Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 756762

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Nuclear Engineering and Design

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/nucengdes

A study on the grid-to-rod fretting wear-induced fuel

failure observed in the 1616KOFA fuel
Kyu-Tae Kim
Dongguk University, College of Energy & Environment, 707 Seokjang-Dong, Gyeongju, Gyeongbuk 780-714, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 10 September 2009
Received in revised form
13 November 2009
Accepted 10 December 2009

a b s t r a c t
The burnup-dependent grid-to-rod gap combined with the uid-induced vibration may generate grid-torod fretting wear-induced fuel failure for some fuel assemblies in a certain burnup range. The systematic
grid-to-rod fretting wear-induced fuel failure occurred at the 1616 Korean Optimized Fuel Assembly
loaded in the 2-loop Westinghouse type plant in Korea. Prior to various tests and some measurements
for investigating its root causes, they were assumed to be self-excited fuel assembly vibration caused
by hydraulic-unbalanced mixing vane design, excessive cross-ow between fuel assemblies during the
transition core, or relatively large grid-to-rod gap formation during in-reactor irradiation that may be
caused by excessive initial spring force loss of fresh fuel during a fuel rod loading process and/or a fuel
assembly transport to a plant and by excessive cladding creep-down. A wide spectrum of tests and
some measurements were performed to nd out root cause(s) of the grid-to-rod fretting wear-induced
fuel failure. Based on these tests and measurements, it is concluded that the self-excited fuel assembly
vibration is the primary root cause, while excessive initial spring force loss during the fuel rod loading
process is the second major root cause.
2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Nowadays a nuclear renaissance is under way due to global climate problem and limited energy source of fossil fuel. Considering
that public perception of nuclear power as safe, efcient and reliable is more important than ever, nuclear fuel reliability is essential
to sustain the nuclear renaissance. In the world various nuclear
fuels have been designed and developed to be more competitive,
but some fuels have had brief commercial lives because of designrelated systematic fuel failure. In the 1970s through 1980s, Korea
had imported nuclear fuel assemblies since Korea did not have any
fuel design and fabrication technology. Korea Nuclear Fuel (KNF)
was established in 1982 to localize nuclear fuel technology, based
on various technologies transferred from the former Siemens/KWU,
the former Combustion Engineering, and Westinghouse Electric
Company. KNF started to supply rstly localized PWR and PHWR
fuels from 1989 and 1997, respectively.
The rstly localized PWR fuels supplied by KNF are 1414,
1616 and 1717 Korean Optimized Fuel Assemblies (KOFAs).

Abbreviations: KNF, Korea Nuclear Fuel; PWR, pressurized water reactor; PHWR,
pressurized heavy water reactor; KOFA, Korean Optimized Fuel Assembly; GTRFW,
grid-to-rod fretting wear; FIV, uid-induced vibration; FR, fuel rod; FA, fuel assembly.
Tel.: +82 11 9805 1447; fax: +82 54 770 2873.
E-mail address: ktkim@dongguk.ac.kr.
0029-5493/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2009.12.014

During the transition core with a mixed fuel loading having the
imported fuel assembly and the 1616KOFA in the 2-loop Westinghouse type plant in Korea, however, the systematic grid-to-rod
fretting wear-induced fuel failure occurred at the 1616KOFA (Kim,
1993), as shown in Fig. 1. The key reactor core operating conditions of the 2-loop plant and the 1616KOFA design parameters
are given in Table 1. From Fig. 1, it can be seen that the rst leak
signal was detected at a twice-burned fuel assembly (FA) at about
90 days after startup (22,000 MWD/MTU). Based on the ultrasonic
tests, almost one hundred KOFA fuel rods (FRs) were found to be
leaking due to the grid-to-rod fretting wear (GTRFW). The leak rods
are located generally around the periphery of FA, as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 3 shows perforated fretting wear congurations of failed KOFA
fuel rods. From this gure, the spring and dimple marks on the fuel
rod surfaces are clearly identied.
To investigate root cause(s) of 1616KOFA fuel failures,
other fuel designs generating fretting wear-induced fuel failures
(Kennard et al., 1995; Donovan, 2007) were reviewed in detail. The
fretting wear-induced fuel failures over the world have occurred
with various fuel designs that include 1717 Vantage5H of Westinghouse Electric Company, 1818 Konvoi of the former Siemens
and 1616 Guardian of the former Combustion Engineering, etc.
It is reported that the GTRWF would occur mainly at the mid-grid
positions and the rst leak signals appear in a wide range of operating time covering the 1st through 3rd cycle (Kennard et al., 1995).
Based on this evaluation of root causes of the GTRFW occurring
in the world, probable root causes of the GTRFW observed in the

