TOPIC 1: SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS (20 hours)

1.1 SYSTEMS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Planning and system installation

1.1.1
Identify the context for which a new system is
planned
-

Extent and limitations of a new system

Organizational issues related to the installation of a new
system (e.g user role, underlying technologies)

CONTEXT = the organizations environment (it defines the limits of an

organization).
When systems are built, they are defined by the needs of their users. The
environment affects the functioning and the performance of the system.
When a new system is planned it is generally the result of a change in the
environment.
An outdated or archaic system might exist and, as technology progresses, a
more efficient and dynamic entity may replace the system.

1.1.2
-

Describe the need for change management

Factors that need to be managed to ensure change is
successful

Change management = a systematic approach to dealing with change on an

organizational and individual level.
Change management includes: - Adapting to change
- Controlling change
-

Effecting change

Change management is defining and implementing procedures and technologies

to deal with changes in organizations.
Change management is necessary because:

It is an enabling framework for managing the people side of

change
It helps us to realize the benefits and desired outcomes of change
During any change within a company problems arise and they
need to be fixed
People need to be retrained to do a different job if needed
People that are resistant to change need support
The employees need to be kept happy and work needs to continue
to be smooth.
1

When implementing a new system we must:

-

Understand how to help ease in new system

Make sure existing system work with the new one
Be aware of what is going to happen when the change occurs

1.1.3
Outline compatibility issues resulting from
situations including legacy systems or business
mergers.
-

Software compatibility
Language differences

LEGACY SYSTEMS = old or outdated computer systems, that are used instead
of available upgraded versions
COMPATIBILITY ISSUES:
-

Historic data may not have been converted into the new system format
and may exist within the new system as a separate partition. The old
data might have to be converted into the new one manually to not
upset the new system.

BUSINESS MERGERS = a merger happens when two companies agree to go

forward as a single new company rather than remain separately owned and
operated.
COMPATIBILITY ISSUES:
-

The system from one company must be moved into the other one or
both have to be moved to a new system, resulting in a variety of
difficulties due to the different system being handled.

1.1.4
Compare the implementation of systems using
a clients hardware with hosting systems remotely.
-

The benifts and drawbacks of a SaaS

SaaS = Software as a Service

CLIENTS HARDWARE:
-

Can directly test with the possible user

If multiple clients, will need to test each hardware, especially if they are
different
Hardware cost and maintenance cost needs to be considered
Easy access to hardware

HOSTING SYSTEM REMOTELY:

2

May be accessed from anywhere

Multiple platforms can access the server
No need for a server technician

The remote host may be in a different time zone and this can have
significant effects on end-user.
SaaS:
= a software distribution model in which applications are hosted by a vendor or
service provider and made available to customers over a network, typically the
internet.
BENEFITS OF SaaS:
-

Easier administration (less maintenance required and less

hardware required)
Automatic updates and patch management
Compatibility: All users will have the same version of software
Easier collaboration, for the same reason
Global accessibility, from search cloud computing
Lower costs

DRAWBACKS OF SaaS:
-

1.1.5
-

Security issues
Latency issue (data is stored in cloud far away from end user, it
may take more transactional time as compared to traditional
approach)
Total dependency on internet
Switching between SaaS vendors is difficult (it may involve the
slow and difficult task of transferring very large data files over
the Internet)

Evaluate alternative installation processes

Methods of implementation/ conversion:
Parallel running
Pilot running
Direct changeover
Phased conversion

Training issues may require organizations to restructure their

workforce.
PILOT IMPLEMENTATION:
= the new system is introduced into one part of the company and its
performance assessed.
-

ADVANTAGES
If the new system fails, only
one part of the company is

DISADVANTAGES
More expensive than direct
changeover, since each pilot

affected

It is possible to train staff in

one area only, which is much
faster and less costly than
parallel running
Less costs than parallel
running, since only one part
of the system is being used in
the pilot

scheme needs to be
evaluated before the next
stage is introduced
Takes longer to roll out the
system to the whole
organization than other
methods
Expensive both money and
time

DIRECT CHANGEOVER:
= the old system is stopped overnight and the new system is introduced
immediately.
SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS
Staff may feel under great
pressure/ stress during this
type of changeover.
- Customers may also dislike
changes at least initially.

ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS
- Training costs
- The cost of hardware/
software may also have to be
paid at one time rather than
spread out over time
- Always a risk of failure
turning away potential
customers

ADVANTAGES
The benefits are immediate

DISADVANTAGES
It can be disastrous if the
new system fails

Costs with personnel is

reduced (since only one
system is used there is no
need to pay for two sets of
staff)

PARALLEL RUNNING:
= the old and new systems are run side by side for a time before the new system
takes over altogether.
-

ADVANTAGES
If the new system fails, the
old system is still available as
a back-up

It is possible to train staff

DISADVANTAGES
More expensive than direct
changeover, since extra staff
are needed to run both
systems together
Duplicate of effort and

gradually
-

Staff have time to get used to

the new system

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS
More work for employees or
they may have to work longer
hours to cope with the extra
work

system hardware adds cost to

this approach
There may be needed to keep
synchronised copies of
database records. One set is
used by the old system and
the other by the new system

ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS
- Staff may have to be paid
more or extra staff employed.
Mistakes less critical for the
business.

PHASED CONVERSION
= initially, only part of the new system is introduced. Only when it proves to work
satisfactorily is the next part introduced, and so on, until the old system is fully
replaced.
-

ADVANTAGES
If the latest part fails, it is
only necessary to go back in
the system to the point of
failure, hence failure is not
disastrous.

It is possible to ensure the

system works properly before
expanding

DISADVANTAGES
More expensive than direct
changeover, since it is
necessary to evaluate each
phase before moving to the
next stage
The system must be able to
be partitioned into sub
systems for this approach to
work
It does assume that a
problem in one module has
no effect on another module
Can take a long time to roll
out the whole system,
especially if there are a large
number of complicated
subsystems
Expensive in terms of the
time taken up by staff to
evaluate each module and

loss of productivity

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS
More hours to work
Different people may be
affected in different ways at
different times it could
cause disatisfaction

ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS
- Costs associated with extra
work
- Longer period of changeover
- Difficulties with system may
become drawn out - the
companys reputation for
efficiency may suffer

1.1.6
Discuss problems that may arise as a part of
data migration
-

Incompatible file formats, data structures, validation rules

Incomplete data transfer
International conventions on dates, currencies and character
sets

FILE FORMATS: - different formats use and accept different types of data
DATA STRUCTURES: - new systems may require data different to what had
been previously used. This data must be appropriately handled or loss of data
precision may occur.
VALIDATION RULES: - methods or procedures used periodically during data
migration to check that the migration is running smoothly.
Data must be altered to reflect different time zones/ currencies.

