Somalia

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Federal Republic of Somalia
Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya
Jumhūriyyat as-Sūmāl
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Soomaaliyeey Toosoow
Somalia, Wake Up

Capital
(and largest city) Mogadishu
2°02′N 45°21′E / 2.033°N 45.35°E / 2.033; 45.35
Official language(s) Somali, Arabic[1][2]
Demonym Somali
Government Coalition Government
- President Sharif Ahmed
- Prime Minister Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke
Independence
- from United Kingdom 26 June 1960
- from Italy 1 July 1960
Area
- Total 637,661 km2 (41st)
246,201 sq mi
- Water (%) 1.6
Population
- 2009 estimate 9,133,000[3] (85th)
- Density 14.3/km2 (198th)
37.1/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2007 estimate
- Total $7.599 billion (153rd)
- Per capita $795[4] (222nd)
HDI (2009) N/A (Not Ranked)
Currency Somali shilling (SOS)
Time zone EAT (UTC+3)
- Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+3)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .so (currently not operating)
Calling code 252
2 BBC News[5]
3 Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic
Somalia (pronounced /so ˈmɑːliə/ soh-MAH-lee-ə; Somali: Soomaaliya; Arabic:
aṣ-Ṣūmāl), officially the Republic of Somalia (Somali: Jamhuuriyadda Soomaal
iya, Arabic: Jumhūriyyat aṣ-Ṣūmāl) and formerly known as the Som
ali Democratic Republic under communist rule, is a country located in the Horn o
f Africa. It is bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, t
he Gulf of Aden with Yemen to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, and Ethio
pia to the west.
In antiquity, Somalia was an important center for commerce with the rest of the
ancient world. Its sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense
, myrrh and spices, items which were considered valuable luxuries by the Ancient
Egyptians, Phoenicians, Mycenaeans and Babylonians with whom the Somali people
traded.[6][7] According to most scholars, Somalia is also where the ancient King
dom of Punt was situated.[8][9][10][11] The ancient Puntites were a nation of pe
ople that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh S
ahure and Queen Hatshepsut. The pyramidal structures, temples and ancient houses
of dressed stone littered around Somalia are said to date from this period.[12]
In the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trad
e including the Ajuuraan State, which excelled in hydraulic engineering and fort
ress building,[13] the Sultanate of Adal, whose general Ahmed Gurey was the firs
t African commander in history to use cannon warfare on the continent during Ada
l's conquest of the Ethiopian Empire,[14] and the Gobroon Dynasty, whose militar
y dominance forced governors of the Omani empire north of the city of Lamu to pa
y tribute to the Somali Sultan Ahmed Yusuf.[15]
Somalia was never formally colonized.[16][17][18] Muhammad Abdullah Hassan's Der
vish State successfully repulsed the British empire four times and forced it to
retreat to the coastal region.[19] As a result of its fame in the Middle East an
d Europe, the Dervish State was recognized as an ally by the Ottoman Empire and
the German empire,[20][21] and remained throughout World War I the only independ
ent Muslim power on the continent. After a quarter of a century holding the Brit
ish at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 when Britain for the fir
st time in Africa used aeroplanes when it bombed the Dervish capital of Taleex.
As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into a p
rotectorate of Britain. Italy similarly faced the same opposition from Somali Su
ltans and armies and did not acquire full control of parts of modern Somalia unt
il the Fascist era in late 1927. This occupation lasted till 1941 and was replac
ed by a British military administration. Northern Somalia would remain a protect
orate while southern Somalia became a trusteeship. The Union of the two regions
in 1960 formed the Somali Republic.
Due to its longstanding ties with the Arab world, Somalia was accepted in 1974 a
s a member of the Arab League. To strengthen its relationship with the rest of t
he African continent, Somalia joined other African nations when it founded the A
frican Union, and began to support the ANC in South Africa against the apartheid
regime[22] and the Eritrean secessionists in Ethiopia during the Eritrean War o
f Independence.[23] A Muslim country, Somalia is one of the founding members of
the Organisation of the Islamic Conference and is also a member of the UN and NA
M. Despite suffering from civil strife and instability, Somalia has also managed
to sustain a free market economy which, according to the UN, outperforms those
of many other countries in Africa.[24]
Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Prehistory
1.2 Antiquity & the Classical era
1.3 Birth of Islam & the Middle Ages
1.4 Early modern era & the Scramble for Africa
1.5 The State of Somalia
1.6 The Somali Civil War
2 Politics
3 Law
3.1 Civil law
3.2 Shari'a
3.3 Xeer
4 Cities
5 Regions and districts
6 Geography and climate
7 Health
8 Education
9 Economy
10 Media and telecommunications
11 Military
12 Environment
13 Demographics
14 Languages
15 Religion
16 Culture
16.1 Cuisine
16.2 Literature
16.3 Music
17 See also
18 References
19 Bibliography
20 External links

[edit] History
Main articles: History of Somalia and Somali maritime history
History of Somalia
Ancient
Laas Geel Culture
Kingdom of Punt
Malaoites — Oponeans
Mosyllonians
Medieval
Kingdom of Ifat
Adal Sultanate
Ajuuraan Empire
Gobroon Dynasty
Gerad Dynasty
Modern
Sultanate of Hobyo
Dervish State
Italian Somaliland
British Somaliland
Aden Adde Administration
Shermarke Administration
Communist rule
Recent History
Somali maritime history
[edit] Prehistory
Ancient rock art depicting a camel.Somalia has been inhabited by man since the P
aleolithic period. Cave paintings dating back as far as 9000 BC have been found
in northern Somalia. The most famous of these is the Laas Geel complex, which co
ntains some of the earliest known rock art on the African continent. Inscription
s have been found beneath each of the rock paintings, but archaeologists have so
far been unable to decipher this form of ancient writing.[25] During the Stone
age, the Doian culture and the Hargeisan culture flourished here with their resp
ective industries and factories.
The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeterie
s in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BC. The stone implements from the
Jalelo site in northern Somalia are said to be the most important link in evide
nce of the universality in Paleolithic times between the East and the West.[26]
[edit] Antiquity & the Classical era
Main article: Architecture of Somalia
The Silk Road extending from southern Europe through Arabia, Somalia, Egypt, Per
sia, India and Java until it reaches China.Ancient pyramidal structures, tombs,
ruined cities and stone walls such as the Wargaade Wall littered in Somalia are
evidence of an ancient sophisticated civilization that once thrived in the Somal
i peninsula.[27] The findings of archaeological excavations and research in Soma
lia show that this civilization had an ancient writing system that remains undec
iphered,[28] and enjoyed a lucrative trading relationship with Ancient Egypt and
Mycenaean Greece since at least the second millennium BC, which supports the vi
ew of Somalia being the ancient Kingdom of Punt.[29]
The Puntites "traded not only in their own produce of incense, ebony and short-h
orned cattle, but also in goods from other neighbouring regions, including gold,
ivory and animal skins."[30] According to the temple reliefs at Deir el-Bahri,
the Land of Punt was ruled at that time by King Parahu and Queen Ati.[31]
Ancient Somalis domesticated the camel somewhere between the third millennium an
d second millennium BC from where it spread to Ancient Egypt and North Africa.[3
2] In the classical period, the city states of Mossylon, Opone, Malao, Mundus an
d Tabae in Somalia developed a lucrative trade network connecting with merchants
from Phoenicia, Ptolemaic Egypt, Greece, Parthian Persia, Saba, Nabataea and th
e Roman Empire. They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the beden
to transport their cargo.

Ruins of Qa’ableh.After the Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire and the Roman
naval presence at Aden to curb piracy, a mutual agreement by Arab and Somali me
rchants barred Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of the Arabian
peninsula because of the nearby Romans.[33] However, they continued to trade in
the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which was free from any Roman threat or
spies.[34] The reason for barring Indian ships from entering the wealthy Arabia
n port cities was to protect and hide the exploitative trade practices of the So
mali and Arab merchants in the extremely lucrative ancient Red Sea – Mediterrane
an Sea commerce.[35]
The Indian merchants for centuries brought large quantities of cinnamon from Cey
lon and the Far East to Somalia and Arabia. This is said to have been the best k
ept secret of the Arab and Somali merchants in their trade with the Roman and Gr
eek world. The Romans and Greeks believed the source of cinnamon to have been th
e Somali peninsula but in reality, the highly valued product was brought to Soma
lia by way of Indian ships.[36] Through Somali and Arab traders, Indian/Chinese
cinnamon was also exported for far higher prices to North Africa, the Near East
and Europe, which made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue generator, e
specially for the Somali merchants through whose hands large quantities were shi
pped across ancient sea and land routes.
[edit] Birth of Islam & the Middle Ages
Main articles: Adal Sultanate, Ajuuraan State, and Warsangali Sultanate
Ruins of the Sultanate of Adal in Zeila, Somalia.The history of Islam in the Hor
n of Africa is as old as the religion itself. The early persecuted Muslims fled
to the Axumite port city of Zeila in modern day Somalia to seek protection from
the Quraysh at the court of the Axumite Emperor in present day Ethiopia. Some of
the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have settled in several pa
rts of the Horn of Africa to promote the religion.
The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant
impact on Somalia s merchants and sailors, as their Arab trading partners had t
hen all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the
Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim Caliphs. Through commerce, Islam spre
ad amongst the Somali population in the coastal cities of Somalia. Instability i
n the Arabian peninsula saw several migrations of Arab families to Somalia s coa
stal cities, who then contributed another significant element to the growing pop
ularity of Islam in the Somali peninsula.
13th century Fakr ad-Din mosqueMogadishu became the center of Islam on the East
African coast, and Somali merchants established a colony in Mozambique to extrac
t gold from the Monomopatan mines in Sofala. In northern Somalia, Adal was in it
s early stages a small trading community established by the newly converted Horn
African Muslim merchants, who were predominantly Somali according to Arab and S
omali chronicles.
The century between 1150 and 1250 marked a decisive turn in the role of Islam in
Somali history. Yaqut Al-Hamawi and later ibn Said noted that the Berbers (Soma
lis) were a prosperous Muslim nation during that period. The Adal Sultanate was
now the center of a commercial empire stretching from Cape Guardafui to Hadiya.
The Adalites then came under the influence of the expanding Horn African Kingdom
of Ifat, and prospered under its patronage.
The capital of the Ifat was Zeila, situated in in northern present-day Somalia,
from where the Ifat army marched to conquer the ancient Kingdom of Shoa in 1270.
This conquest ignited a rivalry for supremacy between the Christian Solomonids
and the Muslim Ifatites that resulted in several devastating wars, and ultimatel
y ended in a Solomonic victory over the Kingdom of Ifat after the death of the p
opular Sultan Sa ad ad-Din II in Zeila by Dawit II. Sa ad ad-Din II s family was
subsequently given safe haven at the court of the King of Yemen, where his sons
regrouped and planned their revenge on the Solomonids.