K.-T. Kim / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 756762

Fig. 1. The ratio of Xe-133/Xe-135 versus reactor operation time for the 1616KOFA.
Table 1
Reactor core and fuel assembly design parameters for the 1616KOFA.
Design parameters

Values

Inlet coolant temperature

Outlet coolant temperature
Pressure
Coolant ow rate
Average LHGR
Purication ow rate
Fuel rod diameter
Fuel rod pitch
Number of spacer grids (materials)
Mid-grid span length
Grid-to-rod contact shape
Initial spring force requirement
Reload cycle length

287.7 C
324.7 C
155.1 bar
4.80 m/s
175.7 W/cm
75 GPM
9.50 mm
12.32 mm
8 (Inconel)
522 mm
Point contact
>12 N
360 days

1616KOFA fuel were considered to be self-excited FA vibration

caused by hydraulically unbalanced mixing vane design (Jang and
Lu, 2001; Conner, 2001), excessive cross-ow during the transition
core, or relatively large grid-to-rod gap formation during in-reactor
irradiation that may be caused by excessive spring force loss of fresh

757

Fig. 3. Perforated grid-to-rod fretting wear congurations of failed 1616KOFA fuel

rods.

fuel during a fuel rod (FR) loading process and/or a FA transport

to the plant and by excessive cladding creep-down. On the other
hand, the GTRFW rate models for PWR fuel were proposed to predict grid-to-rod fretting wear rates for various spacer grid designs
(Kim, 2009). In addition, the uid-induced vibration characteristics
of a fuel rod supported by spacer grids were investigated to understand vibration behaviors within the reactor due to coolant ow
(Choi et al., 2003).
In this study, therefore, a wide spectrum of tests and some
measurements that include FR loading tests, FA transport tests,
FA vibration tests and cladding creep-down measurements were
performed to nd out root cause(s) of the GTRFW-induced fuel
failure observed in the 1616KOFA. Besides these tests and measurements, the extent of cross-ow between FAs was reviewed to
evaluate the impact of the cross-ow on the GTRFW of 1616KOFA.
2. Tests for verifying root cause(s)
The GTRFW-induced fuel failure might occur due to FA designrelated excessive FA vibration usually coupled with insufcient
grid-to-rod supporting conditions such as relatively a large gridto-rod gap size and a small grid-to-rod contact. In addition, the
FA vibration might be accelerated by additional vibration sources
originated from reactor core designs that include upper and lower
reactor internal congurations, FA-to-bafe gap size, FA-to-FA gap
size, reactor coolant axial velocity, etc. (Kim and Suh, 2009). Considering that the imported 1616 FA has survived the GTRFW-induced
fuel failure in the 2-loop Westinghouse type plant in Korea but
the 1616KOFA fuel did not survive in that reactor, however, the
reactor core design-induced vibration may not be large enough to
generate the GTRFW-induced fuel failure regardless of FA designs.
In this study, therefore, a wide spectrum of tests and some measurements were performed only to evaluate the impact of the
1616KOFA design-related excessive FA vibration and the insufcient grid-to-rod supporting conditions on the GTRFW-induced
fuel failure. The tests and measurements performed in this work
are summarized in the following:
- FA vibration tests versus ow rate (ow sweep tests).
- Initial spring force loss measurements during FR loading process.
- Additional spring force loss measurements during FA transport
to the plant.
- Cladding creep-down measurements for two kinds of cladding
materials.