POSSIBLE PROBLEMS:
-

1.1.7
-

Data loss
Poor data quality in the old system
Incompatible data for new system
Loss of employee efficiency as data is presented differently in new
systems
Old systems might be dependent on a source of data. New systems
must be able to properly interact with those same sources.
Cost (more storage devices media needed for transfer)

Suggest various types of testing

User acceptance testing
Debugging
Beta testing

There are programs that can test other programs, resulting in automating parts
of the testing process and reducing costs.
6

Inadequate testing can reduce employee productivity and lead to end-user

dissatisfaction.
ALPHA TESTING = a group of programmers may examine an early version to
see how it performs.
BETA TESTING = is used when the product is nearly ready for release and the
developers believe that there are few or no errors.
The software is released to the users outside the company who can try it out in a
range of different environments.
Credible companies always let the users know that the product is at the beta
stage and may not perform perfectly.
TEST DATA:
Example: the months of the year
NORMAL DATA: valid data, with an expected outcome (6, 7, 11)
EXTREME DATA: data at the limits of acceptability (1, 12)
ABNORMAL DATA: data outside the limits of validity and should be rejected or
cause an error message. ( -3, July, 3.5)

User focus

1.1.8
Describe the importance of user
documentation.
-

The quality of user documentation can affect the rate of

implementation of the new system

USER DOCUMENTATION = is designed to help users to learn how to use the

software or system. This can consist of any of the following:
-

The purpose of the system

How to log in/ log off
How to load/ run the software
How to save files
How to do a search
How to sort data
How to printouts
How to add/ delete or modify records
7

Screen layouts (input)

Print layouts(output)
Hardware requirements
Software requirements
Sample runs (with test data and results)
Error handling/ meaning of errors
Troubleshooting guide/ help lines/ FAQ
Tutorials

IT IS WRITTEN FOR THE NON-TECHNICAL USER OF THE PROGRAM!

SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION = TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION = is
designed to help programmers and analysts who need to make
improvements to the system or repair/ maintain the system. This can
consist of any of the following:
-

Purpose of the system

Program listing/ coding
Programming language used
Flowcharts/ algorithm
Input formats
Hardware requirements
Software requirements
Minimum memory requirements
Known bugs in the system
List of variables used (and their meaning/ description)
File structures
Sample runs (with test data and results)
Output formats
Validation rules
Meaning of error messages

SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION
-

Internal documentation (comments which accompany the source code

listing)
External documentation
o Purpose of the program
o Data flow in the system
o Hardware and software requirements
o Structure of the program (a module diagram)
o The module interface what parameters it has and any value it
returns
o Any testing and debugging actually carried out
o A list of identifiers
o Description of methods, data structures

1.1.9
Evaluate different methods of providing user
documentation
-

Help files
Online support
Printed manuals

HELP FILES:
-

can be accessed by the user any time as long as files have been
copied over to the hardware.
The user might have a hard time finding the appropriate section where
the help is being offered
Can be updated frequently as the software does through patches
Can be updated frequently as the software does through patches
Can be accompanied by a search option to guide users to the right
section

ONLINE SUPPORT:
-

Can be accessed by the user anytime and anywhere

The user must have a connection to the internet
Can be accompanied by a search option to guide users to the right
section
Can be updated easily
Similar benefits as help files

PRINTED MANUALS:
-

similar benefits as help files

the users must find the help in the manual themselves and they must
hold on to the physical manual
can get outdated when software undergoes update
resources wasted in printing and packaging the manual

1.1.10 Evaluate different methods of delivering user

training
-

Self-instruction
Formal classes
Remote/online training

SELF INSTRUCTION:
-

Least resource needed

If the user needs to receive the training beforehand, they have to be
able to access the system in their own time or an agreement must be
met on when the user can access it
The extent of user competence will depend on the ability of the user to
learn the new system
If the system is not a straight forward, self-explanatory system, then
this method should be avoided

FORMAL CLASSES:
-

Resources needed to host the class and the teacher, as well as devices
9

The extent of user competence will depend on the ability of the

teaching
The users can only come back to their notes or experience when they
operate

REMOTE/ ONLINE TRAINING:

-

Resource needed to make the documentation/ videos to teach the

system
The users can have the opportunity to re access the archives to come
back to it when necessarily
The user will need to find someone to refer to if they need to find
something out that they couldnt understand
The extent of user competence will depend on the ability of user to
learn the new system

System backup

1.1.11
-

Identify a range of causes of data loss

Malicious activities
Natural disasters

MALICIOUS ACTIVITIES:
-

Physical damage to the storage devices

The result of activities by employees within the organization or by
intruders/ hackers
User error (the user may accidentally delete some files, over write
them or just simply forget to save)
Theft, people may steal your data, either physically or through hacking
Viruses and malware
Hardware malfunctions (defects)

NATURAL DISASTERS:
-

Earthquakes, floods, wars

Volcanic eruptions
Fires

Loss of medical records

Cancellation of a hotel reservation without the knowledge of
the traveller

1.1.12 Outline the consequences of data loss in a

specified situation

LOSS OF MEDICAL RECORDS

This may result in serious consequences for the patient and quite possibly his
family. Medical records include a range of data such as current or old diseases,
allergies, vaccination and previous diseases or conditions that have run in your family. If
all this data was lost it would cause a huge health risk to the patient, due to the
unavailability of vital information regarding their health and conditions.
10

Employee Records - When companies lose data like these theyre punished and
have to pay fines. Employees might sue the company in order to
Banking Records - As well as many other organizations and companies, banks
still hold a lot of your personal information such as name address age etc, but quite
possibly the most important data that they hold is that of your own bank accounts. If this
data is lost by deletion then safety issues arent that huge, since all you have to do is
recollect this data from all your customers. Although, if the data is actually stolen by
someone, the safety issues are huge, since they will have access to all the data
regarding all the customers bank accounts as well as their personal information.
Government Agencies - Governments will quite possibly be the sector that will
own the most information regarding a certain individual, anything ranging from your
address to your social security number and so on, and would cause serious social and
security risks and damage if someone was to gain access of it. The reason governments
keep this is because its very personal data that is to be kept to one person only, and if
someone would be able to steal or gain access to this data it could cause serious risks.
Although, if this data was deleted, unlike the banking data, it would still be a huge threat
due to it being much harder to obtain all this data again from everyone, and people may
provide fake data once they are asked for their personal information again.
Credit Card records - Losing data may damage the companys reputation. For
example when companies like Amazon are hacked, important data like personal details
and credit card information might be used against the users and this creates a feeling of
insecurity between the company and the customers. Privacy is also a big issue with data
loss. Customers information might be put available on the internet.

1.1.13 Describe a range of methods that can be used

to prevent data loss
-

Failover systems
Redundancy
Removable media
Offsite/online storage

FAILOVER SYSTEMS:
-

A secondary system that can assume the functions of the primary

system should it falter
Requests are automatically re-routed from the primary to the
secondary (failover ) system in case of primary system failure.
Tasks are offloaded to a standby system at the same time that
transition from the primary to secondary system is as seamless as
possible.

Example: Websites hosting their data on more than one server in more
than one location.
REDUNDANCY:

11

A group of computer systems that contain duplicated data.

