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Ecological Succession
Observed process of change in the species structure of Ecological Community over time
Simple Definition: Replacement of simpler species by more adapted and complex species, till
climax is reached
Primary: Start from an area where life never existed i.e. uninfluenced by pre-existing
communities
Influence.
Human actions
Climax: Harmony with environment, both influence each other, adapt continuously, wide
diversity, well drained spatial structure, complex food chain
Polyclimax theory
Population interaction
For any species, survival in isolation is not possible.
So, interaction are basic necessity
1. Mutualism: + +
2. Competition: - -
3. Amensalism: - 0
4. Predation: + 5. Parasitism: + 6. Commensalism: + 0
Predation
Release of fixed energy, herbivores are not too different, prey population under control,
prickly pear cactus in Oz and moth story, species diversity, Pisaster starfish in pacific
intertidal area
Predator too efficient- extinct prey and then itself! So, predator are prudent
Prey: Camouflage, Monarch butterfly distasteful, against phytophagus insects, plants like
acacia, cactus have spines, Calotropis produces cardiac glycosides,
Extract like nicotine, caffeine, opium, quinine, strychnine are all defense mechanism
Competition
Darwin: Survival of the fittest, closely related species competing for the same resources.
Exception: Unrelated- Flamingos and fish compete for zooplankton. Feeding efficiency
might also interfere, even if resources are sufficient
Gauses Competitive Exclusion Principal: Resource partitioning, Warblers on same tree coexist with different foraging activity
Parasitism
Free residence, transport and food, so huge variety from plants to higher vertebrates.
Complex life cycle: Human liver fluke (trematode) depends on snail and fish, 2
intermediate host. Ecto-Parasite: Lice, ticks, marine fish by copepods, Cuscuta on
hedge plants. Endo-Parasite: inside in liver, kidney, RBCs, lungs. Brood-Parasite :
Cuckoo and crow
Parasites harm the host, reduce survival, growth, reproduction, population density of
the host, but usually do not kill them
Commensalism
Sea anemone with stinging tentacles and clownfish that live among them
Mutualism
Both benefits.
Mycorrhizae: Fungi helps roots of higher plants absorb essential nutrients while plant in
turn provides energy-yielding carbohydrates
Pollination: Pollen and nectar for pollinator and nutritious fruits for seed dispersal. Here
also Co-Evolution. Ex: Figonly by partner wasp- Oviposition (laying eggs) plus feeding larvae
from seeds. Wasp pollinates figinflorescence in turn
Mediterranean orchid Ophyrus, sexual deceit, one petalresembles female bee in shape,
size, colour, marking, pseudocopulation with 2 or more leads to pollination. Here, coevolution is a must.
Consisting of both the biotic community and the abiotic environment, which have close
interactions
input (productivity),
NATURAL
Terrestrial (Forest, grassland and desert) and Aquatic (pond, lake, wetland, river and
estuary). In aquatic ecosystem, more biodiversity is found in LOTIC ecosystem (running
fresh water ecosystem like river) than in LENTIC ecosystem (Stagant fresh water like
lake, pond, swamp)
ARTIFICIAL
Components of Ecosystem:
Biotic components: include any living component from smallest microbe, fungi to largest
animals and plants
Abiotic Factors: include inorganic substances (carbon, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water,
etc.) involved in natural cycles, air, water and other physical factors, organic compounds
(proteins, carbohydrates, humus). The important ones are:
Temperature
Water
2nd most important abiotic factor, life started in water about 3.5 billion years ago.
Precipitation is the major source of soil water.
Xerocoles: Terrestrial animal who can tolerate extreme dry conditions and can
survivemany days without water like camel and kangaroo rat etc.
Stenohaline: Those organism which can survive only a limited range of salinity.
Part of a water body which have been cut off from river : ox bow lake
Soil
In general, soil has this composition = Minerals 45% + water 25% +air and other gases 25%
+organic matter 5%+ innumerable organisms. But composition varies widely depending
upon the type of soil
Loamy soil (40% sand + 40% silt + 20% clay) is the best soil for growth of plants, it has high
water holding capacity, high aeration and root penetration
Soil organic matter: Freshly fallen plant or dead animals = detritus or litter
(Litter>duff>humus)
Humification and mineralization- leads to the formation of humus then minerals, and
occurs during soil formation.