Model of a medieval Mogadishan ship.During the Age of the Ajuuraans, the sultana
tes and republics of Merca, Mogadishu, Barawa, Hobyo and their respective ports
flourished and had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming
from Arabia, India, Venetia,[37] Persia, Egypt, Portugal and as far away as Chi
na. Vasco da Gama, who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it wa
s a large city with houses of four or five storeys high and big palaces in its c
entre in addition to many mosques with cylindrical minarets.[38]
In the 1500s, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya i
n modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with cloth and spices, for which they in
return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of m
eat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated en
ormous wealth for the merchants.[39] Mogadishu, the center of a thriving weaving
industry known as toob benadir (specialized for the markets in Egypt and Syria[
40]), together with Merca and Barawa, also served as a transit stop for Swahili
merchants from Mombasa and Malindi and for the gold trade from Kilwa.[41] Jewish
merchants from the Hormuz brought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali
coast in exchange for grain and wood.[42]
Trading relations were established with Malacca in the 15th century[43] with clo
th, ambergris and porcelain being the main commodities of the trade.[44] Giraffe
s, zebras and incense were exported to the Ming Empire of China, which establish
ed Somali merchants as leaders in the commerce between the Asia and Africa[45] a
nd influenced the Chinese language with the Somali language in the process. Hind
u merchants from Surat and Southeast African merchants from Pate, seeking to byp
ass both the Portuguese blockade and Omani meddling, used the Somali ports of Me
rca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers jurisdiction) to conduct their
trade in safety and without interference.[46]
[edit] Early modern era & the Scramble for Africa
Main articles: Dervish State, Gobroon Dynasty, and Sultanate of Hobyo
17th century mosque in Hafun, Somalia.In the early modern period, successor stat
es of the Adal and Ajuuraan empires began to flourish in Somalia. These were the
Gerad Dynasty, the Bari Dynasties and the Gobroon Dynasty. They continued the t
radition of castle-building and seaborne trade established by previous Somali em
pires.
Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim, the third Sultan of the House of Gobroon, started
the Golden age of the Gobroon Dynasty. His army came out victorious during the B
ardheere Jihad, which restored stability in the region and revitalized the East
African ivory trade. He also received presents from and had cordial relations wi
th the rulers of neighbouring and distant kingdoms such as the Omani, Witu and Y
emeni Sultans.
Sultan Ibrahim s son Ahmed Yusuf succeeded him and was one of the most important
figures in 19th century East Africa, receiving tribute from Omani governors and
creating alliances with important Muslim families on the East African coast. In
northern Somalia, the Gerad Dynasty conducted trade with Yemen and Persia and c
ompeted with the merchants of the Bari Dynasty. The Gerads and the Bari Sultans
built impressive palaces, castles and fortresses and had close relations with ma
ny different empires in the Near East.

Somali soldiers board a British naval batilla.In the late 19th century, after th
e Berlin conference, European powers began the Scramble for Africa, which inspir
ed the Dervish leader Muhammad Abdullah Hassan to rally support from across the
Horn of Africa and begin one of the longest colonial resistance wars ever. In se
veral of his poems and speeches, Hassan emphasized that the British infidels "ha
ve destroyed our religion and made our children their children" and that the Chr
istian Ethiopians in league with the British were bent upon plundering the polit
ical and religious freedom of the Somali nation. He soon emerged as "a champion
of his country s political and religious freedom, defending it against all Chris
tian invaders."
Hassan issued a religious ordinance stipulating that any Somali national who did
not accept the goal of unity of Somalia and would not fight under his leadershi
p would be considered as kafir or gaal. He soon acquired weapons from Turkey, Su
dan, and other Islamic and/or Arabian countries, and appointed ministers and adv
isers to administer different areas or sectors of Somalia. In addition, he gave
a clarion call for Somali unity and independence, in the process organizing his
forces.
Hassan s Dervish movement had an essentially military character, and the Dervish
state was fashioned on the model of a Salihiya brotherhood. It was characterize
d by a rigid hierarchy and centralization. Though Hassan threatened to drive the
Christians into the sea, he executed the first attack by launching his first ma
jor military offensive with his 1500 Dervish equipped with 20 modem rifles on th
e British soldiers stationed in the region.

Taleex was the capital of the Dervish State.He repulsed the British in four expe
ditions and had relations with the central powers of the Ottomans and the German
s. In 1920, the Dervish state collapsed after intensive aerial bombardments by B
ritain, and Dervish territories were subsequently turned into a protectorate.
The dawn of fascism in the early 1920s heralded a change of strategy for Italy,
as the north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the boundaries of
La Grande Somalia according to the plan of Fascist Italy. With the arrival of Go
vernor Cesare Maria De Vecchi on 15 December 1923, things began to change for th
at part of Somaliland known as Italian Somaliland. Italy had access to these are
as under the successive protection treaties, but not direct rule.
The Fascist government had direct rule only over the Benadir territory. Fascist
Italy, under Benito Mussolini, attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935, with an ai
m to colonize it. The invasion was condemned by the League of Nations, but littl
e was done to stop it or to liberate occupied Ethiopia. On August 3, 1940, Itali
an troops, including Somali colonial units, crossed from Ethiopia to invade Brit
ish Somaliland, and by August 14, succeeded in taking Berbera from the British.
A British force, including troops from several African countries, launched the c
ampaign in January 1941 from Kenya to liberate British Somaliland and Italian-oc
cupied Ethiopia and conquer Italian Somaliland. By February, most of Italian Som
aliland was captured and in March, British Somaliland was retaken from the sea.
The British Empire forces operating in Somaliland comprised three divisions of S
outh African, West and East African troops. They were assisted by Somali forces
led by Abdulahi Hassan with Somalis of the Isaaq, Dhulbahante, and Warsangali cl
ans prominently participating. After World War II, the number of the Italian col
onists started to decrease; their numbers had dwindled to less than 10,000 in 19
60.[47]
[edit] The State of Somalia
Main article: Greater Somalia
Somali Youth League monumentFollowing World War II, although Somalis aided the A
llied powers in their struggle against the Axis powers, Britain retained control
of both British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland as protectorates. In November
1949, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland, but o
nly under close supervision and on the condition—first proposed by the Somali Yo
uth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbi
a Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) (which later became Hizbia Dastur Mustaqbal Somali
) and the Somali National League (SNL), that were then agitating for independenc
e—that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.[48][49] British Somaliland
remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960.[50]
To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provi
sions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education
and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was t
o be incorporated into the new Somali state, did not have. Although in the 1950s
British colonial officials attempted, through various development efforts, to m
ake up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between the t
wo territories in economic development and political experience would cause seri
ous difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts.[51]
Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dis
may of the Somalis,[52] the British "returned" the Haud (an important Somali gra
zing area that was presumably protected by British treaties with the Somalis i
n 1884 and 1886) and the Ogaden to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 18
97 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik
in exchange for his help against plundering by Somali clans.[53]
Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy,
but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them.[48] This prompted an un
successful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned ove
r.[48] Britain also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inha
bited[54] Northern Frontier District (NFD) to Kenyan nationalists despite an inf
ormal plebiscite demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region s populatio
n to join the newly formed Somali Republic.[55]
A referendum was held in neighbouring Djibouti (then known as French Somaliland)
in 1958, on the eve of Somalia s independence in 1960, to decide whether or not
to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out
in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes
vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. However, the majo
rity of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a
 united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Gov
ernment Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti fin
ally gained its independence from France in 1977 and Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Fr
ench-groomed Somali who campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eve
ntually wound up as Djibouti s first president (1977–1991).[56]

Aden Abdullah Osman Daar was the first President of Somalia.British Somaliland b
ecame independent on June 26, 1960, and the former Italian Somaliland followed s
uit five days later.[57] On July 1, 1960, the two territories united to form the
Somali Republic, albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain.[58][59
][60] A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa with Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as
President,[61][62][63] and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister, later to
become President (from 1967–1969). On July 20, 1961 and through a popular refer
endum, the Somali people ratified a new constitution, which was first drafted in
1960.[64]
However, inter-clan rivalry persisted.[59][65][66][67] In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ib
rahim Egal became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Sherma
rke. Egal would later become the President of the autonomous Somaliland region i
n northwestern Somalia.
In late 1969, following the assassination of President Shermarke, a military gov
ernment assumed power in a coup d état led by Major General Salaad Gabeyre Kediy
e, General Siad Barre and Chief of Police Jama Korshel. Barre became President a
nd Korshel vice-president. The revolutionary army established large-scale public
works programmes and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campa
ign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate from 5% to 55% by the
mid-1980s. However, struggles continued during Barre s rule. At one point he ass
assinated a major figure in his cabinet, Major General Gabeyre, and two other of
ficials.

