ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

-Endocrine system coordinates with nervous system to control

the whole bodily system
1. Types of Signaling
a. Classic endocrine signaling
i. Hormone is transported through blood system to
act on the target cell
b. Paracrine signaling
i. A molecule from one cell can act on a nearby cell
to bring about the desired response
c. Autocrine signaling
i. Hormone produced by the cell acts on the same
cell
2. Signaling Mechanisms
a. Protein Hormone
i. The protein binds to a receptor on the cell
surface, and a second messenger within the cell
will cause the physiologic effects (ex.
Insulin/glucagon)
b. Steroid Hormone
i. Steroid hormone is brought into the cell by a
carrier protein, then binds to a receptor within the
cell, which turns on transcription/translation,
which then causes the physiologic effects
3. Endocrine organs
-These are the major organs, but endocrine tissues/cells
are also part of other organ systems (ex. GI, Pancreas,
etc.)
-All hormones have a life regulated by circadian rhythm
(ex. Testosterone is highest in the morning)
-Some hormones are transported with carrier proteins and
some exist freely in the blood
a. Pituitary
b. Thyroid
c. Parathyroid

d. Adrenal gland
4. Pituitary
-Together with the hypothalamus, these are the master
organs that control a variety of functions throughout the
body, and are fine tuned by the CNS
-Sits at base of brain in the cavity in the sphenoid bone
called the sella turcica
a. Histological Make-up
i. Little CT
ii. Highly vascularfenestrated capillaries w/no
diaphragms
iii. Cells arranged in cords

Hypophysis
HYPOPHYSIS
Medium
magnifcation
Medium
Magnifcation

Pars Distalis

Trichrome Stain
Pars Intermedia

Pars
Intermedia
Pars
Intermedia

Colloid Cyst

Pars Nervosa

The pars distalis is separated from the pars nervosa by the pars intermedia
that often contains basophilically (*) stained cells and colloid cysts.

b. Anterior Portion
i. Pars tuberalis
ii. Pars distaliscontinuous w/tuberalis
Hypophysis
Pars Distalis

Chromophobe

High Magnifcation
Trichrome Stain
Acidophil

Sinusoid
RBCs
Basophil

The pars distalis contains acidophils, basophils and chromophobes (degranulated

acidophils and basophils) in cords (outlined in black) supported by a delicate reticular ct.
The vascular sinusoids carry the releasing and inhibiting hormones from the
hypothalamus via the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system to these cells which in turn
release their hormone into the sinusoids and the general circulation. There are many
cells intermediate in appearance between chromophils and chromophobes. These
represent cells either in the process of releasing stainable granules or re-accumulating
them.

1. Gets regulatory signals (release or inhibit)

from the hypothalamus via the
hypothalamohypophyseal portal system of
neurons through the vasculature
a. Blood enters through main carotid
artery, breaks off into a primary capillary
network in the median eminence (gets
neuron input), which leads to the
hypophyseal portal vein and finally to a
secondary capillary network in the pars
distalis

HYPHOPHYSIS
Pars Distalis
High Magnifcation
H&E

Acidophils
Basophil

Sinusoid
flled with
RBCs

2. Three types of secretory cells

-They make proteins and glycoproteins and
have a huge RER and Golgi w/ lots of
secretory granules
a. Basophils (blue)
i. Corticotropes
1. Makes a precursor molecule
called proopiomelanocortin
which is cleaved to produce:
a. ACTHacts on the adrenal
gland to stimulate
androgens and cortisol
release
b. B-lipotrophic hormone
c. Melanocyte stimulating
hormone
d. B-endorphin
e. Enkaphalin
ii. Gonadotropes
1. Follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH)acts on the ovary to
promote follicle development
(making estrogen) and acts on
the testis to initiate
spermatogenesis at puberty
2. Luteinizing hormone (LH)acts
on the ovary to promote follicle
development and acts on the
testis Leydig cells to produce
testosterone
iii. Thyrotropes
1. Thyroid stimulating hormone
(TSH)acts on the thyroid to

Even with routine staining the acidophils, basophils and chromophobes can be easily seen in
cords that are surrounded by reticular ct. Many of the vascular sinusoids are filled with red
blood cells. Recall the hormones made, stored and released by the acidophils (GH, prolactin)
and basophils (LH, FSH, TSH, ACTH).

initiate synthesis and storage of

thyroid hormone

b. Acidophils (red)
i. Somatotropes
1. Growth hormoneacts on many
types of tissues to fuel growth
a. Growth Hormone Releasing
Hormons (GHRH) made by
hypothalamus stimulates
release
b. Somatostatin made by
hypothalamus inhibits
release
ii. Lactotropes
1. Prolactinacts on mammary
glands to promote milk
production
a. Thyrotropin RH stimulates
release
b. Dopamine inhibits release
c. Chromophobeseither an acidophil or
basophil that has released its product
and is empty so they dont stain
iii. Pars intermedia
1. Located between the pars distalis and pars
nervosa
2. Mostly basophils, but the function is unclear
3. Also have colloid cysts

Hypophysis
HYPOPHYSIS
Medium
magnifcation
Medium
Magnifcation

Pars Distalis

Trichrome Stain
Pars Intermedia

Pars
Intermedia
Pars
Intermedia

Colloid Cyst

Pars Nervosa

The pars distalis is separated from the pars nervosa by the pars intermedia
that often contains basophilically (*) stained cells and colloid cysts.

c.
Posterior Portion
i. Infundibular stalk
1. Contains unmyelinated axons going from
hypothalamus to the pars nervosa
ii. Pars nervosaconnected to the overlying
hypothalamus via the stalk through the median
eminence
1. Does NOT make any hormones
2. All hormones are made in the hypothalamus
by neurons, which travel down axons through
the infundibular stalk and are delivered to
the pars nervosa for storage
3. Have axons and pituicytes (glial cells) for
support of axons
4. Herring bodieswhere the secretory product
is collected at the ends of the axons. They
appear to be pale staining areas filled with
product.
a. Stores:
i. Oxytocininvolved in milk secretion

ii. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)acts

on the collecting duct in the kidney
to get H2O reabsorption
HYPOPHYSIS
Pars Nervosa
High Magnifcation
Trichrome Stain
The thin blue dots
and lines are bits
and pieces of the
axons of neurosecretory neurons
whose cell bodies
are located in the
Hypothalamus.

Nuclei of Pituicytes

Capillary
flled with
RBCs

Oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone are made in the cell bodies of hypothalamic
neurons, transported down the axons in the infundibular stalk to axon terminals
adjacent to capillaries in the pars nervosa. As a part of the nervous system, the
axons have supportive (glial) cells called pituicytes. Their nuclei are seen here,
along with endothelial cell nuclei of abundant capillaries.

d. Regulating Mechanisms
i. Hypothalamic-hypophyseal feedback loop
1. Hypothalamus tells pars distalis whether or
not to secrete a specific hormone via
circulatory system
ii. Negative feedback of circulating hormone levels
1. Once the pars distalis secretes (or doesnt
secrete) a specific hormone, the rise (or
lowering) in the circulating levels feedback
on the nuclei in the hypothalamus to either
inhibit (or promote) secretion.
5. Hypothalamus
a. Produces:
i. Growth hormone releasing hormonepromotes
release of Growth hormone by pars distalis

ii. Somatostatininihbits release of Growth

hormone by pars distalis
iii. Ghrelin (also made by stomach)regulates
growth hormone

6. Thyroidbilobed, encapsulated in the anterior neck on

either side of larynx. CT invaginates to create thyroid
follicles surrounded by many fenestrated capillaries.

a. Folliclesgroups of
epithelial cells
(cuboidal)
Thyroid - Low Magnifcation
surrounding a
The thyroid gland is composed
of colloid-flled follicles lined
by a cuboidal epithelium, a
colloid filled lumen.
delicate connective tissue
framework and a large number
i. Colloid
of blood vessels. The follicles
are cut in various planes of
section and so appear to be of
Thyroglobulin,
varying diameters.
which is the
Thyroid Follicles
precursor for
Nuclei of follicular epithelial cells
thyroid
hormone
ii. Follicular
epithelial cells
Carry out 2 processes
1. Synthesize thyroglobulin and secrete into
lumen
a. Synthesis of thyroglobulin occurs in the
RER and Golgi, and it is exocytosed into
the lumen
b. Iodide is transported into the cell,
concentrated, and released into the
lumen/colloid where thyroglobulin is
then iodinated.
2. Absorb thyroglobulin through microvilli and
break it down into T4 and T3, thyroid
hormones
a. Droplets are endocytosed into the cell,
and a lysosome fuses w/ the colloid and
thyroglobulin is degraded into T3 and
T4, which diffuses out of the cell into the
capillaries.
Colloid

Fenestrated
capillaries

b. Parafollicular cellslocated
Thyroid - High
between basal lamina and
Magnification
basement membrane
Thyroid follicular cells,
i. Have dense granules
under the influence of TSH
from the pars distalis of the
filled with calcitonin
pituitary, synthesize
thyroglobulin and store it in
1. Calcitonin acts on the colloid. The follicular
cells also retrieve colloid and
by enzymatic breakdown of
bone, intestine,
the colloid release the
thyroid hormones into the
and kidney to
surrounding fenestrated
capillaries. Two
lower amount of
parafollicular (C) cells can be
seen.
(C) cells
Ca++ in the
blood.
a. Inhibits Ca++ absorption in intestine,
inhibits osteoclasts, inhibits renal
resorption of Ca++, protects against
calcium loss during pregnancy and
lactation
b. Similar to PTH in one way: they both
inhibit phosphate reabsorption by kidney
tubules
Colloid

Nuclei of follicular cells

Thyroid
Location of
basement membrane

High Magnifcation
H &E
In addition to the cuboidal cells
comprising the follicles there
are parafollicular or C-cells
that make calcitonin. They are
not usually seen easily in the
human unless specially
stained. They are clear
staining here and are found
between the basement
membrane and the follicular
cells.
Parafollicular
Cells (C-cells)
Colloid

7. Parathyroidtwo pairs located on the posterior portion of

the thyroid
a. Appears very basophilic and granular, and is
encapsulated by adipose tissue.
b. Two types of cells
i. Chief Cells/Principal cellsproduces parathyroid
hormone (PTH), which acts in opposition to
calcitonin.
1. Causes breakdown of bone, increases
reabsorption of calcium from urine, and
increases reabsorption in gut
2. Similar to calcitonin in one way: they both
inhibit phosphate reabsorption by kidney
tubules

ii. Oxyphil cellsno known function, appear lighter

w/many mitochondria

PARATHYROID

Low Magnifcation
H&E

principal cells
Blood vessels

The parathyroid glands are small

and are composed mainly of
principal cells that secrete
parathyroid hormone.
Clusters of pink staining oxyphil
cells (function unknown) make
for easy identification of the
parathyroid.

oxyphil cells

principal cells

8. Adrenal Glandssits on top of the kidneys.

a. Encapsulated by CT, which invaginates

Adrenal Cortex

Adrenal Gland
Overall View

The adrenal
cortex surrounds
a centrally placed
medulla, easily
identified by the
presence of veins
(V) with large
lumina and
bundles of
smooth muscle in
the adventitia.
The gland is
surrounded by a
connective
tissue capsule.