Provide another copy of data if a system fail
Unlike a failover system, this is just a copy of the data and does not
take over the primary systems requests if the primary system fails

Example: Copying a database or file system to another server

REMOVABLE MEDIA:
-

Often though as backing up files

Include USBs, Floppy Disks, Memory Cards, DVDs, CDs
These function to store data and programs which can be retrieved for
later use

OFFSITE STORAGE:
-

It describes location arrangements for records. The storage might be

leased by the agency or held by a storage provider
It will help prevent data loss by having a location in which all your data
can be accessible and protected for the use of the client

ONLINE STORAGE:
-

A backup and storage service on the Internet

Dropbox offer online storage services in which you can save data from
your laptop and access it anywhere including your mobile phone.
Helps prevent against data loss caused by natural disasters

1.1.14 Describe strategies for managing releases and

updates
MANAGING UPDATES
Before releasing updates, one should consider a few things:

is it needed, do the users require a new update

does it function properly, has it been thoroughly tested
will it last, or is there going to be a new release soon after .

There are several consequences to releasing updates too early, these include:
-

Loss in reputation due to malfunction in the update

Loss in sales due to malfunction in the update
High losses since they need to release a patch for the update.

12

AUTOMATIC UPDATING
= the system checks automatically for updates over the internet from time to time. If updates

are available, they are downloaded and installed automatically.

Advantages:
-

This strategy eliminates the need for constant user approval

(user allowing updates) and facilitates the process of distributing
and installing updates
User is prompted to approve automatic updating only once; after
the approval, updates are distributed and installed without the
need for the Users involvement
Updates get installed automatically. Inexperienced users have an
easy chance to get the updates
No need for software manufacturer to contact every user about
the new update

Disadvantages:
-

Users miss updates if they are not connected to the internet.

If updates bring a major change of system functions, users might not be informed
about it

Systems often have pop-up windows that are designed to begin appearing only
once a new update is available; the User may choose to install or not install the
updates from these windows.

TIMED UPDATING
-

This strategy ensures that the system does not become too outdated
The system automatically checks for available updates after a set
period of time and provides the end User with a report of these
available updates; the User may then choose to install or not install the
updates from this report

Companies release groups of updates in packs:

-

Service Pack: A collection of updates and fixes, known as patches,

that are released together for an easy, single installation.
Feature Pack: A collection of new system functionality components
distributed between full product releases; these components have
usually already been approved to be a part of the next full product
release.
Security Update: A widely released fix for a system-specific, securityrelated vulnerability; these updates are usually accompanied by a
severity rating indicating how critical the security vulnerability is.
13

MANUAL UPDATES: the software manufacturer contacts every user about the new update
and supplies the installation package to him to be installed.
Advantages:

Users have more control what updates they want to install

Users get to know if an update brings major changes to how the system works

Disadvantages:

Users might miss an update fixing security issues

Users might not know how to install the update

Users might harm system by wrongly installing update

Users might lose medium containing the update

Patching:

A patch is a piece of software designed to update a computer program or its supporting data,
to fix or improve it. This includes fixing security vulnerabilities and other bugs, and
improving the usability or performance. Though meant to fix problems, poorly designed
patches can sometimes introduce new problems. In some special cases updates may
knowingly break the functionality, for instance, by removing components for which the
update provider is no longer licensed or disabling a device.
Patch management is the process of using a strategy and plan of what patches should
be applied to which systems at a specified time.

Types:

Patches for proprietary software are typically distributed as executable files instead of
source code. This type of patch modifies the program executablethe program the
user actually runseither by modifying the binary file to include the fixes or by
completely replacing it.
Patches can also circulate in the form of source code modifications. In this case, the
patches usually consist of textual differences between two source code files, called
"diffs". These types of patches commonly come out of open source projects. In these
cases, developers expect users to compile the new or changed files themselves.

Bigger updates are referred to as "service packs" or as "software updates".

14

1.2 System design basics (10 hours)

Components of a computer system

1.2.1
Define terms: hardware, software, peripheral,
network, human resources.
HARDWARE = the physical parts of a computer.
SOFTWARE = programs that run on a computer.
PERIPHERAL = a device that is connected to a host computer, but it is
not part of it. It expands the hosts capabilities but does not form part of
the core computer architecture (a printer, a mouse, a monitor, a keyboard)
NETWORK = two or more devices connected together in order to share
resources.
= a series of points or nodes interconnected by communication paths.
Networks can interconnect with other networks and contain subnetworks.
HUMAN RESOURCES = the group of individuals who make up the
workforce of an organization, business sector or economy.

1.2.2
Describe the roles that a computer can take in
a networked world.
-

Client
Server
E-mail server
Router
DNS server
firewall

CLIENT = the computer that requests information from a server

SERVER = the computer that stores and shares information to clients over the
network
E-MAIL SERVER = the computer that acts like a post office. It can process email by receiving, storing and sending it.
ROUTER = the computer that connects to networks and decides where to send
information which is received from one network and then send to another.
DNS SERVER = it is basically a router, but in this case it translates a web
address that is written in letters to the IP address of that webpage.

15

FIREWALL = it decides on what connections to let through to protect the

integrity of the client computer which uses the firewall.

1.2.3
Discuss the social and ethical issues
associated with a networked world
SECURITY
-

Computers must protect their data and make sure that data is not
accessible for anyone that does not have the right to access it

PRIVACY
-

You should be able to choose what information you share and with who
you share it

CENSORSHIP
-

Suppression of speech, public communication or other information

which may be considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, politically
incorrect, inconvenient as determined by governments, media outlets,
authorities or other such entities.

Reasons:
o
o
o
o
o
o

National security
To control obscenity
Child pornography
Hate speech
To protect children / other vulnerable group
To promote/ restrict political or religious views

ADDICTION
-

Compulsion to use social media to excess

DEPENDENCY

System design and analysis

1.2.4
Identify the relevant stakeholders when
planning a new system
-

The role of the end-user

STAKEHOLDER = a person who has an investment, share or interest in a

business/ industry.
A stakeholder in computer systems is anyone who:
-

Operates the system

16

Benefits from the system (in either function, politics, finances, social
benefits)
Is involved in buying or taking control of the system
Regulates and takes care of finances, safety and other aspects of the
system
Opposes the system (negative stakeholder)
Is responsible for subsystems of the system

Example of types of stakeholders:

Users
-

A person who is involved in testing a system

A person who chooses to purchase the final version of a system
A person who chooses to purchase a competing version of a system

Developers
-

A person who is involved in developing the system

Legislators
-

Organizations or governments who impose regulations that affect the

development of a new system

Decision-Makers
-

Any group or person that makes decisions affecting the final system;
these can be development team manager, financial controllers, or any
other group holding influence in the development

A single person may be classified under more than one of these groups.

1.2.5
Describe methods of obtaining requirements
from stakeholders
-

Surveys
Interviews
Direct observations

Name of
method
Observation

Description

Advantages

Involves watching personnel

using the existing system to find
out exactly how it works

17

The analyst obtains reliable

data
It is possible to see exactly
what is being done
It is a relatively inexpensive
method

Disadv
-

Questionnaire
s

Involves sending out

questionnaires to the work force
and/ or to customers to find out
their views of the existing
system and find out some of the
key tasks are carried out

Interviewing

Involves a one-to-one questionand-answer session between

the analyst and the employee/
customer.

Looking at
existing
paperwork

Allows the analyst to see how

the paper files are kept, look at
operating instructions and
training manuals, check the
accounts etc.