The old parliament building in Mogadishu.It was in July 1976 when the real dicta
torship of the Somali military commenced with the founding of the Somali Revolut
ionary Socialist Party (Xisbiga Hantiwadaagga Kacaanka Soomaaliyeed, XHKS). This
party ruled Somalia until the fall of the military government in December 1990–
January 1991. It was violently overthrown by the combined armed revolt of the So
mali Salvation Democratic Front (Jabhadda Diimuqraadiga Badbaadinta Soomaaliyeed
, SSDF), United Somali Congress (USC), Somali National Movement (SNM), and the S
omali Patriotic Movement (SPM) together with the non-violent political oppositio
ns of the Somali Democratic Movement (SDM), the Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA)
and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG). The country was renamed the Somali Democr
atic Republic.
In 1977 and 1978, Somalia invaded its neighbour Ethiopia in the Ogaden War, in w
hich Somalia aimed to unite the Somali lands that had been partitioned by the fo
rmer colonial powers, and to win the right of self-determination for ethnic Soma
lis in those territories. Somalia first engaged Kenya and Ethiopia diplomaticall
y, but this failed. Somalia, already preparing for war, created the Ogaden Natio
nal Liberation Front (ONLF, then called the Western Somali Liberation Front, WSL
F) and eventually sought to capture Ogaden. Somalia acted unilaterally without c
onsulting the international community, which was generally opposed to redrawing
colonial boundaries, while the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries refuse
d to help Somalia, and instead, backed Communist Ethiopia. Still the USSR, findi
ng itself supplying both sides of a war, attempted to mediate a ceasefire.
In the first week of the conflict Somali armed forces took southern and central
Ogaden and for most of the war, the Somali army scored continues victories on th
e Ethiopian army and followed them as far as Sidamo. By September 1977, Somalia
controlled 90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as Jijiga and pu
t heavy pressure on Dire Dawa, threatening the train route from the latter city
to Djibouti. After the siege of Harar, a massive unprecedented Soviet interventi
on consisting of 20 thousand Cuban forces and several thousands Soviet experts c
ame to the aid of Ethiopia. The Somali Army was forced to withdraw and consequen
tly Somalia sought the help of the United States. Although the Carter Administra
tion had expressed interest in helping Somalia, it later declined, as did Americ
an allies in the Middle East and Asia.

The Somali-Soviet friendship and later partnership with the United States enable
d Somalia to build the largest army in Africa.[68]By 1978, the moral authority o
f the Somali government had collapsed. Many Somalis had become disillusioned wit
h life under military dictatorship and the regime was weakened further in the 19
80s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia s strategic importance was dimin
ished. The government became increasingly totalitarian, and resistance movements
, encouraged by Ethiopia, sprang up across the country, eventually leading to th
e Somali Civil War.
During 1990, in the capital city of Mogadishu, the residents were prohibited fro
m gathering publicly in groups greater than three or four. Fuel shortages caused
long lines of cars at petrol stations. Inflation had driven the price of pasta,
(ordinary dry Italian noodles, a staple at that time), to five U.S. dollars per
kilogram. The price of khat, imported daily from Kenya, was also five U.S. doll
ars per standard bunch. Paper currency notes were of such low value that several
bundles were needed to pay for simple restaurant meals. Coins were scattered on
the ground throughout the city being too low in value to be used.
A thriving black market existed in the centre of the city as banks experienced s
hortages of local currency for exchange. At night, the city of Mogadishu lay in
darkness. The generators used to provide electricity to the city had been sold o
ff by the government. Close monitoring of all visiting foreigners was in effect.
Harsh exchange control regulations were introduced to prevent export of foreign
currency and access to it was restricted to official banks, or one of three gov
ernment-operated hotels.
Although no travel restrictions were placed on foreigners, photographing many lo
cations was banned. During the day in Mogadishu, the appearance of any governmen
t military force was extremely rare. Alleged late-night operations by government
authorities, however, included "disappearances" of individuals from their homes
.
[edit] The Somali Civil War
Main article: Somali Civil War
1991 saw great changes in Somalia. President Barre was ousted by combined northe
rn and southern clan-based forces, all of whom were backed and armed by Ethiopia
. And following a meeting of the Somali National Movement and northern clans el
ders, the northern former British portion of the country declared its independen
ce as Somaliland in May 1991; although de facto independent and relatively stabl
e compared to the tumultuous south, it has not been recognised by any foreign go
vernment.[69][70]
In January 1991, President Ali Mahdi Muhammad was selected by the manifesto grou
p as an interim state president until a conference between all stakeholders to b
e held in Djibouti the following month to select a national leader. However, Uni
ted Somali Congress military leader General Mohamed Farrah Aidid, the Somali Nat
ional Movement leader Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur and the Somali Patriotic Movemen
t leader Col Jess refused to recognize Mahdi as president.
This caused a split between the SNM, USC and SPM and the armed groups Manifesto,
 Somali Democratic Movement (SDM) and Somali National Alliance (SNA) on the one
hand and within the USC forces. This led efforts to remove Barre who still claim
ed to be the legitimate president of Somalia. He and his armed supporters remain
ed in the south of the country until mid 1992, causing further escalation in vio
lence, especially in the Gedo, Bay, Bakool, Lower Shabelle, Lower Juba, and Midd
le Juba regions. The armed conflict within the USC devastated the Mogadishu area
.
The civil war disrupted agriculture and food distribution in southern Somalia. T
he basis of most of the conflicts was clan allegiances and competition for resou
rces between the warring clans. James Bishop, the United States last ambassador
to Somalia, explained that there is "competition for water, pasturage, and... ca
ttle. It is a competition that used to be fought out with arrows and sabers... N
ow it is fought out with AK-47s."[71] The resulting famine (about 300,000 dead)
caused the United Nations Security Council in 1992 to authorise the limited peac
ekeeping operation United Nations Operation in Somalia I (UNOSOM I).[72] UNOSOM
s use of force was limited to self-defence and it was soon disregarded by the wa
rring factions.
In reaction to the continued violence and the humanitarian disaster, the United
States organised a military coalition with the purpose of creating a secure envi
ronment in southern Somalia for the conduct of humanitarian operations. This coa
lition, (Unified Task Force or UNITAF) entered Somalia in December 1992 on Opera
tion Restore Hope and was successful in restoring order and alleviating the fami
ne. In May 1993, most of the United States troops withdrew and UNITAF was replac
ed by the United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II).
However, Mohamed Farrah Aidid saw UNOSOM II as a threat to his power and in June
1993 his militia attacked Pakistan Army troops, attached to UNOSOM II, (see Som
alia (March 1992 to February 1996)) in Mogadishu inflicting over 80 casualties.
Fighting escalated until 19 American troops and more than 1,000 Somalis were kil
led in a raid in Mogadishu during October 1993. The UN withdrew Operation United
Shield in 3 March 1995, having suffered significant casualties, and with the ru
le of government still not restored. In August 1996, Aidid was killed in Mogadis
hu.
A consequence of the collapse of governmental authority that accompanied the civ
il war has been the creation of a significant problem with piracy[73] off the co
ast of Somalia originating in coastal ports.[74] Piracy arose as a response by l
ocal Somali fishermen from coastal towns such as Eyl, Kismayo and Harardhere to
predatory fishing by foreign fishing trawlers that followed the collapse of Soma
li governmental authority.[75][76] An upsurge in piracy off the coast has also b
een attributed to the effects of the December 26, 2004 tsunami that devastated c
oastal villages fishing fleets.[77] Piracy has been described as Somalia s "only
booming economy" and as a "mainstay" of the Puntland economy.[78][79][80]
From 1800 to 1890, between 25,000–50,000 Bantu slaves from Mozambique and Tanzan
ia are thought to have been sold from the slave market of Zanzibar to the Somali
coast.[81] Bantus are ethnically, physically, and culturally distinct from Soma
lis, and have remained marginalized ever since their arrival in Somalia.[82] The
number of Bantu in Somalia before the civil war is thought to be about 900,000.
[83] Since 2003, more than 12,000 Bantu refugees have settled in the United Stat
es.[84] The Tanzanian government has also begun granting Bantus citizenship and
land in areas of Tanzania where their ancestors are known to have been removed f
rom.[85]
[edit] Politics
Main article: Politics of Somalia
See also: Battle of Mogadishu (2006), Rise of the Islamic Courts Union (2006), W
ar in Somalia (2006–2009), War in Somalia (2009–), and 2009 timeline of the War
in Somalia
Current situation in SomaliaFollowing the civil war the Harti and Tanade clans d
eclared a self-governing state in the northeast, which took the name Puntland, b
ut maintained that it would participate in any Somali reconciliation to form a n
ew central government. Then in 2002, Southwestern Somalia, comprising Bay, Bakoo
l, Jubbada Dhexe (Middle Juba), Gedo, Shabeellaha Hoose (Lower Shabele) and Jubb
ada Hoose (Lower Juba) regions of Somalia declared itself autonomous. Although i
nitially the instigators of this, the Rahanweyn Resistance Army, which had been
established in 1995, was only in full control of Bay, Bakool and parts of Gedo a
nd Jubbada Dhexe, they quickly established the de facto autonomy of Southwestern
Somalia.
Although conflict between Hasan Muhammad Nur Shatigadud and his two deputies wea
kened the Rahanweyn militarily from February 2006, the Southwest became central
to the TFG based in the city of Baidoa. Shatigadud became Finance Minister, his
first deputy Adan Mohamed Nuur Madobe became Parliamentary Speaker and his secon
d deputy Mohamed Ibrahim Habsade became Minister of Transport. Shatigadud also h
eld the Chairmanship of the Rahanwein Traditional Elders Court.
In 2004, the TFG met in Nairobi, Kenya and published a charter for the governmen
t of the nation.[86][87] The TFG capital is presently in Baidoa. Meanwhile Somal
ia was one of the many countries affected by the tsunami which struck the Indian
Ocean coast following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, destroying entire villa
ges and killing an estimated 300 people. In 2006, Somalia was deluged by torrent
ial rains and flooding that struck the entire Horn of Africa affecting 350,000 p
eople.[88] The inter-clan rivalry continued in 2006 with the declaration of regi
onal autonomy by the state of Jubaland, consisting of parts of Gedo, Jubbada Dhe
xe, and the whole of Jubbada Hoose. Barre Adan Shire Hiiraale, chairman of the J
uba Valley Alliance, who comes from Galguduud in central Somalia is the most pow
erful leader there. Like Puntland this regional government did not want full sta
tehood, but some sort of federal autonomy.
Conflict broke out again in early 2006 between an alliance of Mogadishu warlords
known as the Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism (or "A
RPCT") and a militia loyal to the Islamic Courts Union (or "I.C.U."), seeking to
institute Sharia law in Somalia. Social law changes, such as the forbidding of
chewing khat,[89] were part of moves by the ICU to change behaviours and impose
strict social morals. It was widely reported that soccer playing was being banne
d, as well as viewing of broadcasts of soccer games,[90] but there were also rep
orts of the ICU itself denying any such bans.[91] The Islamic Courts Union was l
ed by Sheikh Sharif Ahmed. When asked if the ICU plans to extend its control to
the rest of Somalia, Sheikh Ahmed responded in an interview: "Land is not our pr
iority. Our priority is the people s peace, dignity and that they could live in
liberty, that they could decide their own fate. That is our priority. Our priori
ty is not land; the people are important to us."[92]