Adrenal Medulla

Cortex

Cortex

Medulla

Medulla
Cortex

Adrenal Cortex
Medium Mag.

The cortex is subdivided

into three zones:1)
zona glomerulosa the outermost, directly
beneath the capsule
and composed of
arching cords of cells;
2) zona fasciculata the middle layer of
cells arranged in
straight cords; 3) zona
reticularis - the
deepest layer of
intensely staining,
pigmented (lipofuscin)
cells adjacent to the
lighter staining
medulla.

H&E Stain
Capsule

ZG

Capsule

ZF

ZR

Medulla

b. Cortex (90%)
i. Zona glomerulosaclosest to the outer capsule
1. Cells organized into ball-like clusters
surrounded by CT
2. Produces aldosterone (mineralocorticoid),
which acts on kidney tubules, gastric
mucosa, salivary glands, and sweat glands
a. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
Mechanism:

i. In response to drop in BP, renin is

BV
ZG

Fat Cell

Capsule
Capsule

ZG
ZG

Adrenal, Zona Glomerulosa - High Magnification

Cells of the zona glomerulosa are arranged in balls or ovoid groups of cells made
obvious by the surrounding sinusoids. The cells are found directly underneath the
capsule which contains the arteries feeding the adrenal gland. Some cells appear
vacuolated due to the extraction of lipids. This area produces the
mineralocorticoid, aldosterone.

secreted by JG cells in the kidney.

Renin causes the conversion of
angiotensinogen to angiotensin I,
which goes to the lung and is
converted by ACE enzyme to
angiotensin II. Angiotensin II enters
the blood stream and causes
aldosterone secretion, which acts on
kidney tubules to increase
reabsorption of
water to bring about an increase in
BP and blood volume.
ii. Zona fasciculata
1. Cells organized into columns, w/ capillaries.
They have a frothy/spongy look due to lipid
droplets in the cells
2. Produces cortisol, which promotes
metabolism, stimulates glycogen synthesis,
stimulates fat mobilization, and suppresses
inflammation

Cord of adrenocortical cells in the Zona Fasciculata

iii.

Stain H&E

Stain
Trichrome

Zona

Adrenal, Zona Fasciculata - High Mag

The cells of the zona fasciculata are arranged in parallel cords. Each is bordered
by capillaries draining through the cortex from the arteries in the capsule. The
cells contain considerable amounts of lipid that is removed during preparation and
hence appear vacuolated. These cells produce glucocorticoids (corticosterone,
cortisol).

reticularisclosest to medulla
1. Cells organized into cords/balls, but stain
very darkly compared to other zones.
2. Produce DHEA (androgen) and some cortisol

zona reticularis

zona reticularis

Adrenal, Zona Reticularis - High Magnifcation

The cells of the zona reticularis are small and intensely staining. They are
arranged in anastomosing cords and are adjacent to the medulla. Many contain
pyknotic nuclei, lipofuscin granules and do not appear vacuolated. These cells
produce primarily sex steroids.

c. Medulla (10%)
i. Lots of large veins and neurons/ganglion

ii. Chromaffin cellsProduce epinephrine and

norepinephrine
1. Cells filled w/secretory granules
2. Modified postganglionic sympathetic neuron
Chromaffin cells are regulated by neurons,
which tells the cell to release epinephrine or
norepinephrine directly into blood stream (no
axon process on the other end, hence
modified)
a. Are told not to produce axon processes
by glucocorticoids made in the cortex
iii. Vasculature of Medulla
1. Gets 2 Types of blood
a. From the cortexblood enters adrenal
gland, then runs through the capillary
network in the cortex before reaching
the medulla, which is how it comes into
contact w/glucocorticoids
b. From capsular arteriesdirectly from the
capsule to the medulla

Adrenal, Medulla - High Mag

The cells of the medulla
(enclosed in black line) are
arranged in groups or cords
(not obvious here). They are
postganglionic sympathetic
neurons modified to secrete
epinephrine or
norepinephrine.
The central veins of the
medulla, collect blood from 1)
cortical capillaries and 2) a direct
arterial supply to the medulla.
This vein contains bundles of
longitudinally oriented smooth
muscle.

Zona Reticularis

Central vein
in medulla

MEDULLA

Zona Reticularis

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM SECRETIONS

SUMMARY
1. ANTERIOR PITUITARYPars distalis
a. Basophil
i. FSH (Ovary and Testis)
ii. LH (Ovary and Testis)
iii. ACTH (Adrenal cortex)
iv. TSH (Thyroid)
b. Acidophil
i. Prolactin (milk production in mammary glands)
ii. Growth hormone (Bones, muscles, adipose tissue)
2. POSTERIOR PITUITARYPars nervosa (storage only)
a. ADH - water absorption in the kidney
b. Oxytocin - Contraction of smooth muscles in

uterus/Milk secretion in mammary glands

3. THYROID
a. Follicular cells - Thyroxine
b. Parafollicular (C-cells) -Calcitonin > lowers calcium
levels
4. PARATHYROID
a. Chief/principal cells- Parathyroid hormone >
increases calcium levels
5. ADRENAL GLANDS
a. Cortex
i. Zona Glomerulosa- Aldosterone
ii. Zona fasciculata - Glucocorticoids (corticosterone,
cortisol)
iii. Zona reticularis- Sex steroids
b. Medulla
i. Chromaffin cells- Epinephrine/Norepinephrine

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM

1. Pharyngeal Arches
a. Form gills in fish
b. Appear at 4-5 weeks and are important in head and
neck development
c. Each arch (pharyngeal membrane) has:
i. A pharyngeal cleft (on the outside)
1. Ectoderm externally
ii. A pharyngeal pouch (on the inside)
1. Endoderm internally w/ a mesenchymal core
d. Each arch consists of:
i. Cartilage
ii. Aortic archsupply blood to each arch
individually
iii. Cranial nerve

iv. Mesenchymemade up of neural crest cells

e. Neural crest cells form:
i. Bones of face/skull
ii. Hyoid cartilage
iii. Cartilage, bone, dentin, teeth, dermis etc.
f. Neural crest cells arise from:
i. Rhombomeresderived from Hoxb5 genes, which
are regulated by Sonic HH and retinoic acid and
can have implications for the potential regrowth
of teeth
1. Arch 1R1 & R2
2. Arch 2R4
3. Arch 3R6 &R7
4. Arch 4R8
2. Pharyngeal Arches at 5 weeks
a. Stomadeum is presentis the opening into the
pharynx (future oral cavity)
b. Surrounded by 1st arch
c. Ectoderm surrounds the stomadeum near the tonsillar
fossa
i. Tooth enamel is derived from ectoderm
3.First Pharyngeal Arch
a.Develops into 4 prominences: 2 maxillary and 2
mandibular
b.First pouch=middle ear cavity and auditory
tube
c. First cleft=external auditory meatus
4. Developments of the Tonsils
a. Second pouch=palatine tonsillar fossa and lymphatic
tissue
5.Development of Parathyroids
a.Third pouch=inferior parathyroids
i. Detach from pharynx and descend at week
5, ending up at the inferior pole by week 7

b.Fourth pouch=superior parathyroids

i. Detach from pharynx and descend at week
5, ending up at the superior pole by week 7
ii. They are above inferior parathyroids
because they have less time to migrate
6.Development of the Tongue
a.Develops where the stomadeum and pharynx meet
7.Development of the Thyroid
a.Develops as a diverticulum from the foramen
cecum
i. Foramen cecumlocated between the
tuberculum impar and the hypobranchial
eminence
b.Thyroid descends in front of the pharynx and
remains in contact w/ pharynx for a while by a
narrow duct called the thyroglossal duct
i. Then it descends to the region of the
junction between trachea and larynx
c. Thyroid follicular cellsdiverticulum
d.Parafollicular cells4th pouch
8.Development of the Pituitary
a.Fusion of:
i. Rathkes pouchinvagination of ectoderm
1.Gives rise to pars intermedia, distalis,
and tuberalis
ii. Infundibulumdiverticulum from forebrain
1.Gives rise to infundibular stalk
9.Development of the Adrenal Glands
a.Coelomic epithelium
i. 6 weeksmigrate into mesenchyme
ii. 8 weekscells become the adrenal cortex
b.Neural Crest cells
i. 6 weekscells migrate from sympathetic
chain

ii. 8 weekscells become adrenal medulla

(chromaffin cells)
c. Fetal adrenal gland
i. Very active
ii. Inner cortexproduces lots of
dehyroepiandosterone, which is converted
to estrogen by the placenta/liver
iii. Too many cells results in:
1.Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, leading
to a salt imbalance
2.In females, can lead to excess
testosterone and masculization

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Ovary
a. Cortex
i. Has tunica albugineainner capsule
ii. Germinal epitheliumouter capsule
iii. Follicles (oocyte + follicular cells)
1. Development is dependent on the
hypothalamus (GnRH) which tells the
pituitary (pars distalis, basophils) to release
FSH and LH, which acts on the ovary and its
follicles
b. Medulla
i. Arteries and veins
2. Types of Follicles

a. Primordial
i. 600,000 develop at 3-6 months and are the
most follicles one will have at once throughout
life
1. Arrested in diplotene phase of meiosis I
ii. Components:
1. Basal lamina
2. Simple squamous follicular/granulosa cells
surrounding a primary oocyte
Ovary
Overview
Enclosed within
the circle are four
primordial follicles

Primary Follicle

Cuboidal follicular cells

Antrum of
Secondary
Follicle

b. Primary
(unilayer)
A fluid-filled antrum of a secondary follicle fills most of the field. The plane of section through this large three
dimensional structure did not include the oocyte; therefore it can not be seen. Numerous primordial follicles
i.
can be identified by the, as determined by the squamous follicular cells that surround it., and a larger primary
follicle, as noted by its cuboidal follicular cells, are seen between the secondary follicle and the surface.
Components:
1. Basal
lamina
2. Simple cuboidal follicular/granulosa cells
surrounding oocyte
3. Zona pellucida begins to form and is
produced by the oocyte
i. Zona pellucida prevents more than one
sperm from penetrating
c. Primary (multilayer)
i. Components:
1. Theca interna cells
2. Basal lamina

3. Stratified cuboidal follicular/granulosa cells

surrounding oocyte
4. Zona pellucidafully formed surrounding
oocyte
i. Made of glycoproteins ZP1, ZP2, ZP3

d. Secondary
i. Components:
1. Theca externa cellsstromal cells continuous
w/ CT
2. Theca interna cells
3. Basal lamina
4. Follicular/granulosa cells surrounding oocyte
and zona pellucida
5. Antrumsmall, rich in hyaluronate, steroids,
growth factors and gonatotropins

Image 2

Image 1

A
GC

G
CR

TI
TE

O
ZP

Follicle - High Mag.