Surveys

Involves collecting information

from a selected group of people
through standardized
questionnaires.

18

The questions can be

answered quite quickly
It is a relatively inexpensive
method
Individuals can remain
anonymous if they want
It allows quick analysis of
the data
It gives the opportunity to
motivate the interviewee
into giving open and honest
answers to the analysts
questions.
It allows the analyst to
probe for more feedback
from the interviewee, as it is
easier to extend a question
It is possible to modify
questions as the interview
proceeds and ask questions
specific to the interviewee
It is good method if the
analyst wants to probe
deeply into one specific
aspect of the existing
system
It allows information to be
obtained which was not
possible by any of the other
methods
The analyst can see for
themselves how the paper
system operates
It allows the analyst to get
some idea of the scale of
the problem, memory size
requirements, type of input/
output devices needed, etc.
Requires minimal human
resources
Allows for information to
be collected from large
group of people over a
relatively quick amount
of time

1.2.6
Describe appropriate techniques for gathering
the information needed to arrive at a workable
solution
-

Examining current systems

Competing products
Organizational capabilities
Literature searches

EXAMINING CURRENT SYSTEMS

-

Diagnosis of current systems identifies problems

o PC scanners
Self diagnosis
o Figuring out a problem within the system without the help of a
troubleshooting guide
Examination tools for computer systems
o Including digital forensic tools
o Including computer-aided assessments

COMPETING PRODUCTS
-

Microsoft Support
PC Support
Windows Updates

ORGANIZATIONAL CAPABILITIES
-

Search within the company for finding a solution

Examine your:
o Quality of workers
o Quantity of workers
o Workers experiences
o Financial resources
o Intellectual resources
Literature research:
o A literature research is a well thought out and organizes search
for all of the literature published on a topic
o Includes the following steps:
Create a question
Finding sources of information
Search with key words
Uses valid sources only

1.2.7
Construct suitable representations to illustrate
system requirements
-

System flow charts

Data flow diagrams
Structure charts (UML IS NOT REQUIRED)
19

1.2.8
Describe the purpose of prototypes to
demonstrate the proposed system to the client
-

The need to effectively collaborate to gather appropriate

information to resolve complex problems

The purpose of prototyping is to show the user an interface and to give some
indication of how the system is expected to work. The prototype is not a full
working version of the software but it does allow the user to propose changes at
the design stage. The prototype could be produced by a different system than
the one eventually used for the project. A developer could present an interface
using an applications package (presentation software for example) even though
the eventual solution might be implemented using Java.
By using prototyping at an early stage in the project, the analyst/designer
can produce different prototypes showing alternative solutions. The user can
then give concrete feedback to the designer to indicate whether they are
implementing the solution the user desires. The earlier that changes can be
made to a system the less time is wasted completing the system and therefore
less money will be spent. Early changes are not as costly as late changes!

1.2.9
Discuss the importance of iteration during the
design process
-

Design cycle

Iteration is a methodology based off the process of prototyping, testing,

analyzing, and refining a product or system.
Iterative design allows products to be improved and refined quickly based
off testing results
Example: Windows 8 was followed by an updated design and implementation
named Windows 8.1 after receiving customer feedback.

1.2.10 Explain the possible consequences of failing to

involve the end-user in the design process

20

The failure to involve the end-user may lead to software that

is not suitable for its intended use, which may have adverse
effects on user productivity

CONSEQUENCES:
-

Customer feedback is lost in what the product needs to accomplish

Early identification and elimination of product or process failures is
reduced
- Knowledge of the requirements of the program are not really know
- Talk over potential risk is avoided and the customer does not know the
risks
May result in having to undergo major changes later in the process and
the costs associated with needing to change the program
Customer might not like the final product.

1.2.11 Discuss the social and ethical issues

associated with the introduction of new IT systems
-

1.2.12
-

Legal decisions often lag behind new IT systems, and therefore ethical
decisions often govern the usage of newly introduced IT systems for a
significant period of time.
While the internet and new systems often introduce a new form of
community, often times a sense of anonymity removes people's sense
of commitment.
In many countries, the government does not and cannot exert power
over what users post, so people are only bound by their moral and
ethical compasses.
Different networks create acceptable use policies to help define
acceptable behaviour.
Data stored electronically is both easier to copy and easier to replicate
than physical data, so there is an increased ability to steal data.
In a business setting, the introduction of a new system often places
more stress on the employees because they have to learn and adapt to
a new system while completing their work.

Define the term usability

ergonomics
accessibility

Usability is the ease of use and learnability of a man-made object.

Usability can be defined as the extent to which a product can be used by users to
achieve specified goals with efficiency, effectiveness, and satisfaction in its
specified contexts of uses.

What are the benefits of making something more usable:

More efficient to usetakes less time to accomplish a particular task
Easier to learnoperation can be learned by observing the object
More satisfying to use

21

When creating something new an individual should consider these points:

Learnability: How easy is it for users to accomplish basic tasks the first time they encounter the
design?
Efficiency: Once users have learned the design, how quickly can they perform tasks?
Memorability: When users return to the design after a period of not using it, how easily can they re
establish proficiency?
Errors: How many errors do users make, how severe are these errors, and how easily can they
recover from the errors?
Satisfaction: How pleasant is it to use the design?

1.2.13 Identify a range of usability problems with

commonly used digital devices
-

PCs
Digital cameras
Cell phones
Games consoles
MP3 players

PC:
-

If you are blind, you cannot see the screen

If you have no hands, you cannot use the keyboard or mouse
If you do not have the technical knowledge, device connection may be difficult.

CELL PHONE:
-

If the OS is too complex then users may have issues navigating through the OS
If the user as bad eye sight then they may find it hard to see the screen if it is too
small and if the text is too small a size.
If the user has certain health issues and limited hand mobility such as arthritis
then the user input method may pose various issues such as small qwerty
keyboard wont be usable.
If the user has bad hearing then it would be hard to use a phone with low speaker
volumes.
If the user is outdoors in the sun then the screen brightness must be high to be
visible.
The phone must fit in your hand comfortably and should not slip.

DIGITAL CAMERA
-

Blindness or partial sightedness can mean using digital cameras is very difficult
as the user cant or will struggle to see what is on the screen as well as
connecting them to a computer to transfer files.
People with physically debilitating conditions may not be able to hold a camera or
push the shutter button.
Users with conditions such as Parkinsons Disease may be unable to hold a
digital camera steady.

22

MP3 PLAYER

Ergonomics

Some MP3 players have relatively small screens. People with limited eyesight

Buttons and controls may be too small and users with less mobility on their hands
may find it challenging and difficult.

1.2.14 Identify methods that can be used to improve

the accessibility of systems
-

Touch screen
Voice recognition
Text-to-speech
Braille keyboard

1.2.15 Identify a range of usability problems that can

occur in a system
-

Ticketing
Online payroll
Scheduling
Voice recognition
Systems that provide feedback

AUTOMATIC FEEDBACK SYSTEM - Is the feedback of good enough quality, is it clear

enough, is there enough feedback and is it given quickly enough.
Furthermore with online feedback system where people provide feedback - Are the
people providing feedback of the right skill level and is their feedback valid?
ONLINE PAYROLL
The inputs to a payroll system are:

Employee code (used to lookup the employee's other details, e.g. name, bank
account, etc.)

