somewhat longer, but remaking (regeneration) of
the soil cover needs a long time.
The rhythm of pedogenesis (pedorhythm) must not be equalized by the rate of
pedogenesis processes. This rate refers to the speed of the soil development; it varies
with the nature of the parent-material, environmental conditions, especially climatic
conditions, and also with the degree of maturity; it is higher in the first phase of soil
formation, diminishes in the final phase and then reaches the steady state or climax phase
of evolution.

7.4 Types of territories with different ratios pedogenesis-reliefogenesis

Taking into consideration the different ratios between processes of soil forming and
relief-forming one can distinguish the following main types of territories:
- territories with loess and fossil soils, corresponding to an accumulation relief,
formed by the aeolian sedimentation, in which a cyclic evolution connected with climatic
phases take place, resulting in loess and soil forming: the older soils which correspond to
an intensive soil forming phase and to a weak sedimentation one are persevered as fossil
soils between loess layers which correspond to a weak soil forming phase and to an
intense aeolian sedimentation one;
- territories with soils more or less developed from glacial deposits in low areas,
locally with wet land;
- territories with alluvial or buried soils, corresponding to an accumulation relief
formed by fluvial sedimentation (from flood plains or zones of present divagation), with
non-developed or weakly developed soils, in which the sedimentation prevails on the soil
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forming process; soils buried below the alluvial deposits at various depths frequently
appear and here and there wet lands;
- territories with monogenetic soils, continuously renewed, corresponding to a
sculptural relief in which a permanent renewal of the soils and of the soil cover takes place;
the older soils are not kept, being rejuvenated by denudation processes;
- territories with old, polygenetic (polyphasial) soils, corresponding to a relatively
stable relief, in which the soils (polygenetic) have submitted to a continuous evolution by
very different processes of soil formation or have received even a weak aeolian addition
and often keep some morphological features from the previous phases of evolution.
A sixth situation is to be added to the above ones, in which the territory has a soil
cover altered by accidental processes corresponding to areas which have been submitted
to fortuitous geological actions, as the covering by lava or volcanic ashes, local removals
of earth mass, etc.

7.5 Some terms meaning

In this context it is useful to specicfy the meaning of some terms regarding the soil
genesis and evolution. The following significances are proposed:
Soil genesis, pedogenesis, soil-forming and solifying or solification, as synonimous
terms, represent the giving rise of the soil and respectively all the forming phases from the
first stadium to the climax stadium (steady state) of the mature soil.
Soil evolution in the strict sense of the words represents the soil development on
the long term after the steady state is reached; this further evolution may or may not lead
to quantitative or qualitative changes in soils, due to soil properties modifications or
environmental condition changes. It is produced by the cyclic development of annual
pedorhythms at new parameters. In a broader sense, the term soil-evolution is used for the
soils change in time under different anthropical activities indifferent of their nature and
intensity; more adequate for this change could be the term of soil modifications
Soil dynamics refers to the soil life, to the processes that take place in the soil.
Monogenetic (monocyclic, monophasic) genesis of soil refers to the soil genesis or
soil formation under environmental conditions that remain the same over time.
Polygenetic (polycyclic, poliphasic) genesis of soil refers to the soil genesis or soil
formation under environmental conditions that varied in time and which underwent
changes in time. The polygenetic soils, generally, present relict features from past
evolution phases.
Soil anthropical modification is a soil change, more or less significant, linked from
anthropical transformation either of environment conditions and implicitly pedogenetic
processes, or of soil properties.
Soil anthropical transformation represent a major soil change as a consequence of
an intensive anthropical transformation of environmental conditions by improvement works
(and implicitly of pedogenetic dynamics) or of mechanical works which strongly change the
soil profile or of an unadequate land use and management that leads to severe
degradation processes (erosion, salinization, etc).
All these transformations take place by means of the modified annual pedorhythms
and their substances balance.
Soil development is a more comprehensive term which includes the soil genesis
(origin), soil evolution, soil dynamics and any kind of long-term changes in the soil and in
the soil cover.

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7.6 Sequences of loesses and fossil soils, mirroring of the environmental

conditions oscillations and pedocyclicity during the Quaternary
The Quaternary period associated with mans emergence began with an
accentuated cooling of the climate and with the appearance of a glaciation on the
terrestrial globe, well expressed in the northern part of the boreal hemisphere. This
geological event developed nonuniform, with many variations of the climatic conditions,
which have resulted in alternation of the cool periods (named glacials) and relatively warm
periods (termed interglacials).
For the Western Europe, Penk and Bruckner (1909) established four main glacial
periods, namely Gunz, Mindel, Riss and Wrm, separated by interglacial periods, on the
basis of the glacial phenomena study in the Alps and on the study of the Rhine terraces.
There also were climatic oscillations during each main glaciation with periods cooler and
warmer, named stadial and interstadial periods. A glacial and interglacial period lasted
about 120000 years, while the warmer period (interglacial) lasted for about 10000-20000
years.
In Northern America, the four main glacial periods are known under the terms
Nebraska, Kansas, Illinois and Wisconsin.
Of course, these periodical climatic variations were accompanied by high
oscillations in the energy flux at territorial surface and in the geochemical cycles balance,
which intensively influenced the processes of the modelation of the Earths crust and the
surface deposit formation, biosphere evolution and development processes of soils and
soil cover (pedosphere). These contrasting events were materializaed at high latitudes by
succession of stadials (glacials) and interstadials (interglacials), while at low latitudes
(equatorial and sub-equatorial zones) reverberated as pluvials and interpluvials.
One of the main phenomena produced within the zones around the ice-cap
shifting in time was the loess formation with intercalated bands which correspond to welldeveloped fossil soils. The sequence of loess and fossil soils represent the recording of
the processes of dust sedimentation and soil formation, which, in some circumstances and
regions, register the Quaternary climatic variations connected with the advances and
retreats of the ice-cap, in the way in which they manifested themselves in the different
parts of the periglacial area.
The study of the loesses-fossil soils sequences acquired a particular importance
lately, in connexion with the climate and vegetation conditions during Quaternary, as a
basis for the forecast of the global climatic changes, a question of deep concern.
The loess and fossil formations from periglacial area were studied by many
researches as far back as in the 19th century. In Western Europe, the study began with C.
Lyell and F. von Richthofen and was continuated by F. Brandtner, A. Bronger, K.
Brunacher, J. Fink, G. Haase, J. Kukla, I. Lieberoth, V. Lozek, J. Markovi-Marjanovi, M.
Pecsi, L. Smolikova, I.J. Smalley and others. In Russia and former Soviet Union a pleiad of
researchers were interested of loesses and fossil soils, especially of their origin, from the
beginning of the 20th century: P.A. Tutkovskii, V.D. Laskarev, A.I. Nabokikh, B.B. Polinov,
V.I. Krokos, L.S. Berg, I.P. Gerasimov, V.A. Obruchev, M.A. Glazovskaia, A.A. Velichiko,
A.I. Tsatskin and many others.
About in the same time, similar studies were carried out in Romania as well, by L.
Mrazec, G.M. Murgoci, P. Enculescu, N. Florov, Sava Athanasiu, M. Popov, Em.
Protopopescu-Pake, N. Bucur, N. Barbu, M. Spirescu, Ana Conea, N. Florea and others.
In Northern America, precious data about loesses and fossil soils from the
periglacial area have been gathered by G.D. Smith, C.E. Hutton, R.J. Russell, J. Thorp,
J.C. Frye, R.B. Daniels, R.V. Ruhe and many others.

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In the loess area around dessert-zones, D.H. Yaalon, J. Dan, I.J. Smalley carried
out studies and in the southern hemisphere H.S. Gibbs, J.D. Cowie, J.M. Bowler, A.B.
Costin.
Regional synthesis achieved R.V. Ruhe, H.S. Gibbs, V.A. Obrucev, A.A. Velichiko,
I.J. Smalley, Ana Conea, D.H. Yaalon.
7.6.1 Loess layers
7.6.1.1 What is the loess
Charles Lyell (1797-1875) introduced the term loess (1834) originated from the
Germain word lose.
The loess is considered a sedimentary aleurite rock, loose, which forms thick layers
of several meters to tens of meters, covering as a uniform and extended mantle different
relief forms and coming in contact with various geological formations. The loess presents
the following specific features:
- yellowish or pale-yellowish colour (10YR and more yellowish); sometimes with
gray or reddish hue;
- mechanical composition (particle size distribution) relatively homogeneous on
vertical direction with the prevalence of the silt (0.05-0.002 mm) often over 60%; the
particles of coarse sand (2-0.2 mm) are lacking or are present in an insignificant proportion
beneath a third (generally 10-33%);
- lack of a visible stratification, although some small vertical variations can appear,
related to the carbonate content or the clay content;
- high porosity, as a rule more than 45-50%, with tubular pores, and a high
permeability for water;
- detachment along vertical faces, the vertical walls (upright bluffs) of loess from
geological outcrops having considerable heights and stability due to a vertical fissured
particle aggregation;
- a noticeable carbonate content (between 12 and 25% in most cases), although
there are loess layers whithout carbonates (lehms) or, on the contrary, with a much higher
carbonate content, in the case of those layers influenced by the neighbouring calcareous
rocks;
- the quartz is the predominant mineral (60-70%) followed by feldspath, mica and
different clay minerals;
- high capacity to become more compact, so that microdepressions on the
interfluves can appear;
- low resistence to breaking and to particle-detachment, especially in the humid or
moist state, so that the loess is vulnerable to erosion by water.
Loess-like deposits are different from loess by colour, being more brownish or
grayish, but especially by a higher content of coarse particles (sandy loess, loessic sand)
or by a higher content of fine particles (clayey loess), so that some specific features for
loess evanesce in a great measure.
In tables 7.1 and 7.2 some characteristics of loess materials of different textures
from Dobrudja and the Danube Plain are presented; the predominance of the particles of
0.05-0.002 mm diameter must also be emphasized (very fine sand, coarse silt and fine silt),
in a proportion of more than 60%, even 70% in the case of sandy loess, as well as the
good total and aeration porosity.

191

Table 7.1 Mechanical composition of some loess materials of various textures

(Conea, 1970)
Texture No. of Values:
Particles size distribution in %
Porosity
of loess samples mean 2-0.2 0.2-0.1 0.10.05- 0.02- < 0.002 < 0.001 Total
Of
or limits mm
mm
0.05
0.02 0.002
mm
mm
% aeration
mm
mm
mm
%
Clay
44
mean 0.07
0.6
3.0
30.4
30.0
34.4
30.7
42
23
loam
limits 0.0-0.3 0.2-1
1-6
27-35 29-34 30-37 27-34
Loam
49
mean 0.09
0.8
6.7
35.1
28.9
27.9
24.9
53
23
limits 0.0-0.3 0.2-1
5-9
31-41 24-34 24-32 20-30
108
mean 0.08
0.9
11.3
38
23.3
24.1
21.6
54
23
limits 0.0-0.2 0.2-2 8-16 33-42 21-32 20-30 18-27
Sandy
35
mean 0.05
1.0
15.8
41.5
23.2
17.3
15.6
55
25
loam
limits 0.0-0.1 0.4-2 12-20 39-45 19-26 14-20 12-18
Loamy
8
mean
0.0
1.4
13.2
51.6
19.2
13.2
11.4
52
24
sand
limits 0.0-0.1 0.5-2 8-18 43-60 16-22 11-18 10-16

Table 7.2 Mechanical composition of some loesses and loesslike formations from
the Romanian Danube Plain (Conea et al., 1963)
Texture of the formation
Clay loam loesslike material
Loam loesslike material
Loam loess
Sandy loam loess

2-0.2 mm
0.01-1
0.01-1
0.01-1
0.01-1

Particles size distribution in %

0.2-0.02 mm 0.02-0.002 mm < 0.002 mm < 0.01 mm
24-45
25-31
30-42
45-55
40-50
23-29
27-32
38-45
40-60
22-32
17-28
30-40
55-65
20-27
15-19
20-30

7.6.1.2 Opinions related to loess formation

The loess genesis is one of the most discussed and controversial problems in the
geological, geographical and pedological literature. In their study about loess and loesslike
deposits, Marossi (1970) and then Gherghina, Grecu and Cote (2006) gathered many
conceptions and hypothesis on the origin of these formations which were grouped in 5
categories:
- the group of the aquatic origin theories: marine, lacustrine and lacustrino-glacial
(considered now-a-days obsolete) or fluvial and fluvio-glacial (which in the present are
regarded as ways of transport and accumulation of the component materials of loess);
- the group of the sub-aerial origin theories, very important being the aeolian theory
(F. Richthofen, 1878, 1882; F.A. Tutkovskii, 1899, V. V. Obrucev, 1911, 1945, 1950, 1957;
and other numerous researchers) because it is the most embraced theory; according to it,
the dust transported and deposited by the wind originated from neighbouring deserts, from
periglacial zones or from local sources;
- the group of the theories on loess accumulation by slope processes (deluvial,
colluvial or proluvial) generally associated to other processes;
- the polygenetic theory which consideres the loess as an issue of many continental
sedimentation agents, one of them having a predominant role in certain conditions;
- the group of loessification theories (L. S. Berg, 1916, 1940; I.P. Gerasimov, 1964)
that consider the loess with its specific features as a product of the weathering and soil
formation process in the loessification zone specific to the zone with siallito carbonate
192

weathering earth crust. According to the pedological theory of loess formation (L.S. Berg)
the loess should be considered as a soil eluvial formation arising in a normal manner from
its parent material, in an environment of desert climate which was prevailing in a
postglacial time. This theory gave rise to a forcible discussion in the former Soviet Union,
exposed by Smalley and Rogers (1997). Bergs pedological theory received partial support
in Russia from Gerasimov4 (1964) and no support outside Russia. If loess represents a
normal soil formation, the presence of deep homogeneous thickness of it at a depth of 5 to
10 m, and even 20 m refutes Bergs hypothesis, since with the process of soil-formation
forming soil, in the usual sense of the word, the transformation of any layer of a
mechanical consistency corresponding to that of loess can be explained only at a depth of
2 to 3m (quoted from Smalley and Rogers, 1997, p. 388).
In Romania, loess layers and loesslike strata are very widespread in the Danube
plain, Dobrudja Tableland, Suceava Tableland, Transylvania Plain and in
intramountaineous and intrahilly depressions, especially on different terraces. From the
published works of Macarovici (1968) and Conea (1970) it seems that the eolian theory of
loess formations was in general the most backed-up theory (by L. Mrazec, Sava Athanasiu,
G. Murgoci, P. Enculescu, N. Florov, C. Brtescu, M. Popov, M. Spirescu, Ana Conea,
C.V. Oprea, N. Florea, N. Bcinan and others). The dust origin was considered by
Mrazec to be the southern regions of Ukraine steppe, but Murgoci and then Ana Conea
showed that for the Lower Danube Plain the dust originated from the alluvial deposits of
the large valleys of the rivers which ran across the plain, fact that entitles Macarovici to
attribute to loess of this plain an alluvio-aeolian origin. In Dobrudja and in some lower
areas of mountaineous regions the alteration products of the rocks from the proeminent
massifs can also be added (alteration products that have been transported by the wind or
by surface running waters).
The loess genesis from alluvial sediments was described by I. Simionescu, I.
Atanasiu and N. Bucur and N. Barbu, the last ones attributing (1956) a fluvial origin
combined with the loessification process for the loesses of the terraces from Moldavia. The
loessification is defined as a diagenetic process by which the sediments with a certain
granulometrical composition (alluvial deposits, marls) acquire the loess features under
influence of the processes of geochemical alteration. The granulometrical composition, a
certain content of CaCO3, the aridity and the alteration play an important role in this
process. The authors proposed the term loesslike rocks for the rocks formed by diagenesis
and the term loess only for the aeolian formations. Also, Oprea and Contrea consider that
the loess from Muresh Plain formed by loessification of certain fluviatile deposits. Florea et
al (1966, 1989) as well, underlined the role of the aeolian acretion and the role of
sedintegration by soil forming process of the deposited dust, as well as of the diagenesis
in the process of loess formation.
The hypothesis of the deluvial-prolluvial origin of the loess-like materials was
sustained by E. Liteanu and his disciples.
Also, N. Bucur and N. Barbu (1959) support the loess formation by the alteration of
old clayey deposits (Sarmatian) through a process of loessification.
A new way (model) of loess genesis as geological formation (non deposit) by
concomitant sedimentation soilforming and subsequent accretion and diagenesis (Florea,
2002, 2009) was presented recently and developed in this volume with some modifications.

Gerasimov considers the loess as pedolith in 1971. This term was also used by H. Erhart (1965 and Pecsi).

193

7.6.1.3 Conditions necessary for loess formation

For the loess formation certain circumstances must be met at the same time:
- geomorphic condition of a certain stability;
- bioclimatic conditions of some aridity and desert or steppe vegetation;
- existence of rich deposits of aleurite materials as dusty source or certain
circumstances favourable to generate continuously such a material in large quantities, as
for example: aleurite material resulted by alteration in situ of some rocks, especially in
areas with rocky massifs, as is the case of some mountaineous and hilly regions, which
are a common provider of such material; material of physical alteration by gelifraction of
surface deposits, of course, in propitious climatic conditions (periglacial area with moraines
and other glacial deposits, areas of deserts or semi-deserts with scarce vegetation);
material resulted by transport and sedimentation from running waters in fluvio-glacial
plains, floodplains, etc;
- existence of transport agents such as winds from a predominant direction (from
the direction of the aleurite material source), high enough to transport by air particles of
dust and very fine sand on long distances (in the area of the source coarser particles
being left, generally sands remains, modeled as a rule into dunes), or running waters on
slopes;
- conditions of relatively slow and regular sedimentation of the aleurite material
transported by wind and its fixing at land surface due to the diminuation of the agent force,
vegetation cover able to retain the dust, sheltering and stability conditions, etc.
All these conditions are met especially around deserts and former glacial areas and
along the river valleys, fact that explains the large widespreading of loess in these areas.
If the climatic conditions change in time and pass from arid or sub-arid to sub-humid
or humid, the loess formation ends by a soil formation (Luvic Chernozem-like or Luvisollike) which interrupts the vertical continuity of loess layer by the formed soil layer, which
can become in time fossil soil.
The loess formation can also begin on the aleurite deposits of different origins by
the soil-formation process associated closely with the continuous aeolian sedimentation.
7.6.1.4 A new scenario of loess genesis by concomitant sedimentation soil
forming accretion and then diagenesis of the inferior part of the soil which
became profound.
Synthetizing the opinions on loess origin in a relatively simple but comprehensive
vision, the result seems to be that the loess formation is a natural complex process,
characteristic to arid - sub-humid zone, by which different predominant aleurite sediments
from terrestrial surface are transformed in loess or loesslike deposits. The largest areas
with loess are widespread in the vicinity of deserts and in the periglacial zones; they
correspond, as a rule, to siallitic-carbonate weathering geochemical zone.
The complex process of the loess genesis consists of the simultaneous phenomena
described in the following (a-d):
a) The relatively slow and continuous sedimentation of aleurite material transported
especially on aeolian way (but locally also by running surface waters particularly during the
first phase), brought from neighbouring area, sometimes from large distances, and
deposited at land surface in arid zones; according to the studies carried out in the USA
(Ruhe et al., 1971) and in Romania (Conea, 1970), the loess layer thickness decreases
with the distance from the source, but its texture becomes finer and finer. Very frequently
the material near the source is coarse and modeled as dunes.
194

Accretion

Soil

Slow and continuous sedimentation

of aleurite material and continuous
sedintegrating soil genesis

Soil

Loess

Diagenesis

Initial
Sediment

Initial
Sediment

Figure 7.4a Scheme of the interaction of processes of sedimentation,

accretion, sedintegrating soil genesis and diagenesis in the process of loess
formation.

a
Arid climate
1

A
Bt

A
Bt
Diagenesis

d
Humid climate
5

1 - Initial sediment. 2 Soil with humus accumulation (Calcisol, Cernisol) in arid or

steppe climate. 3 Soil with clay and/or oxides iluviation. 4 Loess. 5 Soil with clay
and/or oxides illuviation, profound; the lower part of the soil is transformed by diagenesis
as old soil.
Figure 7.4b Loess forming as a dynamic complex process close correlated with
sedintegrating soil-forming process in the arid-subarid climate.
Stages of loess forming by concomitant processes of: a slow and continuous
sedimentation and sedintegrating soil-forming in arid conditions; b sedimentation
and sedintegrating chernozemic soil forming, soil accretion and diagenesis of lower
soil part (which became profound) with its transformation in loess in arid-semiarid
climate; c sedimentation, sedintegrating eluvio-illuvial soil forming, soil accretion
and diagenesis of the lower soil part with its transformation in loess in semiaridsemihumid climate; d sedimentation, sedintegrating eluvio-illuvial soil forming,
soil accretion and diagenesis of the lower soil part with its transformation in old soil
in humid climate (without loess forming), unseparated (welded) from the actual
soil.