Types of soil:
Red soils, Laterite and lateritic soil, Black soil, Alluvial soils, Forest &hill soils, Peaty and
marshy soils, Desert soils, Saline & Alkaline soils
1) Red soils: Light textured with porous and friable structure and there is absence of lime, Kankar
and free carbonates. Neutral to acidic reaction and are deficient in nitrogen humus, phosphoric
acid and lime. Ex: Periyar and Salem district of Tamil Nadu, MP, Andhra, Eastern Rajasthan etc.
2) Laterites and Lateritic soils: Red to reddish yellow in colour and low in N, P, K, lime and
magnesia. These soils are formed in-situ under conditions of high rainfall with alternation dry and
wet periods.
Rainfall leading leaching producing porosity. High distribution range from Eastern Ghats, entire
south India, Satpura, Vindhyan plateau, Maikal and Mahadeo ranges in Madhya Pradesh.
3) Black soils (Indian Regur soil): Originated from vulcanism, know as Black cotton soils as they
are of dark brown colour and suitability for growing cotton. An accumulation of lime is seen.
These soils are deficient in nitrogen, phosphoric acid and organic matter but rich in calcium,
potash and magnesium. Found in Deccan plateau (Mahrashtra) and MP plateau, Saurashtra and
Malwa
4) Alluvial soils: These soils occur along rivers and represent the soil materials that have been
deposited by the rivers duing flood. Despite sometimes being deficit in N, P and Humus, they are
highly productive soils. Ex: Great northern Gangetic plains, along valleys of Narmada, Mahandi,
Tapti, Cauvery and Godawari.
5) Forest and hill soils: These soils usually occur at high or low elevations if rainfall is sufficient to
support trees. These soils are very shallow, steep, stony, and infertile for the production of field
crops. But produce timber and fuel. Ex: Himalayan regions valley basins, less steeply inclined
slopes, depression
6) Desert soils: Mostly sandy soils that occur in the low rainfall track. They are well supplied with
soluble salts but are low in nitrogen and organic matter and have a high pH value. These are quite
productive. These are often subjected to wind erosion. Found in Western Rajasthan and adjoining
regions of Gujarat,
7) Saline & Alkaline soils: These soils occur in areas having a little more rainfall than the areas of
desert soils. They show white incrustation of salts of calcium & Magnesium and sodium on the
surface. These are poor in drainage and are infertile.
8) Peaty and Marshy soils: These types of soils are found in Kerala (Kari soil), coastal track of
Orissa, Sunderban area of W.B. When the vegetation growing in such wet places dies, it
decomposes very slowly dues to excessive wetness of soils and after several hundreds of year a
layer of partly decayed organic matter accumulates on the surface, giving rise to such peaty and
marshy soils. These are black colored, heavy and highly acidic soils. When properly drained and
fertilized, these soils produce good crops of rice.
Soil Erosion:
Removal, transport and deposition of soil from one location on earth crust to another.
Occurs naturally
Causes:
Special Phenomena: Solifluction- Soil flow-age, seen in Tundra in summers and wind erosion
are now the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they are responsible for
about 84% of the global extent of degraded land, because of permafrost, melt water cannot
percolate below, giving soil particles a saturated, heavy and saggy appearance.
Slip erosion: aka Landslides: Water, gravity in combination moves large amount of matter
down the slope.
Steam Bank Erosion: Rivers during floods splash their water against the banks and cuts
through them.
Based on penetration of light, stratification in lake water body is characterized into three
categories
Limnetic zone- Neither too deep nor too shallow, well-lit, open surface waters in a lake,
away from the shore. The vegetation of the littoral zone surrounds it. This is the main
photosynthetic body and produces oxygen and food that support the lake's consumers.
Profundal/ Abyssal zone - very deep zone where there is no penetration of light.
Ultraviolet radiation
Energy
Visible radiation
Infrared radiation
Terahertz radiation
Microwave radiation
Radio waves
Albus means white, so perfect white body will reflect all the incident sunlight and will have
albedo value of 1 (100%) and zero albedo value for no reflection of a perfectly black
surface.
In reality, it varies from 4% for charcoal to 90% for snow. Albedo is earth in general is 0.3,
much higher than ocean. Albedo of moon is 0.12 because of lack of atmosphere. Albedo of
certain surfaces are given below.
The solar input, the cycle of temperature, day-length and other climatic conditions
regulate the rate of function of the entire pond.
The autotrophs are phytoplanktons (planktons means passive drifter), algae, floating,
submerged and marginal plants.
Consumers are zooplanktons, the free swimming (nektons are active swimmers who can
swim independent of current), bottom dwelling forms (b for bottom b for benthos).
Decomposition and mineralisation of the dead matter to release them back for reuse.