Somalia at the height of I.C.U. power, December 2006Several hundred people, most
ly civilians caught in the crossfire, died during this conflict. Mogadishu resid
ents described it as the worst fighting in more than a decade. The Islamic Court
s Union accused the U.S. of funding the warlords through the Central Intelligenc
e Agency and supplying them with arms in an effort to prevent the Islamic Courts
Union from gaining power. The United States Department of State, while neither
admitting nor denying this, said the U.S. had taken no action that violated the
international arms embargo of Somalia. A few e-mails describing covert illegal o
perations by private military companies in breach of U.N. regulations have been
reported[93] by the UK Sunday newspaper The Observer.
By early June 2006 the Islamic Militia had control of Mogadishu, following the S
econd Battle of Mogadishu, and the last A.R.P.C.T. stronghold in southern Somali
a, the town of Jowhar, then fell with little resistance. The remaining A.R.P.C.T
. forces fled to the east or across the border into Ethiopia and the alliance ef
fectively collapsed.
The Ethiopian-supported Transitional Government then called for intervention by
a regional East African peacekeeping force. The I.C.U. meanwhile were fiercely o
pposed to foreign troops—particularly Ethiopians—in Somalia.[94] claiming that E
thiopia, with its long history as an imperial power including the occupation of
Ogaden, seeks to occupy Somalia, or rule it by proxy. Meanwhile the I.C.U. and t
heir militia took control of much of the southern half of Somalia, normally thro
ugh negotiation with local clan chiefs rather than by the use of force.
However, the Islamic militia stayed clear of areas close to the Ethiopian border
, which had become a place of refuge for many Somalis including the Transitional
Government itself, headquartered in the town of Baidoa. Ethiopia said it would
protect Baidoa if threatened. On September 25, 2006, the I.C.U. moved into the s
outhern port of Kismayo, the last remaining port held by the transitional govern
ment.[95] Ethiopian troops entered Somalia and seized the town of Buur Hakaba on
October 9, and later that day the I.C.U. issued a declaration of war against Et
hiopia.[96]

Kismayo, one of Somalia s leading ports.On 1 November 2006, peace talks between
the Transitional Government and the ICU broke down. The international community
feared an all-out civil war, with Ethiopian and rival Eritrean forces backing op
posing sides in the power-struggle.[97] Fighting erupted once again on 21 Decemb
er 2006 when the leader of ICU, Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys said: "Somalia is in a
state of war, and all Somalis should take part in this struggle against Ethiopi
a", and heavy fighting broke out between the Islamic militia on one side and the
Somali Transitional Government allied with Ethiopian forces on the other.[98]
In late December 2006, Ethiopia launched airstrikes against Islamic troops and s
trong points across Somalia. Ethiopian Information Minister Berhan Hailu stated
that targets included the town of Buurhakaba, near the Transitional Government b
ase in Baidoa. An Ethiopian jet fighter strafed Mogadishu International Airport
(now Aden Adde International Airport), without apparently causing serious damage
but prompting the airport to be shut down. Other Ethiopian jet fighters attacke
d a military airport west of Mogadishu.[99][100] Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles
Zenawi then announced that his country was waging war against the ICU to protect
his country s sovereignty. "Ethiopian defence forces were forced to enter into
war to the protect the sovereignty of the nation and to blunt repeated attacks b
y Islamic courts terrorists and anti-Ethiopian elements they are supporting," he
said.[101][102]
Days of heavy fighting followed as Ethiopian and government troops backed by tan
ks and jets pushed against Islamic forces between Baidoa and Mogadishu. Both sid
es claimed to have inflicted hundreds of casualties, but the Islamic infantry an
d vehicle artillery were badly beaten and forced to retreat toward Mogadishu. On
28 December 2006, the allies entered Mogadishu after Islamic fighters fled the
city. Prime Minister Ali Mohammed Ghedi declared that Mogadishu had been secured
, after meeting with local clan leaders to discuss the peaceful hand-over of the
city.[103] Yet as of April 2008, the Transitional Federal Government and its Et
hiopian allies still face frequent attacks from an Islamic insurgency.
The Islamists retreated south, towards their stronghold in Kismayo, fighting rea
rguard actions in several towns. They abandoned Kismayo, too, without a fight, c
laiming that their flight was a strategic withdrawal to avoid civilian casualtie
s, and entrenched around the small town of Ras Kamboni, at the southernmost tip
of Somalia and on the border with Kenya. In early January, the Ethiopians and th
e Somali government attacked, resulting in the Battle of Ras Kamboni, and captur
ing the Islamic positions and driving the surviving fighters into the hills and
forests after several days of combat.
On January 9, 2007, the United States openly intervened in Somalia by sending Lo
ckheed AC-130 gunships to attack ICU positions in Ras Kamboni. Dozens were kille
d and by then the ICU were largely defeated. During 2007 and 2008, new Islamic m
ilitant groups organized, and continued to fight against transitional government
Somali and Ethiopian official troops. They recovered effective control of large
portions of the country. Ethiopian forces retreated in 2009. The ICU no longer
exists as an organized political group, and is now part of the Transitional Fede
ral Government.