Hours worked

Rate of pay (e.g. $25 per hour)

23

The outputs from a payroll system are:

A printed payslip (given to the employee to show how his/her pay was calculated)

A cheque, or an EFT payment directly into the employee's bank account

Disadvantages

Internet Service Provider (ISP) downtime

Depending on the complexity of the system, employees may have trouble

learning how to work with it.

Employees might not have a bank in order to be paid

This system might be complex to set up

VOICE RECOGNITION
Several problems may occur with a voice recognition system, they include but are not
limited to:

The dictionary of the voice recognition software may be limited and doesnt
include certain words such as slang terms.

If the user has a speech impediment then the software may have trouble
recognizing what they are saying.

People from different regions of the world and backgrounds will all different
dialects as well as accents which the system may not be able to deal with.

The system may not be able to recognize different words if the user speaks very
quickly or too slowly.

Users may not want to speak about important and sensitive information in a
public space. As well as people speaking in a lower volume when in public, the
system may not be able to hear the user.

Depending on the security capabilities of the voice recognition system.

If the user is in an area with a lot of ambient noise then the system may not be
able to cancel out this noise.

If the word database is not stored locally and there are network errors then the
system is not able to work.

24

1.2.16 Discuss moral, ethical, social, economic and

environmental implications of the interaction
between humans and machines
ECONOMIC:
-

May allow more technologically advanced countries to take jobs from less technologically
advanced companies
Created new ways for goods to be sold (e-commerce)

SOCIAL:
-

The greater interconnection in the world that arises from network and human interaction with
machines has the ability to redefine our concept of towns and communities
Computer systems have spread English and many other Western traditions to other cultures
Provides entertainment
Fear that young people spend too much time online
Allows people to meet people in distant places through chat rooms and the internet

MORAL/ETHICAL:
-

Data should be acquired through appropriate means

Consent should be requested when collecting personal data
Personal data should be relevant to the purpose for which it will be used
Reasons for data collection should be explicitly available prior to the data being collected
Personal data should be protected by reasonable safeguards
Individuals ought to have access to their own personal

ENVIRONMENTAL:
-

Computers use large amounts of electric energy

The use of paper initially increased because of printing but is starting to show some signs of
decline
High use of bleach and paper mills to create paper for printing
Allows people to communicate without physically being in the same place, decreasing
pollution due to transportation

TOPIC 2 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (6 hours)

Computer architecture

2.1.1. Outline the architecture of the central

processing unit (CPU) and the functions of the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control unit (CU) and
the registers within the CPU.

25

- reproduce a block diagram showing the relationship between

the elements of the CPU, input and output and storage. The
memory address register (MAR) and memory data register
(MDR) are the only ones that need to be included.
CPU = Central Processing Unit
-

The heart of the computer

The engine of the computer, the chip or processor
It performs all the work required for the computers operation

The CPU works with a fixed number of bits, usually a multiple of 8-bits. This is
known as a WORD.
WORD-SIZE = measures the maximum amount of data that can be processed
by the machine in a single step.
WORD = the amount of data that fits in a register.
REGISTER = a very small, extremely fast blocks of memory within the CPU. It
provides for temporary storage of critical information.
CPU:
-

CU (Control Unit)
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
2 communication bus systems (primary memory bus and address
bus)

The BUS provides a pathway to transfer data to different parts of the computer.
CU controls the sequence of the execution of the program that is stored in the
computers memory.
ALU performs the logical operations such as comparisons and arithmetic
operations such as addition

FUNCTIONS OF ALU

The ALU carries out all the arithmetic and logical operations
Performs the following operations:
o ADD; SUBTRACT; AND; OR; NOT
Contains registers for storing temporary data
Input quantities relate to the word size of the computer (e.g. 32
bit or 64 bit)

FUNCTIONS OF CU

Manages the ALU

Controls communication between CPU and memory
Step by step processing
26

Contains registers such as:

o IR (Instruction Register stores the current instruction)
o PC (Program Counter stores the address of the instruction)

The ADDRESS BUS carries a memory address from the CPU to the RAM. The
RAM responds by sending the data from the memory location back through the
DATA BUS. The width of the address bus determines the maximum number of
bytes in RAM:
E.g. 32 bit address bus the largest address is 2 32 = 4 billion, so it supports 4
Giga Bytes in RAM.
MEMORY ADDRESS REGISTER [MAR]

The MAR is connected to the address bus

The MAR is how the CPU communicates with the address bus
The MAR can hold either an instruction address or a data address

MEMORY DATA REGISTER [MDR]

The MDR is connected to the data bus

Data can go in both to and from memory
The MDR can load its data from:
o The data bus (for reading data)
o One of the CPU registers (for storing data)
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CPU AND MAIN MEMORY

CPU
CU
RAM
ALU

INPUT

OUTPUT
ROM
REGISTERS
MAR
MDR

27

2.1.2. Describe primary memory.

- Distinguish between random access memory (RAM) and readonly memory (ROM) and their use in primary memory
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
- Is smaller than RAM, but provides non-volatile storage (that means, when the computer is
turned off, its contents are not erased)
- Unlike RAM, the contents of ROM cannot be changed
- The information in ROM can be read, but cannot be written
- ROM is used to store instructions and data that will never change (e.g. instructions that
control how a computer starts up, reads input, writes output)

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

- Stores information
- It provides volatile storage (temporary). When you turn off the computer, volatile storage is
erased.
- While the computer is running, the CPU writes information to RAM and reads information from
RAM
- RAM stores 2 types of information:
o Instructions (tell the computer what to do)
o Data is the input or result of an operation
- It is the primary location where information is stored while the computer is running
- In RAM the stored information is encoded as sequences of 1s and 0s
BIT Binary digIT
Data stored in memory is organized into bytes
1 byte = 8 bits
The BYTE is the smallest addressable unit of storage (the smallest amount of data we can read
from memory or write to memory at a time)
Each location in memory has a unique address
MEMORY SIZE = refers to the number of bytes of storage available
1 KB = 1024 B = 210 B
1 MB = 1024 KB = 210 KB
1 GB = 1024 MB = 210 M B
1 TB = 1024 GB = 210 MB

2.1.3 Explain the use of cache memory

- explain the effect of cache memory in speeding up the system
as well as being able to explain how it is used
CACHE is a small, very fast memory that stores the data from frequently used main memory
addresses. When the processor has to look for the next instruction, chances are it can be found in
this temporary store named Cache.
Modern processors also contain a small amount of fast memory incorporated into the processor
itself, internal cache, which is speedier still because of the very short distance travelled.
The cache on the microprocessor itself is referred to as LEVEL 1 CACHE and that between main
memory and the processor as LEVEL 2 CACHE.

28

2.1.4 Explain the machine instruction cycle

- include the role of data bus and address bus
When a computer program is stored as a series of instructions in machine code
in primary memory, the following steps are carried out:

Fetch instruction from memory to CU

Start

Decode instruction in CU

Execute instruction (data may be fetched from memory )

Store results of execution (if any).