There is unidirectional movement of energy towards the higher trophic levels and its
dissipation and loss as heat to the environment.
PRODUCTIVITY
Community biomass- mass of all species in the community (include microorganisms, plants
or animals). It is measured either in terms of dry weight (60-80% weight of water not
included) or by measuring organically bound carbon.
Standing crop: Total dried biomass of all the organism at a particular trophic level present
in a given area.
Primary Production: Total amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area. Unit in
terms of weight (g m 2) or energy (kcal/m 2)
Note: Rate of production is called as productivity. Unit in terms of weight (g m 2yr1) or energy
(kcal m 2 yr1)
Primary productivity: Amount of biomass/organic matter (in terms of dry weight) produced per
unit area over a time period by plants during photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (g
m 2yr1) or energy (kcal m 2 yr1) per unit area (m 2) per unit time (yr1).
Primary Productivity of 2 types:
Net primary productivity (NPP) = (GPP R): Gross primary productivity minus respiration
losses (R), and is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs (herbivores
and decomposers).
Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
Factors influencing PP includes
plant species,
environmental factors,
E The annual net primary productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons
(dry weight) of organic matter or 104.9 Gt C yr1 (Giga or billion tonnes Carbon per year). Of
this, 56.4 Gt C yr1 (53.8%), was the product of terrestrial organisms, while the remaining 48.5
Gt C yr1, was accounted for by oceanic production, despite occupying about 70% of the
surface. So, productivity on land is far higher (426 gC/m/yr for land production excluding
areas with permanent ice cover) than ocean (140 gC/m/yr).
Per unit max productivity from Tropical rain forest In water, least productive is very deep lake
and highest productive is coral reef.
DECOMPOSITION
Decomposers break down complex organic matter (detritus-leaves, bark, flowers, dead
remains of animals, fecal matter), into inorganic substances like CO2, water and nutrients
and the process is called decomposition (5 steps: fragmentation, leaching, catabolism,
humification and mineralisation).
Detritivores (earthworm aka farmers friend) loosens the soils and break down detritus
into smaller particles (fragmentation). Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the
soil horizon and get precipitated as unavailable salts (leaching). Bacterial and fungal
enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances (catabolism).
All the above steps operate simultaneously. Humification: accumulation of humus (dark
coloured amorphous substance acts as a reservoir of nutrients); highly resistant to
microbial action and decomposition. Humus is slowly degraded by some microbes and
release of inorganic nutrients occur by the process known as mineralisation.
Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on earth. Exceptions include deep sea
hydro-thermal ecosystem where chemo-autotrophs like archaebacteria etc. are capable of
creatingorganic matter from some sulfur based compounds.
Incident solar radiation, if 100, about 50% is Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR)
from 400-700nm, which is also the visible spectrum. Out of PAR, 2-10% is actually fixed
into organic matter. And then unidirectional flow of energy starts as below
Sun Autotrophs Heterotrophs
Rule of 10% (10% law of Lindeman): energy is reduced by 10% during flow to every higher
tropic level. Because of this law, the number of trophic level are usually restricted to 4-5.
Right from sunlight being trapped by autotrophs into organic material, and further transfer
of energy to higher trophic levels, on an average, 10% (2-20%) of energy is transferred
while rest 90% (80-98%) is lost in respiratory and other losses. So as the number of trophic
levels increase in a food chain, most of the energy is lost. Hence, this is one of the
argument given in favor of adopting vegetarian food habits by human beings as this will
lead to us occupying second trophic level and less energy will be lost.
Heterotrophs = It includes both herbivores and carnivores. These are the organisms which
are unable to fix sunlight directly and hence, are dependent on plants directly or indirectly
for their energy requirements.
Carnivores: These animals eat other animals which in turn eat the plants (or their produce)
and are called secondary consumers/ tertiary producers.
Omnivores: Occupy many trophic levels and eat both plant and animals. Ex: Man.
Nutrient mobilisation
Food Chain:
A food chain is a linear sequence of links in a food web. It goes through various trophic
(means nutrition) levels starting from autotrophs at first trophic level, going to herbivores,
carnivores and ending with decomposers. However, death of any organism mark the
starting of the detritus food chain/web.
Begins with dead organic matter, made up of decomposers like bacteria and fungi,
which release enzymes on the dead remains and decompose. (aka saprophytes because
sapros' means to decompose or osmotrophs meaning they absorb their nutrition
osmotically after digesting the food outside their body). Decomposers also play an
important role in mineral cycle (biogeochemical cycle)
A food web consists of all interconnected and overlapping food chains in an ecosystem.