Abdullahi Yusuf AhmedOn December 29, 2008, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed announced befor
e a united parliament in Baidoa his resignation as President of Somalia. In his
speech, which was broadcast on national radio, Yusuf expressed regret at failing
to end the country s seventeen year conflict as his government had mandated to
do.[104] He also blamed the international community for its failure to support t
he government, and said that the speaker of parliament, Aden "Madobe" Mohamed, w
ould succeed him in office per the charter of the Transitional Federal Governmen
t.[105] On January 31, 2009, Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed was elected as president
at the Kempinski hotel in Djibouti.[106]
In 2009, the Islamic Courts Union was absorbed into the Transitional Federal Gov
ernment, along with the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia, a collection
of moderate Islamist groups. The Islamists were awarded with 200 seats in parlia
ment. Former Prime Minister Nur Hassan Hussein of the Transitional Federal Gover
nment and Sharif Sheikh Ahmed also signed a power sharing deal in Djibouti that
was brokered by the United Nations.
According to the deal, Ethiopian troops were to withdraw from Somalia, giving th
eir bases to Transitional Federal Government troops, African Union (AU) peacekee
pers, and moderate Islamist groups led by the ARS and Allied with the government
. Following the Ethiopian withdrawal, the transitional government expanded its p
arliament to include the opposition and elected Sheikh Ahmed as its new presiden
t on January 31, 2009. Sheikh Ahmed then appointed Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke
, the son of slain former President Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke, as the nation s ne
w Prime Minister.
[edit] Law
Main articles: Transitional Federal Government, Islamic Courts Union, and Xeer
The legal structure in Somalia is divided along three lines: civil law, religiou
s law, and traditional clan law.
[edit] Civil law
While Somalia s formal judicial system was largely destroyed after the fall of t
he Siad Barre regime, it has been rebuilt and is now administered under differen
t regional governments such as the autonomous Puntland and Somaliland macro-regi
ons. In the case of the Transitional Federal Government, a new judicial structur
e was formed through various international conferences.
Despite some significant political differences between them, all of these admini
strations share similar legal structures, much of which are predicated on the ju
dicial systems of previous Somali administrations. These similarities in civil l
aw include:[107]
A charter which affirms the primacy of Muslim shari a or religious law, although
in practice shari a is applied mainly to matters such as marriage, divorce, inh
eritance, and civil issues.
The charter guarantees respect for universal standards of human rights to all su
bjects of the law. It also assures the independence of the judiciary, which in t
urn is protected by a judicial committee.
A three-tier judicial system including a supreme court, a court of appeals, and
courts of first instance (either divided between district and regional courts, o
r a single court per region).
The laws of the civilian government which were in effect prior to the military c
oup d état that saw the Barre regime into power remain in force until the laws a
re amended.
[edit] Shari a
Islamic shari a has traditionally played a significant part in Somali society. I
n theory, it has served as the basis for all national legislation in every Somal
i constitution. In practice, however, it only applied to common civil cases such
as marriage, divorce, inheritance and family matters. This changed after the st
art of the civil war when a number of new shari a courts began to spring up in m
any different cities and towns across the country.[107]
These new shari a courts serve three functions:
To pass rulings in both criminal and civil cases.
To organize a militia capable of arresting criminals.
To keep convicted prisoners incarcerated.
The shari a courts, though structured along simple lines, feature a conventional
hierarchy of a chairman, vice-chairman and four judges. A police force that rep
orts to the court enforces the judges rulings, but also helps settle community
disputes and apprehend suspected criminals. In addition, the courts manage deten
tion centers where criminals are kept. An independent finance committee is also
assigned the task of collecting and managing tax revenue levied on regional merc
hants by the local authorities.[107]
In March 2009, Somalia s newly established coalition government announced that i
t would implement shari a as the nation s official judicial system.[108]
[edit] Xeer
Somalis for centuries have practiced a form of customary law which they call Xee
r. Xeer is a polycentric legal system where there is no monopolistic agent that
determines what the law should be or how it should be interpreted.
The Xeer legal system is assumed to have developed exclusively in the Horn of Af
rica since approximately the 7th century. There is no evidence that it developed
elsewhere or was greatly influenced by any foreign legal system. The fact that
Somali legal terminology is practically devoid of loan words from foreign langua
ges suggests that Xeer is truly indigenous.[109]
The Xeer legal system also requires a certain amount of specialization of differ
ent functions within the legal framework. Thus, one can find odayal (judges), xe
er boggeyaal (jurists), guurtiyaal (detectives), garxajiyaal (attorneys), murkha
atiyal (witnesses) and waranle (police officers) to enforce the law.[110]
Xeer is defined by a few fundamental tenets that are immutable and which closely
approximate the principle of jus cogens in international law:[107]
Payment of blood money (locally referred to as diya) for libel, theft, physical
harm, rape and death, as well as supplying assistance to relatives.
Assuring good inter-clan relations by treating women justly, negotiating with "p
eace emissaries" in good faith, and sparing the lives of socially protected grou
ps (e.g. children, women, the pious, poets and guests).
Family obligations such as the payment of dowry, and sanctions for eloping.
Rules pertaining to the management of resources such as the use of pasture land,
water, and other natural resources.
Providing financial support to married female relatives and newlyweds.
Donating livestock and other assets to the poor.
[edit] Cities
Cities of the Republic of Somalia
Mogadishu
Bosaso
Kismayo
Borama Rank Core City Division Pop. view • talk • edit
Hargeisa
Merka
Barawa
Garowe
1 Mogadishu Banadir Ca.2,500,000
2 Hargeisa W.Galbeed Ca. 1,800,000 [111]
3 Bosaso Bari Ca. 350,000
4 Borama Awdal Ca.300,000
5 Kismayo Jubbada Hoose Ca. 200,000
6 Burao Togdheer Ca. 150,000
7 Beledweyn Hiiraan Ca. 150,000
8 Gaalkacyo Mudug Ca. 100,000 [111]
9 Berbera W.Galbeed Ca. 100,000
10 Garowe Nugaal Ca. 86,000 [111]
11 Baidoa Bay Ca. 75,000 [111]
12 Bardera Gedo Ca. 75,000
13 Goldogob Mudug Ca. 40,000
14 Erigavo Sanaag Ca. 40,000
15 Merka Shabeellaha Hoose Ca. 40,000 [111]
16 Jowhar Shabeellaha Hoose Ca. 40,000 [111]
17 Qardho Bari Ca. 35,000 [111]
[edit] Regions and districts
Main article: Regions and Districts of Somalia
Prior to the civil war, Somalia was divided into eighteen regions (gobollada, si
ngular gobol), which were in turn subdivided into districts. The regions are:
1 Awdal
2 Bakool
3 Banaadir
4 Bari
5 Bay
6 Galguduud
7 Gedo
8 Hiiraan
9 Jubbada Dhexe
10 Jubbada Hoose
11 Mudug
12 Nugaal
13 Sanaag
14 Shabeellaha Dhexe
15 Shabeellaha Hoose
16 Sool
17 Togdheer
18 Woqooyi Galbeed

On a de facto basis, northern Somalia is now divided up among the quasi-independ

ent states of Puntland, Somaliland, and Galmudug. The south is at least nominall
y controlled by the Transitional Federal Government, although it is in fact cont
rolled by Islamist groups outside Mogadishu. Under the de facto arrangements the
re are now 27 regions.
[edit] Geography and climate
Main article: Geography of Somalia
Overview of the Almadow Mountains in Maakhir, Somalia
Arabian horses colloquially referred to as Sunaari, seen here in the arid plains
of Dhahar, Maakhir, SomaliaAfrica s easternmost country, Somalia has a land are
a of 637,540 square kilometers. It occupies the tip of a region that, due to its
resemblance on the map to a rhinoceros horn, is commonly referred to as the Ho
rn of Africa. Somalia has the longest coastline on the continent. Its terrain co
nsists mainly of plateaus, plains, and highlands.
Cal Madow is a mountain range in the northeastern part of the country, extending
from several kilometers west of the city of Bosaso to the northwest of Erigavo.
The rugged east-west ranges of the Karkaar Mountains lie at varying distances f
rom the Gulf of Aden coast.
Major climatic factors are a year-round hot climate, seasonal monsoon winds, and
irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 30 °C (86 °F) to
40 °C (104 °F), except at higher elevations and along the east coast. Mean dail
y minimums usually vary from about 15 °C (59 °F) to 30 °C (86 °F).
The southwest monsoon, a sea breeze, makes the period from about May to October
the mildest season in Mogadishu. The December to February period of the northeas
t monsoon is also relatively mild, although prevailing climatic conditions in Mo
gadishu are rarely pleasant. The tangambili periods that intervene between the t
wo monsoons (October–November and March–May) are hot and humid.
Climate data for Somalia [hide]Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 30
(86) 30
(86) 40
(104) 40
(104) 40
(104) 40
(104) 40
(104) 30
(86) 30
(86) 30
(86) 30
(86) 30
(86) 30
(86)
Average low °C (°F) 15
(59) 15
(59) 15
(59) 15
(59) 15
(59) 15
(59) 15
(59) 15
(59) 15
(59) 15
(59) 15
(59) 0
(32) 15
(59)
Precipitation mm (inches) 40
(1.57) 40
(1.57) 40
(1.57) 40
(1.57) 40
(1.57) 40
(1.57) 50
(1.97) 50
(1.97) 40
(1.57) 40
(1.57) 40
(1.57) 40
(1.57) 500
(19.69)
Source: Country Studies - Somalia[112] 2009-05-14
[edit] Health
Somalia has one of the lowest HIV infection rates in all of Africa. This is attr
ibuted to the Muslim nature of Somali society and adherence of Somalis to Islami
c morals.[113] While the estimated HIV prevalence rate in Somalia in 1987 (the f
irst case report year) was 1% of adults,[113] a more recent estimate from 2007 n
ow places it at only 0.5% of the nation s adult population despite the ongoing c
ivil strife.[2]
[edit] Education
Main article: Education in Somalia
New Mogadishu University campus.The Ministry of Education is officially responsi
ble for education in Somalia, with about 15% of the government s budget being sp
ent on academic instruction. In 2006, the autonomous Puntland region in the nort
heast was the second territory in Somalia after the Somaliland region to introdu
ce free primary schools, with teachers now receiving their salaries from the Pun
tland administration.[114]
From 2005/2006 to 2006/2007, there was a significant increase in the number of s
chools in Puntland, up 137 institutions from just one year prior. During the sam
e period, the number of classes in the region increased by 504, with 762 more te
achers also offering their services.[115]
Total student enrollment increased by 27% over the previous year, with girls lag
ging only slightly behind boys in attendance in most regions. The highest class
enrollment was observed in the northernmost Bari region, and the lowest was obse
rved in the under-populated Ayn region. The distribution of classrooms was almos
t evenly split between urban and rural areas, with marginally more pupils attend
ing and instructors teaching classes in urban areas.[115]
Entrance to Amoud University in Borama, Somalia.Higher education in Somalia is n
ow largely private. Several universities in the country, including Mogadishu Uni
versity, have been scored among the 100 best universities in Africa in spite of
the harsh environment, which has been hailed as a triumph for grass-roots initia
tives.[116] Other universities also offering higher education in the south inclu
de Benadir University, the Somalia National University, Kismayo University and t
he University of Gedo. In Puntland, higher education is provided by the Puntland
State University and East Africa University. In Somaliland, it is provided by A
moud University, the University of Hargeisa, Somaliland University of Technology
and Burao University.
Qu ranic schools (also known as duqsi) remain the basic system of traditional re
ligious instruction in Somalia. They provide Islamic education for children, the
reby filling a clear religious and social role in the country. Known as the most
stable local, non-formal system of education providing basic religious and mora
l instruction, their strength rests on community support and their use of locall
y made and widely available teaching materials. The Qu ranic system, which teach
es the greatest number of students relative to other educational sub-sectors, is
oftentimes the only system accessible to Somalis in nomadic as compared to urba
n areas. A study from 1993 found, among other things, that about 40% of pupils i
n Qur anic schools were girls. To address shortcomings in religious instruction,
the Somali government on its own part also subsequently established the Ministr
y of Endowment and Islamic Affairs, under which Qur anic education is now regula
ted.[117]
[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of Somalia
A shopping mall in downtown Hargeisa, Somalia.Despite civil unrest, Somalia has
maintained a healthy informal economy, based mainly on livestock, remittance/mon
ey transfer companies, and telecommunications.[118] According to a 2003 World Ba
nk study, the private sector grew impressively, particularly in the areas of tra
de, commerce, transport, remittance and infrastructure services, in addition to
the primary sectors, notably livestock, agriculture and fisheries.[119] In 2007,
the United Nations reported that the country s service industry is also thrivin
g.[120] Anthropologist Spencer Heath MacCallum attributes this increased economi
c activity to the Somali customary law, which provides a stable environment to c
onduct business in.[121]
Agriculture is the most important sector, with livestock accounting for about 40
% of GDP and about 65% of export earnings.[118] Other principal exports include
fish, charcoal, and bananas; sugar, sorghum, and maize are products for the dome
stic market.[118] At nearly 3 million heads of goat and sheep in 1999, the north
ern ports of Bosaso and Berbera accounted for 95% of all goat and 52% of all she
ep exports of East Africa. The Somaliland region alone exported more than 180 mi
llion metric tons of livestock and more than 480 million metric tons of agricult
ural products.[122] Somalia is also a major world supplier of frankincense and m
yrrh.