Check for next instruction

Stop

finished
29

more to do

1. FETCH
The next instruction is fetched from the memory address that is
currently stored in the Program Counter (PC), and stored in the
Instruction Register (IR). At the end of the fetch, the PC points to the
next instruction that will be read at the next cycle.
2. DECODE
The decoder interprets the instruction. During this cycle the
instruction inside the IR (instruction register) gets decoded .
3. EXECUTE
The Control Unit passes the decoded information as a sequence of control signals to
the relevant function units of the CPU to perform the actions required by the
instruction such as reading values from registers, passing them to the ALU to
perform mathematical or logic functions on them, and writing the result back to a
register. If the ALU is involved, it sends a condition signal back to the CU.

4. STORE
The result generated by the operation is stored in the main memory, or sent to an
output device. Based on the condition of any feedback from the ALU, Program
Counter may be updated to a different address from which the next instruction will be
fetched.

DATA BUS = a connection between the different parts of a computer that information is sent on.
ADDRESS BUS = a data bus that is used to specify a physical address. A CPU will specify the
memory location.

Secondary memory

2.1.5 Identify the need for persistent storage.

- persistent storage is needed to store data in a non-volatile
device during and after the running of a program
Persistent storage means that data is retained or kept after the power is turned
off to the device.
Volatile = the data is lost when the computer is switched off.
Non-volatile = the data is not lost when the computer is switched off.

Operating systems and application systems

2.1.6 Describe the main functions of an OS.

1. Peripheral communication
The O.S keeps track of the device drivers (software designed to
interface directly with the hardware)
30

It provides a standard interface between hardware devices and

applications
2. Coordinating concurrent processing
The O.S handles the loading and unloading of the processes (jobs that
are running on a computer the entire period it is on) to and from
primary memory.
3. Memory management
The O.S ensures that each process operates in its own (virtual) memory
space and doesnt change memory belonging to another process
The O.S deals with the moving parts of processes to the swap file.
4. Accounting and security
The O.S makes sure that only those users who are registered with the
O.S can get access.

2.1.7 Outline the use of a range of application software.

-

application software should include:

o word processors
o spreadsheets
o database management systems
o email
o web browsers
o computer-aided design (CAD)
o graphic processing software

WORD PROCESSORS
- used for creating, editing and printing documents. Example: Microsoft Word.
SPREADSHEETS
- used for modelling financial possibilities as well as other numerically based
operations. Example: Microsoft Excel.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
- software that manages and controls the different pieces of information stored in
an electronic database (an organized collection of information relating to a
certain subject). Example: Microsoft Access.
EMAIL
- used to send electronic emails. In order to send and receive emails you must
have an email client and an account setup with an email provider.
WEB BROWSERS

31

- used to locate, retrieve and display content on the WWW, including web pages,
images, video and other files. The browser is the client run on a computer that
contacts the Web server and requests information. The Web server sends the
information back to the Web browser which displays the results on the computer.
Example: Google Chrome.
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN (CAD)
- a CAD system allows engineers and architects to design everything from floors
to ceilings to airplanes to robotized kittens. CAD systems require a high-quality
graphics motor, a mouse, a light pen or digitizing tablet for drawing and a special
printer.
GRAPHIC PROCESSING SOFTWARE
-

allows the user to manipulate visual images on computer.

2.1.8 Identify common features of applications.

-

include:
o toolbars
o menus
o dialogue boxes
o graphical user interface (GUI) components:
Windows
Icons
Menus
Pointers

Toolbars
-

a set of icons which enables you to use the operations built by a program
such as crop, insert text box, etc.

Menus
-

a set of commands usually located above the toolbar

32

Dialogue boxes
-

a pop-up that appears in response to the user. It is more user-friendly

since they typically only contain two commands such as ok or cancel.

Graphical user interface

-

allows users to drag and drop objects rather than typing it in the command
line.

Binary representation

2.1.9 Define the terms: bit, byte, binary,

denary/decimal, hexadecimal.
BIT
-

the smallest unit of data in a computer. BIT Binary digIT. It is only one
binary value (1 or 0).

BYTE
-

1 byte = 8 bits.

BINARY
-

A numbering system of base 2, therefore may only have values of 1 or 0.

DENARY/DECIMAL
-

A numbering system of base 10, therefore may only have values of 0, 1, 2,

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

HEXADECIMAL
-

A numbering system of base 16, therefore may only have values of 0, 1, 2,

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.

2.1.10 Outline the way in which data is represented in

the computer.
Integer:
Each integer is represented in binary. If there is a single it will be represented in
one byte.
Characters:
33

Each character is usually one byte, represented in binary.

Unicode is a standardisation of assigning values to a specific character, this is
needed as there are hundreds of different characters in different languages and
if done by each community there would likely be overlaps.
Strings:
-

Represents a concatenation of characters. Will be represented in binary. A

word is 16 or 32 bits.

Colours:
-

Is represented in hexadecimal number system. Will be 6 hexadecimal

values: two for each prime colour, in the order of Red, Green, Blue (RGB).

For example the colour red will be FF 00 00. When viewed on a screen it
will usually have a hash tag before the value, e.g. #FF 00 00.
A maximum of around 16.8 million different colours may be input (16 to the power of 6 or 2 to the
power of 24).

Simple logic gates

2.1.11 Define the Boolean operators: AND, OR, NOT,

NAND, NOR and XOR
AND
A
B
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
The output is true if both inputs are TRUE.

A and B
1
0
0
0

OR
A
B
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
The output is true if one of the input is TRUE.
NOT
A
1
1
0
0

not A
0
0
1
1
34

A or B
1
1
1
0

Negate the input.

NAND
A
1
1
0
0

B
1
0
1
0

A and B
1
0
0
0

A nand B
1
1
1
0

B
1
0
1
0

A or B
1
1
1
0

A nor B
0
0
0
1

B
1
0
1
0

A or B
1
1
1
0

A xor B
1
1
1
0

NOR
A
1
1
0
0
Negate OR
XOR
A
1
1
0
0

2.1.12 Construct truth tables using the above

operators.
2.1.13 Construct a logic diagram using AND, OR, NOT,
NAND, NOR and XOR gates.
A
AND
B
AND

35

Topic 3 Networks (9 hours)

3.1 Networks (9 hours)

Network fundamentals

3.1.1 Identify different types of networks.

-

Local area network (LAN)

Virtual local area network (VLAN)
Wide area network (WAN)
Storage area network (SAN)
Wireless local area network (WLAN)
Internet
Extranet
Virtual private network (VPN)
Personal area network (PAN)
Peer-to-peer (P2P)

Local area network (LAN)

-

It covers a small area (an office, home or school)

Virtual local area network (VLAN)

-

A subgroup of computers on a LAN, that are treated alike (in terms of

security or bandwidth) regardless of their physical proximity on the
network

Wide area network (WAN)

-

Any communications network that connects geographically dispersed

hosts, usually across regional or national boundaries. Often a network of
LANs belonging to a multinational company linked by leased lines.

Storage area network (SAN)

-

A network not normally accessible from the main LAN on which the hosts
are predominantly high-capacity storage devices, such as tape drives.