CO

Secondary Follicle - Med. Mag.

Follicular cells produce a fluid that coalesces to form an antrum (A), the presence of which defines
a secondary follicle. The follicle cells lining the antrum and surrounding the oocyte (O) are now
many layers thick and called granulosa cells (GC). The zona pellucida (ZP), composed of
glycoproteins around the enlarged oocyte, is surrounded by granulosa cells called the corona
radiata (CR). The entire mass of granulosa cells and the oocyte are referred to as the cumulus
oophorus (CO).

The wall of a secondary (and later mature) follicle has three layers of cells: 1)
an avascular epithelioid granulosal layer (G) adjacent to the antrum (A), 2) a
vascularized theca interna (TI) layer separated from the granulosa layer by a
thin basement membrane (not seen) and 3) an outer theca externa (TE)
layer composed of smaller flattened stromal cells. The granulosa and theca
interna cells cooperate for the production of ovarian steroids, especially
estrogen during the follicular phase (days 6-14) of the menstrual cycle.

e. Mature (graafian) follicule

i. Components:
1. Theca externa
2. Theca internafrothy because theyre
producing cholesterol
3. Granulosa cells
4. Antrumlarge
5. Corona radiata surrounding oocyte and zona
pellucida
6. Cumulus oophorus connecting to granulosa
cells
3. Ovulation cycle
a. Follicular phaseestrogen synthesis
i. FSH increases and stimulates follicular
development
ii. LH increases and stimulates production of
androstenedione by theca interna cells, which is
converted into estrogen
1. LH and cholesterol enter the theca interna
cells from capillaries

2. Cholesterol in theca interna cells secrete

androstenedione into follicular cells
3. Aromatase is activated in follicular cells and
makes estradiol (estrogen), which then goes
to its target molecules
iii. Estrogen and FSH stimulate synthesis of LH
receptors by follicular cells, which stimulates
production of progesterone by follicular cells
b. Ovulationa surge in LH secretion and expulsion of
oocyte
c. Luteal phaseprogesterone and estrogen synthesis
i. Progesterone and estrogen secretion from the
corpus luteum increase in response to LH surge
ii. Increased levels of progesterone and estrogen
inhibit LH and FSH secretion.
iii. The corpus luteum only lasts a few days in the
absence of LH
iv. If pregnancy doesnt occur, luteolysis begins 7
days after ovulation. Progesterone, estrogen,
and inhibin levels decrease as FSH increases and
menstruation begins.

4. Corpus Luteumcomes from ovulated follicle

Image 3
a. Regulated by LH
GL
and FSH
Corpus Luteum
the single follicle that ovulates, the
b. During pregnancy, Forgranulosa
and theca interna layers
of the follicle enlarge, luteinize
(become yellow in the fresh
prolactin
specimen) and are now called
granulosa lutein (GL) and theca
potentiates effects
lutein (TL) cells. Granulosa cells
enlarge, become vascularized from
blood vessels invading from the
of estradiol
GL
theca interna, and develop into an
extensive secretory unit. The thecal
(storage and
cells also respond but not so
dramatically and remain smaller,
utilization of
darker staining and less obviously
TL
secretory. Both secrete
progesterone and estrogen during
cholesterol by
the luteal phase (days 14-28) of the
menstrual cycle and are highly
follicular lutein
vascularized.
GL
cells).
c. Two types of cells:
i. Theca lutein cellsstimulated by LH, take up
cholesterol from blood, which is used for to
produce androstenedione which is then
transported to follicular lutein cells.
1. Small, vacuoulated, appear darker
ii. Follicular/granulosa lutein cellsstimulated by
FSH and LH which cause cells to store
cholesterol and use it to make progesterone.
Also make estradiol from androstenedione
delivered by theca lutein cells.
1. Large, vacuolated, appear pink
iii. Theca externasurrounds corpus luteum
5. Degeneration
a. Corpus Luteum
i. Degrades if no pregnancy into the corpus
albicans, which diminishes over a several
months.
1. Copus albicans has lots of collagen
b. Follicular degeneration
i. Can occur at any time throughout the cycle
because many follicles develop prior to

TL

ovulation, but only one gets ovulated so the rest

are degraded.
6. Uterine Tube
a. Simple columnar epithlieum:
i. Secretory cells: remove sperm glycocalyx
ii. Ciliated: help oocyte move along ovarian tube
b. Three parts:
i. Infundibulumclosest to ovary and most folded
mucosa w/ largest lumen
ii. Ampulla
iii. Isthmusclosest to uterus and least folded
mucosa w/ smallest lumen
Image 4
Uterine Tube

SM

Medium
Magnification

M
M
BV
BV
Isthmus

SM

Infundibulum

The smooth muscle (SM) wall of the infundibulum is relatively thin compared
to that of the isthmus. The mucosal lining (M) of the infundibulum is highly
branched, while that of the isthmus is folded but less branched.

Image 5
CC
SC
LP
SC

Uterine Tube Lining Epithelium

All regions of the uterine tube have a simple columnar epithelium with ciliated cells (CC)
and secretory (peg) cells (SC) overlying a delicate lamina propria (LP). The
appearance of both cell types vary in appearance during the menstrual cycle.
Secretory cells provide a suitable environment for any oocytes, spermatozoa or
fertilized ova. The ciliated cells and the smooth muscle both assist in the transport of
these cells through the lumen. The activity of these lining cells is dependent upon
estrogen stimulation.

ii.

7. Uterus
a. Layers:
i. Endometriu
m
1. Basal

layer
i. Not lost after menstruation
ii. Contains branched bases of glands
2. Functional layer
i. Sloughed off during menstrual cycle,
leaving behind basal layer
ii. Contains glands (straight or wavy
depending on phase) and spiral arteries
in stroma
Myometrium
1. Smooth muscle

Image 6
Uterus - Overview
The uterus has 3 layers:
endometrium, myometrium and
perimetrium. The uterine
lumen (L) is narrow and
surrounded by the mucosa
called the endometrium (E).
The thickest layer of the uterus
is the smooth muscle of the
myometrium (M). The outer
coat is the connective tissue
serosa, the perimetrium (not
shown). The thin dark region of
the endometrium adjacent to
the myometrium is the basal
layer (BL) while the thicker
portion facing the lumen is the
functional layer (FL).

BL

FL

b.
b.

Phases:
i. Proliferative/estrogenic phase (correlates to
follicular stage in ovaries)
1. Straight glands and spiral arteries in
functional layer w/ branched bases in basal
layer
i. Earlyglands are short and straight
ii. Middleglands are longer and straight,
w/ mitotic epithelium
iii.
LateGlands grow and are wavy w/
lots of mitotic activity

Image 7
Uterus - Proliferative
(estrogenic; Days 6-14)
Under low power, identify the
basal layer of the endometrium
(BL) with the branched bases of
the uterine glands. Under
medium power, identify the
straight uterine glands (GLD),
(lined by simple columnar
secretory cells) indicative of the
proliferative phase of the
menstrual cycle. Between the
glands are the thin-walled spiral
arteries (SA) which course
through the stromal cells of the
functional layer (FL) of the
endometrium.

FL

GLD

BL
LOW

GLD

FL
SA

MED

ii.

Secretory/Progesteronic phase
1. Coiled glands in functional layer, branched
bases in basal layer
i. Early/Midsecretory portionglycogen
accumulates at basal end of gland
epithelium cells. Glands appear coiled.
Spiral arteries surrounded by cells.
Implantation can occur during this part
of secretory phase.
ii. Late/Finals days of cycleglycogen
shifts to apical portion of gland (spiral-y)

epithelium cells and secrete into the

lumen. Cells surrounding spiral arteries
are mitotically active
iii.
Ischemic periodupper region
contains decidual cells and spiral
arteries begin to contract.
BL

Image 8

GLD

FL
Base

FL

Early

MED

LOW

BL

FL

FL

Late

GLD

lumen
MED

Base

LOW

Uterus - Secretory (Progesteronic; Days 14-28)

Under low power identify the darker basal layer of the endometrium (BL) with
the more cellular stromal connective tissue and the bases of uterine
glands (Base). The functional layer (FL) appears lighter and has coilshaped uterine glands (GLD) (characteristic of the secretory or luteal
phase).

8. Placenta Layers
a. Chorionic plate
i. Fusion of amnion and chorion
ii. Umbilical vessels (enters stem of villi)
b. Cytotrophoblast layer
c. Syncytrophoblast layer
d. Maternal Intervillous space
i. Maternal RBCs
ii. Fetal villi (separated from maternal space)

1. Earlylined by syncytiotrophoblasts (outer),

and cytotrophoblasts (inner), nucleated RBCs
2. Lateno cytotrophoblasts (fused w/
syncytiotrophoblasts), non-nucleated RBCs
3. Fetal vessels are within villifrom umbilical
vessels
iii. Uterine vessels empty into this space
e. Syncytiotrophoblast layer
f. Cytotrophoblast layer
g. Decidua basalis (basal layer of endometrium)
i. Villi anchors here
ii. Composed of deciduous cells which interface w/
cytotrophoblast cells
h. Myometrium
9. Cervix
Image 15
a.
FC
Syn

Image 14

Syn

IVS

a.

CC
Fetal side
RBC

BV

a.
a.

Maternal side

Placental Villus - Early

During the first trimester, the villi are covered by 2 cell layers: syncytiotrophoblast (Syn)
and cytotrophoblast (CC). The outer syncytiotrophoblast layer is adjacent to the
intervillous space (IVS). It is a fusion of cells called a syncytium i.e., has no cell
boundaries. The inner cytotrophoblast layer is the cellular layer whose cells divide
and contribute to the syncytiotrophoblast. Deep to the cytotrophoblast are fetal
mesenchymal connective tissue and fetal blood vessels (BV) with nucleated red
blood cells (RBC). Gas, waste and nutrient exchange occurs through all of these
elements.