Fig. 2. Locations of grid-to-rod fretting wear-induced failed FRs in the 1616KOFA

(Kim and Suh, 2009).

The extent of FA vibration versus ow rate may indicate whether

or not the 1616KOFA will generate the self-excited FA vibration

758

K.-T. Kim / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 756762

Fig. 4. Fuel assembly vibration versus reactor core ow rate.

Fig. 5. Initial spring force distributions of the 1616KOFA before and after the FR
loading with a FR loading speed of 0.33 m/s.

in the operating ow range, while the data obtained from the other
three tests may show whether or not excessive grid-to-rod gaps will
form in a certain burnup range. It is noteworthy that the FR vibration caused by the grid-to-rod gap formation will become more
vigorous when combined with the FA vibration. On the other hand,
the extent of cross-ow between FAs was reviewed to evaluate the
impact of the cross-ow on the GTRFW of 1616KOFA.

2.1. FA vibration tests versus ow rate

It is known that the self-excited FA vibration is generated by
asymmetric mixing vane pattern across the spacer grid assembly,
which generates rotational force on the FA. In order to investigate
the impact of FA design on the FA vibration, ow sweep tests were
performed for the 1616KOFA and the PLUS7 fuel, respectively. The
PLUS7 fuel has been used at the OPR1000s operating in Korea and
has not generated any GTRFW-induced fuel failure yet (Kim and
Suh, 2008; Kim et al., 2008). Fig. 4 shows the extent of FA vibration
versus reactor core ow rate. From this gure, it can be seen that
the 1616KOFA generates a sharp increase in FA vibration in the
operating ow range, i.e., self-excited FA vibration, whereas the
PLUS7 fuel generates a random FA vibration only, as expected from
the in-reactor operation experience.

2.2. Initial spring force loss measurements during FR loading

process
In order to investigate the impact of the FR loading speed on
the initial spring force loss during the FR loading into the FA
skeleton, the initial spring forces of each spacer grid cell were
measured before and after the FR loading with loading speeds of
0.18 and 33 m/s, respectively. The FR loading speed of 0.33 m/s was
employed for fabricating the 1616KOFA generating the GTRFWinduced fuel failure, while the FR loading speed of 0.18 m/s was
tested to evaluate the impact of FR loading speed on the initial
spring force loss. Figs. 5 and 6 show the initial spring force distribution before and after the FR loading with the loading speeds of
0.33 and 0.18 m/s, respectively. From these gures, it can be seen
that with the FR loading speed of 0.33 m/s the initial spring forces
of some spacer grid cells are less than 12 N, the minimum initial
spring force requirement for preventing the GTRFW, while with the
FR loading speed of 0.18 m/s the initial spring forces of all spacer
grid cells is greater than 12 N.

Fig. 6. Initial spring force distributions of the 1616KOFA before and after the FR
loading with a FR loading speed of 0.18 m/s.

2.3. Additional spring force loss measurements during FA

transport to the plant
In order to nd out the additional spring force loss after FR loading during the FA transport to the 2-loop Westinghouse type plant
in Korea, the spring forces of each spacer grid cell were measured
after the FA transport to the Kori-2 unit. Table 2 shows the additional spring force loss during the FA transport to the Kori-2 unit.
Table 2
Additional initial spring force loss during the 1616KOFA transport to the plant.
Sample number

Spring force loss (N)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

0.0
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.7
0.2
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.2

Mean value

0.263

Standard deviation

0.245

K.-T. Kim / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 756762

759

Table 3
Cross-ow data in transition cores of various plants.
Plant

Difference in
pressure loss
coefcient (%)

Maximum
cross-ow
(m/s)

2-loop 1414 W type

2-loop 1616 W type (1616KOFA loaded)
3-loop 1717 W type
Angra-1

46
40
41

0.38
0.30
0.27
0.36

there is quite a large difference in the unirradiated thermal cladding

creep-down between them.
2.5. Evaluation of cross-ow
Fig. 7. Out-of-pile thermal creep behavior of cladding materials A and B (T = 400 C;
P = 80 MPa).