195

b) The continuous soil-forming of the deposited material (of the type of seraziom or
loessoid soil according to Murgoci, 1910, or even Chernozem) by processes of weathering
and pedogenesis specific to the relatively arid zone, processes which take place
simultaneous with the continuous sedimentation in the layer situated at the surface
elevating the earth crust and thickening the soil horizons (sedintegrating soil-forming);
c) The soil accretion, i.e. the gradual rising of the lands surface and also of the soil
by continuous depositing and concomitant soil formation (sedintegrating) of the aleurite
deposited material so that, in time, the surface soil (previously formed), becomes a layer
situated at a depth higher and higher which will no longer be influenced by alteration and
soil forming processes specific to the respective zone (arid). In the soils of the Romanian
Danube Plain developed in loess, the age at different depth (Munteanu et al., 1977)
determined by 14C method in the Netherland laboratories, is of 1000-2000 years for the A
horizon, 6600-9100 years for the Bv and Bt horizon and 13000-26000 years for loess at
200 cm depth and the medium rate of soil growth (accretion) is of 0.2-1.0 cm per century
for soil and 0.5-2.5 cm per century for loess. Similar data were presented by Scharpenseel
(1971) for Chernozems, namely 5000 years at 100 cm depth and about 15000 years at
245 cm depth (for a Chernozem from Orel, Russia).
These data prove, without doubt, the soil rising (growth) over time (aeolian
accretion); at the same time, one can deduce that sedimented material at the soil surface
was subjected to a soil-forming process (in A horizon) during about 2000 years, process
by which the deposited material accumulated humus, acquired a dark colour, became
structured, homogeneous and porous without stratification traces; and took place a CaCO3
migration with the carbonate-illuvial horizon formation, etc.
d) Diagenesis of the inferior part of soil that became profound layer previous
subjected to soil forming processes - after the loss of the direct connection with the
processes from the land surface; by this diagenesis some features of the soil are lost, for
example the humus content (due to the mineralization of the organic matter and to the lack
of annual addition of organic remnants) and macrostructure, etc, but other features are
preserved, for example the microstructure (Postolache, 1966; Florea et al., 1987), high
loosening and porosity, vertical direction of the tubular pores, lack of stratification, etc.
Thus, the layer situated below the soil cover (from the surface) is transformed in loess,
process sometimes named proper loessification, (strictly speaking loess formation,
loessification or loessifying including according to this concept all processes above
mentioned).
This complex process of loess forming involves various concomitant and
successive phenomena, mentioned above, whose interaction is schematically rendered in
figure 7.4a in conditions of arid to subarid regions.
If the climatic conditions change becoming humid, the complex process of loess
genesis ends with (is interrupted by) a soil (Bt horizon) that cannot be transformed in loess,
but in brown clay layer (argilith).
Figure 7.4b presents schematically the phases of the evolution of the complex
process of loess genesis with climatic change from arid to humid; the whole process of
loess forming is presented in the figure legend and needs few explanations. One finds that
the loess is formed only in the conditions of relatively arid climate, because the
transformation of the soil iluvial B horizon (formed in humid climatic conditions) in loess is
unfeasible; this horizon (layer) can become buried paleosol in time (see further on).
This model of the loess formation can be named shortly the hypothesis (theory) of
loess genesis by concomitant sedimentation, soil-forming, accretion and subsequent
diagenesis or, more explicitly, the hypothesis of loess genesis by sedimentation process of
aleurite material and its concomitant soil-formation in arid zone, followed by subsequent
accretion and then by diagenesis of the lower part of the previously formed soil

196

(consequence of its surface rising due to continuous deposits of the aleurite material
gathering up, accretion).
This model integrates data known especially in arid regions and represents a joining
of Bergs pedological theory of loess formation with the other theories, particularly with
aeolian theory. It explains in the same time the possibility of the formation of thick loess
strata in the conditions of a continuous accretion in continuous arid conditions.
Nevertheless the origin of the aleurite material (the dust) which generated the loess
is predominantly aeolian; in the hilly regions and piedmont plains the similar other
granulometric materials (deluvial, prolluvial) can also interfere with the aeolian ones or can
interrupt the loess vertical continuity.
According to this concept of loess genesis, the loess is considered to be a complex
geological formation and not a simple deposit. Although the loess passed in the formation
process through a phase of soil, so that it can be considered fossil paleosol (G. Murgoci,
1910), by its attributes the loess constitutes a sedimentary rock resulted though diagenesis
of a aleurite sediment which was previously subjected to a soil forming process in a
relatively arid climate, so that it can be considered as a pedolith as well (in the sense of
Gerasimov, 1971).
Therefore, the expressions such as the loess was deposited or loess
sedimentation produced seem to be inadequate because the dust was deposited,
then transformed in a true geological formation.
The new thought on loess genesis brings clarification in connection with the
material origin, climatic conditions of formation and relationships with fossil and actual soils.
It also has implications concerning stratigrafic significances of loess layers, buried fossil
soils and interpretation of climatic variations in Quaternary; the local-regional value of all
interpretations of the loess sequences and fossil soils (sequences of pedoliths) must also
be pointed out.
7.6.2 Fossil soils
7.6.2.1 Burried and present-day paleosols (or fossil soils)
According to Elseviers Dictionary of Soil Science (2006), fossil soils or paleosols
are soils totally or partially formed on a landscape of past geological time, having in their
profile at least one horizon from Pleistocene or of older age; they are divided in buried,
relict and exhumed paleosols.
Also, Yaalon (1990, Global Soil Science) defines these soils in a similar way,
pointing out at the same time that they exhibit an excellent record of the past
environmental conditions under which they were formed.
Many researchers contributed to the fossil soils study in close conexion with the
loess layers (mentioned at the beginning of this subchapter)
The first researcher that differentiated soils according to their congruence with
actual environmental conditions was B. Gze (1959) which distinguishes three categories:
actual soils, inherited soils (sols herits) and fossil soils.
Actual soils are soils formed under environmental conditions and pedogenetic
processes which exist at the present time in the respective place. As a rule, they are
postglacial in the temperate and cool zones, or pluvial in North Africa. The author
distinguishes an undeveloped (immature) actual soils and developed (mature) actual soils
and considers them as monophasic or monogenetic soils formed under the same
(unchanged) pedogenetic conditions.
According to Ruellan (1971) these soils are considered to be in equilibrium with the
environmental conditions or in the course of reaching this state.

197

Inherited soils represent the soils formed mainly under anterior environmental
conditions and pedogenetic processes, different from those present-day in the respective
place and which are found under vegetation (at day). Gze distinguishes between
monophasic inherited soils, which developed under conditions close to those of the
formation period, and polyphasic inherited soils, having inherited shares in the lower part
of the soil profile, while in the upper part the relict feature is covered by the new
pedogenesis corresponding to present conditions; they reflect a polycyclic pedofluctuation.
According to Ruellan (1971) and Gerasimov (1971), these soils are considered
relict soils, respectively present-day soils with relict features, in other words paleosols at
present-day in an active or living (functional) state.
Fossil soils or paleosols in a restricted sense are soils formed under anterior
environmental conditions and pedogenetic processes, very different from the present-day
ones, and which are not found under vegetation being covered by more recent geological
formations (buried fossil soils).
These soils are considered by Ruellan (1971) as buried soils at high depth or
paleosols, and by Gerasimov (1971) fossil paleosols which are found in a dead state and
not alive.
According to Gze, the erosion processes can bring at lands surface buried fossil
soils which can re-enter under the influence of environmental conditions; these soils are
considered exhumed fossil soils. But the fossil soils that have remained at land-surface
passing in the arid climatic conditions and therefore non-subjected to a new pedogenesis
(the case of some lateritic soils from Australian desert) were considered conserved soils
(mummified soils) (fig. 7.5).

Figure 7.5 Scheme of the relationship between inherited soils and fossil soils (by B.
Gze, 1959).
1. Pedological formations
2. Geological formations
198

The following terminology will be used in this material:

- present-day soils, which can be monogenetic or polygenetic soils, the first being
actual soils with features congruent to environmental conditions, the second ones having
relict features from anterior development phases, justifying denomination of present-day
paleosols;
- buried soils that can be either fossil in a restricted sense, represented either by
monogenetic mature soils or paleosols covered by relatively thick geological deposits
(loess, glacial deposits, volcanic ashes, lava, deposits of different other origins) which lost
the link with the processes and biogeohidrochemical cycles specific to present-day soils,
or actual soils, more or less mature, buried under alluvial or colluvial deposits in floodplains and proluvial fans.
The paleosols are hence either present-day soils well developed (present-day
paleosols) which passed by different development stages under varied climatic and
topogeographical conditions, or fossil soils buried at a notable depth (buried paleosols)
under different geological deposits.
Fossil soils in sedimentary rocks which are older than the Quaternary are also
described by Fridland and Buianovski (1977), Roeschmann (1971) and Ortlam (1971). The
research of these fossil soils is more complicated due to the interference with old
tectonical and metamorphical processes, and also to the fact that the very old
environmental conditions were much more different from those of Quaternary; these facts
need certain precautions in interpretation. Sometimes, nevertheless, the diagenesis
transforms them in very significant stratigrafical markers, as for example the violet
horizons in the upper Bunter and upper Rotliegendes formations (Triassic and Permian).
Fossil soils are studied by Paleopedology, which is the historical branch of
pedology, whose aim is: to retrace the development stages of all types of soils, principally
during the course of the Quaternary Period; to research, study and interpret, in every type
of soil, the relict pedological characteristics, which could be proof of all ancient pedological
processes no longer taking place, irrespective of the age of these old phenomena and
regardless of the reasons why the pedological processes have changed; to identify, study
and interpret soils which have been buried under a layer of allochtonous materials
(colluvial, alluvial, aeolian or volcanic in origin) regardless of the thickness and age of this
allochtonous layer (Ruellan, 1971).
To these ones, Gerasimov (1971) also added as an objective of paleopedology the
study of the pedoliths (the geological products of destruction and redeposition of modern
and ancient soils, to a certain extent preserving properties acquired in the process of soil
formation).
In the following pages, we will consider the loess as pedoliths, as well as fossil
paleosols (buried), because these last ones are also much different from the present-day
paleosols, due to diagenesis after burial under different deposits (see subchapter 2.2). By
this approach, the paleosols are only the old polygenetic soils situated at land surface,
while buried fossil paleosols form a special category of pedoliths5, that can be named
pedargith, which can be interloessic pedargiths (Chernozem-like or Luvisol-like) and
subjacent pedargiths (generally Luvisol-like) (see also further on).
7.6.2.2 Recognition features of the paleosols
In the Quaternary geological outcrops (columns), the bands of fossil soils
distinguish themselves from the geological layers between which they are intercalated by
some features, the most important being:
5

Pedolith in the Gerasimov sense and not as in Elseviers Dictionary of Soil Science as sediment dominantly composed
and deposited material resulting from soil erosion, respectively as soil sediment.

199

- the colour of the band material, which is in most cases brown, often with reddish
hue (indicating the old B horizon, clay enriched), contrasting with adjacent layers; in some
cases, particularly in the oldest layers, the colour may be red, but in the cases of fossil soil
from more recent loess layers can be dark gray to blackish (indicating the old horizon with
humus of Chernozem-like soils);
- the texture of the band material is finer than the texture of adjacent layers,
especially in the case of layers more or less reddish coloured;
- compactness of the material more accentuated than the one of the adjacent
layers material;
- the presence of the clay skin in the case of bands that result from soils with Bt
horizon;
- the presence of some horizons with carbonates accumulation, old calcic horizons
of Chernozems, sometimes very big concretions named loess dolls (puppets), formed
probably under the influence of an addition of CaCO3 from ground water;
- the presence in some cases of a light layer (former eluvial horizon) situated above
the illuvial horizon;
- local neoformations (concentrations) with specific colours of iron and manganese
oxides, of carbonates, sometimes spots specific to gleization, as well as traces of casts of
roots or of worm channels, etc.
7.6.2.3 Changes in buried (fossil) soils (diagenesis)
Due to soil layer covering with geological strata and due to the interruption of the
link with the environmental factors which normally interact with the soil, important changes
(diagenesis) take place within the respective buried soils: some soil properties or features
are losing or attenuating or are being kept in a modified form. These changes are a
consequence of the pressure of the covering-strata exerted on the buried soil layer, of the
moisture and saline regime modification and particularly of the bio-geochemical cycles
suppression (cessation); therefore the natural dynamics and functionality of true soil
disappears.
The most conspicuous changes that can take place in buried soils are:
- a gradual evanescence in the upper A horizon with humus accumulation, due to
mineralization of the organic matter in the absence of the annual input of vegetal matter,
so that the dark A horizon can be maintained only for a certain period (one finds it only
between recent loess layers, but not between old ones); this evanescence may be an
explanation much more plausible for the lack of the A horizon of fossil soil than the erosion
of this horizon accepted in the past;
-the loss or effacing of the dark colour of the old A horizon (values of the hue in the
Munsell system become higher), connected with the mentioned evanescence;
- an increase of the bulk density of the buried fossil soil material
(fossipedocompaction);
- a loss of the macrostructure of the upper horizon, but a preserving of the
microstructure;
- an intensification of the red colour of the clay horizons in the course of long time,
as a consequence, it seems, of the evolution of iron oxides, these becoming more
anhydrous;
- a secondary carbonatation (carbonate riching) of the buried soil under the
influence if the case of the covering materials and of the circulation of waters
containing calcium dicarbonate;
- development of new processes of dissolution, mobilization, oxidation, dehydration,
reprecipitation, etc, leading in some cases to cementation or lithification of soil material;

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- a change of the salinity and sodicity degree and gypsum content depending on the
local circumstances;
- a modification of pH values and of cationic composition of the cationic exchange
capacity (CEC) of buried soils under the influence of ground and infiltration waters;
- a diffuse transition between fossil soil and adjacent layers.
In some cases, the soils truncation by erosion or soils accretion by deposits are
possible. Also, the welding of two soils (resulting in a very deep soil) is mentioned in
various papers.
In general, the soil horizons and especially illuvial horizons, redoximophic features,
new formations (concentrations), soil fabric partially, root and worm casts are resistant to
change (alteration) and therefore are used as criteria for describing and differentiating the
units of the paleosols classification.
7.6.2.4 Paleosols classification
As a rule, the buried fossil soils are classified according to the soil taxonomy system
used for present-day soils, with some adaptations. Indeed, most soil scientists consider
that types of horizons in the buried paleosols are more or less the same as those found in
present-day soils, allowing their use as classification criteria in any taxonomy; but,
generally, only higher taxa of the system are used.
Recently, Nettleton et al (1998) proposed an interesting classification system of the
buried paleosols inspired from the American Soil Taxonomy (1975) which was completed
two years later (Nettletown et al, 2000), including all paleosols. The proposed system
comprises the following paleosols orders: paleohistosols, paleospodosols, paleoandisols,
paleooxisols, paleovertisols, paleoaridisols, paleoeldisols, paleomollisols, paleoevolvisols,
paleoinceptisols and paleoaddendosols. These orders are subdivided in cryptic, enduric,
lithic and emergent to designate buried, relict, lithified and exhumed paleosol suborders.
The prescript modifiers are used to describe the physical characteristics of the paleosols
(accretionary, buried, complete, truncated, welded, carbonate enriched, unleached,
leached, gleyed, oxidized) and postscript modifiers for parent material origin and the
extensiveness of the paleosol landscape (residual, alluvial, colluvial, aeolian, pyroclastic,
extensive, inextensive < 4050 ha).
Using the WRB-SR (World Reference Base for Soil Resources) the major units of
paleosols could be: paleohistosols, paleoferalsols, paleopodzols, paleoluvisols,
paleocambisols, paleocernisols, paleocalcisols, paleogleysols, paleosalsodosols,
paleovertisols, paleoarenosols, paleolithosols; the subdivisions of paleosols at the next
level can be: buried, relict, exhumed and lithified.
In fact, buried paleosols and lithified paleosols are transformed by diagenesis and
lost the functions of true soils (see also subchapter 7.6.2.3). There are also some
diagnostic features that cannot be used as criteria for paleosols classification, as for
example soil base saturation degree, soil acidity, mobile Al, humus content, soil material
colour, etc. In addition, one knows very little about soils from the Earths primitive crust
when environmental conditions were very different from those from present-day. As a
consequence, the paleosols classification at a low level is very difficult; it needs adequate
criteria. Moreover, lithified paleosols and most buried paleosols should be considered
pedoliths (like the loess layers), in other words rocks formed by diagenesis of past soils
and could be named pedargiths and treated as separate entities and therefore classified
according to the specific criteria. Even Murgoci (1910) considered that loess is itself an
old soil more or less metamorphosed just like the reddish or brown deposits (bands, a.n).;
the difference is only that these bands .. were formed under other climatic conditions than
this loess. Consequently, both (loesses and buried fossil soils) represent pedoliths.

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7.6.3 Sequences of loesses and fossil soils (of pedoliths)

7.6.3.1 Some definitions
In the study of Quaternary outcrops with loesses and fossil soils (pedoliths) one
finds that the bands of fossil soils are often formed of two or more soils which succeed on
vertical direction, separated or not by loess layers or weak soil-formed material. These
ones were named fossile Bodenkomplex in Austria (Fink, 1954), Pedokomplex in former
Czechoslovakia (Lozek and Kukla, 1959) or fossil soil group in Romania (Popov et al,
1964, Conea, 1970).
A fossil soil group, as a rule, consists of a soil of relatively humid climate, generally
Luvisol (with Bt argic, more or less developed) and either a subjacent Chernozem-like soil,
sometime slightly developed or even lacking, in the case of the recent loess layers, or
more developed non-Chernozem-like soils in the case of older loess layer.
The loess layer together with the soil developed on this layer, respectively with the
corresponding soil group, forms a lithological unit named loess series (Conea, 1970) or
loess fossil soil alternance. This lithological unit corresponds in time to a climatic cycle
from arid to humid conditions, respectively to a sedimentation-pedogenesis cycle, often
associated with glacial and interglacial (or stadial and interstadial) phases (but there is not
alyways a perfect correlation, see further on).
In Dobrudja, Conea (1970) distinguishes five loess series (loess-paleosol
alternances), the last (more recent) three ones corresponding to some stadial-interstadial
phases.
A succession of a few loess series which can be seen in geological outcrops forms
a sequence of loess and fossil soils. Such sequences are found on large extent in the
periglacial area from the temperate zone (Nabokikh, Moskvitin, Florov, Fink, Brandtner,
Bronger, Lozek, Brunnacker, Lieberoth, Ruhe, Daniels, Simonson, Popov, Spirescu,
Conea) or ground deserts (Yaalon, Dan), marking the climatic evolution of the respective
region. The Quaternary geological study in these regions cannot be carried out without the
study of the loess-fossil soils sequences.
7.6.3.2 Some characteristics of loess-fossil soil sequences (pedoliths sequences)
The studies carried out on loess fossil soils sequences, over a certain period of
time (Popov et al, 1964, Florea et al, 1966; Conea, 1970; Bronger, 1971 and others)
allowed the finding of some general features or characteristics of these pedoliths, namely:
- the depth of the fossil soils diminishes from the older pedological formation to the
recent ones, while on the contrary, the depth of loess layers becomes in general higher
and higher;
- the colour is as a rule redisher in the oldest fossil soils (5YR, 75YR) than in the
most recent fossil soils (10YR); this fact was associated with warmer climate or with a soil
forming of long-duration in the older periods; however, it is now considered that the redish
colour could be caused by the hydrous iron oxides that pass into anhydrous iron oxides
during time;
- the content of organic matter (humus), though minute, is however differentiated;
according to the date of the Dobrudja loesses soil fossil sequences (Ana Cornea, 1970),
the loess material contain 0.08-0.25% humus, luvisol-like fossil soils 0.32-0.58% humus
and chernozem-like fossil soils 0.45-0.62% humus;
- the carbonates content variation on vertical, though secondary processes of
carbonatation took place, it still marks the maximum values at the bottom of the fossil soil
profile (corresponding to Cca with carbonates illuviation), sometimes developed on high
thickness, may be due to a superposition of two such horizons; it must also be noticed that
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there is a higher carbonate content in chernozem-like fossil soils than in luvisol-like fossil
soils;
- the particles size distribution (texture of the earths materials) is very clearly
differentiated; in the case of Dobrudja sequences (Conea, 1970), the loess layers have the
less finer texture, generally medium loamy or coarse loamy (fine loamy for the old loess),
the chernozem like fossil soils are fine loamy textured and the luvisol-lilke fossil soils are
fine loamy to clay;
- pH values for different pedoliths vary a lot, being influenced by the presence of the
secondary carbonates; nevertheless, it must be pointed out that there are pH values over
9.4 at all fossil soils and subjacent loess layers from Dobrudja;
- Cationic exchange capacity (CEC) in Dobrudja is differentiated mostly due to
clay content; the loess layers have low CEC, between 11 and 15 meq/100g, chernozemlike soils having 14-22 meq/100g and luvisol-like soils 21-36 meq/100g; concerning the
composition of the cationic exchange capacity (CEC) one finds a state different from the
actual soil (with Ca + Mg over 95% from CEC), consisting from the participation of the
exchangeable Na in a proportion of 10-25% from CEC (Ca and Mg, together, decreasing
at 88-75% from CEC) for all loess materials and fossil soils, this period being in
concordance with the increase of the pH values above mentioned.
The increase of the exchangeable Na percentage in loess and fossil soils from
Dobrudja could be explained by an addition of natrium chlorides (by aeolian
impulverization) from neighbouring sea water.
7.6.3.3 A model for the formation of loesses and fossil soils sequences and their
distribution in territory
Based on the concepts of loess and fossil soil described by Murgoci (1910, 1924),
Yaalon (1971, 1983, 1990) and Gerasimov (1971), and also based on the soil-formation
model as a result (balance) of the pedogenetic and geomorphic processes (Florea et al,
1966), as well as on the concept of continuously, cyclic and concomitant, but with opposite
rhythms of the mentioned processes (Florea, 1985), a model of the development of the
alternances of loess and fossil-soils in periglacial areas during Quaternary (Florea, 2002,
2009) was infered, model which reflects, in fact, the soil covers evolution in space and
time (continuous pedofluctuation).
It is generally thought that an evolution cycle of sedimentogenesis and pedogenesis
is materialized in an alternance of loess-soil and the succession of some alternances
forms the loesses fossil soils sequence. The types of soils from this sequence depend
on the climate evolution during the Quaternary time, but also on the regions location as
against the ice-cap, namely the distance from the ice-cap and the situation in the continent
regarding the distance from the ocean.
The model, presented for the first time in 1966, is based also on the modification of
the climate and vegetation zones, parallel with the variable ice-cap position, represented
schematically in fig. 7.6 and on the climatic oscillations model, concomitant with the
advances and withdrawals of the ice-cap presented in fig. 7.7 (according to Ewing and
Donn, quoted by Popescu, 2001). The model took into account the continental regions of
the temperate zone in which the climate varies very much during the year (in the oceanic
regions the climate remains more or less humid with forest vegetation, climate in which,
from aeolian deposits, combisols and luvisols often stagnogleyed or even Stagnosols were
formed).

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Figure 7.6 Schematically spatio-temporal representation of the forming of loesses

fossil soils sequences as against the ice-caps advance and withdrawal (Florea,
1966, 2002, 2009): g area covered by ice; a proxiglacial zone; b near periglacial
zone; c intermediary periglacial zone; d distant periglacial zone.