Wireless local area network (WLAN)

36

Same as LAN but using wireless technologies (Wi-Fi)

Internet
-

A worldwide collection of networks which allows a subscriber to send and

receive emails, chat (using text or voice) or browse the world wide web.

Intranet
-

A computer network based on internet technology that is designed to

meet the internal needs for sharing information within a single
organisation/ company.

Extranet
-

An intranet that is mapped onto the public Internet or some other

transmission system that is not accessible by the general public, but is
managed by more than one companys administrators.

Virtual private network (VPN)

-

A Virtual Private Network that acts like a LAN allowing computers to

connect to each other within the VPN. VPN technology relies on the
internet to create this network.

Personal area network (PAN)

-

A short-range network of personal devices, such as cell phones, tablets,

printer, PDA, laptop and audio headsets, often utilizing Bluetooth shortrange radio.

Peer-to-peer (P2P)
-

Is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or workloads

between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the
application.

37

38

39

3.1.2 Outline the importance of standards in the

construction of networks.
- standards enable compatibility through a common
language internationally
Standards are necessary in networking in order to ensure that all network
hardware communicates with the other pieces of hardware without any issues.
Through the use of the OSI layer model if any standards change then the rules
set out can easily be changed without having to rewrite the complete rule set.

40

3.1.3 Describe how communication over networks is

broken down into different layers.
- Awareness of the OSI seven layer model is required, but an
understanding of the functioning of each layer is not
A network is two or more computers connected together allowing the
computers to communicate and collaborate with each other. When one computer
sends a signal to another across a network there is a range of different activities
that have to take place. Think of each of these as a layer. The layers range from
the physical layer where voltages are placed on wires to transmit the data to the
software (video calling, mail applications and antivirus software for example)
that wants to use the network to send or receive a signal. Each layer performs its
own specific task/job and happens at a different stage within the process of
sending/receiving across a network.
Notice that

on each layer the packet is added to with all the necessary information
(shown in the middle column)
each layer communicates with the layer below it
at the sending computer we start at layer 7 and work down
at the receiving end we start layer 1 and work up
the middle column represents the packet that will be 'packaged up' send
and 'unpacked'

41

3.1.4 Identify the technologies required to provide a

VPN.
VPN (Virtual Private Network): A secure network that uses primarily public,

telecommunication infrastructures, such as the Internet, to provide remote

offices or travelling users an access to a central organizational network.

There are three types of VPN:

1. Secure: All traffic on the VPN must be encrypted, authenticated and is the sent along virtual
tunnels.
2. Trusted: All traffic on the VPN relies on the security of a providers network to protect the
traffic.
3. Hybrid: A combination of both secure and trusted technologies.

Site to Site VPN

A site to site VPN allows offices in different locations to connect securely over a
public network, such as the internet. Each site has a VPN gateway, like a router,
firewall or concentrator. The VPN is in charge of encapsulating and encrypting all
outbound traffic and sending it through a VPN tunnel over the internet to a peer
VPN gateway at the target site. On receiving the packet the VPN gateway strips
the headers, decrypts the content and relays the packet towards the target host
inside the private network.

42

Remote Access VPN

In a Remote-access VPN, clients, such as telecommuters, mobile users,
and extranet consumers, are able to access a company network securely over
the Internet. Each host and client typically has VPN client software loaded or
uses a web-based client.
Whenever the host tries to send any information, the VPN client
software encapsulates and encrypts the information before sending it over the
internet to the VPN gateway at the edge of the target network. On receiving the
packet the VPN gateway strips the headers, decrypts the content and relays the
packet towards the target host inside the private network.

http://computer.howstuffworks.com/vpn.htm

43

3.1.5 Evaluate the use of a VPN.

-

The use of VPN has led to changes in working patterns

Data transmission

3.1.6 Define the terms: protocol, data packet.

PROTOCOL = Set of rules or guidelines to enable different devices to
communicate with each other.
DATA = anything that is sent over a network, files.
DATA PACKET = data that has been broken down to ensure integrity and
reliability since packets are smaller than data, which means if you lose a packet
you don't need to resend the whole file only the packet which is missing.

3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary.

Include:
-

data integrity
flow control
deadlock
congestion
error checking

Protocols are necessary as their function is to allow two or more devices to

be able to interact with each other. Protocols are a method of neutral mediation.
Protocols do not need to be public, and can be kept confidential.
DATA INTEGRITY = maintenance of accuracy despite natural events (hardware
failure, data entry error, fire...)
A DEADLOCK is a situation in which two or more competing actions are each
waiting for the other to finish, and thus neither ever does.
44

FLOW CONTROL = statement whose execution results in a choice being made

as to which of two or more paths should be followed.
CONGESTION occurs when a link or node is carrying so much data that its
quality of service deteriorates. Typical effects include queueing delay, packet loss
or the blocking of new connections. A consequence of these latter two is that an
incremental increase in offered load leads either only to a small increase in
network throughput, or to an actual reduction in network throughput.
ERROR CHECKING

45

3.1.8 Explain why the speed of data transmission

across a network can vary.
Different factors affect the speed of data transmission being:

the computer processor speed - a computer with dual Pentium IV

processor will most likely get faster connectivity compared to one with a
Pentium III or Pentium II processor;
internet speed will depend on distance that the data travels, how many
servers it has to go through and the different speeds of each server (the
shorter the cables or the closer the computers are to the router the faster
the connection);
heavy traffic on the network (ISPs are allocated a certain amount of
bandwidth which is shared among all the incoming and outgoing
connections);
Malware, Spyware and Viruses hinder the operation of programs,
slows down the speed of connectivity;
Modem speed - can slow down the speed at which data is transmitted;
hardware problems- can seriously reduce the speed of the data being
processed by your system;
software problems;
memory available- each thing you open is using RAM memory and has
to write this to the disk and the more memory you are using up to open
programs the less memory there is a available to receive data etc.
46

3.1.9 Explain why compression of data is often

necessary when transmitting across a network.
- Compression has enabled information to be disseminated more
rapidly.
A network has limited bandwidth, in that only a certain number of bits can
be push through it at any one time without losing data.
To reduce the use of bandwidth in a network, and hence ensure that the network
does not becomes congested, redundancies in data
can be removed. This process is called compression.
The following excerpt from St. Julians:
You can assure speed in data transmission by compressing data. There are two
types of data compression:
Lossy data compression: This type of compression removes the
unnecessary data. It is mainly used in pictures, example: conversion
of a picture from GIF to JPEG and conversion of an audio file from WAV
to MP3. Example of how this works: imagine a picture with a blue sky,
almost every pixel in that part of the picture has a different shade of
blue even if the change from one shade to another is almost null.
When you apply lossy compression it takes a number of different shades
and turns them into an 'average' shade. It is a very efficient and smart type of
data compression because you can't really notice the difference unless you zoom
in on the picture. The main difference between this and lossless compression is
that with lossy compression you can't get the original file back.
Lossless data compression: This type of compression allows you to

recreate the original file. It involves breaking the original file into a
smaller version while it is transmitted or stored in a way that when it
reaches its destiny it can be put back together and used as before.
Example of
lossless data
compression is
when you zip an
amount of files
into a file (usually
done with 7-zip).