Bosaso port.The small industrial sector, based on the processing of agricultural

products, accounts for 10% of GDP. According to a 2005 World Bank report, the "
private airline business in Somalia is now thriving with more than five carriers
and price wars between the companies."[123]
With the help of the Somali diaspora, mobile phone companies, internet cafés and
radio stations have been established. In 2004, a new Coca-Cola bottling plant a
lso opened in Mogadishu, representing a sign of growing business confidence.[124
]
In addition, funds transfer services have become a large industry in the country
, with an estimated $2 billion USD annually remitted to Somalia by Somalis in th
e diaspora via money transfer companies.[118] The largest of these informal valu
e transfer system or hawala dealers is Dahabshiil, a Somali-owned firm employing
more than 1000 people across 40 countries with branches in London and Dubai.[12
5]
American and Chinese oil companies are also excited about the prospect of oil an
d other natural resources in Somalia. An oil group listed in Sydney, Range Resou
rces, anticipates that the Puntland province in the north has the potential to p
roduce 5 billion to 10 billion barrels of oil.[126]
[edit] Media and telecommunications
In Somalia, dozens of private newspapers, radio and television stations mushroom
ed in the last decade, (Mogadishu has two fiercely competing TV stations), with
private radio stations or newspapers in almost all of the major towns. Large med
ia companies include the Shabelle Media Network, Radio Gaalkacyo and Radio Garow
e.
Internet usage in Somalia increased 44,900% from 2000 to 2007, registering the h
ighest growth rate in Africa.[127] Somali information technology companies curre
ntly compete for a market with more than 500,000 Internet users. The country has
22 established ISPs and 234 cyber cafes with a growth of 15.6% per year. Intern
et over the satellite services are also offered, especially in remote areas and
cities that have no dialup or wireless Internet services. Major clients include
UN, NGOs, financial institutions (particularly the remittance companies), and in
ternet cafes. Currently, over 300 satellite terminals connected to various telep
orts in Europe and Asia are available throughout the country. This type of servi
ce has shown a stable growth of 10–15% per year.
Somalia has one of the best telecommunications systems on the continent: several
companies such as Golis Telecom Group, Hormuud Telecom, Somafone, Nationlink, N
etco, Telecom and Somali Telecom Group provide crystal-clear service, including
international long distance, for about $10 USD a month. Dial up internet service
s in Somalia are the fastest growing internet services in Africa, as the nation
enjoys landline growth of more than 12.5% per year compared to other countries i
n the Horn and eastern Africa at large, where landline is experiencing a serious
decline due to vandalism and an increase in the cost of copper cables in the in
ternational market. Installation time for a landline is just three days in Somal
ia, while in neighboring Kenya waiting lists are many years long.
[edit] Military
Main article: Military of Somalia
Prior to the outbreak of the civil war in 1991 and the subsequent disintegration
of the Armed Forces, Somalia s friendship with the Soviet Union and later partn
ership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.[68
] The creation of the Transitional Federal Government in 2004 saw the re-establi
shment of the Military of Somalia, which now maintains a force of 10,000 troops.
The Ministry of Defense is responsible for the Armed Forces. The Somali Navy is
also being re-established, with 500 Marines currently training in Mogadishu out
of an expected 5,000-strong force.[128] In addition, there are plans for the re-
establishment of the Somali Air Force, with two combat planes already purchased.
A new police force was also formed to maintain law and order, with the first po
lice academy to be built in Somalia for several years opening on December 20, 20
05 at Armo, 100 kilometres south of Bosaso.[129]
[edit] Environment
Overview of a residential area in the semi-desert of Hadaaftimo, an ancient town
in the north-eastern Sanaag region of Somalia.Somalia is a semi-arid country wi
th about 2% arable land. The civil war had a huge impact on the country’s tropic
al forests by facilitating the production of charcoal with ever-present, recurri
ng, but damaging droughts. From 1971 onwards, a massive tree-planting on a natio
nwide scale was introduced by the Siad Barre government to halt the progress of
advancing sand dunes.
First environmental organizations were ECOTERRA Somalia and then the Somali Ecol
ogical Society, which created awareness about environmental concerns and mobiliz
ed environmental programmes in all governmental sectors as well as civil society
. In 1986, the Wildlife Rescue, Research and Monitoring Centre was established b
y ECOTERRA Intl. The sensitization led in 1989 to the so-called "Somalia proposa
l" and a decision by the state parties to CITES, which established for the first
time a worldwide ban on the trade of elephant ivory. Later, activist and Goldma
n Environmental Prize winner Fatima Jibrell created local initiatives in her hom
e area Buran that organised local communities to protect the rural and coastal h
abitat.
Jibrell trained a team of young people to organise awareness campaigns about the
irreversible damage of unrestricted charcoal production. She also joined the Bu
ran rural institute that formed and organised the Camel Caravan program in which
young people loaded tents and equipment on camels to walk for three weeks throu
gh a nomadic locale, and educate the people about the careful use of fragile res
ources, health care, livestock management and peace.

