CURVESKETCHING

Thisisahandoutthatwillhelpyousystematicallysketchfunctionsonacoordinateplane.Thishandout
alsocontainsdefinitionsofrelevanttermsneededforcurvesketching.Anotherhandoutavailableinthe
TutoringCenterhas3sampleproblemsworkedoutcompletely.
ASYMPTOTES:
Thishandoutwilldiscussthreekindsofasymptotes:vertical,horizontal,andslant.
VERTICALASYMPTOTES
Wedefinethelinex=casaverticalasymptoteofthegraphof f x ,iff(ifandonlyif) f x
approachesinfinity(ornegativeinfinity)asxapproachescfromtherightorleft.
Theconceptofanasymptoteisbestillustratedinthefollowingexample:
Takethefunction f x

2x
1x

Here,wecanseethatxcannottakethevalueof1,otherwise, f x wouldbeundefined.Also:
lim f x and lim f x

x 1

x 1

Inthiscase,wecallthelinex=1averticalasymptoteof f x .
2

VerticalAsymptote:x=1
-2

-1

-1

-2

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Thefactthat f x isundefinedatx=1isnotenoughtoconcludethatwehaveaverticalasymptote.

Thefunctionmustalsoapproachinfinityornegativeinfinityasxapproachesthevalueatwhich f x is
undefined.

(863)6/02

Considerthefollowingproblem:
f x

x 2 3x 2
x2

Thefunction f x isundefinedatx=2butwedonothaveanasymptote.Noticethefollowing:
x 2 3x 2
( x 2)( x 1)
lim
lim x 1 2 1
x 2
x 2
x 2
x2
x2
lim

Weconcludethat f x approaches1asxapproaches2.Thisfunctionhasa"hole",notanasymptote,
atthevalueforwhich f x isundefined.

f x

-2

-1

x 2 3x 2
x2

-1

-2

Onceagain,inordertohaveanasymptoteatx=c, f x musthaveadiscontinuityatcand f x must

approachinfinityornegativeinfinity,asxapproachescfromtheleftortheright.

HORIZONTALASYMPTOTES
Wedefinetheliney=Lasahorizontalasymptoteofthegraphoff(x),ifff(x)approachesLasx
approachesinfinity(ornegativeinfinity).

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Forthefunction f x

2x
theline y 2 isthehorizontalasymptoteofthegraphof f x .
1 x

Thefollowinglimitshowswhythisistrue:
2x
2
2
2x
2
2
lim

2
lim
lim

2
x 1 x
x 1
and x 1 x x 1

1
1
1
x
x

lim

Whenxapproachesinfinity, f x approachestheline y 2 ,andwhenxapproachesnegativeinfinity,

f x alsoapproachestheline y 2 .
6

x 1

4
2

-2

2
-2

y 2

-4
-6

Aquickwaytodeterminethepositionofthehorizontalasymptoteofarationalfunction(havingno
commonfactors)iswiththefollowingmethod.Lookatthehighestdegreeinthenumeratorandthe
highestdegreeinthedenominator.
Ifthehighestdegreeisinthedenominator,thenthehorizontalasymptoteisy=0.
Ifthehighestdegreeinthenumeratorandthehighestdegreeinthedenominator
areequal,thehorizontalasymptoteistheratioofthecoefficientofthehighest
degreeterminthenumeratortothecoefficientofthehighestdegreeterminthe
denominator.
2x
(Inourpreviousexampley=
,thehighestdegreeinthenumeratoris1andthe
1 x
highestdegreeinthedenominatoris1.Theratioofhighestdegreetermcoefficients
2
is .Sothehorizontalasymptoteisy=2.)
1
Ifthehighestdegreeinthenumeratorisonedegreelargerthanthehighestdegreein
thenumerator,thenthefunctionhasaslantasymptote.

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SLANTASYMPTOTES
Ifthehighestdegreeinthenumeratorofarationalfunction(havingnocommonfactors)isonedegreelarger
thanthehighestdegreeinthedenominator,wesaythatthefunctionhasaslantasymptote.
Todeterminetheasymptote,rewritethefunctionintermsofapolynomial+anotherrationalfunction.For
example,let
f(x)=

x 2 3x 3
x 1

Dividingthenumeratorbyx1weget
f(x)=x+2+

5
x 1

5
approaches0asxapproachesinfinityandnegativeinfinity,thefunctionf(x)
x 1
approachestheliney=x+2asxapproachesinfinityandnegativeinfinity.y=x+2iscalledaslant
asymptote.
Sincethefraction

y x 2

6
4

f x

-2

x 2 3x 3
x 1

-2
-4
-6

x 1

Someremarksaboutfunctionswithasymptotes:
VerticalasymptotesareNEVERcrossedbyf(x).However,thegraph
off(x)maysometimescrossahorizontalorslantasymptote.
Asymptoteshelpdeterminetheshapeofthegraph.
Polynomialfunctionsneverhaveasymptotes.