3.1.10 Outline the characteristics of different

transmission media.
- speed
47

- reliability
- cost
- security
METAL CONDUCTOR
FIBRE OPTIC
WIRELESS

Fibre Optics
An optical fibre is a thin, flexible medium which conducts quick pulses of light which each represent
one bit. Fibre optics can transfer humdreds of gigabits per second and cant take electromagnetic
interfearance, making it the preferred choice of long-haul transmission media.

Twisted Pair
The twisted pair copper cables are the most inexpensive type of transmission media and has been
used for many years by phone companies. Two copper wires are twisted together and coated with a
protective layer.

Coaxial Cable
Like twisted pair, coaxial cable consists of two copper wires, but instead of being parallel, they are
concentric. With the construction and special type of shielding and insulation, the coaxial cable can
carry a lot more bits much faster than the twisted pair.

Medium

Coaxial cable

Transfer
Relative Cost
rate
(bandwidth)
(Mbit/s)

Example of Use

10

UTP cable

Medium

Fibre optic
cable

High

Wifi
Satellite

For internet connection in remote areas e.g.

Antarctica.

Microwave

3.1.11 Explain how data is transmitted by packet

switching.
48

- Wireless networks have led to changes in working patterns, social

activities and raised health issues.

Wireless networking

3.1.12 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of

wireless networks.
-

Advantages
Uses unlicensed radio
spectrum
Doesnt cost anything
LANs can be setup without
cabling
Doesnt take space or time to lay
the cables. No extra cost on
cables
WiFi can support roaming
between access points
People can switch from router to
router automatically depending
in which connection is best
Global standards
49

Disadvantages
Interference
The 2.4 GHz spectrum is often
crowded with other devices
Limited range
WEP
This encryption is not difficult to
hack
Access point
These can be used to steal data
Health concerns

Prices are cheap

Many types are available on the
market and they are affordable

3.1.13 Describe the hardware and software

components of a wireless network.
-

Router
Modem
Computer device
ISP
Access points (allow the network to join an existing wired network
)
Managed wireless networks
Software for security
O.S
PIMs (software designed to help users organize random bits of information)

3.1.14 Describe the characteristics of wireless

networks.
-

WiFi
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX)
3G mobile
Future networks

WiFi
-

A Wireless Access Pouint (WAP) will provide a wireless signal that allows
data transfer between it and a device. The current protocol for a WAP is
802.11, which is able to communicate with approx. 30 clients over a 100m
50

radius and has a theoretical top speed of 300 Mbps. Will normally have
WPA2 encryption, which is considered secure along with a password.

o Is short for wireless fidelity

o The standard for Wi-Fi today is 802.11
o Creates local area networks that device with internet can
connect to
o Maximum range is and eighth to a quarter of a mile
o Speed is 11Mbps or greater
WiMAX
-

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) "is a wireless

communications standard designed to provide 30 to 40 megabit-persecond data rates, with the 2011 update providing up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed
stations." - Wikipedia
WiMAX Forum describes it as " a standards-based technology enabling the
delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable
and DSL "
WiMAX is a part of fourth generation wireless-communication technology
(4G) and is able to cover a staggering radius of about 50 km.

Was designed to make high quality, long range data and voice
communications affordable
51

Maximum range is 3-5 miles

Speeds from 4Mbps to 6 Mbps

3G
-

Third generation mobile telecommunications is a set of standards for

mobile phones and mobile communications, and is able to deal with video
and audio files for these devices. It has a potential transfer speeds of up to
3 Mbps, in comparison to 2G's 144 Kbps.

o It is the third generation of mobile networking

o Download speeds of 14.4 Mbps and Upload speeds of 5.8
Mbps
o Minimum speed for stationary user is 2 Mbp

Future Networks

LTE - It is part of the fourth generation wireless-communication technology and is

only provided in a hand full of countries. It is theoretically capable of speeds of
up to 299.6 Mbps

4G

Speed can be up to 100 Mbps

Is compatible with a vast array of devices

Access to services anytime anywhere

52

3.1.15 Describe the different methods of network

security.
-

encryption types
userID
trusted media access control (MAC)

Wireless networks have led to concerns about the security of the users data.
ENCRYPTION
You are using encryption on your wireless network, aren't you? By now, there are extremely
few manufacturers producing Access Points (AP) that aren't secured by default, or as part of the setup
process. Heres a small explanation of the various wireless LAN security methods:

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)

- is a depreciated method of wireless security which can be cracked by a malicious individual within
minutes. So what you really need to know is dont use it. Its usually easily identifiable, since the
password is generally a series of hexadecimal characters (that is: 09, AF).

Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)

WPA encrypts information, and checks to make sure that the network security key has not been
modified.
WPA also authenticates users to help ensure that only authorized people can access the network.
There are two types of WPA authentication: WPA and WPA2.
WPA is designed to work with all wireless network adapters, but it might not work with older routers
or access points.
WPA2 is more secure than WPA, but it will not work with some older network adapters.
WPA is designed to be used with an 802.1X authentication server, which distributes different keys to
each user. This is referred to as WPA-Enterprise or WPA2-Enterprise.
It can also be used in a pre-shared key (PSK) mode, where every user is given the same password.
This is referred to as WPA-Personal or WPA2-Personal.
Pre-shared Key (PSK)
PSK is the most common method of securing a wireless network, mostly because its the easiest to
implement and doesn't require a separate authentication server (more on that later). In this method,
everyone on your secure wireless network connects to access points utilizing the same password,
which is probably known by everyone. For a home environment, this is probably OK. Youd assume
that most of the people youre letting on your network are your friends or family, and depending on
the quality of your friends and family you can probably trust them with access to your network.
The trouble with PSK is, especially for businesses, that if you want to remove one users access to
your network, you need to give everybody else the new key. This may include all of your employees,
contractors, and any other guests that have been on your network. It could be a lot of work for a large
company, especially if its all because of one employee leaving the company.
Theres a solution, and most corporations already have the tools necessary to implement the fix.

53

User ID
Also known as a username, a user ID is the name a user logs in to a system with. Usually used
alongside a password it is one half of a set of credentials a user knows in order to access a system.

Media Access Control(MAC) Layer is one of the two sub layers that make up
the OSI models Data Link Layer.
MAC layer moves data packets to and from one Network Interface Card (NIC) to
another through a shared channel.
A Media Access Control address is a unique identifier assigned to network
interfaces for communications on the physical network segment. Can be
described as Ethernet hardware address (EHA), hardware address or physical
address. It is assigned by the manufacturer of a network interface card (NIC) and
are stored in its hardware, the card's read-only memory, or some other firmware
mechanism.
The advantage to MAC filtering is that there is no attachment cost to
devices that connect to the network. The policy is set on a router or switch, and
the equipment attached either is permitted or it is not. The person attaching the
equipment has nothing to do.
The disadvantage to MAC filtering is that it is easy to spoof due to the
broadcast nature of LAN and WLAN, an advisory can sit on the wire and just
listen to traffic to and from permitted MAC addresses. Then, the advisory can
change his MAC address to a permitted one, and in most cases obtain access to
the network
54

3.1.16 Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of

each method of network security.

55