Placental Villus - Late

During the last trimester of pregnancy the structure of the villus allows for a more
efficient exchange of gases and nutrients. Most of the cytotrophoblastic cells have
become incorporated into the syncytiotrophoblastic layer (Syn) that now covers the
villus. The basement membrane of the syncytiotrophoblastic layer fuses with that of
the endothelial cells of the fetal capillary (FC), which is now very close to the
surface and contains non-nucleated red blood cells.

a.

a. Cervical canal
i. Mucous secreting simple columnar epithelium
ii. Lots of invaginations and cervical glands
b. Cervical osopening leading into the cervical canal
and where epithelium changes at it approaches the
vagina
i. Stratified squamous, non-keratinized

Cervix - Overview
Since this slide has only one side of
the cervix-vagina, mirror images
were placed together for
orientation. The arrow indicates
the cervical opening (called the
Os) leading into the cervical
canal. It is at this point that the
mucus-secreting simple columnar
epithelium of the cervical canal is
replaced by a stratified
squamous, nonkeratinized
epithelium covering the vaginal
portion of the cervix (*) and
vagina (V). Invaginations of the
lining of the cervical canal
represent the cervical glands
(Gld). Clogging of the openings of
these glands cause the
appearance of cysts (Cy).

10.

Image 10

Image 9
Cy

GLD
GLD

ct

Gld
Cervical Glands - High mag.

The simple columnar epithelium lining the cervical canal forms cervical glands
(GLD) that are embedded in the dense connective tissue (ct) of the cervix.
The viscosity of the secretions changes during the menstrual cycle while
the connective tissue becomes less dense during labor.

Vagina
a. Stratified squamous, non-keratinized
i. Glycogen helps lubricate under influence of
estrogen
b. CT w/ blood vessels and elastic fibers but no glands
Image 11
EPI

EPI

BV

11.
Vagina - Low and Medium Magnifications
The vagina is lined by a stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium (EPI)
overlying connective tissue rich in elastic fibers and thin-walled blood
vessels (BV) but no glands. Transudate from this lining helps lubricate the
vagina. Under the influence of estrogen the epithelium thickens and the cells
accumulate glycogen. Smooth muscle, connective tissue and nerves are
found in the wall of the vagina.

Mammary Glands
a. Inactive
i. Inactive lactiferous ducts
b. Active

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Tubuloalveolar secretory units form at ends of

ducts
Lactose, lipids, and proteins secreted into lumen
Passive immunity via IgA produced by plasma
cells secreted into lumen
Prolactin (pars distalis, acidophils) stimulates
milk production
Oxytocin (pars nervosa) stimulates milk release
by causing myoepithelial cells to contract
Image 13
Active Mammary Gland
In the high estrogen and
progesterone environment of
pregnancy, the ends of the
lactiferous ducts (LD)
proliferate and branch
profusely and the secretory
alveoli (SECR) differentiate.
The secretory cells (SC)
secrete proteins, lipids and
other components of milk.
The myoepithelial cells,
which are difficult to see, are
found between the secretory
cells and the basal lamina.
Plasma cells (arrow) produce
Prepubertal
antibodies found in the milk.

Image 12

ct

LD

LD

Low

SECR

SC

High

Mammary Gland - Inactive

In the prepubertal and inactive
adult mammary gland the
lactifierous ducts (LD) are
embedded in a dense
connective tissue (ct). The
remainder of the secretory
apparatus, embedded in
adipose tissue (AT), is largely
composed of ducts with only a
minor component of secretory
endpieces (SECR). The
hormonal changes at puberty
result in an increase in adipose
tissue and further branching of
the ducts.

LD

AT

AT
LD

SECR

ct

MALE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Adult

-Produces gametes, maintains normal sex characteristics, and

produces androgens (testosterone)
. Duct System
a. Seminiferous tubules
b. Straight tubules
c. Rete testis
d. Efferent Ductules (in epididymis)
e. Epididymis
f. Vas deferens
g. Ejaculatory Ductjoining of seminal vesicle and vas
deferens ducts
h. Urethra
. Testis
a. Encapsulated by tunica
albuginea
i. Thick inelastic CT
that invaginates to
form lobules
1. 1-4
seminiferous
tubules per
lobule
Testis - low mag.
b. Suspended by
spermatic cord
i. Controlled by the
cremaster and dartos muscles which contract to
raise and lower the testes in response to temp.

A tough, non-elastic connective tissue capsule, called the tunica albuginea (double headed
arrow), surrounds the testis. It s inner aspect is vascular. The seminiferous tubules (dotted
circle) and the interstitial tissue (arrow) between them can be seen beneath the capsule.

. Seminiferous tubules
a. Stratified epithelium
i. Sertoli cells
ii. Spermatogenic
cells
b. Lamina propria
i. Myoid cells
Testis - low power
Septae (bracket) are connective tissue partitions that divide the testis into lobules.
contractile ability
Each lobule (double headed arrow) contains 1 - 4 hairpin-shaped seminiferous
tubules, each is lined by a seminiferous epithelium and each has a lumen.
to move sperm
along
ii. Collagen fibrils but NO vasculature (in
interstitium)
c. Interstitial tissue
i. Leydig cellsproducing testosterone
ii. Blood vessels
iii. Lymphatics

Testis - higher power

Within the interstitial tissue, the Leydig cells (encircled by the dotted lines) can be identified by
their pink cytoplasm which often appears frothy or vacuolated, due to its lipid content which
is extracted during processing. These cells secrete testosterone.
Here you can also see that each seminiferous tubule is surrounded by a boundary layer of
peritubular tissue containing peritubular myoid cells (arrows).

Testis - high power

The seminiferous epithelium (double headed arrow) lies on a basement membrane. The round cells near
the base of the epithelium that contact the basement membrane and are in the basal compartment are
spermatogonia (circle), the most immature germ cells. Above these cells, within the adluminal compartment,
are other populations of maturing germ cells: the primary spermatocytes (arrow), with large round nuclei
containing obvious, dark chromosomes, and spermatids (black arrowhead), smaller and closer to the lumen.
Sertoli cells (black/red dotted line) can also be seen in this section, identifiable by their pale, oval nuclei and
Testis
prominent nucleoli.

. Spermatogenesis (~74
days)
a. Sperm development

- Med &
high mag

occurs in seminiferous
tubules and requires
Vitamin A
i. Least
differentiated
sperm are at the
bottom, and most
differentiated are
more towards the
lumen (move
upward)
ii. Cells at the same stage are connected via bridges
to communicate and transfer materials
b. Spermatocytogenesis
i. Spermatagonial phase (Mitosis)
1. Spermatagonium2N DNA w/ 46
chromosomes
ii. Spermatocyte phase (Meisos I & II)
1. Primary spermatocyte
2. Secondary spermatocytevery short-lived
c. Spermiogenesis
i. Spermatid phase (remodeling)
1. Spermatid1N DNA w/ 23 chromosomes
a. Appear long and thin, loss of organelles
These views show different stages in spermatogenesis.
Compare the stages in sperm development in each of the
black boxes.
Round spermatids, just beginning maturation or
spermiogenesis, can be seen bounding the lumen.
In the top image, there are many condensing spermatids,
with smaller nuclei filled with heterochromatin. These are
almost mature.

. Sertoli
a. Sit

Cells
on

basement membrane of seminiferous epithelium and

extend processes up to the lumen
i. Large, pale nucleus w/ nucleoli and active
euchromatin
b. Move sperm cells
towards lumen
c. Secrete proteins:
i. ABPandrogen
binding protein
that binds
testosterone
ii. MIFmullerian
inhibiting
factor (antiTestis - high power
Mullerian
hormone)
.
iii. Only cells w/
FSH receptors
d. Degrades remnants of sperm cells that condense as
they mature
e. Generate 2 compartments to form sperm-blood
barrier sealed by TJs (also regulate fluid in
seminiferous tubules)

The seminiferous epithelium (double headed arrow) lies on a basement membrane. The round cells near
the base of the epithelium that contact the basement membrane and are in the basal compartment are
spermatogonia (circle), the most immature germ cells. Above these cells, within the adluminal compartment,
are other populations of maturing germ cells: the primary spermatocytes (arrow), with large round nuclei
containing obvious, dark chromosomes, and spermatids (black arrowhead), smaller and closer to the lumen.
Sertoli cells (black/red dotted line) can also be seen in this section, identifiable by their pale, oval nuclei and
prominent nucleoli

i. Adluminal compartment
1. Spermatocytes and spermatids (mature) only
ii. Basal compartment
1. Spermatagonia (immature) only
f. TJs/compartments protect germ cells from the
immune system so the antibodies dont destroy it
i. As sperm mature and move to adluminal
compartment, the TJs are broken down and
reformed.
g. Support and nourish sperm cells
i. Sperm cells sit in pockets created by cell folding
and are separated from the blood so need
nourishment
ii. Sertoli cells take up nutrients from the blood and
transport them to germ cells via internal transfer
proteins
. Mature Spermatid
a. Headacrosomal region, which acts as a big
lysosome to enter the oocytes zona pellucida
i. Acrosome is made in RER and goes through Golgi
ii. Vesicles are pinched off and they fuse to make a
larger molecule
iii. Position of molecule determines the head region
of sperm
b. Neck
c. Tail
i. Centrioles migrate and initiate axoneme
formation
ii. Coarse fibers connect tail to nucleus (head)
iii. Mitochondria organize themselves around coarse
fibers
d. DNA is packaged using protomines instead of
histones, and DNA is inactive and inaccessible to
enzymes

. Leydig Cellslocated in interstitium of seminiferous

tubules
a. Large, polygonal,
eosinophilic
b. Secrete testosterone
and are dormant
until puberty when
activated upon
exposure to
gonadotropins (FSH
and LH).
i. Testosterone is
required during
embryonic
development for normal development of gonads,
during puberty for sperm production and
development of sex characteristics, and during
adulthood for maintenance of sperm production
and sex characteristics

Testis - higher power

Within the interstitial tissue, the Leydig cells (encircled by the dotted lines) can be identified by
their pink cytoplasm which often appears frothy or vacuolated, due to its lipid content which
is extracted during processing. These cells secrete testosterone.
Here you can also see that each seminiferous tubule is surrounded by a boundary layer of
peritubular tissue containing peritubular myoid cells (arrows).