These additional spring force loss data were measured by the following three steps: Firstly, spring force loss of each spacer grid for
two FAs during the fuel rod loading process was obtained by measuring before and after the FR loading, as explained in Section 2.2.
It should be noted that one FA generates eight sets of spring force
data from eight spacer grid assemblies. Therefore, 16 sets of residual spring force data just before the FA transportation to the Kori-2
unit. Secondly, two FAs were transported from the manufacturing
facility to the Kori-2 unit and then came back to the manufacturing
facility. Finally, data of additional spring force occurring during the
transportation for 16 spacer grid assemblies were obtained by measuring residual spring forces after unloading FRs from each spacer
grid assembly. From Table 2, it can be seen that the additional spring
force loss occurred during the FA transport is considered very small,
comparing with the initial spring force loss during the FR loading
process.
2.4. Cladding creep-down measurements
It is known that the larger creep-down generates the larger gridto-rod gap, which will subsequently cause the FR vibration to be
more vigorous. In order to investigate the impact of cladding materials on the cladding creep-down, cladding creep-down data were
measured for two kinds of Zry-4 cladding materials under unirradiated and irradiated conditions. Fig. 7 shows thermal cladding
creep data under unirradiated conditions and Fig. 8 shows the axial
cladding creep-down proles for twice-burned FAs with cladding
materials A and B, respectively. From these gures, it can be seen
that there exists only a slight difference in the irradiated cladding
creep-down data between cladding materials A and B, even though

Fig. 8. Axial prole of cladding creep-down for twice-burned KOFA fuel

(Bu = 32,000 MWD/MTU).

Table 3 summarizes differences in pressure loss coefcient and

cross-ow velocity during transition cores for various plants. The
2-loop Westinghouse type plant experiencing the GTRFW-induced
fuel failure is generating a comparable pressure loss coefcient and
cross-ow velocity, comparing with the other plants in Table 3. It
is concluded that the cross-ow acting on the 1616KOFA during
the transition core is not large enough to generate excessive fuel
rod vibration.
3. Results and discussion
Fig. 4 shows the FA vibration test results that were generated by the ow sweep tests with a full-scale fuel assembly. From
this gure, it is found that the 1616KOFA generates very sharp
increase in the FA vibration in the operating range, which is called
as self-excited FA vibration, while the PLUS7 FA generates a random FA vibration. In detail, the 1616KOFA generates self-excited
FA vibration with the peak amplitude of about 20 105 m with
the frequency of between 1 and 20 Hz in its operating ow range.
This self-excited FA vibration is caused by hydraulic-unbalanced
mixing vane pattern across the spacer grid assembly, which can
be supported by nearly hydraulic-balanced mixing vane design of
PLUS7 showing no GTRFW (Kim et al., 2004; Kim and Kim, 2002).
In other words, the PLUS7 FA with nearly hydraulic-balanced mixing vane pattern (see Fig. 9) generates a random FA vibration only
with the peak amplitude of about 3 105 m with the frequency of
below 5 Hz in its operating range. It should be noted that the mixing
vane pattern across the spacer grid assembly for the 1616KOFA
fuel does not have a perfect symmetry, i.e., perfectly hydraulicbalanced mixing vanes, since the mixing vane pattern at the center

Fig. 9. Flow paths generated by the hydraulic-balanced mixing vane pattern of the
PLUS7 fuel (Kim and Suh, 2009).

