Fluids (suite)

Content of the Lecture

See the contents of the first part of Fluids

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3.2 hydrodynamics
hydrodynamics deal with the motion of fluids.
An ideal fluid (= incompressible and non- viscous) is assumed.
Non-compressibility is accepted for most liquids.
Non-compressibility is accepted for gases ONLY when pressure
difference is not great.
Non-viscous flow approximation is accepted since gravitational
forces (and forces arising from pressure difference) are greater
than sheering forces acting on adjacent sliding laminae of fluid.

3.2.1 steady flow

- line of flow = path followed by any element of a moving fluid.
- streamline = curve whose tangent, at any point, is flow
direction.
- when flow starts, it is non-steady, but after certain period of
time, it becomes steady.
- “steady” implies that:
1.velocity at any given point remains constant, i.e. no
velocity change takes place with time in the same point, but
there could be velocity change from a site to another (higher
velocity at narrow cross-sections, and where velocity
increases, pressure will be decreased). For example, above a
wing of aircraft (in level flight), pressure is lower than
beneath it. This pressure difference is the raison of airlift (and
when changing the attack angel, the pressure above the wings
increases, and the airplane stalls).
2.fluids in different “flow tubes” do not mix.
3.streamlines coincide with lines of flow.
- homogeneous flow = straight parallel flow tubes with similar
velocities.
- average velocity: uniform velocity over the entire cross section
(of a pipe) resulting in the same discharge.
3.2.2 turbulent flow
- It occurs when velocity exceeds the critical one, Vc , and
“vertices” develop (this could take place behind an obstacle).
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 η
VC = R
ρD

where R Reynolds number (dimensionless), D tube diameter

(m), ρ density (kg m-3), η viscosity coefficient (N s m-2 = kg s-1
m-1):
ρ DVC kg m −3 .m.ms−1
R= =
η kg s−1 m −1

experimentation showed that in a tube with diameter 0.01 m

for R < 2000 flow is laminar
for R 2000-3000 flow is unstable
for R > 3000 flow is turbulent
Example:
Both in the case of water and air flow in a tube whose diameter
is 10-2 m, calculate the velocity that keeps the flow laminar, and
that which makes the flow turbulent.
Solution:
viscosity coefficient of water at 20oC = 0.001 N s m-2
density of water at 20oC = 1000 kg m-3
0.001 N s m −2
V = 2000
1000 kg m −3 0.01 m

= 0.20 m s-1
= 0.72 km hr-1
= 17.280 km day-1
0.001 N s m −2
V = 3000
1000 kg m −3 0.01 m

= 0.30 m s-1
= 1.08 km hr-1
= 25.92 km day-1

viscosity coefficient of air at 20oC = 181 x 10-7 N s m-2

density of air at 20oC = 1.3 kg m-3
181 *10 −7 N s m −2
V = 2000
1. 3 kg m −3 0.01 m
= 2.78 mS -1

= 2.78 * 60 * 60 * 10-3 km hr-1

= 10 km hr-1
= 240 km day-1
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 181 *10 −7 N s m −2
V = 3000
1. 3 kg m −3 0.01 m
= 4.18 mS -1

= 4.18 * 60 * 60 * 10-3 km hr-1

= 15 km hr-1
= 360 km day-1

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 3.2.3continuity equation
(Note: this item is already given earlier, it is referred to here as it related to next subject)
Due to mass conservation, under steady flow through different
cross-sections, constant mass travels during time increment:
m1 = m2
volume 1 * density 1 = volume 2 * density 2

area 1 * distance 1 * ρ 1 = area 2 * distance 2 * ρ 2

Now, divide by time to obtain the mass passing during 1 second,

distance1 distance2
area1 *
time
* ρ 1 = area 2 *
time
* ρ 2 A1 * V1 * ρ 1 = A2 * V2 *ρ 2
Since the liquid is
incompressible, its density ρ is canceled,
A1 * V1 = A 2 * V2
A
V1 = 2 * V2
A1
distance1 distance2 v o l u 1m e v o l u 2m e
area1 * = area2 * = Q d is ch a rg1 e = Q d isc h a rg2 e
time time tim e tim e
Meaning: to increase velocity, we reduce the cross section.
Example: in order to have velocity at point 1 double that at point
2, the cross section at point 1 must be half that at point 2.
Practical observation: 1. cross-section reduction at balloon
orifice, 2. pressing the end of garden water tube.

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 3.2.4 Bernoulli equation
Due to energy conservation principle, when steady flow takes
place through different cross-sections of a tube, the total energy
at any section is constant (= total energy at any other section).

At any point, there are 3 components of total energy:

- potential energy m g h (work done = force * distance)
1
- kinetic energy 2
mV2 (here V = velocity)
- pressure energy PV (here V = volume)
h (in meters) elevation above reference, P pressure (Pascal).
(Note that each term has the same dimensions, try to verify!)
mgh1 + 21 mV12 + P1V1 = mgh2 + 21 mV22 + P2V2
to obtain two other forms of the equation:
first method:
- divide by the mass m
(to obtain energy corresponding to unit mass):
This is the most IMPORTANT FORM
gh1 + 21 V12 + P1/ρ1 = gh2 + 21 V22 + P2/ρ1
and a special case: in a horizontal tube, since h1 = h2,
1
2 V 2
P
1 + 1 1 / ρ = 2 V2 + P2/ρ1
1 2

or, second method:

- divide by the weight mg
(to obtain energy corresponding to unit weight):
h1 + 21 V12/g + P1/ρ1g = h2 + 21 V22/g + P2/ρ1g
and a special case: in a horizontal tube, since h1 = h2,
1
2 V12/g + P1/ρ1g = 1 2
2 V2 /g + P2/ρ1g