Environmentalist Fatima Jibrell.Fatima Jibrell has consistently fought against t

he burning of charcoal, logging and other man-induced environmental degradation.
Her efforts have born fruits to the local communities across Somalia and intern
ational recognition when she won the prestigious Environmental Goldman award fro
m San Francisco. Jibrell is also the executive director of Horn Relief and Devel
opment Organisation.[130]
Following the massive tsunami of December 2004, there have also emerged allegati
ons that after the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in the late 1980s, Somalia s
long, remote shoreline was used as a dump site for the disposal of toxic waste.
The huge waves which battered northern Somalia after the tsunami are believed t
o have stirred up tonnes of nuclear and toxic waste that was illegally dumped in
the country by several European firms.
The European Green Party followed up these revelations by presenting before the
press and the European Parliament in Strasbourg copies of contracts signed by tw
o European companies—the Italian Swiss firm, Achair Partners, and an Italian was
te broker, Progresso – and representatives of the then "President" of Somalia, t
he faction leader Ali Mahdi Mohamed, to accept 10 million tonnes of toxic waste
in exchange for $80 million (then about £60 million).
According to reports by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the was
te has resulted in far higher than normal cases of respiratory infections, mouth
ulcers and bleeding, abdominal haemorrhages and unusual skin infections among m
any inhabitants of the areas around the northeastern towns of Hobyo and Benadir
on the Indian Ocean coast—diseases consistent with radiation sickness. UNEP cont
inues that the current situation along the Somali coastline poses a very serious
environmental hazard not only in Somalia but also in the eastern Africa sub-reg
ion.[131]
[edit] Demographics
This 2002 CIA map shows population density throughout Somalia.
Somali girls in nomadic attire.Main article: Demography of Somalia
Somalia has a population of around 9,832,017 inhabitants, about 85% of whom are
ethnic Somalis.[2] Civil strife in the early 1990s greatly increased the size of
the Somali diaspora, as many of the best educated Somalis left for the Middle E
ast, Europe and North America.
Non-Somali ethnic minority groups make up the remainder of the nation s populati
on and include Benadiri, Bravanese, Bantus, Bajuni, Ethiopians, Indians, Persian
s, Italians, and Britons. Most Europeans left after independence.
There is little reliable statistical information on urbanization in Somalia. How
ever, rough estimates have been made indicating an urbanization of 5% and 8% per
annum, with many towns quickly growing into cities. Currently, 34% of the count
ry s population live in towns and cities, with the percentage rapidly increasing
.[132]
[edit] Languages
Main article: Languages of Somalia
The Osmanya writing script.The Somali language is the official language of Somal
ia. It is a member of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family, a
nd its nearest relatives are the Afar and Oromo languages. Somali is the best do
cumented of the Cushitic languages,[133] with academic studies of it dating from
before 1900.
Somali dialects are divided into three main groups: Northern, Benaadir and Maay.
Northern Somali (or Northern-Central Somali) forms the basis for Standard Somal
i. Benaadir (also known as Coastal Somali) is spoken on the Benadir coast from C
adale to south of Merca, including Mogadishu, as well as in the immediate hinter
land. The coastal dialects have additional phonemes which do not exist in Standa
rd Somali. Maay is principally spoken by the Digil and Mirifle (Rahanweyn) clans
in the southern areas of Somalia.
Since Somali had long lost its ancient script,[134] a number of writing systems
have been used over the years for transcribing the language. Of these, the Somal
i alphabet is the most widely used, and has been the official writing script in
Somalia since the government of former President of Somalia Siad Barre formally
introduced it in October 1972.[135]
The script was developed by the Somali linguist Shire Jama Ahmed specifically fo
r the Somali language, and uses all letters of the English Latin alphabet except
p, v and z. Besides Ahmed s Latin script, other orthographies that have been us
ed for centuries for writing Somali include the long-established Arabic script a
nd Wadaad s writing. Indigenous writing systems developed in the twentieth centu
ry include the Osmanya, Borama and Kaddare scripts, which were invented by Osman
Yusuf Kenadid, Sheikh Abdurahman Sheikh Nuur and Hussein Sheikh Ahmed Kaddare,
respectively.[136]
In addition to Somali, Arabic is an official national language in Somalia.[1] Ma
ny Somalis speak it due to centuries-old ties with the Arab World, the far-reach
ing influence of the Arabic media, and religious education.
English is also widely used and taught. Italian used to be a major language, but
its influence significantly diminished following independence. It is now most f
requently heard among older generations. Other minority languages include Bravan
ese, a variant of Swahili that is spoken along the coast by the Bravanese people
.
[edit] Religion
Main articles: Islam in Somalia and Christianity in Somalia
Eid celebrations at the Mosque of Islamic Solidarity in Mogadishu year 2006.With
few exceptions, Somalis are entirely Muslims,[137] the majority belonging to th
e Sunni branch of Islam and the Shafi`i school of Islamic jurisprudence, althoug
h some are also adherents of the Shia Muslim denomination.[138] The constitution
of Somalia defines Islam as the religion of the Somali Republic, and Islamic sh
aria as the basic source for national legislation.[139]
Islam entered the region very early on, as a group of persecuted Muslims had, at
Prophet Muhummad s urging, sought refuge across the Red Sea in the Horn of Afri
ca. Islam may thus have been introduced into Somalia well before the faith even
took root in its place of origin.[140]
In addition, the Somali community has produced numerous important Islamic figure
s over the centuries, many of whom have significantly shaped the course of Islam
ic learning and practice in the Horn of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and well
beyond. Among these Islamic scholars is the 14th century Somali theologian and j
urist Uthman bin Ali Zayla i of Zeila, who wrote the single most authoritative t
ext on the Hanafi school of Islam, consisting of four volumes known as the Tabay
in al-Haqa’iq li Sharh Kanz al-Daqa’iq.
Christianity is a minority religion in Somalia, with no more than 1,000 practiti
oners in a population of eight million inhabitants.[141] There is one diocese fo
r the whole country, the Diocese of Mogadishu, which estimates that there were o
nly about about 100 Catholic practitioners in Somalia in 2004.[142]
In 1913, during the early part of the colonial era, there were virtually no Chri
stians in the Somali territories, with only about 100-200 followers coming from
the schools and orphanages of the few Catholic missions in the British Somalilan
d protectorate.[143] There were also no known Catholic missions in Italian Somal
iland during the same period.[144] In the 1970s, during the reign of Somalia s t
hen Marxist government, church-run schools were closed and missionaries sent hom
e. There has been no archbishop in the country since 1989, and the cathedral in
Mogadishu was severely damaged during the civil war.
Some non-Somali ethnic minority groups also practice animism, the latter of whic
h, in the case of the Bantu, represents religious traditions inherited from thei
r ancestors in southeastern Africa.[145]
[edit] Culture
Main article: Culture of Somalia
[edit] Cuisine
Main article: Somali cuisine
Various types of popular Somali dishes.The cuisine of Somalia varies from region
to region and consists of an exotic mixture of diverse culinary influences. It
is the product of Somalia s rich tradition of trade and commerce. Despite the va
riety, there remains one thing that unites the various regional cuisines: all fo
od is served halal. There are therefore no pork dishes, alcohol is not served, n
othing that died on its own is eaten, and no blood is incorporated. Qaddo or lun
ch is often elaborate.
Varieties of bariis (rice), the most popular probably being basmati, usually ser
ve as the main dish. Spices like cumin, cardamom, cloves, cinnamon and sage are
used to aromatize these different rice dishes. Somalis serve dinner as late as 9
pm. During Ramadan, dinner is often served after Tarawih prayers – sometimes as
late as 11 pm.
Xalwo or halva is a popular confection served during special occasions such as E
id celebrations or wedding receptions. It is made from sugar, cornstarch, cardam
om powder, nutmeg powder, and ghee. Peanuts are also sometimes added to enhance
texture and flavor.[146] After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed using fra
nkincense (lubaan) or incense (cuunsi), which is prepared inside an incense burn
er referred to as a dabqaad.
[edit] Literature
Main article: Somali literature
Somali scholars have for centuries produced many notable examples of Islamic lit
erature ranging from poetry to Hadith. With the adoption of the Latin alphabet i
n 1972 as the nation s standard orthography, numerous contemporary Somali author
s have also released novels, some of which have gone on to receive worldwide acc
laim. Of these modern writers, Nuruddin Farah is probably the most celebrated. B
ooks such as From a Crooked Rib and Links are considered important literary achi
evements, works which have earned Farah, among other accolades, the 1998 Neustad
t International Prize for Literature. Farah Mohamed Jama Awl is another prominen
t Somali writer who is perhaps best known for his Dervish era novel, Ignorance i
s the enemy of love.
[edit] Music
Main article: Music of Somalia
Somalia has a rich musical heritage centered on traditional Somali folklore. Mos
t Somali songs are pentatonic; that is, they only use five pitches per octave in
contrast to a heptatonic (seven note) scale such as the major scale. At first l
isten, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as E
thiopia, Sudan or Arabia, but it is ultimately recognizable by its own unique tu
nes and styles. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between ly
ricists (midho), songwriters (lahan), and singers ( odka or "voice").[147]
[edit] See also
Main articles: Outline of Somalia and Index of Somalia-related articles
Adal Sultanate
Ajuuraan State
Anarchy in Somalia
Borama script
Communications in Somalia
Dervish State
Foreign relations of Somalia
Gobroon Dynasty
Greater Somalia
Land of Punt
List of Somalis
List of Somali companies
Marehan sultanate
Military of Somalia
Osmanya script
Piracy in Somalia
Scouting in Somalia
Somali Democratic Republic
Somali maritime history
Somali people
Sultanate of Hobyo
Warsangali Sultanate
Xeer
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reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history of the Catholi
c church, Volume 14, (Robert Appleton company: 1913), p.139.
^ Charles Henry Robinson, History of Christian Missions, (READ BOOKS: 2007), p.
356.
^ Refugees Vol. 3, No. 128, 2002 UNHCR Publication Refugees about the Somali Ban
tu
^ Barlin Ali, Somali Cuisine, (AuthorHouse: 2007), p.79
^ Diriye, pp.170-171
[edit] Bibliography
Hadden, Robert Lee. 2007. "The Geology of Somalia: A Selected Bibliography of So
malian Geology, Geography and Earth Science." Engineer Research and Development
Laboratories, Topographic Engineering Center (now known as the Army Geospatial C
enter, US Army Corps of Engineers), in Alexandria, VA. Includes data and citatio
ns on the geology, water and transportation in Somalia.
Hess, Robert L. Italian Colonialism in Somalia. Chicago: University of Chicago,
1966. *Fitzgerald, Nina J. Somalia. New York: Nova Science, Inc., 2002.
Lewis. I.M. Pastoral Democracy: A study on Pastoralism and Politics among the No
rthern Somali clans. Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1958. ISBN 978-3825830847.
Mwakikagile, Godfrey. The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation, Chapte
r Four: Somalia: A Stateless State - What Next?, pp. 109–132, Nova Science Publi
shers, Inc., Huntington, New York, 2001.
Tripodi, Paolo. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia. New York: St. Martin s P Inc., 1
999.
[edit] External links
Find more about Somalia on Wikipedia s sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Government
Official Website of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia
Chief of State and Cabinet Members
General information
Somalia entry at The World Factbook
Somalia from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Somalia at the Open Directory Project
Wikimedia Atlas of Somalia
Somalia travel guide from Wikitravel
Media
Somalia news headlines from allAfrica.com
IRIN Somalia humanitarian news and analysis
Other
The ICRC in Somalia
Somalia Online
The Somali Link
Humanitarian information coverage on ReliefWeb
UNESCO Nairobi office on education in Somalia
UNESCO Nairobi Office - Fact Book on Education For All, Somalia 2006
Mustaqbalka Ummadda Somaaliyeed
Bissig Addo map
Mohamed Siad Barre official biographical website
[hide]v • d • e Somalia
Capital: Mogadishu
Topics Politics (Parliament - Foreign relations) — Geography — Economy (Currency
: Somali shilling) — Communications — Transportation — History — Human rights —
Culture — Law — Demographics — Military
Disputed and
de facto states Federative States Somaliland — Puntland — Galmudug
Islamist Administrations al-Shabab (Kismayo) — Milatu Ibrahim (Baydhabo) — A
hlu Sunna Waljama'a (Cabudwaaq)
Former Administrations Southwestern Somalia — Islamic Courts Union — Hizbul
Islam — Jubaland — Maakhir
Proposed States Northland State — Hiiraanland — Banaadir State