Figure 7.7 Schematic representation of cyclic climatic oscillations during a fragment

of the glacial period (according to Ewing and Donn, 1956, quoted by Popescu, 2001)
(1, 2, 3, 4 various climatic phases: 1 very cold, humid to arid; 2 cold, arid; 3
temperate, sub-humid; 4 temperate-warm, humid).
According to the mentioned authors, the cyclicity of the glacial and interglacial
phases also depends on the changes produced in the ice-cap itself, besides the cosmic
causes (change of the terrestrial orbit parameters and soil radiation variation) and telluric
causes (tectonical movements, atmospheric composition changes). Four phases of the
cyclic evolution of the ice-cap can be distinguished:
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- phase of the ice caps formation begins when the Arctic Ocean, liberated of ice,
received high amounts of warm water from the Gulf Stream; intensified evaporation
determines rich precipitations on the surrounding land as snow, and also determines the
formation of the ice cap, during time;
- at the same time with the ice-caps formation, the decrease of the ocean level took
place, as well as the threshold appearance in the Atlantic Ocean, the cessation of the Gulf
Streams activity, the movement of ice masses on the land and of the icebergs in the
oceans, so that a pronounced climate cooling started to take place;
- as a consequence, the evapotranspiration and implicitly the precipitations
diminished very much, so that the area of the ice-cap non-supplied was reduced and a
slow warming took place;
- the increase of the Ocean level (due to ice-melt and global warming) leads to the
melting of the Arctic Ocean floes, permitting the recommencing of the Gulf Streams
activity and starting the whole cycle all over again.
This evolution of climatic conditions (fig. 7.7) with a warm and humid phase before
the cold (glacial) phase explains the formation of the well developed soil with Bt horizon
(often with reddish colour), sometimes with stagnogleyzation and even cryogenic features
associated with passing to a new evolution of climatic cycle which begins with an intensive
cooling and aridifying of climate.
Table 7.3 Succint characterization of periglacial zones
Zone
a
Proxiglacial
zone

Climate and vegetation

Very cool climate

Few precipitations
Cryogenic phenomena
Scarce vegetation,
tundra and sylvotundra

b
Cool climate, relatively
Surrounding
humid
near zone Cryogenic periglacial
phenomena
Forest vegetation
Humid temperate zone

c
Intermediary
zone

Temperate climate,
less humid
Sylvosteppe and
steppe vegetation
Sub-humid temperate
zone

d
Distant zone

Warm temperate
climate, sub-arid to
arid
Steppe or dessert
vegetation
Arid temperate zone

Surface deposits and

Pedogenetic processes
sedimentation processes
Alteration by gelifraction with
Forming of cryosols and
dust formation
podzols from coarse deposits
Very varied surface deposits,
or lehms
predominantly glacial, often Extinded areas with gleysols
resedimented by wind or
and histosols (peaty soils)
transported by water in
periglacial area
Very varied surface deposits,
Luvisols forming with
especially glacial
profound profile (Bt horizon,
On accumulative relief, the
very developed by aeolian
dust is deposited on large
accretion)
areas, but in minute amounts Pedogenesis sedintegrating
as a rule, very fine particles
and superimpressing
Often phenomena of
stagnogleyzation
Aeolian surface deposits are Soil forming of Cambisols or
predominant on accumulative Chernozems from deposited
land forms
materials
Moderate to slight rhythm of
Aeolian weak accretion that
leads to a little loess forming
dust deposition, as a rule
calcareous and of medium to
by diagenesis of the lower
coarse size
part of the soil
Aeolian surface deposits are Soil forming of Kastanozems
or Calcisols (Aridisols)
predominant (loess and
Active aeolian accretion with
sands)
transformation of the soils
Accentuated rhythm of dust
lower part in loess by
deposition, as a rule
diagenesis.
calcareous and of coarse size

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As mentioned before, a full evolution with a loess-soil alternances formation

(continuous cycle pedofluctuation) takes place only in the areas in which the climatic
variations (influenced by the advance and retreat of the ice-cap and implicitly the
variations of sedimentationsoil forming processes) were from arid climate to humid
climate. In the rest of the areas, which had more reduced climatic variations, the phases of
ice-cap advances and withdrawals are partially reflected (or not at all) in the loessfossil
soils column. From this point of view some important situations can be distinguished,
presented by stratigrafical columns 1-8 corresponding to the positions 1 to 8 in the
periglacial area (fig. 7.6), which permit the analysis of the loesses and soils that are
formed in space and time. The eight geographical positions can be situated in different
zones of climatic oscillations in the course of time, a, b, c, d (fig. 7.6). The characteristics
of these zones are presented in table 7.3
In the case of the geographical position 1, the location was covered initially by the
ice-cap, which in its withdrawal left moraine material which in the following interstadial was
subjected to soil-forming processes. This location, being situated in the vicinity of the soilcap, received little amounts of aeolian or glacial material, which was integrated in the soil,
thus making it deeper, without loess-forming.
On the contrary, in the case of the last location, 8, situated all the time in an arid
climate, active sedimentation and weak soil-formation take place at the lands surface, only
as an aeolian accretion with loess formation, so that a continuous column of loess without
buried soils is formed.
In the case of location 2, situated all the time (stadial or interstadial) in humid
climate only luvisol-like are formed, very profound, integrating in the soil the little dust
sedimented; the column formed is without loess layers.
Only in the case of the locations situated in such a geographical position so that in
time the climate changes from arid to humid, nr. 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 in figure 7.6, it is possible
to have columns of loess and fossil soils, reflecting more or less the glaciation variation;
the glacial phases are marked either by steppe soils or by forest soils, and interglacial
(interstadial) phases by loess layers.
Of course, many intermediary situations can be found in the territory.
Finally, some findings can be emphasized about this model of soil cover fluctuations,
in relation to the formation of loessfossil soils sequences and their interpretation:
- with the exception of the surface covered by the ice-cap, in the periglacial area
one can find continuous processes of sedimentation of dust or other glacial material and
processes of soil forming, with different intensities in space and time;
- the loess gives rise as process of formation of arid climate and becomes a rock as
a consequence of the continous aeolian accretion which leads to land-surfaces rising and
to the transformation of the lower part of the soil in loess by diagenesis;
- there are at least three zones with different climatic oscillations in Quaternary;
sequences of loess and fossil soils are formed only in areas with climatic variation from
arid to subhumid or humid, while in the areas with insignificant climatic oscillations only
loess is formed continuously (if the area was arid all the time) or only soil with a well
developed B horizon (if the area was humid all the time);
- within a glacial cycle, the soil formation takes place continuously, beginning with
soils of arid climate (Calcisols, Kastanozems) and loess as a consequence of aeolian
accretion and diagenesis, then passes to the forming of Chernozems (in continental
regions) or Cambisols (in oceanic regions) associated with a slight loess formation by
accretion and diagenesis, and finally to the forming of Luvisols (in humid climate, often
with stagnogleyic features) or Podzols; the cycle of the pedogenetic development could
often finish with Chernozems (or Cambisol) or even Kastanozem, depending on the
specific features of the area climatic oscillation;

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- the interpretation of the sequence of loesses and fossil soils from each point
should be correlated with the geographical position and climatic variations in time of the
respective point, according to the scheme from fig. 7.6;
- the cycles of dust-sedimentation and soil-forming are not identical in time on the
whole periglacial space with the glacial (stadial) cycles, as there is a certain lag as well as
a difference of duration from one periglacial zone to another;
- taking into account that in the same moment in time the fossil soils formed in
various points were different depending on the geographical situation, the fossil soils can
not be used as chronological stratigrafical markers with general character; their value from
this point of view is limited, having only a regional significance;
- the darkish subhorizon Bt of different Luvisols can be regarded as a relict
character from previous evolution phases as chernozemic soil, and presence of some
cryogenic features can be explained by a rapid passing from the temperate phase to the
cool phase more and more arid.
Although the presented model is based on the observations from the periglacial
zones with continental climatic features (around the Black-Sea and from the Romanian
Danube Plain) and has applications only in similar regions, nevertheless the concept and
basic ideas of the new approach can also be used in other regions with loesses and fossil
soil sequences.
7.6.3.4 Forms and areas of loessification in the periglacial region
The loess forming (loessification) process correlated with the soil forming process
develops non-uniformously in space and time in the region with propitious conditions for
loessification. Depending on the type of loessification developing, a few forms of this
process can be distinguished, having various and variable extent in territory (fig. 7.8 and
7.9).
The diagenesis (the loessification) of the layer situated under the soil develops
normally - according to the process described above if the soil which is forming at the
land surface is a Calcisol (Aridisol) and the bioclimatic conditions are desert or steppe
conditions. But these bioclimatic conditions are changing (cyclically) during the course of
time, becoming more and more humid and, after a certain period, the climatic cycle will be
started again. According to J. Bdel (1951, quoted by Macarovici, 1968) the climatic zones
changed their places on the globe in Wrm period by comparison with the actual zones,
the ice-cap and frost lands moving down from northern latitudes of 74-77o to 51-55o, the
tundra zone being found between 45o and 51o (instead of 69-74o); the forrest zone
narrowed from a belt towards 45o and 69o to a belt between the latitudes of 36-45o and
also the arid zones diminished from a belt betweek latitudes 12-32o to one between 15-28o.
On the contrary, the savanna and tropical forest zones widened from latitudes of 6-12o and
respectively 0-6o to latitudes of 8-15o to 0-8o in Wrm.
Of course, parallel with this bioclimatic conditions change in the course of time,
corresponding changes also occurred to the other environmental conditions, gradually
altering the processes of sedimentation, soil-forming and diagenesis as well.
If the climate remains continuously relatively arid in the course of Quaternary in a
certain place from the periglacial area (fig. 7.8 and 7.9a), the soil stratum (with humus)
reached at depth (by accretion) is transformed by diagenesis in a rhythm similar to the one
of soil-forming at lands surface, so that the vertical column of formed loess is relatively
uniform (without coloured bands). The continuous loess forming takes place continuously
(in areas with relatively arid conditions without notable oscillations).

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Figure 7.8 Scheme of correlation between loess forming and soil forming during
Quaternary in tabular periglacial areas with different climatic oscillations
1. all-time arid climate; 2. climatic oscillations from arid to humid; 3. all-time humid
climate
The global climatic modification can also determine the change of environmental
conditions of the respective place and the transition from steppe to sylvosteppe conditions
with Chernozem formation at land surface. In this case, the evanescence of the dark
horizon (with humus), previously formed and reached at depth (by accretion) after a period
of sedimentation reactivating, needs more time so that this layer remains in the loess-soil
column as a blackish layer between two loess layers a certain period of time; as a rule,
such situations are met in the recent loess layers, but are not found in older loess layers
as a consequence of the evanescence by diagenesis. The climatic oscillations from arid to
sub-arid (subhumid) are, therefore, characterized by loess formation with intercalations
(bands) of fossil chernozemic soils (chernozemic interloessic pedargiths) (fig. 7.8 and
7.9b).
If the climate of the respective place changes, becoming humid (parallel with
Quaternary climatic fluctuations) the dust sedimentation is more reduced (and with finer
dust) and the concomitant development of the sedimentation and soil-forming processes
take other paths. The soil accretion (or growth) is very slight, so that the alteration and soilforming processes lead to the formation of a soil with Bt horizon, enriched in clay, of
reddisher colour, of variable thickness depending on the humid period duration.
The transition to a new arid climatic period leads to the intensification of the dust
transport and sedimentation and in this way to processes described for loess genesis.

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Figure 7.9 Scheme of some loesses fossil soils sequence fluctuations in time (in
correlation with advances and withdrawals of the ice-cap) and in space (in areas or
locations with different climatic oscillations): a area with insignificant climatic
oscillations in arid climate; o area with climatic oscillation from arid to humid; u
area with insignificant climatic oscillations in humid climate.
(1 fluvial deposit; 2 loess; 3 fossil soil; 4 present-day soil;
o concretions of CaCO3; iron oxides neoformations; ~ - cryogenic features).

209

This new loess will cover the soil of the previous humid period, of which Bt horizon
keeps its features in a great extent because it cannot be loessified by diagenesis, so that
remains as a brown coloured band, clayey, perceived as fossil soil between two loess
layers. The band (layer) of fossil soil finishes, then, one cycle of climatic evolution of
sedimentation-soil-forming from arid climate (the loess) to humid climate (fossil soil). The
new loess marks the beginning of a new climatic arid-humid cycle. The climatic oscillations
from arid to humid are characterized, thus, by the loess formation with intercalations of
fossil (luvisol-like) soils, clayey, (luvisol-like interloessic pedargiths) (fig. 7.8 and 7.9o).
If the climate in the respective place remained humid all the time during the period
of climatic oscillations and if the sedimentation remained insignificant, the soil-forming
process exceeded the dust sedimentation intensity, so that in the course of time welldeveloped soils with Bt horizon, clayey and profound, get formed; the deposited dust is
integrated into the soil, so that a layer of loess will not be differentiated. The soil that is
forming on the land-surface is in fact a profound present-day paleosol which condenses
itself over a long period of time; the upper part is of course active as actual soil, but the
lower part (below 2 m) is more or less changed by diagenesis, acquiring features of rock
(pedolith). In this case, the relative humid climate was characterizied by insignificant
oscillations, favouring the soil-forming to the detriment of sedimentation and loessification,
having as result the continuous formation of a paleosol, of which the lower part is a
pedolith, lacking loess layers (luvisol-like subjacent pedargith) (fig. 7.8 and 7.9u).
A similar opinion is presented by Dan and Yaalon (1971) for the paleopedological
formations in the coastal desert fringe areas near the Mediterranean Sea. Also, Yaalon
(1990) finds that uninterrupted aeolian deposition and pedogenesis could produce the
continuous bands of soil horizons (complex or welded profiles). In this case, more than
one soil forming period and/or sedimentation of new material, when it is less than the
depth of pedogenesis, are the cause of the superposition. Such sections are frequently
difficult to recognize and interpret.
Taking into account the ratio between sedimentation intensity and soil-forming
intensity and its modification in the course of the Quaternary, some main areas of
loessogenesis and pedogenesis can be distinguished in the periglacial zone, namely (fig
7.9):
- area of continuous loessification with formation of the loess layers without
apparent intercalations of fossil-soils, in which the sedimentation and loessification is
active and pedogenesis is slight (loessifying pedogenesis); it corresponds to the territories
relatively far from the glacial region or near the desert region, in which the climatic
conditions were permanently more or less arid and dust-sedimentation intense;
- area of intermittent loessification, with formation of sequences of loess layers and
fossil soils, in which the arid conditions with humid ones succeed in the course of time, as
well as the corresponding sedimentation-soil-forming conditions; two sub-areas may be
distinguished, the first in which buried chernozem-like soils appear, corresponding to
climatic variations from arid to sub-humid, and the second one in which buried soils with Bt
clayey brown or reddish appear, corresponding to climatic oscillations from arid to humid;
often the two sub-areas succeed in time, so that in the loess layer the two categories of
fossil-soil appear superposed;
- area of pedoevanescent loessification, with formation of profound soils, the
pedogenesis being very intense, sedintegrating and superimpressing, with slight
sedimentation and integration of the deposited dust in the soil, without forming loess layers.
Considering the loess layers and fossil soils as pedoliths (Gerasimov, 1971; Florea,
2009), the following areas can be named: area of continuous loessification, area of
successive loessification and pedargithification and area of continuous pedargithification
(sedintegration).

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There are, of course, very different situations of transition among these types of
areas. It must be pointed out that not always the periods of different climatic conditions
correlate with the evolution periods of glacial phenomena.
7.6.3.5 Loess and fossil soils were formed in the glacial (stadial) or interglacial
(interstadial) period?
A question raised in discussion and very much debated was the chronological
relationship between loess layers and soils, on one hand, and the glacial and interglacial
(stadial and interstadial) phases, on the other hand. Some researchers think that the loess
layers formed in the glacial (stadial) phase and that the soil was created in the interglacial
(interstadial) period, opinion defended in Romania by Popov, Conea and others;
opposite to them, other researchers consider that the soil formed in glacial (stadial)
periods, more humid, and loess layers in interglacial (interstadial) periods, more arid,
opinion argued by Protopopescu-Pake and Spirescu in Romania.
To find an answer to this question it is necessary to scrutinize in time and space the
location of the loessfossil soil sequence as opposed to the ice-cap region (fig. 7.6). Acting
in such a way, one comes to the conclusion that in the area occupied by the ice-cap and
the zones from its immediate vicinity the soils that became fossil soils were really formed
in interglacial (interstadial), while in the area further than the ice-cap, with climatic
variations from arid to humid, the soils developed continuously, marking the phase of
maximum development in the humid period from the glacial (stadial) period, but the loess
layer in the period prior to this (Florea, 1966, 2002, 2009). In the area that remains arid in
the glacial period as well, little differentiated soils develop in time, soils continuously
growing and being transformed in loess in the lower part of their horizons by diagenesis
(area of continuous loessification). On the contrary, on the area which is maintained humid
all the time, with minute variations, sequences of loess fossil soils do not appear, their
place being taken by the profound clay polygenetic soils (area of continuous
pedargithification). A full recording (memory) of all climatic variations in the soil cover is
found only in those areas of periglacial region in which the climatic conditions changed
from arid to humid (sub-humid) parallel with the transition from interglacial (interstadial) to
glacial (stadial) periods in Quaternary (area of successive loessification and
pedargithification) (fig. 7.8).
The problem of the glacial or interglacial phase of the fossil soil or loess forming
ceases according to the model of loess and fossil soil formation presented above the
respective phases of the pedoliths formation becoming a problem of variation of the ratio
between sedimentation and soil-forming processes over time, depending on climatic
conditions, the loess layer corresponding to the phase of sedimentation soil forming in
the arid - sub-humid climate, but fossil soil well expressed corresponding to a phase of
humid climate phases which finish the geological cycle of climatic evolution. The extent of
congruence of the climatic variations with glacial phenomena oscillations depends on the
location in time and space of each investigated loessfossil soil sequence.
7.6.3.6 Geological interpretations of the loess-fossil soil sequences
The loess layers and buried fossil soils (the pedoliths), with their relict features, are
considered by many geologists as important elements which contribute to the clarification
of some complex events from Quaternary. They were utilized either as stratigrafic markers
(particularly fossil soils) or for explaining the climatic fluctuations in the Quaternary.
In the USA the fossil soils are considered stratigrafical markers. Thus, the bands in
loess not only represent a slow-down in rate of loess deposition and serve as markers of
sedimentary facies within a loess body, but also indicate incipient paleosol formation
(Ruhe and al., 1971). They were utilized for delimitating the sedimentary deposits
211

corresponding to the great Quaternary glaciation Nebraska, Kansas, Illinois and Wisconsin.
They represent the time interval in which soil forming took place and not the depositing of
different material.
In Europe, Loek (1964) has described a detailed stratigrafical scheme based on
loess series and fossil soil groups (pedokomplexes) and Fink (1966) has found different
loessfossil soils sequences depending on climatic conditions of various regions from
Austria, thus emphasizing the large variety of these sequences in space, the regional
nature being signaled in other countries as well. This fact complicates a lot more the
interpretation, which in a great extent is subjective, linked with the way in which each soil
scientist or geologist perceived the concepts of loess and fossil soil.
The studies of loesses and fossil soils were very useful for the reconstitution of the
regional evolution of climate and vegetation. It seems that they are probably a better time
record of the regional climate than pollen sequences are, which seem to show
considerable variations over a short time range (Yaalon, 1990, in Global Soil Change). In
the paleoclimatic interpretation of the sequences of loesses and fossil soils it is necessary
to take into account the concept and model of these sequences formation, which also has
in view the location in space and time of the respective sequences (see also subchapter
7.6).
The fossil soils covered with alluvial sediments from different terraces and old fluvial
fans do not necessarily need to be correlated with the climatic oscillations, because their
appearance may be linked with tectonic movements and other events which lead to the
variation of the sediment amounts produced in the hydrographical catchment area or to the
change in their transport and sedimentation.
The fossil soils buried by marine and lacustrine deposits, formed during the
transgressions, can be correlated with warmer periods (interglacial, interstadial), but the
climatic conditions at that time depend on the location on the globe.
The fossil soils covered by volcanic ashes or basaltic lava can not tell anything
about the climatic evolution; if the volcanic rocks from below and above are dated, the
study of the soil can bring information about the rate or duration of the soil-forming process.
The effect of hot lava upon the soil at their contact-surface can also be investigated.
Finally, the fossil soils covered by colluvial material or sliding materials, generally of
local spreading, are the consequence of drastic or catastrophic processes, more or less
extended.
On the whole, the stratigrafic interpretation of the loesses and fossil soils is
relatively complicated and difficult due to the big variety of evolution situations in space
and time of the environmental - zonal and local conditions. The observations and
conclusions have, therefore, especially a regional value and can be generalized with very
much discernment. As a consequence, the determination of the different formation age by
14
C radioactive method and other modern methods acquired a large use.
7.6.4 Soil-cover fluctuation during Pleistocene on the Romanian territory
It is known that nowadays the study of the loess layers fossil soils (coloured
bands) in Quaternary sequences represents a way of reconstitution of the bioclimatic
conditions evolution in this geological period.
Studies of buried soils began in Russia (Tsatskin, 1997). Glinka (1904) recognized
the palaeogeographical relevance of buried soils. Laskarev (1912) and Nabokikh (1915)
began stratigrafical studies of palaeosols within the loess of the Russian Plain, and then
Krokos (1926, 1934) and other recognized loess soil sequences as an evidence of
climatic fluctuations. Polynov (1927) pointed out the importance of studies of ancient soils
buried in loess. These ideas were developed by Berg (1916, 1940), Moskvitin (1930),
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Glazovskaya (1956), Gerasimov (1971), Velichko (1978, 1990) and others (the above
authors cited after Tsatskin, 1997).
Almost in the same time, such studies were performed in Romania too. Murgoci
(1910) and Florov (1927), based on loess soil sequences, made scientific considerations
about climatic changes in the Quaternary. Bratescu (1937) discussed the criteria for loess
stratigraphy correlated with glacial phases. These studies were continued and developed
by Protopopescu-Pake and Spirescu (1963), Popov et al. (1964), Conea (1964, 1970,
1972), Spirescu (1965, 1970), Florea and Asvadurov (1966) and others.
In Middle Europe, important contributions had Fink (1954), Brandtner (1954),
Brunacker (1956), Poas (1960), Lieberoth (1963), Loek (1964) and others.
The sequences of loes and fossil soils attracted long time ago the attention of many
geologists and soil scientists which are agreeing that these sequences reflect climatic
oscillations in Quaternary. Differences among various authors appear concerning
interpretation of data. Some of them consider that loess deposits are formed in cold and
arid climatic periods (stadials and glacials) and soils in warm and more humid climatic
periods (interstadials and interglacials). Other scientists have an opposite point of view.
Murgoci, as far back as in 1910, gave attention to the fact that loess not only brown
bands corresponds to a soil-formation period, namely to Aridisols (Calcisols) formation.
In fact, in territories uncovered by glaciers as mentioned above soil formation
takes place continuously both in stadial and interstadials (glacials and interglacials)
periods, but under different climatic conditions. As such, formation of the sequence of
loess and fossil-soils is possible only in territories with periodical oscillations, at a
geological scale, from arid to humid climates (Florea, 1966, 2002, 2009), which entail
variations in the rhythm of aeolian dust sedimentation and soil and loess forming.
7.6.4.1 Altitudinal oscillations of the soil-forming domains
The soil cover evolution during the Quaternary period was cyclic, as a consequence
of the geological phenomena cyclicity. As a result, successions of loess and fossil soils are
met in the regions with an accumulative relief, while in regions with a hilly or mountain
relief a weathering and a soil cover developed, the latter being subsequently affected by
the denudation processes (during the glacial or postglacial phases).
The formed soils were conserved only on the old quasihorizontal surfaces, unrallied
in the erosive cycles, but they were the subject of the polygenetic evolution according to
the bioclimatic oscillations.
The scheme in figure 7.10 shows the altitudinal oscillations of the pedogenetical
domains in the Carpathians and peri-Carpathian regions during the Upper Pleistocene; on
this basis, one can reestablish the soil cover in different climatic phases (the Pleistocene
periods by Crciumaru, 1980). Eight pedogenetic domains were distinguished, some of
them being specific only to the glacial stadia and others to the interstadia. Only the main
pedogenetic processes are presented, with the specification of the predominant soil type
(although it is associated with a series of other soils).
During the cold and humid periods, specific to the glacial or stadial phases, the
region within the persistent snow area, of about 800 (600) m altitude had a tundra climate,
with frequent cryogenic phenomena, with weak soil forming processes, with the
predominance of the physical disintegration; almost everywhere on the quasihorizontal
surfaces, the stagnodogleyization processes were manifested. Towards the lower limit of
this area, under conditions characteristic of the sylvotundra, the peaty soils were frequent;
on the higher and better drained surfaces, the podzolization processes became evident.