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INCREASINGANDDECREASING:
Afunctionisincreasingoveranintervalif,whentracingthegraphfromlefttoright,
thegraphisgoingup.Likewise,afunctionisdecreasingoveranintervalwhenthe
graphisgoingdown.
Mathematically,thefunctionf(x)isincreasingwhenf '(x)(theslopeofthetangent
linetothecurve)ispositiveandf(x)isdecreasingwhenf '(x)isnegative.

Slopesofthetangentlines
Arepositivewhenx<cso
F(x)isincreasingwhenx<c.

f(x)

Afunctionf(x)canchangefromincreasingtodecreasing(orviceversa)atvalues
wheref '(x)=0orf '(x)isundefined.

f(x)

f(x)

incre
asin
g

ng
easi
decr

ng
easi
decr

incre
asin
g

f '(x) is undefined at x = c
f(x) changes from decreasing
to increasing at x = c

f '(x) = 0 when x = c
f(x) changes from increasing
to decreasing at x = c

Tofindwhereafunctionisincreasingandwhereitisdecreasing:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Computef '(x)
Determinethevalue(s)ofxwheref '(x)=0orwheref '(x)isundefined.
Orderthevaluesfoundin(2)inincreasingorderandplotthemonanumberline.
Foreveryintervalbetweentwoconsecutivevaluesin(3)chooseatestvaluein
thatinterval.
5. Determinethevalueoff '(x)atthetestvalue.
6. Iff'(x)>0atthetestvalue,thenf(x)isincreasingonthatinterval.Iff '(x)<0
atthetestvalue,thenf(x)isdecreasingonthatinterval.

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Forexample: Letf(x)=3x39x.Determinewheref(x)isincreasingandwhereitis

decreasing.

Takingthefirstderivativeandsettingitequaltozero,weobtain:
f '(x)= 9x29=0
9(x21)=0
9(x+1)(x1)=0>x=1andx=1

f '(x)isdefinedeverywhere,sowehaveonly2valueswheref(x)canchangefromincreasingto
decreasing:x=1andx=1.

Orderthevaluesfoundaboveonanumberlineasfollows:

-1

f '(x)

Theintervalsweneedtotestare( ,1),(1,1)and(1, ):
1) Fortheinterval( ,1)wewillchoosex=2asourtestvalue.
f '(2)=9(2)29=369=27
Sincef '(2)>0,weknowf(x)isincreasingontheinterval( ,1).

2) Fortheinterval(1,1)choosex=0asourtestvalue.
f '(0)=9(0)29=9
Therefore,sincef '(0)<0,f(x)isdecreasingontheinterval(1,1).

3) Fortheinterval(1, )choosex=2asourtestvalue.
f '(2)=9(2)29=369=27
Again,f(x)isincreasingontheinterval(1, ),becausef '(2)>0.

Relabelingournumberlinewehavethefollowing:

+
1

-1

f '(x)

Rememberthatvalueswheref'(x)=0orf'(x)isundefinedareonlypotentialplaceswherethegraph
canchangefromincreasingtodecreasing(orviceversa).Itispossible,however,thatthefunctionmay
notchangeatthosevalues.
f(x)

f'(x)isundefinedatx=0
f(x)isdecreasingwhenx<0
f(x)isdecreasingwhenx>0
x

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CRITICAL/EXTREMEPOINT:
Anotherimportantconceptneededincurvesketchingisacriticalpoint.Ifx=cisinthedomainoff(x)
andeitherf '(c)=0orf '(c)isnotdefined,thenx=ciscalledacriticalvalueofthefunctionf(x),and
(c,f(c))iscalledacriticalpoint.Acriticalpointmaybeamaximumpoint,minimumpoint,orneither.