. Endocrine regulation of Testis

a. FSH stimulates Sertoli cell to secrete Androgen
Binding Protein (ABP)
b. FSH initiates spermatogenesis at puberty
c. LH stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone
d. Testosterone binds to Sertoli cell and maintain Germ
cells
e. Sertoli cells produce inhibin, which inhibits FSH
secretion from pituitary
f. Testosterone inhibits FSH/LH secretion from pituitary
and hypothalamus directly
. Rete testisConnect seminiferous tubules w/ efferent
ductules

a. Simple cuboidal w/ cilia and microvilli surrounded by

fibroblasts and myoid cells and CT w/lots of
vasculature

Lumen

Lumen

Rete Testis - higher power

The rete testis is made up of a series of channels that are lined by a simple cuboidal epithelium. These
anastamosing channels are located within dense connective tissue of the mediastinum, the thickened posterior
region of the tunica albuginea. There is no smooth muscle present, only connective tissue.

Efferent DuctulesPierce the tunica albuginea and link rete

testis to epididymis
a. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium w/ 3 types of
cells:
i. Principal cells w/microvilli for reabsorption
ii. Ciliated cells for movement of non-motile sperm
iii. Basal cells
iv. Scalloped looking lumen
b. There is a very strong differentiation between efferent
ductules and the epididymis histologically
. Epididymishas three regions (head, body, tail)

a. Pseudostratified
columnar
ED
epithelium w/
microvilli for
absorption and
some cells with cilia
i. Round lumen
ii. Smooth muscle
EP
that thickens
as you move
down the
epididymus
b. Addition of surface
factors in body and tail:
i. Zona recognition: ability to recognize zona
pellucida
ii. Decapacitation factors: increased cholesterol in
plasma inhibits
fertilizing capacity
of sperm which is
reversible once
they enter the
female
c. Acquisition of motility,
but are not actually
motile yet and are
stored in quiescence in
Efferent Ductules/Epididymis - higher mag.
the tail
d. Final remodeling of
sperm and loss of
cytoplasm
. Vas Deferensconnects epididymis to ejaculatory tube

Efferent Ductules/Epididymis - low power

The rete testis empties into a series of ducts called the efferent ductules (ED), which carry the non-motile
sperm from the testis to the epididymis (EP), a single highly coiled duct. In this view, you can see sections
through both of these duct systems, with connective tissue in between.

The epithelium of the efferent ductules is composed of tall and short cells, and hence is
scalloped or irregular. In contrast, the epididymis is lined by a tall, regular epithelium. In
both, a small amount of smooth muscle can be seen under the epithelium.

a. Pseudostratified epithelium
w/ stereocilia and 3 layers
of smooth muscle

Vas deferens- low power

This is a cross section of the vas deferens, found within the spermatic cord. It is lined by pseudostratified
columnar epithelium which is surrounded by a thick smooth muscle coat. This smooth muscle in arranged in
three obvious layers, an inner longitudinal, a middle circular, and an outer longitudinal layer. Arteries,
veins and nerves are found within the muscle and in the underlying connective tissue.

Vas Deferens- higher power

The vas deferens is lined by pseudostratifed columnar epithelium with stereocilia and
prominent basal cells. Nearer its junction with the epididymis, the epithelium is very tall, buy
becomes progressively shorter along its course. Also note the surrounding smooth muscle
separated from the epithelium by the lamina propria.

. Accessory Glands
a. Seminal Vesicle
i. Located on top of
prostate on
posterior wall of
bladder
ii. Mucosa is highly
folded and it
Seminal vesicle - low power
produces a thick
viscous secretion
high in fructose, AA, ascorbic acid,
prostaglandins, and a fluorescent pigment.

The seminal vesicle is a long sac that is folded upon itself; thus, all lumina seen in each
section are actually continuous with each other. The mucosal lining is thrown into
characteristic folds, and the epithelium is highly variable in morphology. Beneath the mucosa,
there is a thick layer of smooth muscle (double-headed arrow).

Seminal vesicle higher power

b. Prostate gland
i.
Pseudostratified
epithelium,
dependent on
testosterone
and produces
an alkaline
Prostate Gland - low power
secretion and
The prostate gland contains 30 - 50 tubuloalveolar glands, each emptying into the prostatic
urethra as it passes through the center of the gland. The tissue between the individual
glandular elements is connective tissue with abundant smooth muscle (darker pink). In
nutrients that
contrast to the seminal vesicle, the muscle extends between the secretory elements.
transport
sperm.
1. Secretions within lumen help differentiate on
slides
ii. Has three zones:
1. Peripheral zonemain prostatic glands
2. Transition zonesubmucosal glands
3. Central zonemucosal glands
iii. Metabolite of testosterone binds to cytosolic and
nuclear receptors to induce transcription of
growth factors.
c. Cowpers (bulbourethral) gland

The secretory epithelium covering the complex folds can vary tremendously, and can be
cuboidal, columnar, or pseudostratified, depending on the age of the individual and functional
state of the organ. Note the abundant smooth muscle found in the wall, but not within or
between the mucosal folds themselves. Remember this when comparing the seminal vesicle to
the prostate gland.

*
Prostate - high power

The epithelium of the prostate is either simple cuboidal, simple columnar, or pseudostratified,
and frequently differs from one area to another. Occasionally basal cells can be observed.
This epithelium often looks irregular, as in this image. Where else in this lab have you seen an
irregular epithelium similar to this? How would you distinguish the two structures? Another
common characteristic of the prostate, particularly in glands from older individuals, is the
presence of prostatic concretions (asterisk) or corpora amylaceae in the lumina.

Pe
nis

a. Has 3 chambers:
i. 2 dorsal (cavernosa)
ii. 1 ventral (spongiosa)with urethra in the middle
b. Blood spaces lined by endothelium and smooth
muscle
c. Innervated by sympathetic and parasympathetic
motor fibers.

CS
PU

CC

CC
TA

Penis - low power

The penis is covered by thin skin (not shown here), and contains 3 bodies of erectile tissue, the
paired corpora cavernosae (CC) and the corpus spongiosum (CS) that surrounds the
penile urethra (PU). All three structures are surrounded by a connective tissue covering, the
tunica albuginea (TA). This is very thick and non-elastic over the C. cavernosae and much
less so over the C. spongiosum. Located within the penis are numerous arteries, veins, and
nerves.

CS

Penileurethra

CC

Penis - higher power

The erectile tissue of the corpus cavernosum is made up of connective tissue trabeculae
surrounding blood spaces (venous sinuses) lined by endothelium. Within the connective
tissue of the trabeculae are smooth muscle fibers, capillaries and arterioles.

Penis, corpus spongiosum & urethra - higher power

The corpus spongiosum (CS) is comprised of erectile tissue that surrounds the penile urethra.
The urethra is lined by either transitional epithelium, nearer its origin at the bladder, or stratified
squamous epithelium in the region of the glans. Some mucous glands and pit-like recesses
of various sizes can be found throughout the length of the urethra. A thin tunica albuginea
surrounds the C. spongiosum.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEMS

1. Germ cells
a. They migrate from the yolk sac via the dorsal
mesentery and populate the body wall in the 5th week
b. Cause coelemic epithelium to form sex cords, which
form genital ridges/swellings
c. Without sex cords, no germ cells and without
germ cells, no sex cords

2. Indifferent stageCant tell if male or female until after 6

weeks
a. Genital ridges
b. Mesonephric ductsdeveloping from second kidney,
which degenerates.
i. Fate of this duct depends on the sex of the fetus
1. Females=degenerates
2. Males=forms ducts
c. Paramesonephric ducts
i. Fate of duct depends on sex of the fetus
1. Females=forms female sex organs
2. Males=degenerates
3.Males
a.Y chromosome has SRY (sex determining
region)
i. SRY upregulates SF1, which acts on SOX9
1.Causes medullary sex cords to
differentiate into Sertoli cells, which
produce AMH
b.AMH
i. Causes degeneration of paramesonephric
ducts
ii. Stimulates Leydig cells to form, which
produce testosterone
c. Testosterone
i. Keeps mesonephric ducts, which give rise
to:
1.Efferent Ductules
2.Epididymis
3.Seminal vesicles/vas deferens (etc)
ii. Dihydrotestosterone is the more potent form of
testosterone
4.Females
a.No Y chromosome (or no SRY), so a female
develops

b.Wnt4 is upregulated, which upregulates Dax1

i. Causes medullary sex cords to differentiate
into follicle cells
c. FoxL2 is expressed in the ovary in granulosa
cells
d.No Sertoli cells=no AMH
i. Paramesonephric ducts remain intact to
form:
1.Uterine tunes
2.Uterus
3.Cervix
4.Upper 1/3rd of vagina
e.No Leydig cells=no testosterone
i. Mesonephric ducts degenerate
5.External Genitalia
a.Dependent on dihydrotestosterone
i. Males=penis, scrotum, and prostate formation
ii. Females=no dihydrotestosterone so female
genitalia
b.Urethral folds close to form the urethra, but if they
dont close properly the genitalia is ambiguous

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

-Barrier against physical, chemical and biologic agents

-Maintains homeostasis by regulating temp and water loss
-Sensory perception to convey information from external
environment to nervous system
-Synthesis of Vitamin Din epidermis
-Excretion of sweat, secum and apocrine/epocrine glands
1. Skin
a. Thickcharacterized by a thick epidermis
i. Found on palms of hands and soles of feet
ii. Devoid of hair
b. Thincharacterized by a thin epidermis
i. Everywhere else
ii. With hair
THICK SKIN
Finger Tip
Low Mag.

Epidermis
Skin has 2 layers, epidermis and dermis.
Low

THIN SKIN
Low & Medium Mag

Med

Thin skin differs from thick mainly by having fewer cell layers of st. corneum. Also, the st. lucidum is
absent, st. granulosum is reduced & discontinuous, and st. spinosum is reduced.
Other cells: Melanocytes (red circle) are shrunken, clear, melanin-producing cells found mainly in st. basale.
Langerhans cells are antigen-presenting cells, also clear, but found in all layers; they are not easily
distinguished from melanocytes.

The epidermis is the superficial layer of stratified

epithelium. Thick skin commonly refers to the
many epithelial cell layers of the stratum corneum
(stratified squamous) of the epidermis, e.g.,as
occurs on the palms of hands & soles of feet. The
surface ridges and grooves form fingerprints.
The dermis is the underlying dense irregular ct. The
upward projections are dermal papillae and they
interface with downward epidermal projections
called rete pegs. Below the dermis is a looser,
irregular, fat-filled ct, the hypodermis; both contain
sebaceous & sweat glands & hair follicles.