213

Figure 7.10 Scheme of the altitudinal oscillations of pedogenetic domains during the Upper
Pleistocene
1 - Persistent snow accumulation and glacier formation; glacial erosion; 2 weak soil
forming processes with cryogenic phenomena (mountaineous tundra): active denudation,
local sedimentation of periglacial loess; 3 weak soil forming processes with an intensive
weathering and acid humus accumulation (alpine grassland); active denudation; 4 active
soil forming processes, with an intensive weathering, acid humus accumulation and
sequioxides migration, specific to spodosols (coniferous forests); intensive moderate
denudation; 5 active soil forming processes, with a moderate weathering and formation of
a different base saturated humus, according to the rocks nature, specific to cambisols
(deciduous forests); weak moderate denudation; 6 active soil forming processes, with an
intensive weathering and clay migration, specific to argiluvisols, generally luvisols
(coniferous and deciduous forests) with cryogenic processes at high altitude during the
stadial phases and with a more intensive pseudogleyization process during the more humid
and colder periods (spodosols formation under coniferous forests on sandy deposits
during the stadial phase); on slopes weak-moderate denudation curbing the solification
process; 7 active soil formation process, with a moderate weathering, base saturated
humus accumulation and a relative intensive leaching, specific to mollisols with B horizon
(forest-steppe); weak sedimentation with the material integration into the soil profile having
weak contrastant horizons; 8 weak-moderate soil forming process with weak-moderate
weathering base saturated humus accumulation and weak leaching, specific to mollisols
without B horizon (steppe); active sedimentation process with the material integration into
the soil profile as a continuous horizon.

214

The domain of the clayilluvial soil formation type extended beyond the inferior limit
of the mountaineous tundra, thus corresponding both the coniferous belt (reaching lower
heights as compared with its present limits) and their deciduous forest, the latter having a
great extent in the area occupied by steppe during the warm periods.
To the end of the glacial phases, the climatic conditions were favourable to the
periglacial loess sedimentation on account of the materials left by the glaciers and their
aeolian transportation.
In the areas allowing the sedimentation, the deposited silt was integrated within the
pre-existent soil material. The silt sedimentation determined either the clay horizon
thickening or the Luvisol upper horizon formations. To the upper limit of the argiluvisol
domain, spodosols were formed on sandy deposits.
7.6.4.2 Fluctuations of the soils distribution in territory
The soil distribution during the glacial period (fig. 7.11a) indicates a widespreading
of the mountaineous tundra soils, on the area corresponding approximately to the
mountaineous region. Podzols are present only in the low mountaineous region, on acid
and intermediary rocks. Argiluvisols (Luvisols) had a great extent, much over their present
limit; their presence is revealed by the existence of the buried soils in some areas of the
Romanian Plain, Dobrudja Plateau, Moldova Tableland, Banat and Criana Plains. The
present Vertisols and Stagnogleyic soils area and also many subsident areas were at
least during some of the stadial phases the domain of a fluvio-lacustrine sedimentation
and of some hydromorphic soils.

Figure 7.11a Scheme of the soil distribution during the stadial phases (Wrm I) of the Upper
Pleistocene in Romania
1 Persistent snow and glaciers; 2 Soils of mountaineous tundra; local formation of periglacial
loess; 3 Spodosols and Cambisols; 4 Argiluvisols and Cambisols; 5 Agiluvisols; 6
undeveloped soils; 7 lakes, marshes and hydromorphic soils; 8 shore line.

215

Undeveloped soils also covered wide surfaces along the main rivers, as well as in
the eastern part of the Romanian Plain, where sporadically in the higher and more
stable lands, Argiluvisols developed.
During the interglacial or interstadial periods, the climatic conditions improvement
was accompanied by the modification of the different limits of the vegetation belt and, at
the same time, by the modification of the rate and sometimes of the pedogenetic
processes connected with the relief, rock, etc.

Figure 7.11b Scheme of the soil distribution during the interstadial phases of the
Upper Pleistocene in Romania
1 Humic-silicate soils; 2 Spodosols; 3 Cambisols; 4 Argiluvisols (with the
predominance of the albic luvisols and stagnosols; 5 Argiluvisols; 6 Vertisols; 7
Chernisols; 8 loessic soils (weakly developed or a relatively arid climate), associated with
soils having a mollic character; 9 undeveloped soils.

From the pedogenetic point of view, the interstadia (fig. 7.10 and 7.11)
characterized by the weak soil forming processes, by the strong disintegration and the acid
humus accumulation and by humic-silicate soil formation in the high mountain domain of
alpine grasslands. In the low and middle mountain domain, the soil forming process was
active, the weathering was intensive, with acid humus formation and/or sesquioxide
migration; the soils were Podzols and Cambisols. In the peri-Carpathian region, the soil
range was very large, but Argiluvisols prevailed, here and there associated with
Stagnosols or Vertisols. The conditions favourable to Chernisols formations (with B
hohrizon) were limited to some areas from Transylvania, Moldavia or intramountaineous
depressions, where they were sometimes associated with hydromorphic soils.

216

Figure 7.11c Scheme of the soil distribution in the present period in Romania.
1 Humic-silicate soils; 2 spodosols; 3 cambisols; 4 argilluvisols (with the
predominance of the albic luvisols) and pseudogleyic soils; 5 argiluvisols and cambisols;
6 argiluvisols; 7 vertisols; 8 cambic and claylluvial mollisols; 9 carbonatic and
semicarbonatic mollisols; 10 undeveloped soils (in floodplains and dune areas).

The areas with conditions favourable to the sedimentation and formation of the
loess specific to an arid climate were relatively widespread during warm and dry
interstadia, including very large surfaces in the Romanian Plain, Dobrudja Plateau, the
southern and eastern part of the Moldavia Tableland, a part of the Banat and Criana
Plains, with loessic soils in an early stage of evolution, generally associated with
Chernisols.
7.6.4.3 General remarks
Comparing figures 7.11a, b, c, it results that, under relatively stable relief conditions,
the area between 400 and 800 m altitude was included, during all the Upper Pleistocene
period, in the forestry domain, being subjected predominantly to a clayilluvial soil formation
type with a relatively weak sedimentation of the silt and its integration within the soil profile,
with the formation of the contrasting horizons from the particle size distribution and
mineralogical point of view; in some cases, on the most stable and quasihorizontal
surfaces, albic Luvisols or Planosols developed (therefore they were considered as
polyphasic soils). When the relief had a relatively little stability and the denudative
processes diminished the pedogenetical process effect, weakly differentiated soils were
formed, for example Cambisols.
In the area corresponding nowadays to the Chernisols domain (where the forestry
vegetation alternated with a steppe one), the bioclimatic oscillation amplitudes were more
marked and they determined very different pedogenetic processes, from a stadium to an
interstadium, revealed the presence of a succession of the loess deposits and of the fossil217

soils having a B horizon. That is why one can meet, only in that area, the most complete
and the clearest Quaternary loess and fossil soil profiles (sequences).
This soil cover cyclic evolution on the Romanian territory, schematically mentioned
above (fig. 7.10, 7.11) did not take place continuously, but with many oscillations, during
the same stadial or interstadial phases. They were certainly similar to those described by
Enculescu (1921) relative to the soil evolution after the last loess formation in the southern
part of the country. During the humid glacial phases, soils affected by the humidity excess
had a maximum spreading in depressions, plains, tablelands or on terraces, and the
salinized ones had the best conditions to develop in the middle interglacial (or interstadial)
phases characterized by the most arid clmate.
On the other hand, concomitantly with the floodplains, alluvial plains or terraces
formation, the soil became more complex, by the formation of new soils on these land
forms, which entered then the soil cover cyclic evolution.
At the same time, the soil cover was predominantly affected by some modifications
related to some local or regional relief alterations, for example those related to the
neotectonic processes or to the processes of weakly drained plain cutting. These
processes determined oscillations of the intensity and of the spreading of the
hydromorphic, salinization, percolation or soil eluviation processes.
The present soil evolution processes are also influenced by mans productive
activity and his intensively use of the land in agriculture and forestry. As these influences
become more and more widespread and important, special attention will be devoted to
them.
7.3.4.4 Reconstitution of the climatic evolution during Quaternary. Examples.
The successions of different loess series (loess layers and soil situated between
different loess layers) are frequently used for the reconstitution of the climatic conditions in
the period of the forming of these loess series. They have different significations
depending on the type of soil situated between the loess layers.
Loess series ended in soil weakly differentiated (Cryosols, Calcisol or Aridisol)
correspond to an inclement climate period with an active aeolian dust sedimentation and
weak soil forming which can take place either in the vicinity of the ice-cap (very cold
climate of tundra, cryogenic soil-forming) or distant from the ice-cap (arid temperate
climate, Calcisol-forming); the depth of the loess layer depends on the sedimentation
intensity and period duration.
Loess series ended in chernozemic soil correspond to a long-time arid climate
(loess layer) which passed to a sub-arid or sub-humid climate with a reduced dust
sedimentation and accretion and Chernozem forming.
Loess series ended in luvisolic soil correspond to a climate evolution from an aridsub-arid climate period (loess layer) to a humid climate period (fossil soil) with well
developed forest soils, when the dust sedimentation and accretion were reduced and soilforming active (the aeolian dust is integrated in soil, sedintegration); the depth of loess
layer and respectively that of the fossil soil depend on the period duration of arid-subarid
climate and respectively humid-climate.
In general, the loess layer is continued up by a chernozemic fossil soil and then a
luvisolic fossil soil, between the two paleosols non-existing a clear delimitation or
particularly superposing. Very frequently the chernozemic fossil soil (paleosol) is
integrated in the upper paleoluvisolic soil (becoming polygenetic). This fact is not
interpreted as a lack of the climatic phase corresponding to the chernozem forming, but
that the respective chernozem evolved in time passing in Luvisol during the period of
humid climate.
218

Figure 7.12 Sequence of loesses and fossil soils in South Dobrudja and Quaternary
climatic oscillations (by Popov et al, 1964, re-interpreted by Munteanu, 2002)

219

Figure 7.13 Sequence of loesses and fossil soils in South Boianu Plain and
Pleistocene-Holocene climatic oscillation (by Apostoiu et al, 2002).
The presence in the Quaternary column only of luvisolic soil, generally very deep,
lacking the loess layer, means a more or less continuous humid climate with weak dust
sedimentation and dust integration in soil (sedintegration).
In fact, the basic idea in the interpretation of the sequences of loesses and fossil
soils is that both dust aeolian sedimentation loesses and soil forming develop
concomitantly in the periglacial area with different intensities depending on te geographical
location of the place as against the ice-cap and implicitly on the climate and vegetation
conditions. The advance and withdrawal of the ice-cap correlated with the cosmic and
geological events entail adequate oscillations of the environmental conditions and
climate and vegetation cyclic changes, leading to the successive loesses fossil soils
forming as a recording of the successive changes of the environmental conditions.
In the three enclosed figures (7.12, 7.13 and 7.14) the evolution of the climate and
vegetation is presented, from three regions of Romania, based on the interpretations of the
loesses paleosols sequences. Even if the interpretation result differs from one author to
another, a suitable image is obtained on paleogeographical evolution in this region.
It must be emphasized that not always and not anywhere the changes of the
climatic conditions are strictly correlated with the oscillation cycle of the glacial (stadial)
and interglacial (interstadial) phases.
In present, there are all the premises for a similar evolution of the climate in the
future. It seems that now we are in an evolution phase corresponding to Chernozem
forming in the region of the Danube Plains, an intermediary phase of the glacial cycle. If
the evolution cycle repeates, in the future the climate will become more humid and warmer.

220

Figure 7.14 Sequence of loesses and fossil soils in the Tissa Plain (Semlac) and
Pleistocene Holocene climatic oscillations (by Florea et al, 1966).
The question of global warming of anthropical origin, due to the greenhouse effect
induced by the increase of the concentration of some gases (CO2, CH4, etc) should be
analysed also taking into account the cyclic evolution at a geological scale of the
climatic conditions. The anthropical causes can influence the global changes in a certain
extent, but they cannot radically change the course of cosmic or geological events.

221

8. WORLD SOIL DIVERSITY

8.1 Soil variety and distribution on the globe
8.1.1 FAO-UNESCO World Soil Map

The soil distribution on the terrestrial globe is presented on the pedological maps of
the world, at a scale of 1:5000000, prepared by the FAO-UNESCO, on the basis of
international cooperation, using a classification internationally adopted and recognized,
which took into consideration especially the soil properties as differentiating criteria (as
actual expressions of soil genesis and characteristics).
The initial (detailed) world soil map was published in 19 sheets assembled in 10
volumes (published by FAO-UNESCO in the period 1971-1981). Each soil unit from the
map (in fact, each soil association) comprises information about dominant and associated
soils (even soil inclusions), texture of the dominant soil and general slope of the land. The
map provided a useful instrument for planning economic and agricultural development
and for educational and research activities (Driessen and Dudal, 1991). Indeed, the world
soil map was used as information source in international studies on land degradation,
desertification, population supporting capacity, irrigation potential, global soil changes and
others.
In 1993, a generalized soil map of the world at the scale of 1:25000000 (fig. 8.1)
was published, on the basis of a revised FAO-UNESCO legend in 1998 (figure 8.2); an
explanation text was also published in 1993.
From table 8.1 with the soil distribution on the Earth (FAO, 1993) one can
distinguish 5 soil categories on the basis of their proportion, namely with over 10%, with
10-5%, with 5-2%, with 2-1% and below 1%.
The most widespread soils are Leptosols and Cambisols, to which Cryosols
(recently introduced) may be added, which have a relative distribution comprised between
12-13% from the whole land area; the first ones are generally correlated with accidented or
young relief, the third with extremely cold climate with permafrost.
The second soil category (with a proportion of 10-5%) consists of 6 very different
soils: Acrisols, Arenosols, Calcisols, Ferralsols, Gleysols and Luvisols. Some of them are
specific to humid and warm climate (Acrisols, Ferralsols), others to humid temperate
climate (Luvisols) or arid climate (Calcisols), but the rest of the soils are associated either
with sand-textures or with moisture excess.
The third soil category (with a relative distribution of 5-2%) is formed from 8 soils:
Regosols, Podzols, Kastanozems, Lixisols, Fluvisols, Vertisols, Albeluvisols and Histosols.
Some soils have a very well differentiated profile in the humid temperate climate (Podzols,
Albeluvisols) or humid warm climate (Lixisols), other soils are only slightly developed
(Regosols, Fluvisols) and others correspond to a climate of arid steppe (Kastanozems) or
present distinct features determined by the high content of swelling clay (Vertisols) or of
organic matter (Histosols).
The fourth soil category (with percentages between 2 and 1%) comprises 5 soils:
Chernozems, Nitisols, Solonchaks, Phaeozems and Solonetz. They are found in areas
with vegetation of steppe or sylvosteppe from the temperate climate (Chernozems,
Phaeozems) or of savannas from hot climate (Nitisols) or are affected by soluble salts
(Solonchaks, Solonetz).

222

Figure 8.1 World Soil Map (according to FAO-UNESCO terminology)

223

Figure 8.2 The legend of the FAO-UNESCO world soil map revised in 1998
224

Table 8.1 The soil distribution on the Globe (FAO, 1993)

The soil group
Area
The soil group
Area
Thousands ha
%
Thousands ha
%
1 655 318
337 322
Leptosols
13.1 Vertisols
2.7
Cambisols
1 573 402
12.4 Podzoluvisols
321 065
2.5
Acrisols
996 600
7.9 Histosols
273 248
2.2
Arenosols
901 885
7.1 Chernozems
229 218
1.8
Calcisols
796 169
6.3 Nitisols
205 518
1.6
742 600
187 325
Ferralsols
5.9 Solonchaks
1.5
Gleysols
718 830
5.7 Phaeozems
154 239
1.2
Luvisols
648 505
5.1 Solonetz
135 267
1.1
Regosols
578 971
4.6 Planosols
129 896
1.0
Podzols
487 513
3.9 Andosols
107 045
0.9
467 757
90 017
Kastanozems
3.7 Gypsisols
0.7
Lixisols
436 520
3.5 Plinthosols
61 135
0.5
Fluvisols
356 235
2.8 Greyzems
33 883
0.3
Total
12 625 483 100.0
Note: In the last form of the soil classification (1988) prepared by FAO, named World
Reference Base of Soil Resources (WRS-SR), some changes were introduced in comparison with
the above list, namely: Podzoluvisols were named Albeluvisols; new soil reference soil groups
were introduced for Alisols (about 100000 thousands ha, 0.8%) detached from Acrisols; Durisols
(unknown extent) considered before as a phase with duripan of the Calcisols and of the other
desert soils, Umbrisols (about 100000 thousands ha, 0.8%) detached from Cambisols and
Regosols, and Cryosols (about 1800000 thousands ha, 13%) resulted through bringing together
gelic subunits of different soil groups (pp). The Greyzems were transferred from the first level to
the second level, as a subunit of Phaeozems. Later on (2006) the Stagnosols were introduced as a
reference group by gathering stagnic subunits of different soil groups.

The fifth soil category (with the smallest relative distribution, between 1 and 0.3%)
consists of 5 soils: Planosols, Andosols, Gypsisols, Plinthosols and Greyzems. In this
category, the soils present different particularities: abrupt change to a subsurface clayey
horizon with periodically watter stagnation (Planosols), high content of iron oxides in the
subsurface horizon which have been cemented by drying (Plinthosols), high content of
active amorphous compounds (Andosols) or high content of gypsum (Gypsisols). The
Greyzems were deleted from the soil list of the first level.
One must emphasize the large widespreading of the little fertile soils such as
Cryosols, Leptosols, Calcisols, Arenosols, while the most fertile soils such as Phaeozems,
Chernozems, Nitisols, Luvisols have just a limited spreading.
8.1.2 The World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB-SR)
In the present, the FAO-UNESCO soil list, which evolved, was published in several
versions which incorporate additional experience gained and the latest view on soil
classification concepts and transformed in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources
(WRB-SR). The version published in 2006 comprises 32 reference soil groups (table 8.2),
at first level. For the second level, qualifiers are used, namely prefix qualifiers which
comprise those that are typically associated to reference soil groups and the intergrades to
other reference soil groups, and suffix qualifiers represented by other qualifiers. An
example of a soil name in WRB-SR classification is the following:
Calcic Vertic Luvisol (Clayey, Greyc)

225

Table 8.2 Reference soil groups according to WRB-SR (2006)

Reference soil
Main characteristics
group
Acrisols
Soils with clay enriched subsurface horizon, having low activity clay
minerals and low base saturation
Andosols
Soils slightly-moderately developed from volcanic rocks easily alterable;
they contain active amorphous alumino-silicates, resulting from the
weathering of volcanic material
Albeluvisols Soils with a bleached eluvial horizon turning into a clay enriched
subsurface horizon, having high activity clay mineral
Alisols
Soils with clay enriched subsurface horizon having high activity clay
minerals and low base saturation
Anthrosols Soils in which new layers have been formed as a result of human activity
or in which natural horizons have been strongly transformed by human
intervention
Arenosols Soils with coarse texture and without distinct profile development; they
have a low water and nutrients retention capacity and are easily
erodable
Cambisols Soils moderately developed by weathering (and soil forming) in situ,
with surface cambic horizon (reflected by a change in colour,
consistence or texture). They are either young soils or with limited
profile development due to a compensative erosion
Calcisols
Soils with a marked secondary accumulation of calcium carbonate, in
arid regions
Chernozems Soils with dark coloured surface horizon, deep, relatively rich in organic
matter, base saturated, and with secondary calcium carbonate
accumulation in the subsurface horizon
Cryosols
Soils from very cold areas with permafrost having evidence of
cryoturbation, frost heave, ice segregation, thermal cracking in the
horizon situated over permafrost
Durisols
Soils with subsurface duric horizon (weakly cemented by silica) in arid
climates
Ferralsols Soils very old and profound, strongly weathered, red or yellow, with
residual accumulation of sesquioxides; very poor from a chemical
point of view. They occur in hot and humid climate on stable
geomorphic surface (continental shields) and on easily weathering
basic rocks in Southest Asia
Fluvisols

Soils very weakly developed (young) in fluviatile, lacustrine and marine

deposits. They occur especially in alluvial plains under different
climatic conditions and receive regular accretion of fresh sediments
Gypsisols Soils with secondary accumulation of gypsum in arid regions
Gleysols
Soils strongly influenced by ground water (with mottled gleyic horizon;
long periods saturated with water. They occur under different climates,
but their major extension is in the boreal regions
Histosols
Soils with thick organic horizon (very rich in organic matter partially
decomposed) developed in excessively humid or cold areas)
Kastanozems Soils with brown to cinnamon colour surface horizons (due to organic
matter accumulation), base saturated and with secondary calcium
carbonate accumulation in the subsurface horizon
226

Leptosols
Lixisols
Luvisols
Nitisols
Phaeozems
Planosols
Plinthosols
Podzols
Regosols
Solonchaks
Solonetz
Stagnosols
Technosols
Umbrisols
Vertisols

Soils characterized by shallow depth on hard rocks (or gravely deposits).