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  applications:

1- Torricelli reservoir theorem

in a large reservoir with a small lower-end discharge outlet
at top h = h1 and V1 = very small velocity (negligible = zero).
at lower-end h2 = zero (it is at the reference “datum” level).
P1 = P2 = atmospheric pressure (both ends open to air)
so, in the unit mass formula of Bernoulli Equation:
gh1 + 21 V12 + P1/ρ1 = gh2 + 21 V22 + P2/ρ1
when we introduce these values, the formula reads
gh1 + zero + Po /ρ1 = zero + 21 V22 + P0 /ρ1
1
gh1 = 2 V2
2
V = 2gh

if the reservoir contains a liquid above which there is air under

pressure, and we have a gauge measurement for this pressurized
air, we already know that the absolute pressure P is the sum
P = Po + Pg

so,
gh1 + (Pg + Po)/ρ1 = 21 V22 + Po/ρ1
gh1 + (Pg + Po _ Po)/ρ1 = 21 V22
gh1 + Pg/ρ1 = 21 V22
P
V = 2gh +
ρ1

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 2- constricted section in a
horizontal tube
for a horizontal tube with a constricted section, we use the unit
mass formula of Bernoulli equation:

gh1 + 21 V12 + P1/ρ1 = gh2 + 21 V22 + P2/ρ1

but h1 = h2, so
1
2 V12 + P1/ρ1 = 1
2 V22 + P2/ρ1
1 2 2  = P 1 −P 2
V 2 −V 1 
2  ρ

we note that:

velocity pressure

at the constricted section high low

at the non-constricted section low high

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 3- “Venturei” velocity meter
using constricted tube and manometer
Problem:

to obtain a formula to estimate flow velocity using pressure

difference, cross-sections and density.

Solution:

first, write the formula of the constricted section in a horizontal

tube as follows:
1 2 2  = P 1 −P 2
V 2 −V 1 
2  ρ

second, use the continuity equation to expressV2 (at the

constricted section) in function of V1 (at the non-constricted
normal cross-section) and the ratio of the two cross-sections, take
the square of both sides, substitute and arrange the terms:
A
V2 = 1 * V1
A2

A12
V22 = * V12
A22
 2  
1  A1 * V12 −V 12  = P 1 −P 2
2 
 A 2   ρ
 2  

 2   P 1 −P 2
1 A
V 12  1  −1 =
2  A 2   ρ
 2 

1  A 2 −A 2  P 1 −P 2
V 12  1 2 
=
2  A 22


 ρ
P 1 −P 2  2 
V 12 = 2  A2 
ρ  A12 −A 2 2 
 
P 1 −P 2  2 
V1 = 2  A2 
ρ A 12 −A 2 2




and to calculate discharge (Q), multiply the velocity by the cross

section area (as usual).

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Note that the value of V2 could be obtained by changing the
subscripts (change 1 by 2, and change 2 by 1) in the last formula.

In fact, pressure difference P1-P2 can be measured in a

manometer fitted to the constricted and the non-constricted cross
sections, where the density ρHg and the height h are those for
mercury in the manometer:
P1-P2 = ρHg g h

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Venturi meter

Pitot tube

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 4- Pitot tube velocity meter
without a manometer, we can use the head difference between
water level in two fine tubes perpendicularly inserted into a
horizontal main flow tube, to measure flow velocity.
The idea: tube 1 (inserted close to flow source) has an inlet end
parallel to flow direction while the inlet end of tube 2 (far from
source) is perpendicular to flow direction. So, in tube 2, flow
velocity at its inlet end is practically zero (obstacle to flow), and
liquid level is higher (higher pressure).
First: Apply the unit mass formula of Bernoulli equation for the
main horizontal tube, and insert zero for velocity at tube (# 2):
1
2 V12 + P1/ρ1 = V22 + P2/ρ1
1
2
1
2 V12 + P1/ρ1 = zero + P2/ρ1
1
2 V12 = P2- P1/ρ1
P 2 −P 1
V1 = 2
ρ

Second: the pressure difference P2-P1 (head difference in the

two perpendicular tubes) is equivalent to the term ρ g h,
P2-P1 = ρ g h
so
V1 = 2 g h

(this is the same as Torricelli formula, do you remember ?). But

if flow is turbulent, we use a Pitot tube constant k:
V 1 =K 2 gh

and Q discharge = Area* Velocity

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 5- vacuum water-pump
Problem:
We need to partially evacuate a glass vessel (for example, to
accelerate water infiltration through a thick saturated paste on a
porcelain filter disk - since water does not drain freely from such
paste due to retention by the fine soil particles).

Solution: A normal velocity inflow (introduced by water-tap) is

drained-out with much higher velocity due to passage through a
small-diameter outlet of the outer compartment (this implies that
water pressure is lower at the outlet than at the inlet).
Consequently, air molecules above the outer water-outlet tube
gradually become forced to move outside the system and expulsed
through the outlet of the inner compartment. Progressively, a
permanent airflow is created and partial vacuum is generated (air
pressure is lower than atmospheric in the inner compartment).
Before starting, this inner compartment must be tightly connected
to the vessel that we like to evacuate partially.

6- Atomizer (spray can)

Problem: we would like to force the liquid inside a bottle to get-
out in the form of fine spray.

Solution: an external air jet (air current with pressure higher than
that of the internal air pressure in the container confining the
liquid) is admitted, the injected air passes through a finer tube, so
its velocity increases (accelerated) and a region of low pressure is
formed beneath it. This low-pressure will force the liquid to rise-
up in the fine tube immersed in it and will disperse out as fine
spray mist.

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