Each food chain is one possible path that energy and nutrients may take as they move
through the ecosystem.
More the complex the food web, more will be the ecosystem stable and permanent.
Homeostasis Most of natural and biological systems, including ecosystem always remain
in a dynamic equilibrium with the help of a negative feedback cycle. In ecosystem, if any
change occurs in anytrophic level other trophic level will react accordingly.
Ecological Pyramids
Ecological Pyramid:
Is a graphical representation designed to show a particular character of ecosystem visa-vis particular trophic levels.
It helps in simplifying the food chains and web and help us in better understanding of a
given ecosystem.
Three types:
Pyramid of number:
Exception: Inverted in
Tree ecosystem. Ex: One tree have lakhs of insects dependent on it, 100s of small birds
feed on these insects and various large birds feed on the small birds.
Parasitic ecosystem: One host like dog has various fleas living on it, and fleas in turn
have their intestine infiltrated by protozoan hyper parasite.
Pyramid of biomass:
Usually upright.
Depicts the total biomass (dry mass) available at each trophic level.
Exception:
Phytoplanktons reproduce at a very rapid turnover rate so have a very little biomass at
a given time and are consumed byzooplanktons at equally fast pace. These
zooplanktons are theneaten by small fishes, and then there are large fishes.
Pyramid of Energy:
Always upright, as ~ 90% of energy is while dissipated passing to a higher trophic level.
Does not take into account the same species belonging to two ormore trophic level.
Allen rule: Heat loss from extremities of mammals is extremely rapid so they tend to be very
small in colder region and large in warmer region.
Bergman rule: body size of birds and mammals is large in cold region and small in warm.
Gloger rule: mammals and birds are more darker in colour in hot areas.
Renschs rule: birds in cold region have narrow wings and in warm have broader.
Explanation: As the size decreases, the volume of an organism falls drastically. So, the ratio of
surface area to volume becomes very high in small mammals. So, the heat loss is too much
and too rapid for them to survive in colder region, so they are rarely found in polar and sub
polar region
Beyond Optimum zone of tolerance on either side there is first zone of stress, followed by
zone of intolerance.
The movement of nutrient elements across the ecosystem passing through many
components is called Biogeochemical cycle.
Bio living organism
Geo rock, soil, air, water
Chemical material or nutrients
Cycle path
The amount of nutrients (C, H, N etc.) present in soil at any given time is called standing
state.
There are 2 broad type of BGC cycles
(i) Gaseous cycle C, H, N, O cycles.
Reservoir exists largely in the atmosphere.
(ii) Sedimentary cycle
P, S, Ca cycle.
Reservoir exists largely in the earths crust
Carbon cycle: Carbon constitutes 49% of dry weight of an organism. Ocean contains 71% of total
global carbon in dissolved form, atmosphere merely has 1%, which in turn is regulated by oceanic
reservoir. Fossil fuel also represent a reservoir of carbon. Carbon cycling occurs through
atmosphere, ocean and through living and dead organisms, decomposers. CO2 is given out by
respiration and fixed into organic matter during photosynthesis. Human activities have
significantly influenced the carbon-cycle. Rapid deforestation and massive burning of fossil fuel for
energy and transport have significantly increased the rate of release of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere leading to Greenhouse effect
Nitrogen Cycle
1. Nitrogen fixation: By bacteria Rhizobium, Azospirillum, Frankia, Clostridium, Bluegreen
algae (Anabena) , Nostoc,
2. Nitrification
4. Ammonification
Litter ammonia
By bacillus bacteria
5. Denitrification
By pseudomonas bacteria
Phosphorus cycle
Sedimentary cycle
Main constitute of protoplasm, membranes, bones, nucleic acids, cellular energy transfer
apparatus.
Weathering of these rocks lead to release of Phosphorus and its absorption via plant roots,
which in turn gets transferred to higher trophic levels.
Excretory material of birds on the rocks called Guano is also a source of phosphorus.
Differences b/w carbon and phosphorus cycle
(i) Atmospheric input of phosphorus through rainfall is much smaller than carbon
(ii) Gaseous exchange of phosphorus is very small.
Natural cryopreservation: Help in prevention of body fluid from freezing, sugar trehalose,
antifreeze glycoproteins, peptides and other compounds.
Mimicry: Most common being Batesian mimicry, where a palatable species mimics an
unpalatable or noxious species.