The most areas with Leptosols are met in mountaineous regions
Soils with clay enriched subsurface horizon, having low activity clay
minerals and high base saturation
Soils with clay enriched subsurface horizon, having high activity clay
minerals and high base saturation
Soils with clay texture, profound dark red or strong brown, with nutty
structure and shiny surface in subsurface horizon
Soils with dark coloured surface horizon, deep, relatively rich in organic
matter, base saturated, without secondary calcium carbonates
accumulation in the subsurface horizon
Soils with surface horizon seasonal water-logging, white-ish, overlaying a
heavy pervious horizon; abrupt textural change between the surface
and the subsurface horizon
Soils with surface water-logging over a subsurface horizon of plinthite
(mixture humuspoor of iron oxides, clay and quartz) which hardens
irreversible upon air exposure
Soils with subsurface horizon enriched in sesquioxides and often, also
humus; low base saturation, acid reaction
Soils undeveloped, resulted from loose deposits (excepting fluviatile
lacustrine and marine sediments and aeolian sands)
Soils with surface horizon enriched in soluble salts
Soils with subsurface horizon enriched in clay and exchangeable natrium
and with alkaline reaction
Soils strongly influenced by water-logging of long periods due to the
heavy pervious subsurface horizon (clayey, mottled)
Soils with properties determined by human recent activities developed
from different anthropogenic materials
Soils with dark coloured surface horizon, deep, rich in organic matter, low
base saturation (acid reaction)
Soils rich in smectitic (swelling) clay, developing large and deep cracks
from soil surface in dry period; profound dark coloured but poor in
organic matter and with slickensides in subsurface horizon

8.1.3 The world soil map according to the terminology of the Soil Taxonomy
Soil Taxonomy (1999) is the American hierarchical system of soil classification
having 6 levels of taxonomic units of different complexities, beginning with the soil order
(12 orders in the system) and going on with the suborder (67), great groups (329),
subgroups of soils (about 2400), soil family (about 2000) and soil series (about 19000).
The soil orders with a succinct definition grouped in 4 categories and soil
suborders for each soil order are presented in table 8.3 and the significance of all prefixes
used in the denomination of the soil suborders are rendered in table 8.4.
The distribution of different soil orders of the world is presented in the map from
figure 8.3.

227

Table 8.3 Soil orders and subordes (American Soil Taxonomy) (Source: Global Soil
Regions, N.R.C.S.-USDA, 2006).
The order
Succint characterization
The
subordersx)
I. Soils with well developed horizons and strong weathered mineral soil material,
developed over a long time in humid climatic conditions
Oxisols
Very old soils, red or yellow, deep and intensive
weathered with subsurface horizon rich in
Aquox
sesquioxides; low base saturation and acid reaction.
Torrox
Ustox
They occur on the gentle undulating areas of
Perox
geological old surfaces in tropical and subtropical
Udox
regions (South America, Central Africa, South-Eastern
Asia, Northern Australia)
9,811,000 km2 7.5%
Ultisols
Soils with light coloured surface layer over a horizon with
Aquults
Humults
clay enrichment; low base saturation and acid
Udults
reaction. These soils were or are forested. They occur
Ustults
in humid and warm climate.
Xerults
10,555,000 km2 8.1%
Alfisols
Soils with light coloured surface layer over a subsurface
Aqualfs
Cryalf
horizon with clay enrichment; high base saturation
Ustalfs
and moderately acid to neutral reaction. They occur
Xeralfs
especially in humid temperate climate and were or are
Udalfs
forested, but a major portion of soils are used to grow
crops.
13,159,000 km2 10.1%
Spodosols
Soils with dark brown, gray or light gray horizon over a
subsurface horizon with sesquioxides enrichcment
Aquods
and sometime also organic matter, having redish
Gelods
Cryods
brown to strong brown colour; low base saturation and
Humods
acid reaction. These soils occur especially under
Ortods
coniferous forests in cold temperate climate in the
northern latitudes.
4,596,000 km2 3.5%
II. Soils with well developed horizons, weathered mineral soil material, developed over a
long time in sub-humid to arid climatic conditions
Mollisols
Soils with a deep and dark coloured surface horizon,
Albolls
Aquolls
base rich and slightly acid to slightly alkaline reaction.
Rendolls
They occur especially in the regions of steppes,
Xerolls
prairies and pampas. In present, these soils are in a
Gelolls
large extent cultivated. Initially, these soils may be
Cryolls
farmed with no addition of fertilizers, however, to
Ustolls
sustain the high yields, fertilizers must be used.
2
Udolls
9,161,000 km 7.0%
Aridisols
Soils with light coloured surface horizon, poor in organic
Cryids
matter, base rich and often with CaCO3, and
Salids
Durids
subsurface horizon with carbonates accumulation
Gypsids
(and sometimes salts accumulation). These soils do
Argids
not have water available to mesophytic plants for long
Calcids
periods. They occur in desert regions.
Cambids
15,464,000 km2 11.8%
228

Vertisols

Clayey soils dominated by high shrink-swell clays which

Aquerts
Cryerts
have deep, wide cracks during the dry period of the
Xererts
year, and slickenslides within 1m of the soil surface;
Torrerts
high base saturation. They occur especially in local
Usterts
low areas in subtropical regions.
2
Uderts
3,160,000 km 2.4%
III. Soils with slightly developed horizons in process of weathering and forming
Entisols
Soils with little or no evidence of soil formation. They
Aquents
occur in alluvial plains and valleys frequently
Arents
inundated, on steep slopes where rapid erosion result Psamments
Fluvents
in shallow soils which rest often on hard rock.
Orthents
23,432,000 km2 17.9%
Inceptisols
Soils in the early stages of soil formation due to either
Aquepts
Anthrepts
small age or continuous rejuvenation. Soil forming
Gelepts
process is a weathering of the parent materials
Cryepts
associated in cold climates with organic matter
Ustepts
accumulation and in warm climates with cambic
Xerepts
horizon formation.
Udepts
19,854,000 km2 15.2%
Andisols
Soils developed on volcanic ash or cinders or other
Aquands
Gelands
volcanic rocks easily alterable, rich in amorphous
Cryands
minerals. They have a low cation retention, a high
Torrands
phosphate fixing capacity and high water holding
Xerands
capacity. They are distributed along the circum-Pacific
Vitrands
belt and sporadically elsewhere.
Ustands
975,000 km2 0.8%
Udands
Gelisols
Sils with permafrost at small depth having cryoturbated
Histels
horizons and ice-lenses. Often organic-rich soils and
Turbels
Orthels
peat develop.
11,869,000 km2 9.1%
IV. Soils very rich in organic matter
Histosols
Soils with deep surface horizon very rich in organic
Folists
Fibrists
matter, generally associated with waterlogging. They
Hemists
occur mainly in boreal areas, and also in humid areas
Saprists
in other climates.
2
1,526,000 km 1.2%
x) The prefix from denomination defines the most important features of the suborders; the
significance of these prefixes is rendered in table 8.4.

229

Table 8.4 Formative elements (prefixes) of the soil denomination at suborder level
(by Soil Taxonomy, 1998)
Formative element
Significance
Alb
Presence of the albic (white-ish) horizon in the soil upper part
Anthr
Strong man-made modification of the soil surface horizon by
long-term cultivation
Aqu
Aquic conditions (excess of moisture in the soil)
Ar
Mixed horizons by anthropical activity
Arg
Presence of the argillic B horizon (enriched in clay)
Calc
Presence of the calcic horizon (with accumulation of the
secondary calcium carbonate)
Camb
Presence of the cambic horizon (subsurface horizon showing
evidence of alteration or slight weathering relative to the
underlying horizon)
Cry
Presence of the cryic horizon (perennially frozen soil horizon
in mineral or organc material); cold climate
Dur
Presence of the duric horizon (duripan) with weekly cemented
by silica to indurated nodules or concretions
Fibr
Hydromorphic organic matter, slightly decomposed
Fluv
Fluvic parent material (fluviatile, marine or laccustrine
sediments that receive fresh material at regular intervals or
have received it in the recent past)
Fol
Non-hydromorphic organic matter
Gel
Gelic soil material (affected by permafrost)
Gyps
Presence of the gypsic horizon (non-cemented with
secondary gypsum accumulation)
Hem
Hydromorphic organic matter, moderately decomposed
Hist
Presence of the organic soil material at shallow depth
Hum
Presence of a humiferous horizon
Orth
Typic
Per
Perudic moisture regime
Psamm
Sandy texture
Rend
Rendzina features (soils with base saturated humiferous
surface horizon that contains or immediately overlies
calcaric materials with more than 40% calcium carbonates)
Sal
Presence of the salic horizon (very rich in soluble salts)
Sapr
Hydromorphic organic matter, strongly decomposed
Torr
Torric moisture regime (dry and hot)
Turb
Presence of the cryoturbations
Ud
Udic moisture regime (humid climates)
Ust
Ustic moisture regime (dry and warm in summer)
Vitr
Presence of volcanic glass
Xer
Xeric moisture regime (dry in summer, humid in winter)

230

Figure 8.3 World soil map (according to Soil Taxonomy Terminology)

231

8.1.4 The main regularities of soil geographical distribution

The soil distribution in the territory observes the fundamental relationship between
soil forming and pedogenetic factors, so that the soil cover should vary in space and time
in close correlation with any modification of one of other from the soil forming factors; any
variation of environmental conditions in territory will be reflected in the soil cover. All
express themselves in the soil, which is the final synthetic expression of the forces of the
natural landscapes working together, and by which the nature of the landscape can be
characterized better, more completely and more directly than by any other factor or
combination of factors (Ch. E. Kellogg, 1938).
At small scales, on large areas the soil zonality was made evident by V.V.
Dokuchaev (1846-1903) in the soil distribution of the world; he found a close correlation of
the soil zones with the climate and vegetation distribution, these two pedogenetic factors
having a regular spreading over the earths surface as belts or zones. Two kinds of soil
zonal distribution were distinguished: horizontal soil zonality, more or less parallel to
latitudes in plain and tableland areas, and vertical (altitudinal) soil zonality in the mountain
regions. These two kinds of soil zonalities are considered the most general regularities of
soil distribution on the world. This concept of soil zonality was used to compile the first
maps of Russia, Europe and the world.
Further investigation of the soil cover of different countries and regions resulted in
improvement of the zonal concept. The soil zone is conceived now as a large area
characterized by a soil association (combination) in which a soil is dominant (frequently the
zonal soil, that is the mature soil in equilibrium with environmental factors on high relief,
well drained), and to which different associated soils are added, generally developed on
peculiar local environmental conditions (of relief, rock, moisture, age, etc) in the respective
area. Also, the spreading of soils in mountain regions is much more diversified depending
not only on altitude, but also on conformation (massivity), rock, topography, aspect,
position in continent, etc.
Not always and everywhere the zonal soil coincides with the climatic-vegetation
belt because often the soil may be relict, formed in previous environmental conditions very
different form those existing in the present; on the other hand, some soils - associated to
zonal soils - may be weakly developed from rather young sediments or continuously
rejuvenated.
As a consequence, each area is characterized by a specific pattern of soil
distribution, expressed in its model of pedogeographical assemblage, which reflects more
adequately the fundamental relationship soil environmental factors. As such, the most
valid and conspicuous regularity of the soil spreading is the soil differentiated distribution in
space and time by the soil covers accommodation to the specific features of each area
concerning the complex interaction of all environmental factors and its dynamics. This
detailed pedogeographical concept has lead to knowledge of many regional regularities of
soil distribution as soil catena, soil toposequences, soil zonal successions, soil
chronosequences, etc, and to describing of different spreading pattern in the soilscape,
expressed by its pedogeographical assemblage.
In the present day, the soil cover is more and more influenced by human activities,
inducing varied and complicate changes having a great variability. These aspects are now
under intensive investigation.
Besides the general soil distribution regularities, the peculiar features of different
soils must be pointed out, correlated with regional and local environmental factors of each
area and its evolution in time. This fact makes necessary the differentiation of the soil
geographical facies (regional and local) which should be studied and characterized.

232

The systems of soil classification themselves should be completed by including the

regional and local soil facies (soil facies and subfacies), fact which would contribute to a
better and concrete soil characterization and to an improved land use and soil resource
management.
Soil problems related to the world scale can be stated only in the most general
terms. Reference to particular regions and above all to individual farms must be based on
specific knowledge. The soil sciencemust be detailed in its applications, must be
inspired by an understanding of the detailed problems and in the same time must
recognize regional groups of soils and determine their characteristics and limitations. Both
are important; both types of data are essential to any solution of our agricultural problems
(Ch. E. Kellogg, 1938).
The data about worlds soil resources permit the following considerations on the
global potential for agriculture production, by Driessen and Dudal:
- 22% of the worlds land area is suitable for cultivation. Half of this area is already
cultivated, the part on inherently fertile soils with few limitative factors;
- 20% of the worlds land (without ice cap) is too cold (at boreal or arctic latitudes or
in high mountain ranges);
- 23% of the worlds land is too dry (in arid areas);
- 20% of all lands are too steep or too shallow, with rock outcrops and soils in steep
topography;
- 5% of the land surface is too wet;
- 10% of the land surface is occupied by low fertile soils and shifting sands.
The cultivated area of the world is about 1475 million hectares (FAO, 1989),
representing only 11% of the global land area. Intensively cultivated soils are Fluvisols,
Luvisols, Phaeozems, Chernozems, Vertisols and Andosols. Extensively cultivated soils
are Acrisols, Ferralsols and Lixisols. Another 11% of the land area, or about 1500 million
hectares, are suitable for arable crop production, mainly Ferralsols and Acrisols in South
America and Central Africa. Some 230 million hectars of the cultivated area are irrigated
for rice growing in humid warm regions; irrigated areas are also found in arid and semi-arid
regions.
8.2 The great pedo-geograpical regions and districts of the terrestrial globe
Because the term region has different connotations in current language and
geographical literature, we specify that in this chapter the term of great pedogeographic
region is used in the sense attributed to the great phytogeographical or zoogeographical
regions of the terrestrial globe, namely as the highest partition entity (unity) of the Earth`s
soil cover.
The basic criteria of the present soil cover segmentation (partitioning) are the
characteristics and distribution pattern of the soils determined especially by the evolution
(history) of the geological-geographical conditions, correlated in a high measure with the
evolution of the cosmic conditions and especially climatic conditions, considered, of course,
at planetary scale; these ones have influenced the weathering of the mineral substratum,
relief modelling, soil formation and evolution, inherited and present characteristics of soils,
dynamics of pedogenesis processes and other features of the soil cover.
The great pedogeographical regions (separated according to the mentioned criteria,
including of course also the influence of the Quaternary glacial epoch and lithosphere plate
tectonics) are discriminated in the map (figure 8.4) and described in the following lines
(Florea, 2002).

233

I. Holoboreal region
The great holoboreal region comprises a great part of the Northern Hemisphere
(about at north of 30-35o latitude in oceanic sectors and at north of 47-49o latitude in the
continental sectors of the Europe, Asia and North America). It corresponds in a large
extent to the polar, boreal, temperate and Mediterranean climatic zones. The relief is very
various, consisting of plains, tablelands and mountain ranges, old or young, strongly
affected by the last orogenesis and Quaternary glaciations which rejuvenate the land
surface and head deposits; this rejuvenation is, as a matter of fact, an essential feature of
this great region which leaves one`s mark on soil cover.
The soil parent materials are very various and young. The glacial (moraines, tills),
fluvio-glacial (especially sands), lacustrine and aeolian deposits (dune sands, loess) are
predominant in the tablelands and plains of the northern part, affected by the glaciers and
periglacial processes. In the tablelands of the southern part (sedimentary basins) the
marls, clays, sandstones, locally limestone and in lower areas loess deposits appear. In
the mountainous area, the dominant soil parent materials are the weathering products of
magmatic, metamorphic and sedimentary massive rocks.
The specific soils, very various, are relatively young (Quaternary and especially
postglacial), developed in slightly to moderately weathered deposits, with various
thickness depending on climate, topography and vegetation conditions, with various
richness in nutrients and organic matter, which slight to moderate clay formation. The
biochemical cycle is insignificant in the northern part but becomes active enough in the
temperate and Mediterranean conditions.
The soil cover is relatively recent and heterogeneous due to high differences of the
present climate within the region of the one hand, and due to variation of the soil parent
materials, moisture and temperature regimes, as well as due to Quaternary climatic
oscillations in different geographical units, on the other hand. In the areas with glacial or
aeolian deposits, soil cover has no more than 8000-10000 years, but in other areas can be
older, with polygenetic evolution, having inherited features from previous pedogenetic
stages (periglacial features, hydromorphic features, horizons with relict humus, etc.).
In the plains with loess deposits bordering the old glacial areas, the climatic
oscillations are recorded in the very known Quaternary stratigrafic profiles with successive
superpossed formations of loess deposits and soils.
The following districts were separated (see the map) in this region:
I-1 Northern Eurosiberian
I-2 Northern Eastsiberian
I-3 Northern of North-America
I-4 Western and Central European
I-5 Pontico-Centralasiatic
I-6 Central-Eastern of Asia
I-7 Central-Western of the North-America
I-8 Central of North-America
I-9 Central-Eastern of North-America
I-10 Mediterranean.

234

Figure 8.4 The great pedogeographical regions of the world (Florea, 2002) (Symbols explanation in text)
235

The dominant soil in the first 3 districts (hypothermic districts), with prolonged
cryoruptic annual pedorhythm (annual pedogenetic dynamics), are the Cryosols, Podzols
and Podzoluvisols (Albeluvisols) distributed in a horizontal zonality; Histosols (especially in
north), Luvisols (in south) and Leptosols in mountains can be associated.
For the mesothermic and oceanic districts (I-4, I-6, I-9) the dominant soils, with
short cryoruptic pedorhythm, are the Luvisols or Luvisols and Cambisols, and locally
Podzols developed in sandy parent materials; in depressions, Chernozems and
Phaeozems can be present and in mountains Leptosols (including Rendzinas), Regosols
and locally Andosols.
The mesothermic and continental districts (I-5, I-7) are characterized by
Chernozems and Kastanozems, and locally Solonchaks and Solonetz, all with
aridocryoruptic pedorhythms.
In the Mediterranean district (I-10), the dominant soils, in general with aridoruptic
pedorhythms, are the Cambisols and Luvisols, often with red colour (Terra rossa on
limestone), and Leptosols in mountain areas, as well as Vertisols, Kastanozems,
Gypsisols and Solonchaks in more aride areas (like in a part of Spain for instance).
II. Holotropical region
The holotropical region forms a large belt on both sides of the equator and
corresponds in a great extent to the humid tropical and subtropical zones. This region is
characterized by an old relief of tableland (platforms), stable, covered by a very old surface
weathering crust, but there are also tropical alluvial plaines with sediments originated from
the old surface weathering crust. Locally, volcanic rocks occur too.
The characteristic soils are paleosols on the Earth`s surface, strongly weathered
and very deep, with fine texture, with old features, very poor in weatherable minerals, base
cations and organic matter, with predominant kaolin clay, with very low cationic exchange
capacity, rich in ferric oxides well crystallized which give them a red or a yellow colour.
Their biogeochemical cycle is very active and provides a high fertility potential in natural
vegetation conditions; but in cultivation conditions the fertility potential decreases very
rapid as a consequence of the low content of nutrients, organic matter and weatherable
minerals.
The most widespread soils (with continuous annual rhythms of pedogenesis,
uniform or nonuniform) are Ferralsols and Acrisols to which Plinthosols are associated
especially in South-America; in the less humid areas Nitisols and Lixisols are dominant to
which in low lands Vertisols, base richer and with smectitic clay, are present. Locally,
Arenosols, developed in the weathering products of acid rocks, residual sands or in recent
aeolian or marine sands, as well as Andosols in areas with volcanic rock and Gleysols in
low areas with poor drainage occur too.
In this region following districts were separated:
II-1 Central and Southern of Africa
II-2 South-Easternasiatic
II-3 North-Australian-Indonesian
II-4 Brazilian
II-5 Mexicano-Caribbean
In the African and Brazilian districts the Ferralsols and Acrisols are dominant, and in
the other districts Acrisols and Nitisols to which various soils add, but particularly for
South-Easternasiatic district Vertisols, for Mexico-Caribbean district Luvisols and for NorthAustralian-Indonesian district Luvisols , Andosols and Histosols.
III. Fragmoarid region
The fragmoarid region is discontinuous (fragmentary); it consist of several isolated
areas situated on the outside of the holotropical region between this one and holoboreal
236

region or holoaustral region. It corresponds to the vast areas of tropical, subtropical and
temperate deserts and semideserts of the Earth. The relief consist of old platforms (in The
Sahara, Kalahari and in Western Australia) in the subtropics; but dry lands occur also in
mountain rain shadow areas (such as in Central Asia, north of the Alpine-Himalayan
range from Turkey to China, and others) and in costal areas wetted by cold marine
currents (like in Peru). Many depression surfaces of the region are without outlet and
shelter seas, salt lakes and areas with soluble salts, gypsum or carbonates accumulations
in soils.
Head deposits are particularly the result of the rock weathering processes and the
action of wind, which sweeps away the fine particles and contributes to the aeolian deposit
formation (loess, sands of dunes).
The soil forming processes are very slight due to unfavourable moisture and
vegetation conditions; the annual pedorhythm is long time aridoruptic or aridocryoruptic in
the temperate deserts. Shifting sands, rocks and rock debris covers large surfaces. The
specific soils are undeveloped or weakly developed, very shallow, with low alteration of
minerals, predominantly silty and sandy textured, base rich, with carbonates and locally
soluble salts and with very low content of organic matter. The biogeochemical cycle is
practically insignificant.
Many areas of desert today have known a more humid climate in the past, between
13 000 and 8 000 years BP, when river valleys were formed, now filled with sediments and
completely dry. In this areas soil with inherited features can be present.
The specific soils are Calcisols and Gypsisols to which, locally, Regosols,
Arenosols, Solonchaks and Solonetz can be associated. The Leptosols are enough
widespread in the massifs distributed in the fragmoarid region. To these ones Fluvisols (in
river flood-plaines) and shifting sands, sometimes red, can be present too.
The following districts were separated in this region:
III-1 Northafrican
III-2 Arabico-Indian
III-3 Caspian-Centralasiatic
III-4 Central-Western of North-America
III-5 South-Western of Africa
III-6 Central and Western of Australia
III-7 Peruviano-Patagonian
In the Northafrican (Saharo-Ethiopian), Arabico-Indian and South-western of Africa
districts, the Calcisols and Gypsisols are dominant soils to which Vertisols and Arenosols
in the first districts, Leptosols and Cambisols in the second and Arenosol (ferralic) in the
last mentioned district can be added. Calcisols and Leptosols characterize the CaspianCentralasiatic district as dominant soils and shifting sands and Solonchaks as accessory
soils. In the district of America (north and south) The Calcisols and Kastanozems are
dominant and in the Peruviano-Patagonian district Leptosols and Arenosols are present
too. In The Central and Western of Australia district Arenosols and Calcisols are dominant
soils and Vertisols, Cambisols and Solonchaks are accessory soils.
IV. Holoaustral region
This region is southern correspondent of the holoboreal region, but unlike this one
has a small extension, because the land is less widespread at high southern latitudes.
The features mentioned for the holoboreal region are applicable only to the
southern part of the South America. The other part of the holoaustral region, on the
contrary, is comparable with the holotropical region.
The following districts were distinguished:
IV-1 Southafrican-Southaustralian
IV-2 Australian-New Zealand
237