Arelative(orlocal)maximumpointisacriticalpointwherethefunctionchangesfromincreasingto
decreasing.
Arelative(orlocal)minimumpointisacriticalpointwherethefunctionchangesfromdecreasingto
increasing.
Thecriticalpointisneitheramaximumnoraminimumifthefunctiondoesnotchangefromincreasing
todecreasing(orviceversa)atthecriticalpoint.

f(x)

f(x)
(c,f(c))

f(x)=x3
f(x)
f'(x)=3x2

x
c

(c,f(c))
f(c)isdefinedandf'(c)=0so
(c,f(c))isacriticalpoint.
f(x)isincreasingbeforex=c
anddecreasingafterx=cso
(c,f(c))isarelativemaximum.

f(c)isdefinedandf'(c)is
f(0)isdefinedandf'(0)=0so
undefinedso(c,f(c))isacritical (0,0)isacriticalpoint.
point.
f(x)isincreasingbeforex=0and
f(x)isdecreasingbeforex=c
increasingafterx=0so(c,f(c))is
andincreasingafterx=cso
neitheramaxnoramin.
(c,f(c))isarelativeminimum.

Tolocatethecriticalpointsonthegraph:
1. Takethefirstderivativeofthefunctionanddeterminethevaluesx=cwhere
f '(c)=0orf '(c)isundefined.
2. Ifcisinthedomainoff(x),then(c,f(c))isacriticalpoint.

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Forexample:
f(x)=3x39x
Earlierwefoundthatf '(x)=9x29=0,whenx=1andx=1,andf '(x)isdefinedeverywhere.
Sincef(x)isdefinedforbothx=1andx=1,wehavefoundtwocriticalvalues.

Substitutingthesevaluesintoouroriginalfunction,wefindthat
f(1) =3(1)39(1)
=39
y =6

AND

f(1) =3(1)39(1)
=3+9
y =6

Thus,wehavefoundcriticalpointsat(1,6)and(1,6).
Youcandeterminewhetherthesepointsaremaximumpoints,minimumpoints,or
neither,usingeitherthefirstderivativetestorthesecondderivativetest(thesecondderivative
testwillbeexplainedinthenextsection):
FIRSTDERIVATIVETEST
1. Determinewherethefunctionisincreasingordecreasing.
2. Ifthefunctionisincreasingbeforethecriticalvalueanddecreasingafterthecritical
value,thepointisamaximum.Ifthefunctionisdecreasingbeforethecriticalvalue
andincreasingafter,thenthecriticalpointisaminimum.Otherwise,thecriticalpoint
isneitheramaximumnoraminimum.
Forexample:Earlierwefoundcriticalpointsforf(x)=3x39x,at(1,6)and(1,6).To
determinewhetherthesepointsaremaximumsorminimums,usethefirstderivativetest.
Firstdeterminewheref(x)=3x39xisincreasinganddecreasing.
Thecriticalvaluesfoundabovewerex=1andx=1.
Fromourpreviousexamplewefoundthatf(x)isincreasingon( ,1),decreasingon
(1,1)andincreasingon(1, ).Thus,wehadthefollowingnumberline:

+
-1

(863)6/02

+
1

f '(x)

Atthecriticalvaluex=1,thefunctionchangesfromincreasingtodecreasing.
Therefore,(1,6)isamaximum.
Atthecriticalvaluex=1,thefunctionchangesfromdecreasingtoincreasing.
Therefore,(1,6)isaminimum.
maximum
(1,6)

f(x)=3x39x

f(x)

6
4
2

x
-3

-2

-1

-2
-4
-6

minimum
(1,6)

CONCAVITY:
Concavitydescribesthegeneral"cupping"ofafunctionataparticularpointorinterval.Whenthe
slopeofthetangenttothecurveisincreasingoveraninterval(f '(x)isincreasing,i.e.f ''(x)>0)the
functionisconcaveup.Whentheslopeofthetangenttothecurveisdecreasingoveraninterval(f
'(x)isdecreasing,i.e.f ''(x)<0)thefunctionisconcavedown.

f(x)

concaveup

Slopeoftangent
linesisdecreasing
(f"(x)<0)
B

concavedown

A
Slopeoftangent
Linesisincreasing
(f"(x)>0)
NoticethatthepointAisacriticalpoint(sincetheslopeofthetangentlineis0atA)andf(x)is
concaveupatA.WecanseethatAisaminimum.AlsothepointBisacriticalpoint(sincethe
(863)6/02

10

slopeofthetangentlineis0atB)andf(x)isconcavedownatB.WecanseethatBisa
maximum.