1. Epidermiskeratinocytes throughout all layers

a. Stratified squamous, keratinized that are constantly
shedding and replenishing
i. Hair, Sweat, Sebaceous glands, Nails, Mammary
glands
b. Least differentiated cells are found in the basale layer
and they are pushed up as newer cells are produced

THICK SKIN

c. Layers:

St. Corneum
St. corneum

Epidermis

The layers of the

epidermis are:

St. lucidum

St. granulosum

St. spinosum

St. basale
St. spinosum
St. granulosum
St. lucidum
St. corneum

i.

St. Lucidum

i.

St. granulosum

St. Spinosum
St. basale

i.

St. Basale

i.
i. Stratum Basaledeepest layer and undergoes
mitosis
1. Attached to dermis via hemidesmosomes
and focal adhesions and attached to each
other by desmosomes
a. Tonofilaments help maintain these
attachments by inserting into
desmosomes
2. Cell types:
a. Keratinocytesfilled with keratin
filaments (aka tonofilaments) and
melanin
b. Melanocytesproduce melanin
i. Shrunken nucleus, not attached to
neighboring cells but attached to
basement membrane via
hemidesmosomes
ii. Produces eumelanin (brown
pigment) and pheomelanin (red
pigment), which are regulated by
age, gender, UV exposure, climate,
toxins, etc.
iii. Melanin is derived from tyrosine
1. TyrosineDOPAmelanin
2. Tyrosine is taken up by the cell,
and goes through packaging in

the Golgi to make

premelanocytes containing
melanin. Melanin accumulates
in melanosomes and eventually
become melanin granules
which are deposited to
surrounding keratinocytes via
cytocrine secretion
3. Protects nuclei of mitotic cells
from UV light
c. Merkel cellresponsible for tactile
sensation
i. Makes contact w/ unmyelinated
nerve fibers
ii. Stratum Spinosumthicker than basale
1. Cells vary in shape and size, w/ larger ones
closer to basale and flatter ones closer to
granulosum. They rotate
orientation as they
move up
2. Cells have spiny
processes between cells
from desmosomes and
tonofibrils, which insert
into the desmosomes
3. Cell types:
a. Keratinocytefilled with keratin
filaments (aka tonofilaments) and
melanin
i. Keratin filaments start to bundle to
form tonofibrils
ii. Membrane coating granules high
lipid content produced
b. Langerhans cellsstar shaped cell
i. Phagocytosis and antigen
presenting

ii. Migratorymove in and out of skin

and through the layers

iii. Stratum Granulosumthin, about 3 layers of cells

1. Stains intensely due to granules
2. Synthesizes Vitamin D from precursor
molecule
3. Cells start to lose organelles
4. Cell types:
a. Keratinocytesfilled with keratin
filaments (aka tonofilaments) arranged
into tonofibrils and melanin
i. Membrane coating granuleshigh
lipid content that is exocytosed and
surrounds the outside of the cell,
contributing to impermeability of
skin
ii. Keratohyaline granulescontains
filaggrin, which complexes
w/tonofibrils to coat the inside of the
cell to contribute to skin water
impermeability
iv. Stratum Lucidum
1. Found only in thickest of skins
2. Cell types:
a. Keratinocytesfilled with keratin
filaments (aka tonofilaments)
i. No organelles, pale staining,
flattened

ii. Attached to each other via

desmosomes
v. Stratum Corneum (stratum germinativum)
outermost layer
1. Most proliferative layer
2. Cell types:
a. Keratinocytesfilled with keratin
filaments (aka tonofilaments)
i. No organelles w/ tightly packed
tonofilaments and fillagrin
ii. Attached to each other via
desmosomes
1. Proteases are found in the
topmost portion which degrade
desmosomes and allow them to
slough off
2. Dermismiddle layer providing support, structure, and
strength
a. Mostly connective tissue w/ ducts and vasculature
b. Epidermis-dermis junctioncreates fingerprint
i. Rete ridge/peg
epidermis pushing down
into dermis
ii. Dermal papilladermis
pushing up into
epidermis
1. Play a role in
thermoregulation
due to high vascularization and heat
exchange
c. Two layers

i. Papillary layerthin
layer w/loose CT,
collagen/elastic
fibers, w/vasculature
ii. Reticular layer
thicker layer
w/dense irregular CT,
bundles of
collagen/elastic
fibers, large blood
vessels, and
smooth/skeletal muscle
3. Hypodermisvariable in thickness depending on location
a. Mostly adipose w/ CT and skeletal/smooth muscle
b. Sweat glands, hair follicles, sebaceous glands found
here
4. Burns
a. 1st degreestratum basale is in tact w/ divides and
can reproduce epidermis
b. 2nd degreeremoved epidermis and part of dermis
i. Repaired due to stem cells in sweat glands, hair
follicles
rd
c. 3 degreeremoved epidermis, dermis, and possible
hypodermis so no possibility of regeneration. Need
skin grafts
DERMIS thick skin
Low mag

The dermis is composed of a

papillary and a reticular layer.
The papillary layer (above the
dotted line), more cellular and
composed of finer collagenous
fibers, forms the dermal papillae.
The deeper reticular layer (below
the dotted line) has less cells and
coarser collagen bundles. Its
deepest fibers merge with the
looser, fat-filled hypodermis, not
shown here. Together the dermis
and hypodermis support sweat
glands, sebaceous glands and
hairs.

5. Sensory Receptors
a. Free nerve endingsMany unmyelinated nerve
endings throughout the epidermis
i. No Schwann cells
b. Merkel Cell
c. Peritrichial nerveNerves wrapped around hair
follicles and stimulated by movement
d. Meissners corpusclelocated at the tip of the dermal
papilla

i. Unmyelinated, but have Schwann cells

ii. Responsible for texture and shape detection

High

Med

MEISSNERS CORPUSCLE, thick skin, - med & high mag.

Meissner s tactile corpuscle is a small, oval, connective tissue (ct) encapsulated nerve ending in the
dermal papillae.The myelinated nerve fiber loses its myelin sheath and becomes ensheathed by horizontally
arranged stacks of collagenous fibrils and ct cells resembling Schwann cells. Nearby dermal papillae may be
seen to contain capillaries derived from arterioles deeper in the dermis. Free nerve endings (pain receptors)
also end in the dermis and epidermis; these fine fibers are derived from the larger nerve bundles of the
dermis.

e. Pacinian
corpuscle
PACINIAN CORPUSCLE
located in the
THICK SKIN
Low & Medium Mag
deepest layers of
hypodermis
i. Sensitive to
Low
vibration
corpuscles are large,
ii. Looks like an Pacinian
pressure and vibration-sensitive,
lamellated, encapsulated nerve
endings located deep in the dermis
onion
and hyopdermis. As with the
Meissner s corpuscle the
because
myelinated nerve fber loses its
myelin and enters this onion-like
covered by
wrapping of cells. The concentric
are composed of
Schwann cell lamellae
fibroblast-like cells, collagen and
fluid.
lamella
Med
6. Epidermal Derivatives
a. Hair Follicle
i. Root located in hypodermis/dermis, but derived
from epidermis which invaginates to surround
hair follicle so has a reparative function
1. Dermal papilla w/melanocytes to give hair
color

ii. Arrector pilli muscleassociated w/sebaceous

gland and causes hair to stand on end and helps
sebaceous
glands secrete
SCALP
product

Low

Thin skin
Low &
Med Mag

Hairs are usually set in skin at

an angle making perfect
sections rare.

Hair bulb
Low & Med. Mag.

Hair
Follicle

Med

The keratinized hair grows

from the expanded hair
bulb deep in the dermis &
hypodermis. The bulb gives
rise to the hair & portions of
the follicle, ie, inner
epidermal root sheath.

Low

The hair bulb is a bulbous thickening

consisting of the cellular ct of the
dermal papilla and the dividing cells
of the hair matrix. The matrix gives
rise to the hair & the inner epidermal
root sheath. The outer epidermal
root sheath is replaced by mitosis of
basal cells, as in the st. basale of the
epidermis. Matrix cells near the apex
of the dermal papilla form the hair
root, while more peripheral cells form
the inner epidermal root sheath.
Pigment-containing melanocytes are
among the matrix cells adjacent to the
papilla, donating pigment to the
forming hair.

Hair

Hair
Bulb

Dermal
Papilla

Hair
Matrix

The hair follicle surrounding

the root of the hair is a
tubular invagination of the
epidermis and dermis,
contributing the outer
epidermal & dermal root
sheaths. It is enwrapped by
free nerve endings.

Hair Follicle

Hair Bulb

Med

Med

Low

ARRECTOR PILI MUSCLE

Low & Med Mag
The arrector pili is a band of
smooth muscle attached from
the papillary layer of the dermis
to the dermal root sheath of the
hair follicle trapping the
sebaceous gland in between.
Contraction moves the hair to a
vertical position, squeezes
sebum from the sebaceous
gland and is responsible for
goose bumps.

b. Sebaceous
glandsassociated w/hair follicles
i. Found everywhere except hands and feet
ii. Secrete sebum via holocrine secretion into a
small duct in the hair follicle
1. Stem cells divide and repopulate gland after
secretion

Arrector Pili
Muscle

Med

SEBACEOUS GLAND
Low, Med & High Mag

Sebaceous glands lie in

the dermis. Short,
stratified excretory
ducts open into hair
follicles. The secretory
endpieces are sac-like.
At the periphery is a
single layer of flattened
cells that divide, Toward
the center of the gland
the cells enlarge and
fill with sebum, a
holocrine secretory
product. The cells
accumulate lipid
droplets, the nuclei
shrink and the cells
disintegrate forming
sebum.

Duct

low
Hair
Follicle

Sebaceous Gland

med

high

c. Sweat glands
i. Coiled, simple glands from hypodermis through
epidermis w/secretory portion and duct potion
ii. Play a cooling/thermoregulation role
1. Secretory portionsimple columnar
epithelium

a. Clear cellssecrete water and

electrolytes
b. Dark cellssecrete glycoprotein
c. Myoepithelial cellshelp expel
secretions
2. Duct portionstratified cuboidal epithelium
iii. Two types:
1. Apocrine sweat glandsassociated w/hair
follicle
a. Found in axilla, areola, nipple, anus,
genitalia
b. Respond to emotional and sensory
stimuli
c. Secrete protein rich secretion containing
pheromones
2. Eccrine sweat glandsnot associated w/hair
follicle
a. Everywhere except in lips and genitalia
b. Respond to heat and stress
c. Secrete sweat

Duct

SWEAT GLAND
THICK SKIN
Low & High Mag

Portions of the coiled end of the duct

and secretory portion of the gland,
supported by loose ct, are cut in
cross-section. Ducts are a purplestaining, two-layered stratified
cuboidal epithelium. The secretory
portion is formed by a row of pale
pink, columnar cells having complex
apical, lateral and basal infoldings of
the plasma membrane; the latter push
the nucleus to the center of the cell.
Just inside the basement membrane
of the secretory portion are pinker
contractile myoepithelial cells.