IV-3 Southwestern of South America

IV-4 Central-Southern of South America
IV-5 Antarctic.
The first district corresponds to a very narrow coastal strip at south of Africa and
Australia with Mediterranean climate; Luvisols and Planosols are dominant soils. The
same soils are also dominant in the second district, with oceanic climate, but the soils
cover is more various with Alisols, Solonchaks and even Podzols and in New Zealand with
Cambisols, Leptosols and locally Andosols. The two districts for the South America are
very different; the south-western one, mountainous and with oceanic climate, is
characterized by the dominance of the Leptosols, Cambisols and Andosols and locally by
the occurrence of the Luvisols and Regosols, while the central-southern district, with
continental climate, is characterized by dominance of the Kastanozems and Chernozems
and locally by the occurrence of Solonchaks, Solonetz, Planosols, Vertisols and Fluvisols.
The Antarctic district is, in a large extent, covered by ice; only in the islands from
the vicinity of South America, Leptosols, Podzols and Histosols occur as dominant soils.
Cambisols and even Chernozems occupy small areas.
Mountainous areas
The main mountainous areas, distributed in different great pedogeographical
regions, comprise soils developed on the weathering debris of various compact rocks;
these soils are generally shallow, rich in coarse rock fragments and weatherable minerals,
and in a continuous rejuvenation due to unceasingly quick evolution of the relief.
Consequently, the soils of mountainous areas are relatively recent and correspond to the
present climatic conditions; soil cover does not show inherited features.
The dominant soils in massifs are Leptosols associated with rock outcrops, but on
the slopes less steep more evolved soils can be formed. The kind of soils depends on
climate and vegetation conditions, which change with altitude. Consequently, in mountains
the soils change with height forming a succession of soil belts or a soil specter known as
vertical zonality. The component soils of the soil specter depend on the situation of the
massifs in the climatic zone and the altitude of the mountain.
This succint presentation of the great pedogeographical regions offers the most
general view of the dominant soils in the soil cover at global level (using FAO soil
nomenclature) that reflects the link with geologico-climatic factors and at the same with the
great geographical areas characterized by a certain bioproductive potential and the main
types of general land use and agriculture too at world scale.

238

239

9. MAIN FACTORS OF LIFE SUPPORTING. THE ESSENTIAL ROLE OF

THE SOIL6
Motto:
There can be no life without soil and no
soil without life; they have evolved together.
Charles E. Kellogg (1938)
The soil, the initial source of chemical
elements from living organisms and their daily
food, is at the basis of life perpetuance on land,
alongside water, air and solar radiation.
N. Florea (2008)

9.1 Introduction
It is known that the most majority of animal beings cannot live more than a few
minutes without the air necessary for respiration, more than several days without water to
quench their thirst and to keep their hydration state or more than some weeks without food
to satisfy their hunger. Without the fulfillment of these needs, life would be impossible.
But what is life? Science still hasnt been able to give a clear and concise definition
of life, whose existence is ascertained only for biologic individuals. It is considered
that the life phenomenon is connected with a certain structural arrangement, with a
certain extremely complex organization mode of the matter (J. Rostand, 1962, 1970,
quoted by Lupei, 1977). In the present, it is agreed that life is defined by an ensemble of
complex structures and phenomena which form the biostructural matter (Macovski, 1965,
1969), consisting of organic components, rich in energy, which interact coherently and well
organized, according to an informational program. Biostructured matter is kept only if the
respective organisms are alive.
The innermost processes of life are determined in the last analysis by the energy of
electrons which are changed among atoms. In the living systems, these electrons move in
ordered cycles, generating very weak electricity. Therefore, the dynamics of vital
processes is due to an electric current and energy hardly perceptible in the body of the
individual, generated by processes of photosynthesis and metabolism. The mechanism of
the energy processes in the cell are however very complex and still not sufficiently known.
Life is characterized by a set of conservation functions, such as those of defence,
movement, adaptation, sensibility, etc and by the function of species perpetuation
(reproduction and heredity). But all these functions are based on complex processes of
nutrition in which various organic chemical compounds, and repeated decomposition and
syhnthesis of organic matter are involved without interruptions; these processes are
essential, because they condition the development of all functions, therefore of life itself.
As a rule, it is considered that the existence and development of life on Earth, in its
present shape, depends on vegetation, being impossible without plants. Indeed, the plants
offer food and textile fibres, combustible matter and building material; they are source of
medicaments and air filter. But, in their turn, the plants (with chlorphyll) cannot live without
6

Reprinted with minor chages after te paper Principalii factori de susinere a vieii. Rolul nodal al
solului, 2006, Lucrrile celei de-a XVIII-a Conferin Naional pentru tiina Solului, Cluj-Napoca,
20-26 aug. 2006, Publicaiile SNRSS, nr. 36A, vol. I, p. 81-107, Edit. Solness, Timioara.

240

chemical elements and energy necessary for organic matter shynthesis, absolutely
necessary for the other living beings; and from where do these chemical elements and
energy come from? Beside the Sun, which radiates continuously energy (light and heat),
the soil is the one which offers these chemical elements and plays an essential role in the
process of primary organic matter shynthesis by plants.
In the following lines, only the nutrition-aspects will be discussed, with the main aim
to underline the soils role in life development together with other factors.

9.2 Chemical elements of living matter

The elemental chemical composition of living beings proves the high number of
chemical elements found in the vegetal and animal kingdom. The chemical elements
which participate at living organisms nutrition, named nutrition elements, nutrients or
bioelements, are divided in essential and non-essential elements according to their role
played in nutrition.
The number of chemical elements entering in live-matters composition is almost 40,
with insignificant differences between the vegetal and the animal kingdom. The proportion
of different chemical elements is very different (table 9.1 and 9.2); the most abundant
elements are C, O and H, which together totalize about 94% in vegetal organisms and
90% in animal organisms, to which N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg in plants (about 4-5%) or N, P, S,
Ca, Mg, K, Na, Cl in animal organisms (about 9%) are added and which are considered
macroelements or macronutrients. The other chemical elements, in very low
concentrations, below n.10-2, are considered microelements or micronutrients, or
oligoelements (table 9.1). Some of them have an important role in the animal life, as for
instance Se, Co, F and I.
Table 9.1 Elemental chemical composition of plants (Accordingg to Javillier, quoted
by Lixandru et al, 1990)
Oligodynamic elements
Major elements (% of dry matter) recognized as necessary
Other elements (ppm of
(ppm of dry matter of leaves)
dry matter)
Carbon (C)
40-50
Iron (Fe)
40-1300 Nickel (Ni)
0.15-2.3
Oxygen (O)
42-44
Manganese (Mn) 25-63
Cobalt (Co)
0.01-0.8
Hydrogen (H)
6-7
Boron (B)
2-80
Lithium (Li)
0.09-9.0
Nitrogen (N)
1-3
Copper (Cu)
18-36
Rubidium (Rb) 15-30
Phosphorus (P) 0.05-1
Zinc (Zn)
12-83
Cesium (Cs)
22
Sulfur (S)
0.1-0.5
Molybdenum (Mo) 2.5-4.3 Aluminium (Al) 1-200
Potasium (K)
0.3-3.0 (till 8)
Titanium (Ti)
0.9-30
Calcium (Ca)
0.5-3.5
Chromium (Cr) 0.04-10
Magnesium (Mg) 0.03-0.8
Fluorine (F)
2.0-80
Natrium (Na)
0.001-3.5
Bromine (Br)
0.1-0.6
and Iodine (I)
(marine plants))
Chlorine (Cl)
0.2
Arsenic, Selenium,
Vanadium, Lead,
Silicon (Si)
0.005-1.35
Berylium, Tin, Silver,
Barium, Strontium, etc.

241

Between plants chemical composition and animals chemical composition there are
some differences (table 9.2). At animals, the content of C and Mg is much lower, but the
content of O and H is much higher (due to the high proportion of water in the animal
tissue), as well as the content of N, S, P, Ca, K, Na and Cl, present in different organic
compounds. The high content of C and Mg at plants is correlated with the production of
important amounts of glucides by photosynthesis of plants with chlorophyll (which contain
Mg).
Table 9.2 Quantitative distribution of some bioelements in vegetal and animal
organisms (by Davidescu and Davidescu, 1981, Tma and al, 1982) (Mean values
in % of dry matter at plants or of body mass at animals)
Bioelement
Vegetal
Animal
Bioelement
Vegetal
Animal
kingdom
kingdom
kingdom
kingdom
n.10-2
C
45
19.3
K
0.2
n.10-2
(40-50)
Na
0.11
O
43
62.0
Mg
1.6
0.04
(42-44)
(0.04-3.5)
H
N
S
P
Ca

6.5
(6-7)
1.5
(0.2-4.5)

9.3

0,4
(0.02-1.1)
0,9
(0.2-1.7)
n.10-2

0.2

Cl
Fe
Cu
Mn
Mo
Zn
B
Si
Al

5.1

1.16
2.0

n.10-1
n.10-2
n.10-3
n.10-3
n.10-6
n.10-4
n.10-4
n.10-1
n.10-2

0.20

Table 9.3 General chemical compounds of the animal organism (by Tma and al,
1982)
Plastic

Non-metals: C, O, H, N, S, P, Cl
Metals: Na, K, Ca, Mg
Oligoelements Fe, Co, Mn, Cu, Mo, I, Br, F, B, Se
Water
Biomolecules Anorganic
Anions: PO4-3, CO3-2, SO4-2,
Mineral salts
Cl-, ICations: Na+, K+, Ca+2,
Mg+2
With plastic and
Protides
Organic
energy role
Lipides
Glucides
Witn information role Nucleic acids
With catalythic role
Enzymes
With regulation role
Enzymes
Vitamins
Hormones
With energetic role
Macroergic compounds
Bioelements

Chemical
compounds

The mentioned chemical elements (bioelements) are not found as such in

organisms, but theyre found under the form of some anorganic and organic compounds
(molecules). A systematization of the biomolecules and bioelements found in the animal
242

organisms is presented in table 9.3. It must be underlined that in the composition of

organisms, the organic compound of different type and complexity are net prevalent.
In table 9.4 the chemical composition of the human body is presented, which is very
close to that of animals. The so called sextet of bioelements consisting of C, O, H, N, P, S
represent about 98% of the living body, and the rest is made up of Ca, Mg, Na, Cl and
numerous microelements or oligoelements that play an important role in the chemical
composition of some biomolecules such as enzymes (Zn, Mg, Cu, etc), vitamins (Co),
haemoglobin (Fe), participating to the normal development of vital processes. Table 9.5
presents the role of each chemical element of the human body in the complicated
dynamics of vital processes.
Table 9.4 The main constituent chemical elements of the human body (by R.M. Parr,
1983)
Element
% of human body
Oxygen
61
Carbon
23
Hydrogen
10
Nitrogen
2.6
Calcium
1.4
Phosphorus
1.1
99.1
Sulfur, potasium, natrium, chlorine, etc
0.9

Figure 9.1 Scheme with sources, collectors-purveyors and ways by which the
chemical elements reach the human body (anthropical activities, between
paranthesis)
Figure 9.1 presents schematically the sources, collectors and purveyors of chemical
elements for the human body. The primordial source consists of the chemical elements of
243

Terra, but the reservoirs and purveyors are represented by the soil, water and air in which
different organisms live. Regarding the ways by which the chemical elements reach man,
an important role is assumed by plans and animals, which use and collect various
chemical elements in their nutrition and growth process.
Table 9.5 The role of the chemical elements from the human body
Element
Nitrogen, N

Sulfur, S
Phosphorus, P

Calcium, Ca

Magnezium, Mg

Chlorine, Cl

Natrium, Na
(Sodium)
Potasium, K

Iron, Fe
Copper, Cu

Average
concentration

Function

Essential component of protein, nucleic

acids, co-enzymes.
Excess of some N-compounds can affect
adversely the human health and quality of
the environment
Constituent of some proteins and
enzymes
0.8-1%
Participant to the composition of bones
(skeleton) and teeth. Present in different
tissues; sometimes participates to the
regulation of the acido-basic equilibrium
and metabolic processes. Stimulant of
cerebral functions and of the nervous
system
1.2-1.7% Participant to the composition of bones
(skeleton) and teeth.
Influences various physiological and
biochemical processes (blood clotting,
osmose regulation, etc)
0.05%
Constituent of bones. Present in various
organs and tissues and in extracellular
liquids
Prevalent in extraccellular liquids.
Participation to the formation of the
hydrochloric acid from the gastric juice
having an important role in digestion.
Intervention in the regulation of the acidobasic equilibrium, etc
0.2%
Cation constituent of the extracellular
liquids. Important role in keeping the
hydrous balance, regulation of the acidobasic equilibrium, in metabolism, etc
0.2-0.35% Main cation intracellular. Contribution to
keeping the cellular viability, keeping the
acido-basic equilibrium, etc. Important in
the rhythmic activity of the heart.
60-80 ppm Constituent of the hemoglobin.
Participation to the oxygen transport and
activation
1 ppm
Constituent of some enzimes.
Contribution to the hemoglobin synthesis

244

Some effects of
defficiency
Disorder of growth

Growth problems
Rachitis
Osteoporosis
(Osteodystrophies)

Rachitis
Osteoporosis
(Osteodystrophies)
Hypomagnesaemia

Apathy

Apathy
K metabolism
influenced by
hypomagnesaemia)
Anaemia
Problems with the
hemoglobin
shynthess
(anaemia),
deformation of long
bones,
depigmentation of
the hair. Possible

Zinc, Zn

33 ppm

Manganese, Mn

0.2-0.5

Cobalt, Co

0.02 ppm

Molibdenum, Mo

0.1 ppm

Nickel, Ni
Chromium, Cr

0,1 ppm
0.03 ppm

Selenium, Se

1-3 ppm

Iodine, I

0.2 ppm

Fluorine, F

37 ppm

Silicon, Si

260 ppm

high content of
cholesterol
Implicated in metabolism, constituent of Growth problems,
some co-enzymes. It seems to have a
ossification
role in the insulin secretion and therefore problems,
in regulation of the glucides metabolism reproduction
problems, skin
diseases, slow
healing
Implicated in metabolism (activates the
synthesis of some enzymes) with
Bones alterations
influence of growth, skeleton,
development, reproduction, etc.
Most of it is found as vitamin B12
Problems due to B12
vitamin defficiency
(decrease of
appetite, decrease
of growth rhythm,
perturbation of
reproduction)
Participates to the formation of some
Unknown
enzymes
Interacts with iron absorbtion
Unknown
Implicated in insulins action
Resistance to
insulin, tolerance to
low content of
glucoze
Constituent of most enzymes, role in
Muscular problems,
biological oxidation-reduction systems
heart diseases
linked with the E vitamin
Important for the thyroid glands
Goitre.
functionality. Favourable action on
Reproductive
reproduction
problems
Present in osseous system and teeth
Dental fluorosis,
osteofluorosis.
Calcification; can function in conjunctive Unsignaled
tissue

Sources:
- R.M. Parr, Trace elements in human milk, Int. Atomic Energy Agency Bulletin, 25.2,
1983:9.
- Alexandru Marinescu, Chimizarea in nutriia animalelor, Edit. Ceres, Bucureti, 1980.
- Virgil Tma, Mihail erban, Mara Cotru, Biochimie medical veterinar, Edit. Didact. i
pedag., Bucureti, 1982.

It must be emphasized that the biomolecules which are the life basis have C atoms,
situated in a central position; they form the skeleton on which the other atoms graft,
especially O, H, N, S atoms with which they form relatively stable covalent links, resulting
in a great variety of biomolecules. In these molecules, the C compounds are found in a
reduced state (with high hydrogenization) and high content of energy; by this state, the C
compounds from the living world are differentiated from those from the mineral worlds, in
which they are found in an oxydated state (carbonates, dicarbonates, etc), and therefore
poor in energy.

245

9.3 Nutrition, the primordial condition for life

Life cannot develop without food (fodder, aliment), water and air. The whole life
edifice, so complex, is based on a continuous exchange of substances (matter) and
energy with the environment, which takes place in the nutrition process of biological
individuals. This process of nutrition assures the development of living organisms both in
the growth phase and in the maturity phase when the process of reproduction becomes
crucial. This reproduction achieved especially through seeds and tubers in the vegetal
kingdom or by eggs and/or chicks (cubs) in the animal kingdom, also needs substances
and energy for the development of the new generation, which are provided by the previous
generation (mater) either by the amount of substances concentrated in seeds, tubers,
eggs, etc, either by direct feeding of the little ones by their parents.
Without the continuous nutrition of the living organisms, the development of life and
its continuity are not possible. For this reason, the biosphere has developed a proper
system of nutrition based on production and transformation inside the living organisms of
some macromolecular compounds of C, especially glucides, lipids, protides and nucleic
acids (the last ones being holders of genetic information which control processes of
assimilation and desassimilation, biosynthesis, heredity, etc). The proper system of
nutrition is differentiated. It begins with the synthesis by the autotrophic organisms of
the macromolecular organic compounds from anorganic compounds of the mineral
kingdom and solar energy. The organic substances produced represent the single source
off substances and energy for the nutrition of the heterotrophic organisms (which cannot
use solar energy) in the processes of metabolism (bioshynthesis included) in the different
levels of the trophic chain (herbivore, carnivore). Finally, the dead organic remainder,
vegetal or animal, as well as the waste of the living organisms, are transformed by
decomposition in mineral compounds; these ones, together with the mineral compounds
resulted from the metabolism processes, enter again in the plant nutrition cycle (the small
biological cycle). In this way, the continuity of the nutrition process is assured.
The main role in the development of this proper system of nutrition in the biosphere
belongs, therefore, to the autotrophic organisms, especially to plants with chlorophyll, the
single ones able to use the solar energy for production from mineral substances of
organic matter with high energy potential. They nourish all living organisms. Also, the role
of the other organisms in the release of nutritive elements from organic compounds in the
nutrition process must not be neglected.