Regions Awdal — Bakool — Banaadir — Bari — Bay — Galguduud — Gedo — Hiiraan — Ju

bbada Dhexe — Jubbada Hoose — Mudug — Nugaal — Sanaag — Shabeellaha Dhexe — Shab
eellaha Hoose — Sool — Togdheer — Woqooyi Galbeed
See also War in Somalia
[show] Geographic locale
[show]v • d • eMiddle East
Countries and territories Middle East Bahrain — Cyprus — Egypt — Gaza Strip — Ir
aq — Iran — Israel — Jordan — Kuwait — Lebanon — Northern Cyprus1 — Oman — Qatar
— Saudi Arabia — Syria — Turkey — United Arab Emirates — West Bank — Yemen
Greater Middle East Afghanistan — Algeria — Armenia — Azerbaijan — Djibouti — Er
itrea — Georgia — Libya — Morocco — Pakistan — Somalia — Sudan — Tunisia — Weste
rn Sahara (SADR)

Other topics History (timeline) — List of conflicts — Etiquette

1 Only recognized by Turkey; see Cyprus dispute.
[show]v • d • eCountries and territories of Africa

West Africa Benin — Burkina Faso — Cape Verde — Côte d'Ivoire — The Gambia — Gh
ana — Guinea — Guinea-Bissau — Liberia — Mali — Mauritania — Niger — Nigeria — S
enegal — Sierra Leone — Togo
North Africa Algeria — Egypt — Libya — Mauritania — Morocco — Sudan — Tunisia
Central Africa Angola — Burundi — Cameroon — Central African Republic — Chad —
Democratic Republic of the Congo — Republic of the Congo — Equatorial Guinea — G
abon — Rwanda — São Tomé and Príncipe
East Africa Burundi — Comoros — Djibouti — Eritrea — Ethiopia — Kenya — Madagas
car — Malawi — Mauritius — Mozambique — Seychelles — Somalia — Tanzania — Uganda
— Zambia — Zimbabwe
Southern Africa Botswana — Lesotho — Namibia — South Africa — Swaziland
 States with
limited recognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic — Somaliland
Partially in Africa France (Réunion) — Italy (Pantelleria) — Portugal (Madeira)
— Spain (Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla / Plazas de soberanía) — Yemen (Socot
ra)
Dependencies Iles Eparses (France) — Mayotte (France) — Saint Helena, Ascension
and Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom)
Disputed areas Western Sahara
[show]v • d • eCountries bordering the Red Sea
Djibouti — Egypt — Eritrea — Israel
Jordan — Saudi Arabia — Somalia — Sudan — Yemen
[show]v • d • eCountries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean
Africa Comoros — Djibouti — Egypt — Eritrea — Kenya — Madagascar — Mauritius — M
ayotte — Mozambique — Réunion — Seychelles — Somalia — South Africa — Sudan — Ta
nzania
Asia Bahrain — Bangladesh — Burma — Christmas Island — Cocos (Keeling) Islands —
India — Indonesia — Iran — Iraq — Israel — Jordan — Kuwait — Malaysia — Maldive
s — Oman — Pakistan — Qatar — Saudi Arabia — Sri Lanka — Thailand — United Arab
Emirates — Yemen
Oceania Australia — Christmas Island — Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Islands Bahrain — British Indian Ocean Territory — Christmas Island — Cocos (Kee
ling) Islands — Comoros — Madagascar — Maldives — Mauritius — Mayotte — Réunion
— Seychelles — Sri Lanka
[show]v • d • eCountries bordering the Arabian Sea
India — Iran — Maldives — Oman — Pakistan — Somalia — Yemen

[show] International membership

[show]v • d • eAfrican Union (AU)

Algeria — Angola — Benin — Botswana — Burkina Faso — Burundi — Cameroon — Cape V
erde — Central African Republic — Chad — Comoros — Democratic Republic of the Co
ngo — Republic of the Congo — Côte d'Ivoire — Djibouti — Egypt — Eritrea — Ethio
pia — Equatorial Guinea — Gabon — The Gambia — Ghana — Guinea — Guinea-Bissau —
Kenya — Lesotho — Liberia — Libya — Madagascar — Malawi — Mali — Mauritania — Ma
uritius — Mozambique — Namibia — Niger — Nigeria — Rwanda — Sahrawi Arab Democra
tic Republic — São Tomé and Príncipe — Senegal — Seychelles — Sierra Leone — Som
alia — South Africa — Sudan — Swaziland — Tanzania — Togo — Tunisia — Uganda — Z
ambia — Zimbabwe

[show]v • d • eMembers of the Arab League

Members Algeria — Bahrain — Comoros — Djibouti — Egypt — Iraq — Jordan — Kuwait
— Lebanon — Libya — Mauritania — Morocco — Oman — Palestine — Qatar — Saudi Arab
ia — Somalia — Sudan — Syria — Tunisia — United Arab Emirates — Yemen
Observers Brazil — Eritrea — India — Venezuela
Diplomacy Arab Peace Initiative
[show]v • d • eCommunity of Sahel-Saharan States
Benin — Burkina Faso — Central African Republic — Chad — Comoros — Côte d'Ivoire
— Djibouti — Egypt — Eritrea — The Gambia — Ghana — Guinea — Guinea-Bissau — Li
beria — Libya — Mali — Morocco — Niger — Nigeria — Senegal — Sierra Leone — Soma
lia — Sudan — Togo — Tunisia —
[show]v • d • eOrganisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC)
Members Afghanistan — Albania — Algeria — Azerbaijan — Bahrain — Bangladesh — Be
nin — Burkina Faso — Brunei — Cameroon — Chad — Comoros — Côte d'Ivoire — Djibou
ti — Egypt — Gabon — Gambia — Guinea — Guinea-Bissau — Guyana — Indonesia — Iran
— Iraq — Jordan — Kuwait — Kazakhstan — Kyrgyzstan — Lebanon — Libya — Maldives
— Malaysia — Mali — Mauritania — Morocco — Mozambique — Niger — Nigeria — Oman
— Pakistan — Palestine — Qatar — Saudi Arabia — Senegal — Sierra Leone — Somalia
— Sudan — Suriname — Syria — Tajikistan — Turkey — Tunisia — Togo — Turkmenista
n — Uganda — Uzbekistan — United Arab Emirates — Yemen
Observers Countries and territories Bosnia and Herzegovina — Central African Rep
ublic — Russia — Thailand — Northern Cyprus (as Turkish Cypriot State)
Muslim communities Moro National Liberation Front
International organizations Economic Cooperation Organization — African Union —
Arab League — Non-Aligned Movement — United Nations

[show]v • d • eAfro-Asiatic-speaking nations

Berber Algeria — Egypt — Libya — Mali — Mauritania — Morocco — Niger — T
unisia

Chadic Cameroon — Chad — Niger — Nigeria

Cushitic Djibouti — Eritrea — Ethiopia — Kenya — Somalia — Tanzania

Beja Egypt — Eritrea — Sudan

Egyptian Egypt

Omotic Ethiopia

Semitic Arabic / Maltese Algeria — Bahrain — Djibouti — Egypt — Iran — Ira

q — Israel — Jordan — Kuwait — Lebanon — Libya — Malta — Mauritania — Mo
rocco — Oman — Qatar — Saudi Arabia — Somalia — Sudan1 — Syria — Tunisia
— UAE — W. Sahara — Yemen
Northwest Semitic2 Iran — Iraq — Israel — Syria

South Semitic Eritrea — Ethiopia — Oman — Yemen

1 excluding Southern Sudan. 2 Aramaic and Hebrew.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia"

Categories: Somalia | African countries | Arab League member states | African Un
ion member states | Countries of the Indian Ocean | Countries bordering the Red
Sea | Horn of Africa | Arabic-speaking countries | Divided regions | Least Devel
oped Countries | Organisation of the Islamic Conference members | States and ter
ritories established in 1960
Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links | Articles with dead ex
ternal links from February 2009 | Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages |
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