Secretory
Portion

Myoepithelial Cells

7. Nails
a. Keratin hard plates on fingers and toes
i. Modified stratum corneum w/disulfide bonds
making keratin hard
ii. Hyponychiumunion between nail and nail plate
at fingertip
iii. Eponychiumat cuticle end
Eponychium
Nail Plate
Free edge
Matrix
cells
Nail Plate

Hyponychium

TOE, NAIL

NAIL PLATE TOE

High Mag

Low Mag
Nail Bed

The dorsal part of the toe is covered by a nail plate; the ventral surface has the fleshy fingertip. The nail plate
extends forward over the nail bed from underneath the nail wall to its free edge. The proximal edge of the
nail grows from the dividing matrix cells. Under the proximal nail wall the keratinized layer of the skin
attaches to the dorsum of the nail - this is the eponychium. Under the distal free edge of the nail the
keratinized layer of the fleshy finger tip attaches to the ventral surface - this is the hyponychium.

EAR

The nail plate consists of a thick layer of closely packed keratinized, squamous, epithelial scales which grows
from the matrix. As the plate grows it glides forward over the (purple) epithelial layers beneath it, which
corresponds to the st. basale & spinosum. These epithelial layers & the dermis comprise the wellvascularized nail bed.

1. Parts of the Ear:

a. External
i. Auricle
ii. External auditory meatus
1. Surrounded by elastic cartilage
w/ceruminous glands making ear wax
b. Middle
i. Tympanic membrane
1. Has all the layers of skin excluding stratum
lucida
a. Epidermal derived from ectoderm
b. Lamina propria
c. Mucous layer derived from endoderm
ii. Malleusattaches to tympanic membrane and
moves in response to tympanic membrane
movement
iii. Incus
iv. Stapestransmits sound through the oval
window by fluttering

c. Inner

i. Vestibular
system of the
semicircular
canalorients
the head in
space

Image1

SC

V
Inner ear - low mag.
An overview of the bony mammalian cochlea (C), vestibule (V) and the semicircular
canal (SC). The bony structures of the internal ear are dissected free from the less dense
temporal bone. Within the bony cavities of the cochlea is its membranous component,
the cochlear duct, within the bony semicircular canals are the membranous semicircular
canals, and within the bony vestibule are the structures containing the maculae.

1. Crista
ampullaris
sends signals about rotary head movement
a. Sensory epithelium w/ supportive cells
sitting on a mound of CT and nerves
b. Has cupula on top of sensory cells that
extends into the semicircular canal and
responds to movements in endolymph
i. Operates in the same was as the
macula w/ stereocilia and kinocilium
c. Endolymph is produced by low cuboidal
cells on both sides of the lower portion
of the crista

Image10

msc

CA
C

The neuroreceptor of the membranous

semicircular canal (msc) is the crista ampullaris
(CA). Unlike the macula, the sensory
epithelium (R) of the crista sits on a mound of
CT (ct) with nerves (n) leading from it. The
crista has a gelatinous cupula (c) resting on top
of its receptor and supportive cells (R). Before
histologic preparation and shrinkage the cupula
virtually blocks the ampulla. Endolymph is
produced by the low cuboidal dark staining
cells on either side of the crista (arrows).

ct
bsc

Image7
SC

Utricle

2. Utriclesends
signals about
forward and
backward
movements of the
head
a. Has a macula
made up of:
i. Otricles
ii. Gel layer w/ projections of hair cells
1. Stereociliasupported by plate
to prevent it from sinking into
cytoplasm
2. Kinociliumunsupported by
plate and movements by
sterecilia causes the kinocilum
to sink and cause deformation
to the cytoplasm, triggering
depolarization

vestibule

Semicircular canal - med. mag

Within the ampullated end of the bony semicircular canal (bsc) is the ampullated end of the
membranous semicircular canal (sc); here the membranous semicircular canal is continuous with
the membranous utricle in the bony vestibule. The flat macula (black arrow) is in the utricle
while the crista ampullaris (green arrow) is in the ampullated end of the semicircular canal.

Image8

Macula - med. mag.

The macula (M) is a flattened collection of sensory hair cells sitting upon their
supportive cells. Microvilli and the single cilium of each sensory cell is embedded in a
gelatinous layer upon which are the blue calcified otoliths (arrow). In the connective
tissue beneath the sensory layer, the dendrites of the vestibular nerve will head toward
the vestibular ganglion.

iii. Sensory hair cells/receptor cells and

supportive cells
iv. CT layer w/nerves that go to CNS
v. Endolymph producing cells lie on
the edge of the macula (low
cuboidal)
Image9

O
R

Imag
e2(O)
A higher magnification of the edge of the macula showing the otolithic
layer
resting on a gelatinous layer (black arrow) atop the sensory receptor (R) and
The bony cochlea has at its center
supporting cells (S). The darker staining, low cuboidalthe
cells
onmodiolus
the edge(M)
of containing
the macula
bony
(green arrow) produce endolymph.
perikarya of the spiral ganglion (G).

Image
4

In the center of each turn is the

ii. Cochleacontains
membranous cochlear duct (scala
SM) separating scala
ganglion and a bony media,
vestibuli (SV) from scala tympani
(ST). From the modiolus extends
modiolus at the
the bony spiral lamina in the
direction of the spiral ligament;
center
these are connected by the basilar
membrane forming the floor of the
1. Scala vestibuli
cochlear duct. The roof of the duct
is the vestibular membrane. At the
a. Produces
apex of the bony cochlea the
membranous cochlear duct ends
perilymph
blindly and the scala vestibuli and
tympani become continuous at
b. Connected scala
the helicotrema (H).
to tympani
via helicotrema passage
G
2. Vestibular membrane
a. Separates vestibule and media

Cluster of neuron cell bodies (ganglion cells, G) in the bony modiolus.

ii.
H

ii.
SV

SM
ST

G
M

3. Scala media
Image6
a. Has stria
vascularis,
which produces
cd
endolymph and
c
is vascularized
(unlike other
epithelium)
4. Basilar membrane
a. Separates media and tympani
b. Moves upward in response to perilymph
movement in the scala tympani and
causes outer hair cells to hit the tectorial
membrane, which causes depolarization
(influx of K+) of the stereocilia and gives
rise to an action potential
5. Scala tympani
Image3
a. Produces
perilymph
VM
SV
b. Connected to
m
vestibule via
SM
helicotrema
OC
n
passage
BM
ST
6. Organ of Corti
Cochlear Duct - med. mag.
Separating the scala vestibuli (SV) from the scala media (SM) is the vestibular
a. Projects into
membrane (VM). The scala media is separated from the scala tympani (ST) by the
basilar membrane (BM). Resting on the basilar membrane and projecting into the scala
the Scala
media is the organ of Corti (OC). Note the cell bodies of the neurons (n) of the spiral
ganglion within the modiolus (m).
media and sits
on the basilar membr ane
b. Outer hair cells (3) are in contact w/ the
tectorial membrane and have stereocilia
c. Inner hair cells are not in contact w/
tectorial membrane
The lateral wall of
the cochlear duct
(cd; scala media) is
formed by the stria
vascularis (arrow),
which produces
endolymph. Within
the stria vascularis
you can see
capillaries (c), an
unusual feature of
this epithelium.

OHC

Image5

tm

2.

IHC

pc

bm
Organ of Corti -high mag.
The tectorial membrane (tm) rests atop the hair cells The lateral tip of the tectorial
membrane rests atop 3 outer hair cells (ohc); the single inner hair cell (ihc) is medial on
the basilar membrane (bm) but is not in contact with the tectorial membrane. Hair cells
are supported by phalangeal (supportive) cells (pc) which help stiffen the superior
surface of the organ of Corti.

Conduction of Sound
a. Sound waves move the Organ of Corti and transverse
the scala media at different points depending on
frequency of sound
i. Narrow base is for high frequencies
ii. Wider apex is for low frequencies

EYE
1. Path of Light
a.Corneabends light and is a major reflecting
device
b. Anterior chamber
c. Pupil
d. Posterior chamber

e.Lensfocuses light and is a major reflecting

device
f. Vitreous chamber
g. Neural retinaphotoreceptorsbipolar
neuronsganglions
h. Optic nerve
i. Brain
Image1
Eyelid

Retina
Lens

Cornea
Iris

Vitreous
Body

Overview - The eye has 3 coats: 1) outer fibrous, 2) middle vascular and 3)
inner neural, i.e., retina. Behind the lens is the vitreous chamber containing
the vitreous body; anterior to the lens are the anterior and posterior
chambers (separated by the iris) containing aqueous humor. Eyelids cover
the cornea.

Image2

R
vitreous
chamber

2. LayersFibrous, vascular, and

retina
S
a. Fibrous layeroutermost
C
layer
i. Sclerawhite portion
The 3 layers at the back of the eye. The outer layer is dense fibrous ct, the
of the eye covered by
sclera (S), the middle layer is the heavily pigmented vascular layer, the choroid
conjunctiva in exposed (C), and the inner layer is the light-sensitive retina (R).
areas, which produces
teats and mucus as part of immune surveillance
1. Muscles attach to the sclera and is acts as
the supporting wall of the eye

Image3

Anterior
chamber

ii. Corneaavascular, clear portion of the eye

covering the area that
contacts the air
1. Bends light and is
major reflective
device
2. Histological layers:
a. Epithelium
avascular, nonkeratinized
stratified
squamous
A i. Epithelium is avascular because it
needs to be completely transparent for
S
light to pass through
1. Gets its O2 from being in contact
w/ the air and gets its nutrients
from the aqueous humor of the
anterior chamber
ii. These cells are shed and replaced by
limbus stem cells
b. Bowmans layerbasement membrane #1
w/ collagen fibers for protection
c. Stromafibrous, tough, transparent
d. Descemets membranebasement
membrane #2 that is thin and acellular

The anterior continuation of the sclera is the transparent cornea. The anterior surface is
a non-cornified stratified squamous epithelium (A). The thick stromal layer (S), is
composed of highly organized layers of fibroblasts and collagenous fibers whose
degree of hydration maintains transparency. The posterior surface faces the anterior
chamber and is composed of a low cuboidal epithelium called endothelium (E).

e. Endotheliumsimple squamous,
mitochondria rich layer
iii. Limbusconnects the continuous cornea and sclera
1. Has stem cells that replenish corneal epithelium

b. Vascular layer
i. Choroidcontains blood vessels and melanin and
is continuous w/ the ciliary body and the iris
1. Provides blood supply to outer 1/3 of the
retina
a. Other 2/3 comes from branches of the
central artery embedded in 2 capillary
layers within the retina

Image4

CC

C
S

The middle vascular layer of the eye consists of the choroid posteriorly; more
anteriorly it contributes to the ciliary body and iris. The choroid (C) contains
pigmented cells and attaches to the sclera (S). Externally, the choroid has
large blood vessels which diminish in size becoming the inner
choriocapillaris layer (CC). The innermost layer of the choroid, between it
and the retina (R), is a complex basement membrane called Bruch s
membrane (B).