9.4 Accumulation and transformation of organic matter and energy

The nutrition of the living organisms as shown before implies the production of
macromolecular organic matter with high energy potential and, later on, its transformation,
processes which take place differentiatedly in the case of the autotrophic and
heterotrophic organisms.
The autotrophic organisms, able to produce organic substances from mineral
compounds, achieve the shynthesis of these substances (organicisation) by two ways:
photoshynthesis and chemoshynthesis.
Photoshynthesis (known also under the name of chlorophyllic assimilation)
represents the complex process of organic matter production which is realized in
chloroplasts with the help of chlorophil activated by solar light (light quanta). The
necessary mineral matter is the carbon dioxide from air (but continuously renewed by the
soils contribution) and water absorbed from the soil. In the first phase, the water
photolysis takes place (decomposition under light influence in H2 and O) and in the next
phase, the formation of formaldehyde is achived:
246

H2O + CO2 CH2O + O2

The formaldehyde polymerizes and forms glucose, C6H12O6, which in its turn
passes in di, tri and polysaccharides (glucides). In these reactions, an accumulation of
energy in the organic molecules (originated from the Sun) takes place; this energy will be
the energy potential in all the nutrition processes of the living organisms.
6CO2 + 6H2O +680 kcal = C6H12O6 + 6O2
Also, other chemical elements participate to the further shynthesis process so that
the formation of other organic compounds takes place, such as aminoacids, proteins, etc.
As a matter of fact, besides the 680 kcal corresponding to the Sun energy stored in
the shynthetized molecule of glucose (and which can be used in the food chain) a
supplementary energy is necessary (one that cannot be stored), which is used in the
process of evapotranspiration in order to keep the plant temperature between the
favourable limits for photoshynthesis (evapotranspiration of water absorbed continuously
by the plant from the soil). This amount of energy is of hundreds times higher than the
stored energy (Mihalache and Florea, 2005) and it is also delivered by the Sun.
The mentioned reactions are in general controlled by enzymes and other chemical
substances which contribute to collect and store the solar energy.
In the photoshynthesis process, the O2 release takes place, renewing the O2
consumed in the respiration process and other oxidation processes. The terrestrial vegetal
cover uses immense quantities of CO2 and H2O synthetizing yearly 360-400 billion tones
of organic substances and important amounts of O2.
Chemosynthesis is the process of organic matter production without solar energy
by autotrophic microorganisms. In this case, the energy comes from exothermic chemical
reactions within the proper body of organisms, as for instance oxidation process of
ammonia, hydrogen sulphide or ferrous compounds by nitrobacteria, sulphobacteria and
ferrobacteria. The importance of this source of energy from a quantitative point of view is
negligible in relation with that originated from the Sun. However, these autotrophic
microorganisms are the first which settle on rocks because they do not need organic
matter as source of energy and nutrients.
Biosynthesis is defined as the synthesis of a chemical compound produced in the
organism or in contact with live cells (DEX, 1998). This definition is suited both for the
synthesis of organic compounds by autotrophic organisms, mentioned above, and for the
shynthesis of organic compounds achieved by heterotrophic organisms. The last one very
different from photosynthesis is known as assimilation and is produced in living organisms
during and by the metabolism process.
The heterotrophic organisms, unlike autotrophic organisms, do not have a proper
mechanism of shynthesis of macromolecular organic compounds directly from the mineral
compounds. They need to use as source of substances and energy the organic matter
rich in energy shynthetized by autotrophic organisms; they take these ones either from
dead organic matter (saprophytes) or from live organic matter (all parasite organisms), or
from food (animals in general). Beginning with these sources of nutrition, and sometimes
with some addition of mineral salts, the shynthesis of organic matter in proper tissues
(cells) of organisms takes place, by process of metabolism. This shynthesis starts with the
digestion of macromolecular organic substances, especially by hydrolise and comprises
two phases correlated and interdependent: desassimilation and assimilation. The
desassimilation (catabolism) is associated with respiration, consumption of O2, movement
of some intermediary simple compounds of decomposition and elimination of final
compounds of decaying or excretion (CO2, H2O, NH3, some salts). The assimilation
(anabolism) is characterized by various processes of micro and macromolecules formation,
proteins and other compounds (especially vitamins, enzymes, etc.) having an important
role in this vital processes. All these are not only simple processes of chemical
transformation, but also processes of transfer, release and receiving of electrons with
247

delivery of the energy necessary for vital processes and synthesis of new macromolecular
substances with high energy potential entering in the body of the organisms.
Humification and mineralization are processes of transformation of fresh organic
matter from the soil in humic substances and respectively in mineral (organic) compounds.
The organic remainders, vegetal or animal, non-used (non-harvested) enter almost
all in the soil, where they are subjected to some transformations which lead, on one hand,
to the formation of soil organic matter (humus) accumulated in the upper soil part, and on
the other hand, to decaying (mineralization) of a part of the organic matter in CO2, H2O
and various mineral compounds of the other chemical elements (bioelements). In fact, the
transformation of organic substances in mineral compounds begins, as mentioned above,
by the metabolism processes in the organism-body (by desassimilation). The mineral
compounds, returned in the soil or atmosphere, will participate, of course, to the formation
of new macromolecular organic substances by processes of photoshynthesis; in this way,
a permanent re-using of nutrients is achieved (nutrient cycle).
It must be emphasized that only in the live systems the synthesis of
macromolecular organic substances rich in energy is possible, either by converting solar
energy in chemical potential energy in the case of plants with chlorophyll by
photoshynthesis process, or using the energy and chemical elements of nutrition from the
macromolecular organic compounds produced before, in the case of animals
(heterotrophic organisms).
For the explanation of this biochemical reactions specific to the living organisms, it
is considered that they are possible due to a vital force or a bioenergy ordonated in
energy fields which arise only in living matter by metabolic processes; a specific structure
of living matter is formed, biostructure (E. Macovschi), which is stable only in the live-state.
It must also be underlined that the living matter of healthy organisms cannot be
attacked (affected) by decomposers.
The development of so complex vital processes specific to the living world still
remains a miracle, whose mysteries are not elucidated; an explanation was given only by
religion, which attributed a divine origin and nature.

9.5 Energy flow and nutrient biologic cycle. Information program

By complex biochemical processes, mentioned above, which take place along the
trophic chain in the terrestrial ecosystems, a continuous flow of energy and a cycle of
biophilic elements are achieved (involved in nutrition) (fig. 9.2).
The scheme from fig. 9.2 shows the stages of the nutrition mechanism in a
terrestrial ecosystem, as well as the circulation of mineral and organic substances and of
energy. The radiant energy (from the Sun) is partially convereted in Terra by
photoshynthesis and accumulated as potential chemical energy in the vegetal organic
substance; it moves in the ecosystem together with macromolecular organic substances in
the whole trophic chain and is used gradually and dissipated in the environment. Only a
small part of this energy is accumulated in the soil in its organic matter and can re-enter
the biological cycle together with the simple organic compounds that have resulted by
decomposition (which are involved in the shynthesis of some macromolecular organic
compounds). Therefore, the energy flows in one direction from the Sun through the
biosphere to the environment, forming the energy flow. It must be underlined that the
energy necessary for development of biological processes and for lifes continuity is
permanently donated by the Sun, being continuously renewed (unidirectional energy
flow).

248

Figure 9.2 General scheme of nutrition factors and flow of substances and energy in
a terrestrial ecosystem (by Ellenberg, 1971, quoted by Chiri, 1974, with
modifications)
Unlike the energy, the chemical elements from macromolecular organic substances
(implicated in nutrition) come again in natural conditions in the soil and in the
atmosphere as organic matter is metabolized by consumers of different levels or is
transformed in inorganic compounds by decomposition, so that the chemical elements can
enter in a new biological cycle of nutrition together with a new radiant energy supplied by
the Sun.
This biochemical cycle is very important for lifes continuity, because this way the
biophilic elements (nutrients) although quantitatively limited on Terra appear to be
249

available in unlimited quantities as a consequence of this circulation between the soil and
the atmosphere on one hand and the biosphere on the other hand (and vice-versa).
The cycle of CO2 and that of O2 from the atmosphere are complementary. The CO2
is partially fixed in the photosynthesized organic matteer, but released by processes of
metabolism and mineralization, so that the content of CO2 in atmosphere is remade.
(Although in the last century an increase of CO2 concentration in atmosphere was noticed
as a consequence of the combustion of increasing amounts of fossil fuels which disengage
CO2. This increase of the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, along with other gases,
determines a heating of Terra as a consequence of the intensification of the greenhouse
effect.) Concerning the O2, this one is released in the atmosphere during the fixation
process of the C from the CO2 by photosynthesis, but at the same time the O2 is captured
in the oxidated compounds resulted by decomposition or mineralization of organic matter
(also, the concentration of CO2 is remade in this way). Photosynthesis leads to fixation of
CO2 and release of O2 and mineralization acts the other way around fixing O2 in different
compounds and forming CO2, H2O, etc.
Mans influences are not taken into consideration in the mentioned scheme (fig. 9.2).
At the photosynthesis level, the organic matter formation can be influenced through the
technologies of soil working, improving and fertilizing, as well as through the biologic
potential of cultivated plants (variety, hybrid), but at the biosynthesis level of heterotrophic
organisms the biomass production is influenced through the technology of animal breeding
and race. Also, if the organic matter is removed from the cycle as vegetal and animal
production, this action leads to the diminution of the trophic fund of the whole system; its
regenaration can be realized by a rational completion of the nutrients elimintated adding
them as fertilizers.
Live organisms are also characterized by a consummate information program,
which lies at the basis of both the functional order and the constitutive (architectural) order.
Under functional aspects, living organisms co-ordinate all reactions that take place during
the normal metabolism development. A great number of reactions take place with an
unimaginable accuracy, without mistake, in a perfect concatenation. Under a constitutive
aspect, the synthesized organic macromolecules are organized according to a genetic
code at all levels of development of the biosphere. By this program, various processes are
integrated in informational concatenations, in homeostasy, constant composition of tissues,
buffering of the pH variations, keeping the temperature and moisture at certain intervals,
etc. The specific genetic code is responsible for the transmission of hereditary features
from generation to generation or features which determine immunity, aging, etc.

9.6 The main factors indispensable for nutrition and life

The main indispensable factors for nutrition and therefore for sustaining life on
Terra are the Sun, the pedosphere (soil), the atmosphere (air) and the biosphere in which
the green plants have an essential role; to these ones, mans actions are also added.
The Sun is the factor which assures life and its continuity from an energy point of
view, by the continuous flow of solar radiation (light, heat) renewed practically each day.
Indeed, in essence, the processes specific to life are assured by the energy of electrons
originated from the activation state which the photon flow of solar light convey to the
chlorophyll molecules; this energy passes in live systems and makes possible the
synthesis of organic matter by photosynthesis achieved by plants with chlorophyll
(autotrophic organisms). In the biosynthesis realized in the animal kingdom (heterotrophic
organisms), the necessary energy originated from the Sun, but indirectly through the
previous accumulated energy by photosynthesis.
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The pedosphere or the soil is the factor that assure the life development from the
necessary chemical elements (nutrients) point of view. Indeed, the soil is that which
delivers continuously the inorganic (mineral) compounds necessary for the photosynthesis
process, namely water and chemical elements implicated in nutrition, except for C, which
is offered by the atmosphere. Also, the soil offers suitable conditions for the fixation and
development of plants and edaphon.
In addition, the soil participates by the processes of humification, respiration and
mineralization with proper edaphon contribution to the formation of stocks of nutrients
and to the renewing of these stocks (trophic fund, biotic structures included). Even CO2
concentration, decreased by using in photosynthesis, is at least partially compensated by
processes of CO2 formation in the soil and its disengagement in the atmosphere.
The atmosphere represents the factor which delivers the CO2 as a source of C for
all organic substances produced by photosynthesis; it receives in the same time the O2
disengaged in this process, but it also delivers the O2 for the oxidation processes in the
world of the living organisms (respiration, mineralization), offering as well in a certain
extent N.
Also, the atmosphere affords more or less suitable environmental conditions for the
existence of living organisms. In addition, the global hydrological cycle takes place in a
great extent through the atmosphere; this cycle is very important in connection with the
water stocks refresh on the land, in a more or less plentiful amounts.
The hydrosphere, although it does not deliver directly the water implicated in
photosynthesis, participates to the good development of this process, the hydrological
cycle in nature being the essential source of water, whereby the moisture stocks in soils
are refreshed periodically or the water stocks of rivers, lakes or reservoirs are supplied
(these ones being the main source of fresh water for animals).
The main chemical elements, C, H and O, implicated in photosynthesis and
respiration, are delivered by air (C) and soil water (O and H). By its low content in soil, P
(phosphorus) represents the chemical element which limits the biosphere extension.
Moreover, the hydrosphere represents a medium where a huge development of
aquatic organisms take place and in which high amounts of CO2 are absorbed and O2 is
generated by the phytoplancton; in the same time, this medium is an immense heat
exchanger contributing in this way to the climate-moderation.
It must be emphasiszed that the energy necessary for the hydrological cycle in
nature also comes from the Sun.
The biosphere represents in itself an essential factor for the development of
complex nutrition mechanisms. In the first phase, the autotrophic organisms, especially
plants with chlorophyll a natural immense reactor create conditions for inorganic
substances from the soil and atmosphere to interact in favourable environmental
conditions, with the help of solar light radiation, leading to the forming of organic
substances with high energy potential by photosynthesis. All following processes of
biosynthesis or of other kinds which take place in the biosphere by heterotrophic
organisms are based on using substances and energy accumulated by photosynthesis
processes of green plants, substances and energy which are regenerated continuously in
the biological cycle.
However, the role of heterotrophic organisms in the assurance of lifes perpetuance
must not be underestimated. Indeed, the organic matter produced by living organisms is
partially transformed, after the death of the organisms, in humus and accumulated in soil
(as soil organic matter) and partially and gradually used in the trophic chain by different
consumer and/or decomposer organisms; finally, it is transformed in mineral (inorganic)
compounds which come again in soil or atmosphere and can re-enter the nutrition chain
contributing to the continuity of biological cycles.

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However, the role of the plants with chlorophyll remains essential, because these
organisms synthetize organic matter, which incorporates solar energy, while the other
organisms develop on the basis of this energy.
The nutrition factors mentioned above are in a great extent vegetation factors,
named lately ecological factors. There are many ways of systematization of the vegetation
factors (Gh. Blteanu, 2003):
- abiotic or physical factors (climate, soil) and biotic factors (intraspecies and
interspecies interaction);
- climatic factors (atmosphere, biosphere) and biotic factors (living organisms);
- direct factors which comprise climatic factors (light, temperature, precipitation,
winds, etc), edaphic factors (soil and its properties) and biotic factors (connected with the
activity of the living organisms, and indirect factors, all factors which act producing
important changes of direct factors. The anthropical factors linked with mans activity can
form a different category too;
- cosmic-atmospheric factors (climate) and telluric-edaphic factors (relief, rock, soil
water, soil and its physical, chemical and biological properties).
The notion of nutrition factors has a more restricted sphere than the notion of
ecological factors or vegetation factors; the first notion refers only to the aspects
connected with chemical elements implicated in the synthesis of organic matter and
energy accumulation (and not also to the environmental conditions). The nutrition factors
correspond to the so-called ecological factors of growth or vegetation factor in restricted
sense (Chiri, 1974, pp. 494).
These vital processes can be achieved only in living organisms due to a high
organization in the living world, which presents an information program assuring a
perfectly biologic order from a constitutive and functional point of view and continuity of life;
all these make up an astonishing specificity of living matter.
One can say, therefore, that in essence the processes specific to life depend on the
energy of electrons activated by photons from the solar light radiation and conveyed to
matter. Life is based, therefore, on the continuous flow of solar radiation, from an energy
point of view, on chemical elements from the soil, air and water from a nutrients point o
view, and on live organic matter itself from the biochemical processes and information
point of view.

9.7 The nodal role of soil for sustaining life and its quality
From all the above, it results that between the pedosphere (soil), the atmosphere
(air) and hydrosphere (water), on one hand, and biosphere (plants, animals) on the other
hand, there are very close relations which interest the nutrition. The fodder and food
quality will depend in a great extent on the soils and waters quality, respectively on their
content and nature of chemical elements implicated in nutrition; any content in excess in
the soil, any pollution or any low content or depletion of some chemical elements
necessary for living organisms, will affect the quality of fodders and crops, and implicitly
the animal and human health.
Although plants appear as being the direct main source of nutrition for animals, the
soil is the one which assures the nutrients and particulary the water necessary for the
plants development, as resulted from fig. 9.3 too ( by Lctuu and al, 2005), concerning
the nutrition chain in the system soil-water-plant-animal.

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The soil is practically the main source of chemical elements entering plant
composition and therefore the food of animals and men. As shown before, the plant
(vegetation with chlorophyll) and soil make up the laboratory in which the combination of
different ions and molecules in macromolecular organic compounds takes place by various
biochemical processes with the help of solar energy and different programs of the living
organisms. Indeed, from the CO2 molecules originated from the air and water
molecules to which ions of NH4, Ca, K, etc are added originated from the soil the
simple organic compounds are synthesized (photosynthesis) (glucose, aminoacids, fatty
acids). These ones associate in macromolecular compounds or biopolymers (glucides,
protides, lipids, nucleic acids, etc) or in organic compounds with specific actions such as
enzymes and co-enzymes, hormones, vitamins, stimulating substances. From these ones,
organic structures more and more complex arise. The soil, as a system with attributes of
living organisms, beside the assurance of the conditions necessary for the development of
plants and edaphon, has developed a specific organization which assures selection,
accumulation and purveyance of chemical elements or biotic structures necessary for the
development of living organisms.

SOIL

PLANT

Vegetal
food

ANIMAL

Animal
food

MAN

WATER
Natural flow

Anthropic flow

Figure 9.3 Nutrition chain in the system soil-water-plant-animal (by Lctuu et al,
2005)
However, on Terra, the proportion of chemical elements implicated in nutrition is low,
although in the soil one finds an increase of this proportion as a consequence of some
processes of selective accumulation by the agency of vegetation itself. An increase of the
contents of C, H, N takes place; these ones, together with the O, represent the four
chemical elements of major importance, to which P, S, Ca, K and Mg as macronutrients
are associated. The plants have roots in the lower part of the soil from where they extract
nutrients, passing them in the synthesized organic matter. Over time, these nutrients
accumulate in the upper part of the soil, where the main mass of roots is found and in the
same time the result of the decomposition of the organic matter of aerial parts of plants
takes place. The soil represents, therefore, the source of essential nutrients for plants and
also for the whole trophic chain.
Generally, about 5% of the weight of a plant, after drying, consists of 8 elements: N,
P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Cl and Si (without taking into account C, H and O). It is estimated that on
the globe 5 billion tons of the 8 mentioned elements are extracted yearly by plants, which
represent 5 times the ore world production of iron and other metals.
These immense amounts of nutrients extracted yearly by vegetation could lead to
consumption of stocks over a short time, if a process of decomposition of organic matter
and release of nutrients which re-enter the nutrient cycle didnt exist. Such a continuous
movement of nutrients (cycle) is realized, so that although their content is low, they appear
to be available in large amounts.
From the over 40 chemical elements identified in the living organisms, at least 1820 micro and macroelements are indispensable for life due to their role of participation
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to the organic mass and to some chemical combinations with catalythic action in various
biochemical processes of vital importance. Through its content in chemical elements, the
soil influences considerably the amount of produced biomass and quality of food, as well
as the health of the consumers.
If the soil content (in the case of plants) or if food (in the case of animals) does not
assure the needs of living organisms (deficiencies of nutrition), the organic mass
production is diminished both quantitatively and qualitatively. Such a deficiencies leads to
problems of plant-growth (chlorosis, modification of leaves or their destruction, roots
putrefaction at sugar beet, etc) or to the deregulation of some functions and nutrients
sickness (apathy, anaemia, articular deformations, muscular dystrophies, rachitis and
other osteodystrophies, goiter, fluorosis, etc).
Some chemical elements, as for example, Fe, Mn, B, Cu, Zn for plants, and Fe, Mn,
Cu, Zn, I, Co, Se for animals, although necessary in low amounts, become toxic in
amounts somewhat higher. B, for example, absolutely necessary for plants in
concentration of a few ppm in soil, becomes noxious if exceeds 20 ppm for most plants.
If by anthrophic activity the process of vegetal or animal production will be affected,
detrimental factors will appear in a proportion which exceeds the capacity of organisms to
adapt. In this case, the biochemical processes of the whole trophic chain will be disturbed
with unexpected consequences upon biomass production and its quality which will be
reflected in the health state of population. Such disorders can be caused especially by soil
pollution as a consequence of uncontrolled fertilization or treatment with pesticides or
other chemical substances of growth stimulation, as well as by environmental pollution,
especially soil pollution with various compounds or waste disseminated in air, water or soil
by some industrial enterprises, means of conveyance, etc.
There are many examples concerning pollution with nitrates of soil, water and
plants (Lctuu et al, 2005), with pesticides or with heavy metals, etc, associated with
intoxications, illnesses, congenital malformations, etc, as well as with a low quality of
animal products.
Hence it results not only the utility, but also the necessity of some urgent measures
of limitation and controlled use of fertilizers, pesticides and other chemical substances
used in agriculture, of extention of use of biological methods of pest control, or of
prevention of envirionment pollution, etc. The salubrity and cleanness of the soil, water
and air will be mirrored in a high quality of fodder and food and of course in the health and
vigour of all animals and men.
The soil fulfils, therefore, many roles concerning the existence of living organisms
and life continuity (Florea et al., 2005), presented in the following lines.
Firstly, the soil represents a medium for plant development as producer of organic
matter and accumulator of energy, offering to the plants not only physical support of fixing
and growth, but also favourably physical and chemical conditions (of temperature,
moisture, reaction, aeration, sorbtion-desorbtion, buffering of the impact of some sudden
environmental changes).
Secondly, the soil participates directly to the process of photosynthesis by
delivering the necessary water and chemical elements implicated in this process, the soil
being a reservoir in which water, organic matter, nutrients, energy are accumulated; at the
same time, O2 is liberated in the atmosphere. It must be underlined that the soil represents
the sourse of nutrients not only for plants as it is considered in general but also for
animals and implicitly for men. Indirectly, the soil also participates to the synthesis of
organic matter in the aquatic medium by chemical elements liberated from soil by
weathering and arrived at this medium.
Thirdly, the soil by microbial flora which is an integrating part of the soil assures
the cycle of nutrients and energy delivery, both necessary for lifes continuity. Indeed, the
soil also represents a specific life habitat in which numerous and various microorganisms
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and other living organisms develop, having an essential role in the decomposition of
organic remainders of vegetation and animals. In this processes, together with the energy
necessary for vital processes, CO2 and water are also released (with O consumption),
which re-enter the atmosphere. Due to an essential role played by microorganisms in the
trophic cycle of the ecosystems, one can explain the attempts of soil fertility evaluation by
parameters concerning the soils microbiological activity (Stefanic, 1994).
Finally, the soil is also characterized by a selective accumulation of nutritive
substances and humus (organic matter), whereby it is explained in a great extent the soils
capacity to offer favourable conditions for plants development, property named soil fertility,
which influences the production capacity of the system soil-plant-atmosphere (ecosystem).
The soil also represents an efficient intermediary by its functions of water, air and
nutrients reservoir whereby man can influence the increase of the ecosystem production
capacity by application of fertilizers, water and amendments or measures of optimizing the
soil properties for cultivated plant growth.
One can say that the soil represents the initial source of chemical elements from
living organisms food and plays a nodal role, interceding the link among all factors of life
sustaining and among all processes involved in nutrition. It is, therefore, the basis of the
existence of living organisms; degradation or destruction of this basis affects very severely
this wonderful edifice of life.
The soil is, therefore, not only a natural body with life within and life medium which
makes links between the mineral world and the living organic world (G. Murgoci, 1924), but
also a system with characteristics of a live organism imparted (transmitted) to the soil by
its living organisms (edaphon) (P. Papacostea, 1976; N. Florea, 1989).
The soil genesis itself is a result of the long development of the circulation of energy
and matter among plants (biosphere), air (atmosphere) and soil (pedosphere) within the
terrestrial ecosystems (inherent for biological cycles).
In a schematic form, but much more suggestive, the cyclic circulation of chemical
elements implicated in nutrition is presented in fig. 9.4; this circulation takes place among
the main geospheres at the surface of the terrestrial crust, through the organic matter
synthesized by green plants using solar energy renewed all the time.
Justly, for their role in the organic matter production (by plants), the soil and vegetal
cover are considered to make up a laboratory, a factory at world scale in which organic
matter is continuously synthesized and energy accumulated. Also, the soil formed over a
long period of time at a geological scale is regarded as a source and treasury of organic
matter, nutrients and energy, which are exploited by man.
In addition, it is considered (Pierre Larzlo, 1990) that the clay which is formed in
the soil represents a reactor which increases the local concentration in various
substances, intensifying different reactions; indeed, the clay has some favourable
characteristics which it seems has permited the formation of the first organic molecules
in the history of the Earth. Among these ones, one can mention:
- the capacity of swelling which permits penetration of organic matter between atom
layers sheltered from destructive ultraviolet rays;
- an immense external surface;
- a stratified structure allowing concentration and partitioning of chemical
compounds according to their size;
- an ordered structure;
- an aptitude to be receptacle of polymerization.
All these properties also contribute in the present day to the efficient transformation
of organic matter in the soil and to the humus formation.
The amount of organic matter produced at the terrestrial surface is very much
different from a place to another, depending on the nature of the soil cover and the
terrestrial ecosystem; these ones form geographical landscapes with productive
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pontentials which vary according to the natural zone and the local edaphic conditions,
being influenced by the amount of energy received from the Sun, temperature and
precipitation conditions, parent material, local topographical situation, global drainage, etc.
Generally, the most productive landscapes are found at the equator; the productivity
decreases when passing to higher latitudes or with the diminuation of precipitations
towards the arid regions.