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11

Concavitycanhelpusdetermineifacriticalpointisamaximumoraminimum.Thefollowing
isthesecondmethodfordeterminingwhetheracriticalpointisamaximumoraminimum.
SECONDDERIVATIVETEST
If(c,f(c))isacriticalpoint,then:
1. Iff ''(c)<0,thefunctionisconcavedownatthatpointandthus(c,f(c))isamaximumpoint.
2. Iff ''(c)>0,thefunctionisconcaveupatthatpointandthus(c,f(c))isaminimum
point.
3 Iff ''(c)=0,thenthesecondderivativetestfailstodetermineifthepointisamaximum
orminimum.Inthiscase,thefirstderivativetestmentionedearliershouldbeused.

Example:Let'sgobacktothefunction f(x) =3x39x

f '(x) =9x29
f ''(x) =18x

Ourcriticalpointswere(1,6)and(1,6).
Usingthesecondderivativetestweobtainthefollowing:
f ''(1)=18

Sincef ''(1)<0,thefunctionisconcavedownat(1,6)isamaximum.

f ''(1)=18

Sincef ''(1)>0,thefunctionisconcaveupat(1,6)isaminimum.

WeseethatwegetthesameresultsusingtheSecondDerivativeTestaswedousingtheFirst
DerivativeTest.
INFLECTIONPOINTS:
Aninflectionpointisapointonagraph(inthedomainoff)whereconcavitychangesfrom
concaveuptoconcavedown,orviceversa.Concavitycanchangeatvalueswheref ''(x)=0orf
''(x)isundefined.

Tofindinflectionpoints:
1. Determinewherethefunctionisconcaveupandwhereitisconcavedown:
a)Determinethevalue(s)ofxwheref ''(x)=0orf ''(x)isundefined.
b)Orderthevaluesfoundaboveinincreasingorderandplotthemonanumberline.
c)Foreveryintervalbetweentwoconsecutivevalues,chooseatestvalueinthat
interval.
d)Determinethevalueoff ''(x)atthetestvalue.
e)Iff ''(x)>0atthetestvalue,f(x)isconcaveuponthatinterval.Iff ''(x)<0atthe
testpoint,thenf(x)isconcavedownonthatinterval.

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12

2. Ifthefunctionchangesfromconcaveuptoconcavedown(orviceversa)atx=cand
f(c)isdefinedthen(c,f(c))isaninflectionpoint.

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13

Example:Earlierwefoundthesecondderivativeoff(x)=3x39xwhichwas
f ''(x)=18x
f ''(x)=0whenx=0,andisdefinedeverywhere.

Plottingthisonanumberlineweget:

f ''(x)

Fortheinterval( ,0)choosex=1tobeourtestpoint:
Sincef ''(1)<0,f(x)isconcavedownontheinterval( ,0).

f ''(1)=18

Fortheinterval(0, )choosex=1tobeourtestpoint:
Sincef ''(1)>0,f(x)isconcaveupontheinterval(0, ).

f ''(1)=18

Labelingournumberlineweget:

+
0

f ''(x)

Sincef(x)changesfromconcavedowntoconcaveupatx=
0,andf(x)isdefinedatx=0,thepoint(0,f(0))=(0,0)isan
inflectionpoint.
f(x)

f(x)=3x39x

6
4
2

concave
up
x

-3

-2

-1

concave
down

-2
-4

inflection
point

-6

(863)6/02

14

Rememberthatvalueswheref''(x)=0orf''(x)isundefinedareonlypotentialplaceswherethe
graphcanchangeconcavity.Itispossible,howeverthatthefunctionmaynotchangeconcavity
atthosevalues.Forexample:f(x)=x4f'(x)=4x3f''(x)=12x2
f''(x)=0whenx=0

Plottingthisonanumberlineweget:

f ''(x)

Fortheinterval( ,0)choosex=1tobeourtestpoint:
Sincef ''(1)>0,f(x)isconcaveupontheinterval( ,0).

f ''(1)=12

Fortheinterval(0, )choosex=1tobeourtestpoint:
Sincef ''(1)>0,f(x)isconcaveupontheinterval(0, ).

f ''(1)=12

Labelingournumberlineweget:

+
0

f ''(x)

Inthisexamplef(x)=x4isconcaveupwhenx<0andconcaveupwhenx>0.Concavitydid
notchangeatx=0sothepoint(0,0)isnotaninflectionpoint.

(863)12/99

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