Image
11

CA
NF
CAP
INL

CC
The blood supply to the retina is dual: 1. The outer part of the retina is supplied
by choriocapillaris (CC) which is the principal supplier to the layer of rods
and cones, 2. The central artery (CA) of the retina travels in the nerve fiber
layer (NF) and its capillaries (CAP) go no deeper than inner nuclear layer
Image6
(INL).

Image7
C

ii. Ciliary
body
Posterior
chamber

located under the

SM
limbus and has fingerCP
like processes w/ lens
zonula fibers
SM
Vitreous
1. Histological layers
chamber
a. Stromaw/
The ciliary body is the anterior continuation of the choroid beginning at the ora serrata
(not seen). It is mostly smooth muscle (SM) arranged in 3 different planes.
Contraction of the ciliary body, which supports the lens by zonular fibers, causes
muscles and
the lens to change its shape. The surface of the ciliary body facing the posterior
chamber is covered by a two-layered modification of the retina (pars ciliaris
capillaries
retinae) and forms ciliary processes (CP). The ciliary body continues anteriorly as
the iris (I).
b. Epithelium
inner layer is continuous w/ neural retina
epithelium and outer layer is continuous
w/ RPE
2. Has ciliary muscle, responsible for lens
accommodation, or changing the shape of
the lens for visual acuity near and far

The light-sensitive retina continues over the ciliary processes as a 2-layered, nonsensory, epithelium. An outer pigmented cell layer (P) is covered by an inner nonpigmented, single-cell layer (C) continuation of the retina. This two layered
epithelium covers underlying capillaries; together they produce aqueous humor.
From ciliary processes extend the zonular fibers or suspensory ligament of the lens
(not shown).

3. Produces
CiliaryBody, Iris, Conjunc vaandSclera e
aqueous humor
1
5
important for
3
9
6
2
maintenance of
7
intraocular
8
pressure and
4
for providing
1. Conjunc va: thin, filmymembrane, stra fied columnar epithelium
nutrition to
2. Sclera: opaque, fibrous, protec ve, collagen +elas cfiber
3. Angle:
avascular
4. Ciliarybody: accommoda on, aqueoushumor, zonular fib rs
5. Anterior chamber: angle, drainage system(trabecular meshwork+canal of Schlemm
tissues
6. Iris: diaphragm: two typesof muscles(Sphincter +Dilator)
7. Posterior chamber
(cornea, lens)
8. Lens: three parts(Lenscapsule +lensepithelium+lensfibers)
9. Zonular fibers: suspensoryligaments: LinkingCiliarybodyto lens
a. Fluid is
produced by ciliary body epithelium and
flows from the posterior chamber into
the anterior chamber where it goes
through the trabecular meshwork, into
the canal of Schlemm, and into veins
4. Produces and maintains lens zonula fibers
5. Acts as a blood-aqueous barrier
iii. Lenssuspended from the ciliary body and
changes shape to focus on objects near or
far
1.Focuses light and is a major reflective
device
2.Parts
a.Lens capsuleclear, membrane-like,
ECM rich structure that keeps the lens
round
b.Lens epitheliumstem cells, secrete
ECM proteins to the capsule
c. Lens fiberslong, thin, transparent,
firmly packed crystalline rich cells that
are devoid of organelles so the lens is
crystal clear to reflect light.

Lens

2
2

3
3
3
4
1
Mouse eye
3
1.
2.
3.
4.

Lensepithelium: secreteECM proteins, stemcells

Primarylensfiber:
Secondarylensfiber: long, thin, Crystallin-rich packed cells
Lenscapsule: clear, ECM-rich, elas cmembrane-like structure. Keepslensround.

Image12

CB
Vitreous body

CL

Z
Lens
The lens is suspended from the ciliary processes of the ciliary body (CB) by a
suspensory ligament formed by zonule fibers (Z) which attach to the outer
homogeneous capsule of the lens. A capsular ligament (CL) composed of
microfibrils surrounds the vitreous body.

iv. Iriscolored
portion of the
eye between cornea and lens containing melanin
1. Histological layers:
a. Anterior
i. Stroma w/ fibroblasts and
melanocytes
ii. Sphincter muscleSmooth muscle
located closer to anterior surface
and important for adapting to
ambient light

1. Closes/contracts to make pupil

smaller in bright light
iii. Dilator muscleSmooth muscle
located closer to posterior surface
and important for adapting to
ambient light
1. Dilator muscle contracts to
make pupil larger in dim light
b. Posterior
i. Innercontinuous w/ nonpigmented epithelium of the ciliary
body
ii. Exteriorcontinuous w/ RPE
v. Pupilchanges in size to allow different amounts
of light to reach the retina

Irismusclesanddrainagesystem

3
4

Image8

Stroma

5
6

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Sphincter muscle: circular, smooth muscle

Dilator muscle: radial, smooth muscle
Conjunc va
Stroma(corneal)
Canal of Schlemm
Trabecular meshwork: sponge-like ssueto drain aqueoushumor
Ciliarymuscle: accommoda on
Ciliaryprocesses: secre on of aqueoushumor, a ach to ZF
Zonular fibers: suspensoryligaments

7
9

This high magnification of

the posterior of the iris
shows the double cell
layered, pigmented,
posterior epithelium of
the iris. Anterior to this
epithelium is the
sphincter (S) and the
dilator (D) muscles of
the pupil.

Posterior chamber

c. Retina Layer
i. Histological layers (outer to inner):
1. Sclera
2. Choroid
3. Retina pigmented epitheliumsimple
cuboidal melanin containing cells
4. Inner and outer segments (neural epithelium)
contains photoreceptor cells

a. Outer segments are photosensitive and

convert light to a chemical signal
through either rhodopsin or cone opsin
b. Inner segment produces ATP and relays
signals to bipolar neurons and then to
the ganglion cells, and out to the optic
nerve/brain
c. Conesmany more rods than cones
i. 3 types of cones that provide sig
nals related to color in bright light
1. Shortblue
2. Mediumgreen
3. Longred
d. Rodslots of rods
i. Respond to low light levels and
Outer
provide signals related to intensity
limiting
membrane
without color
5. Outer nuclear layer
6. Outer plexiform layer
7. Inner nuclear layer
8. Inner plexiform layer
9. Ganglion cell layer
Inner
10.
Axonal layer
limiting
membrane--

ii. Fovea centralisarea of the retina bounded by

the macula
1. High color acuity so cone-rich area
2. It has no ganglion cell layer, so less
obfuscation of light by cell interference and
the area appears indented from the rest of
the retina

iii. Optic nerve/discis a blind spot due to

interruption of the continuous retina (no
photoreceptor cells)

3.
a.

Chambers
Anterior
chamber
space
between

cornea and iris

i. Filled w/ aqueous humor
b. Posterior chamberspace between back of iris and
lens

c. Vitreous chamberspace between back of lens and

neural retina layer
i. Filled w/ vitreous fluid that is mostly water,
collagen, and GAGs, w/ some hyalocyte cells
producing components
4. Muscles3 sets
a. Superior and inferior recti: vertical vision
b. Superior and inferior oblique: rotation
c. Lateral and medial recti: lateral vision
5. Development
a. Ectoderm
i. Neuroectoderm: retina, RPE, inner epithelium of
ciliary body, iris
ii. Surface ectoderm: lens, cornea, conjunctiva
b. Mesoderm: sclera, stroma of cornea, ciliary body, iris
and choroid, and extrinsic muscle

Associated Diseases

ENDOCRINE
1. Hypothyroidismcaused by insufficient dietary iodine or
by an autoimmune disease. Results in thyroid cell

apoptosis and follicular destruction, causing low levels of

circulating thyroid hormone and excessive amounts of TSH
being released by the pituitary. Clinical symptoms are
sluggishness and puffy skin due to accumulation of
hyaluronan in ECM.
2. Hyperthyroidismcaused by autoantibodies that attach to
the TSH receptors on follicular cells and stimulate cAMP,
resulting in excessive amounts of thyroid hormone being
produced and released into the circulation. TSH levels are
usually normal due to negative feedback loop. Clinical
symptoms include tachycardia, protruding eyeballs,
sweating, and nervousness, as well as an enlarged thyroid.
MALE REPO
1. Cryptorchidismtestes dont descend normally at 26
weeks and require surgery after birth to rectify the
problem.
2. Benign prostatic hypertrophyhyperplasia of the mucosal
and submucosal glands and the stroma resulting in
compression of the urethra, urine retention, incomplete
emptying and possible bladder infection
3. Prostatic carcinomahyperplasia of glandular tissue
measured by PSA, and can metastasize to other organs,
particularly bone.
INTEGUMENT
1. Moles/nevibenign accumulation of melanin
2. Albinismabsence of tyrosinase so no melanin production
3. Leukoderma/Vitiligoloss of pigment in regions of skin,
resulting in irregular pale patches

EYE

1. RetinoblastomaMutation of the tumor repressor gene

Rb1. It is the most common childhood eye tumor and
causes red eye effect and white reflection (leukokoria) of
the retina.
2. Glaucomathere is a problem w/ the optic nerve which
causes loss of vision as a result of a buildup of aqueous
humor and an inability to drain it.
3. CataractClouding of the crystalline lens or les capsule as
result of protein clumping (denaturation), which causes
visual blurring and vision loss
4. Retinal detachmentdetachment of retinal layer from the
choroid
5. Age related macular degenerationloss of vision in the
center of the visual field due to retina damage
a. Dry MDyellow deposits accumulate
b. Wet MDblood vessels from choroid invade and lead
to blood and protein leakage behind the macula
6. Conjunctivitisinfection of the vascularized conjunctiva,
overlying the exposed cornea.
7. Retinis pigmentosa
8. Presbyopiafarsightedness due to ciliary muscle
weakness and loss of lens elasticity