Figure 9.4 Schematic representation of the circulation of chemical elements in

the system atmosphere-biosphere-pedosphere
Concerning the quality of the synthesized organic matter and implicitly of food, they
depend on the content of nutrients from the soil and on the ratio among them. Any natural
deficiency or determined by depletion and any excessive content of nutrients or water can
entail disorder in the whole trophic chain with unexpected consequences for living
organisms. In the present-day, the hazard of pollution is added, either pollution with heavy
metals or with other toxic substances having disastruous consequences for life, fact which
accentuates once again the acute need of protection of the soil and its qualities.
The exposed arguments have shown clearly the role and importance of the soil as a
key subsystem of the terrestrial ecosystems which represent an absolute essential support
of life on Terra and of its quality.

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9.8 Concluding remarks

The biosphere has developed and perfected a proper mechanism of nutrition and
reproduction which is found at the basis of life and its perpetuance. Nutrition, respectively
the continuous exchange of substances and energy with the environment, is essential for
life.
The main factors of production of the phytomass and in general of the biomass,
necessary to nutrition, which not only sustain but also condition life itself, are:
- the flow of energy (light, heat) emited by the Sun;
- the soil, respectively the pedosphere, which continuously deliveres and renews
the nutrients and water necessary for organic matter synthesis and offers favourable
conditions for plant fixation and growing, participating to the primary biomass production
by primary producers;
- the air, respectively the atmosphere, which deliveres the CO2 as source of C for
biomass synthesized by plants, and of the O implicated in the biochemical processes;
- water, respectively the hydrosphere which although does not deliver directly the
necessary water, represents an important element in the hydrological cycle in nature
whereby the soil moisture and the surface water storages are renewed periodically; in
addition, the biosphere represents a vast habitat for aquatic organisms development;
- the living organisms, respectively the biosphere, which controls its own nutrition
mechanism in the trophic chain, starting with the primary producers (autotrophic
organisms), continuing with the consumers (heterotrophic organisms) and in the same
time with the secondary producers, and finishing with the decomposers; the chemical
elements realized by different bioclimatic processes come again in the soil and in the air
and can re-enter the nutrition cycle, contributing to the continuity of the biological cycles.
All processes of biosynthesis of organic matter and its decomposition take place
only within living organisms which have a wonderful capacity of assimilation and
desassimilation, which remains a miracle of live-matter.
In the last analysis, life depends on solar energy continuously delivered by the Sun,
which is circulated in the biosphere by the living organisms (live-matter) under the form of
organic compounds synthesized by biochemical processes. The autotrophic organisms
represent the collector of this energy (converting solar energy in chemical energy). The
heterotrophic organisms are its user and conveyor in the trophic chain and the
heterotrophic decomposing organisms are the recuperator of chemical elements. The
synthetised organic substances are the combustible matter or fuel, while the soil is the
storehouse of nutrients and water and the biochemical reactor of the most important vital
processes.
It must be underlined that between the pedosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere,
on one hand, and the biosphere, on the other hand, there are some very close relations of
exchange of substances and energy, which are essential for nutrition. The soil has a nodal
role in these relations of which quantity and quality of produced biomass depend; this role
consists of participation to photosynthesis, participation to nutrients recovering, selective
accumulation of nutrients and humus, being at the same time an efficient agent through
which man can act for the increase of the ecosystems productivity.
Maintaining clean and not-polluted the air, water and soil and by applying rational
agrotechnology, non-detrimental to the soil, a high quality of the vegetal and mineral
product will be assured, fact which will also be reflected in the entire health and vigour of
animals and men.

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10. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

10.1 The problem of soil preservation
Soils diversity and variability can be affected by human activities, in some cases
being diminished, in other amplified. The diminishment may be found in some cultivated
areas in which some differences among soils are attenuated by agricultural works and by
the use of fertilizers. But in most situations, the soil activity leads to an increase of
pedological variabilities, by the modification of the environmental factors parameters. Land
use in agriculture entails the change of the native soil dynamics and especially the level of
bio-geo-chemical cycles and of pedorhythms which modify the balance of substances and
energy; the soil accommodates itself continuously, in this way increasing the soil diversity.
Man is also responsible for the development of some processes of soil improvement by
land development works or through some processes of soil degradation by unadequate
soil management. In this way, a variety of cultivated soils form, either ameliorated, either
deteriorated or polluted in different degrees. In extreme situations, the soil cover may be
destroyed by erosion or can be reconstructed by man by the restauration of the
landscapes destroyed anthropically.
The most frequent and threatening soil degradation or destruction is caused by
processes of soil erosion, salinization, depletion, compactness, as a consequence of
inadequate management of the soil cover; to these ones, the risk of pollution and those of
soil use in non-agricultural and non-sylvicultural purposes is added, risk which becomes
more and more intense and with very grave consequences concerning this natural
resource.
The use in agriculture, almost the entire are aoccupied, of some soils (as is the
case for Chernozems, Kastanozems, Phaeozems and others) can lead to an intensive
modification of the sole native properties, also including the range of soil living beings. As
a consequence, the preservation of the soil with its properties as near as possible to the
native ones is a problem at least in some regions, where the setting-up of the soil reserves
are necessary.
In the present, in Romania there are some special scientific protected areas
(Bavaru et al, 2007) as biosphere reserves, national parks, natural parks and other types
or protected areas. In these protected areas, the soil is also protected, although this fact is
not specified (in fact, these protected areas are not characterized from the soils point of
view). But these protected areas do not cover the soil range of Romania, especially the
soils from plains and tablelands are not represented. The biggest number of reserves is
met in the mountain regions where the majority of soils are found under the native
vegetation, while in the plains, where the soils are found especially under cultivated plants,
the reserves are missing. A study of present protected areas is necessary to establish the
soils included in these areas and to differentiate the soils for which special protected areas
need to be established. It is also very useful to take into consideration the soils developed
in local environmental conditions (water excess, salinization or sodization, sandy texture,
clay texture, etc.) which present a distinct habitat which can shelter unusual living
organisms adapted to these extreme conditions.
It must be pointed out that natural reserves for flora, fauna, forest, landscape or
geological features are in fact complex natural reserves, in which nature, in its whole, is
protected and, of course, the terrestrial ecosystems, including the soil as well, an essential
component of these reserves. Reserves subdivision according to their main purpose is
more or less formal (having been used as an argument for the reserves formation). After
the reserve set-up, in the respective area the whole complex of environmental elements
(conditions) will be protected. Irrespecitve of the main objective of each natural reserve,
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this one has a natural complex character. For example, the muddy volcanoes reserve
protects not only this spectacular geological phenomenon, but also the specific microrelief,
surface sediment, salin soil and halophile vegetation, etc.
This point of view also entails the concept of the reserve research, in the sense of a
complex approach, not only of the aspects correlated directly with the respective reserve,
but also of all the natural environment, which will be investigated in a systemic vision,
integrating and dynamic. Such a study can be carried out by teams of different specialists.
In this context, a special attention has to be paid to the soil research too, because its state
and dynamics are parameters that best reflect the evolution of the whole ecosystem or
environment.
A research of the native soils in special reserves would also be useful, by
comparison with the similary soils modified by human activities, especially the study of the
changes of the physical, chemical, biological and morphological properties.
Establishing protected areas and soil-vegetation reserves (pedodiversity,
biodiversity) is not a luxury, but a precaution measure meant to assure some genetic
resources which can be very profitable in the future (for adaptation of some tolerant plants
to salinity, sodicity, droughtness, etc).
Finally, the following must be emphasized:
- irrespective of the main protected objective of natural reserves, these ones have
to be considered and treated as natural complex reserves;
- in the present day, it is necessary to consider the soil and the soil cover as an
objective of protection in natural reserves, in order to conserve characteristic soils (with
their vegetation, native properties and morphology), both as a standard for comparison for
the modified soils used in agriculture, and as a source of genetic materials for different
researches, especially of soil microbiology;
- when establishing a natural reserve, the soil should also be included as an
objective that needs protection, setting-up where is the case corresponding reserves;
- promotion of wholly, systemic studies of natural reserves, irrespective of the main
objective of the respective reserve, a special attention should be payed to the subsystem
which reflects better the evolution and dynamics of the whole ecosystem or geosystem7.

10.2 The importance of the pedodiversity research

The development of pedodiversity knowledge and research is important and useful
from many points of view.
Firstly, it represents an extension of knowledge on soils regarded as complex
genetic entities, result of historical natural evolution of different territories in close
correlation with the ecosystems and geosystems diversity. The pedodiversity knowledge
constitutes a basis of qualitative and quantitative differentiation of various land territories.
The pedodiversity research is important not only theoretically, but also through the
point of view of services brought for the human society which should be made sensitive
and fully aware of the great moment of protection of the soil, this irreplaceable and
reutilizable natural resource. The efficiency of these researches cannot be assessed
pecuniary, but in their consequences for nature and society.
The pedodiversity is under a certain aspect a prolongation of biodiversity. Indeed,
between pedodiversity and biodiversity, there is a link as close as the link between the
biodiverisy and ecosystem diversity, because the soil is in fact a subsystem of the
terrestrial ecosystem. Also, it is known that the soils with their conditions of inner and outer
7

Ibaez et al (2008) discussed with new arguments the question of Europe soils preservation as a
natural and cultural heritage.

259

milieu represent habitats which shelter living beings adapted to these soil conditions of
great significance for biodiversity.
The knowledge about pedodiversity is often available and more precise than the
knowledge about ecosystems, particularly in the agriculture territory, so that they can be
used efficiently for the characterization of the diversity of these territories habitat.
Three aspects justify the pedodiversity research:
- the soil contains a very rich community of plant and animal species which live
within the soil itself, thus being a deposit of genes for microflora and fauna (edaphon);
- the soil, as component of terrestrial ecosystems, is the place of some fundamental
processes concerning the ecosystem functionality;
- the soil protection and conservation is essential for the life supporting systems.
The necessity of the pedodiversity conservation and the maintenance and
improvement of the soils productive potential is an actual target, because it is necessary
to assure the increasing requirements for production of food, forage, timber, different raw
materials and various services.
The study of the pedogeographical assemblage as genetic-spatial expression of the
soil cover organization tends to become a new chapter of pedology (chorological pedology
or pedocenology). The pedogeographical assemblage offers information concerning the
description and evaluation of the soil cover components, the relations among them, the
relations between the soil cover and the environment, the pattern of soil distribution in
territory, the restrictions or limitations of agricultural use, the risks of soil cover degradation,
the ways and means of soil protection and of soil amelioration, etc. A good land use
management in the framework of a sustainable agriculture and an adequate land
development in general cant be conceived without a good information on the soil cover
and its pedogeographical assemblage which permits a profound understanding of the
processes involved in soil formation and soil-cover evolution under different conditions of
land use. The adequate understanding of the soil cover presumes the knowledge both of
each soil elementary area with its features and of the whole soilscape as a functional
territory.
The characterization of the pedogeographical assemblage is important for the
following motives:
- for a qualitative and quantitative characterization of the soil cover, including the
soil distribution pattern;
- to have an adequate basis for knowledge of soil forming and relief-forming
processes which took place and still take place in the soil cover;
- for a better characterization of the relationships among component soils of the soil
cover and between these ones and the environmental elements;
- to have a scientific basis of soil grouping (interpreting) in different purposes, taking
into account the soil protection, conservation and improvement;
- as a background for a soil regionalization of general order or for specific aims, as
well as for an adequate organization of the pedological data bank;
- to constitute a base for comparison of the soil cover from different territories.
Besides an improved characterization of the soil cover of a territory or of its complex
units (soil combinations, soilscapes), the quantitative study of the pedodiversity permits a
more detailed analysis of the territory and its structure (organization) and an adequate
comparison between different areas. It is also useful in the pedological data generalization,
in the case of smaller scales. Therefore, the pedodiversity parameters must be present in
any informatic system, of course, being useful for any trial of modeling of certain
phenomena that take placec in territory or in the landscape.

260

10.3 The utility of the pedocyclicity research

The research and the knowledge of the pedorhythms and of the dynamics of the
pedological cyclic phenomena is very useful because:
- it assures the extension of the knowledge and interpretation prospect of the soil
forming and evolution processes on the basis of annual pedorhythms and their
corresponding cycle balances, developed in natural conditions or modified by human
activity;
- it attracts attention on the existence off some relative discontinuities
(aridodiscontinuity, cryodiscontinuity) in the pedogenesis development, whose effect
should be especially studied;
- it contributes to the increase of the efficiency of adjustment and control of the soil
forming processes (soil dynamics) for the purpose of a better substantiation of the
pedogenetical processes optimization (especially salinization, sodization, nutrients
absorption-desorption, pollutants fixing or mobilizing, etc) and therefore a more adequate
pedosystem functionality;
- it assures a better selection and optimization of the works and measures of soil
systems protection, fertilizing and improvement.
Also, any modeling of pedogenetical processes cannot be carried out without an
adequate knowledge of the annual pedorythms and pedofluctuations on the long term.
Global warming, itself, much discussed in the present, cannot be understood in its
essence without taking into consideration the past pedofluctuations of the soil cover, which
register in fact changes of cosmic order produced on Terra.
To close these considerations, it must be underlined the need for the development
of a methodology of evaluation of the annual pedorhythms and their multiple implications,
as well as the specification of some quantitative evaluation criteria (pedorhythmometry).
Each soil would also be characterized by an angle of the specific pedorhythms, including
evolution rate (qualitatively and quantitatively) and their correlation with causative and
influencing factors.

10.4 New horizons

The soil system, as domain of transition between the non-living and the living, is a
functional formation (aggregate) in which two sides can be distinguished, a constitutiveprocessing (dynamic) side and an informational-energetic side. The first side has a
physical structure (dens matter) and the second an energy aspect (subtle matter)
whose mission is to make vital the whole soil-system by its role of link between soil and
cosmic and telluric domains. It seems that the energy side is more essential because it its
absence nothing can function.
The necessary energy forms a flow that runs rhythmically in close correlation with
the cosmic cycles. These cycles are developed alternative in the Universe, by a
succession of repeating phenomena, whose model determines the repetition of various
phenomena or activities at certain time intervals more or less equal, as for example, the
alternations day-night, different seasons or other cosmic phenomena at longer intervals,
etc, which influence the processes from the soil-system and environment.
Cyclicity is, therefore, a fundamental feature of the processes from Cosmos, as well
as of life from Terra, between them being a close link. Of course, the soil world does not
make an exception from this fundamental characteristic.
The cyclicity of soil evolution, namely pedorhythms and pedofluctuations, represent
concrete forms of pedological time materialization, while the polypedon, spatial
pedodiversity and pedogeographical assemblage represent concrete forms of pedological
261

space materialization, the time and space being the background of soils existence. Soil
evolution (development) and the modification of different soils and of the soil cover
(pedogeographical assemblage) during time are based on periodic adaptations of the
elementary soil entities (polypedons) to environmental conditions in continuous change at
a geological scale.
The two topics treated in this volume represent in fact the indisociable sides of the
same existence of the Pedosphere. The extension of their research opens new
perspectives of soil cover investigation, with two fields, namely soilscape science (or
pedocenology, denomination similar to phytocenology) which would deal with the soil
cover assemblage (organization) developing the principles introduced by V.M. Fridland
regarding the study of the soil cover structure, and pedochronology (similar in name with
chronobiology) which would approach the dynamics and evolution of soils and their
subunits at different time scales.
Paraphrazing Gardner (1991, Soil Science 151, p. 2-6), one can say that as we
study and learn more about the soil, and especially about the soil diversity and cyclicity
and its relationships with the environment and biodiversity, we realize that all these are
more complex than we have imagined, being at the same time more wonderful and more
captivating and charming than someone would have thought.

262

263

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Bundesanstalt fr Geowissenschaften und Rohstuffe, Hannover.
***, 2006, World Reference Base for Soil Resources, W.S.R. Rep. No. 103, Rome, 138 pp.

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The soil entities, spatial pedodiversity and pedogeographical assemblages (fabrics) are concrete
materialization forms of the pedological space, and the cyclicity of the pedogenetic processes that lead to
soil formation and evolution, respectively the pedorhythms and pedofluctuations, represent concrete
materialization forms of pedological time, space and time making up the background of soils existence.
The two aspects discussed in this volume represent in fact the undissociable facets of the soil cover
(or pedosphere). Their profound study opens new horizons of research and knowledge of the soilscapes.
Two new branches of soil science can be developed, a branch of soilscapes study and another of
chronopedology, whose topic would be the organization, functioning and dynamics of the soil cover and its
geographical sub-units at different scales of space and time, aspects of high interest and utility in this period
of various changes in the environment, and implicitly in the pedosphere, in a world in a continuous
transformation.

D. Sc., d.h.c. Nicolae FLOREA - titular member of the Romanian Academy of Agriculture
and Forestry Sciences
Born: 1921, May 31st, Geti, distr. Dmbovitsa, Romania.
Diplomatist engineer of the Faculty of Industrial Chemistry, Bucharest, 1945
(magna cum laude), D. Sc. of the University of Bucharest, 1972. Activity in the
research field at the Geological Institute of Bucharest as soil surveyor (19471967, head of soil survey department 1967-1970) and at the Research Institute
of Soil Science and Agrochemistry as head of soil genesis and cartography
department (1970-1989) and in the university as assistant, lecturer and professor
at the Faculty of Agriculture, Faculty of Geography, Univ. of Bucharest, and
Faculty of Natural Sciences, Ecological University of Bucharest.
Author of numerous studies and researches on soil genesis and classification, soil survey at large and
medium scale, soil geography, soil regionalization, physical, chemical and mineralogical soil properties,
evaluation of soil resources in different purposes, methodology of soil study and interpretation, soil
degradation, protection and improvement, geomorphology and hydrochemistry related to soil cover,
paleopedology and loess formation. Author and co-ordinator of the system of the soil maps at medium and
small scale in Romania and of thematic maps (soil erosion, soils with excess of water, salt affected soils, soil
zoning, soil vulnerabilities, etc) and of synthesis works about soils of Romania at different periods or
Romanian soil classification (1961, 1969, 1980, 2003). He is the main autor of the Romanias soil map at
1:200000 scale (50 sheets).
Soil studies in Iran (1971) and Syria (1977-1982) on land suitability for irrigation, chemistry and quality of
river water, soil evolution after the implementation of the irrigation and drainage network.
Contributor to the compilation of the world soil map FAO-UNESCO (1971-1982), Europe salt-affected soil
map (1974), Europe soil map at the scale 1:1000000 (1972-1973, 1998).
He introduced or contributed to the development of several concepts, such as pedostructured matter, soil as
system, soil combinations, soilscapes, consistent pedogeographical partition of the soil cover, pedodiversity,
pedocyclicity, pedorhythm, pedofluctuation, pedogeographical assemblage, soil genesis as result of
pedogenetic and geomorphic processes, loess genesis, regularities of salt accumulation in natural waters,
correlation between composition and salt content of natural waters, etc. Many published papers (about 500).
Correspondent (1969) and titular (1991) member of the Romanian Academy of Agriculture and Forestry
Sciences, doctor honoris causa of the West University from Timioara, honorary professor of the University
from Iassy, several prizes and distinctions from the Romanian Society of Soil Science, Romanian Academy,
Romanian Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Institute of geography from Bucharest, University
of Bucharest, University of Iassy, Institute for Land development of Bucharest, Academy of Sciences from
the Moldavian Republic. Honorary citizen of native town.
Editor-in-chief of the journal tiina Solului (Romanian journal of soil science), assistant editor of the journal
Pedogenetic factors and processes in the temperate zone (Iassy). Participant at many congresses,
symposia and scientific meetings concerning the soil science domain. Founding memer of the Romanian
Society of Soil Science and of the Association of geomorphologists from Romania, member of the IUSS,
ESSC, ISTRO, SIRAR.

ISBN: 978-973-0-08545-7