Behavioural responses: Desert lizards bask in the sun and absorb heat when body temperature
drops, and move away when ambient temperature starts increasing, desert rodents burrowing
into the soil to hide and escape from the above-ground heat.
The tiger census in our national parks and tiger reserves is often based on pug marks and fecal
pellets.
Ecotone:
An ecotone is a transition area between two biomes, where two communities meet and
integrate, it may be narrow or wide, broad area or sharp boundary line, and it may be local (the
zone between a field and forest) or regional (the transition between forest and grassland
ecosystems).
Edge effects: Refer to the changes in population or community structures that occur at the
boundary of two habitats, leading to greater biodiversity. Ex: Estuary (partly enclosed coastal
body of brackish water with rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the
open sea)
Ecocline:
Different from ecotone
Physical transition zone between two systems
Can be a thermocline, chemocline (chemical gradient), halocline (salinity gradient)
or pycnocline (variations in density of water)
Biological (phyto-climatic) spectrum- ratio or percentage distribution of different
life forms in any plant communities.
Biotic potential- Maximum reproductive capacity of any species
Biological Hierarchy:
Dumb Kids Prefer Candy Over Fancy Green Salad
Domain > Kingdom > Phylum > Class > Order > Family > Genus > Species.
Kids
Put
Cat
On
Firey
Gas
Stove
Altruism- behaviour of the individual to increase the chance of survival of others of same species
(SACRIFICIAL BEHAVIOUR) in spotted dear
Communication between species happen via - chemical signals- pheromones, tactile signals
(contact), visual signals, auditory signals
Speciation: Process of creation of new species by separation of population of plants and
animals, originally able to interbred, into independent evolutionary units which can no longer
interbred to produce fertile offspring due to accumulated genetic differences.
Species: Largest group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. It
is the basic unit of classification, similar in structure, function and behaviour produced by similar
parents, having common gene pool, can interbreed under natural conditions Partial exceptions:
Mule-offspring of a male donkey (jack) and a female horse (mare), Liger- hybrid cross (male lion
with a female tiger), Tigon/Tiglon (male tiger+lioness), theses offsprings are usually sterile.
Endemic species- Found only in particular area
A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionately large effect on its communitys
characteristic and environment relative to its numerical strength, playing a critical role in
maintaining and determining the types and numbers of various other species in the community.
It is analogous to keystone of an arch in architecture where the arch collapses without the
keystone.
Predators:
Jaguar can feed on up to 87 species and hence, a small number of such predators
prevents herbivorous species from eliminating dominant plant species and dramatically
alter the character of the ecosystem.
The sea otter is an important predator of sea urchins, who otherwise will destroy coral
reefs and kelp roots. These kelp plants increase the productivity and also provide habitat
to many other species.
Various pollinators like honey bees are dependent upon a single tree for its nectar need,
making the tree species a keystone species.
In the African savanna, elephants destroy trees making room for the grass species.
Ecosystem engineers
In North America, the prairie dog burrows provide the nesting areas, tunnel systems also
help channel rainwater into the water table to prevent runoff and erosion, increasing
aeration and reversing soil compaction that can be a result of cattle grazing.
Beaver transforms its territory from a stream to a pond or swamp, by cutting down
trees. Beaver dams alter the riparian area they are established in and provide benefit to
many species including amphibians, salmon, and song birds.
Species that defines a trait or characteristic of the environment i.e. a species whose
presence indicates human-created abiotic conditions such as air or water pollution.
So they are used to monitor the health of an environment or ecosystem as their function,
population, or status can reveal what degree of ecosystem or environmental integrity is
present.
Nile perchs introduction into Lake Victoria in east Africa led to extinction of 200 species of
cichlid species.
Carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and water hyacinth (Eicchornia) are invasive weed
species and have caused widespread environmental damage, also pose threat to our
native species
African catfish Clarias for aquaculture purposes is posing a threat to the indigenous
catfishes in our rivers.
Flagship species: Conservation biology. The flagship species concept holds that by raising the
profile of a particular species, it can successfully leverage more support for biodiversity
conservation at large in a particular context. Popular, charismatic species that conjure awe and
serve as symbols and rallying points to stimulate conservation awareness and action. Ex: Bengal
tiger, the giant panda, African and Asian elephant.
Umbrella species: A wide-ranging species whose requirements include those of many other
species and helps in protecting these species indirectly protects the many other species that make
up the ecological community of its habitat conservation related decisions. Tigers in India so
Project Tiger was launched to save the tiger and thereby its habitat and other species within it.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/user/unacademy
Compiled by: Ashish Desai