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K.-T. Kim / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 756762

Table 4
Statistical information on initial spring force of the 1616KOFA.
Phase

Mean spring force

(standard deviation)

Mean spring force loss

(standard deviation)

One-sided 95/95% lower limit

Initial spring force before FR loading

Spring force loss during FR loading
Spring force loss during FA transport

16.750 N (0.840 N)
14.405 N
14.142 N

2.345 N (1.972 N)
0.263 N (0.245 N)

14.630 N
9.430 N
8.700 N

grid strip for the 1616 geometry cannot be made to be perfectly

hydraulic-balanced and furthermore orientations of mixing vanes
around the guide thimble tubes were optimized to generate better
mixing. Therefore, the ow paths shown in Fig. 9 are not perfectly
symmetric. The ow directions drawn in Fig. 9 were determined by
orientations of mixing vanes of each spacer grid strip. Naturally, one
can say that the GTRFW-induced fuel failure of the 1616KOFA is
caused by the self-excited FA vibration with hydraulic-unbalanced
mixing vane pattern across the spacer grid assembly. It is reported
that the V5H FA also has experienced the GTRFW-induced fuel failure in the 3-loop Westinghouse type plants in the U.S. because
of the self-excited FA vibration with hydraulic-unbalanced mixing
vane pattern across the spacer grid assembly (Washington, 1993).
However, it is noteworthy that the V5H FA without mixing vanes
still generated the GTRFW-induced fuel failure in the Fort Calhoun
plant in the U.S., which had not been expected from the viewpoints
of the self-excited FA vibration. Therefore, it may be said that the
GTRFW-induced fuel failure can occur partly due to the insufcient
grid-to-rod supporting conditions coupled with a random FA vibration, even though there is no self-excited FA vibration. In order to
investigate the impact of the 1616KOFA design and a certain manufacturing process on the grid-to-rod supporting conditions, the
various tests were performed such as initial spring force loss measurements during the FR loading process, additional spring force
loss measurements during FA transport to the plant and cladding
creep-down measurements for two kinds of cladding materials.
From Figs. 5 and 6, it is found that with the FR loading speed of
0.33 m/s the initial spring forces of some spacer grid cells are less
than 12 N, the minimum initial spring force requirement for preventing the GTRFW, while with the FR loading speed of 0.18 m/s the
initial spring forces of all spacer grid cells is greater than 12 N. The
statistical values for the spring force loss during the FR loading process and during the FA transport are summarized in Table 4. From
this table, it can be seen that the mean value and standard deviation of the spring force loss during the FR loading process are 2.345
and 1.972 N, respectively, while those of the additional spring force
loss during the FA transport are 0.263 and 0.245 N, respectively.
From Fig. 8, on the other hand, it can be seen that there exists only
a slight difference in the in-reactor cladding creep-down between
cladding materials A and B, even though there is quite a large difference in the cladding thermal creep-down data between them (see
Fig. 7). Considering that irradiation-induced cladding creep is much
more dominant in the reactor operation than thermal-induced one,
therefore, it is concluded that the cladding materials have no signicant impact on the unexpected large grid-to-rod gap, if it would
occur at the 1616KOFA grid cells.
Based on the statistical values of the initial spring force loss given
in Table 4 and Fig. 5, three kinds of initial spring force are considered
to have 8, 12 and 18 N to investigate the impact of initial spring
force on the onset time of grid-to-gap appearance. The values of 18
and 12 N represent the mean initial spring force and the minimum
one required in the design specication, respectively, while that of
8 N represents the one-sided 95/95% lower limit measured for fuel
assemblies manufactured by the FR loading process with 0.33 m/s
and transported to the plant.
The GRIDFORCE program (Kim and Kim, 1997) was used to predict residual elastic spring deection and force with relevant fuel

design data as a function of burnup. A calculation method used

in the GRIDFORCE program can be briey summarized as follows;
A residual spring force at t = t at an operating temperature can be
given by the Hookes law.
fres (t) = COT res (t)

(1)

where fres (t) is the residual spring force at t = t, COT the spring constant at an operating temperature, and res (t) the residual elastic
spring deection at t = t.
Then, the residual elastic deection at t = t, res (t), can be derived
by the following formula:
res (t) = o P (t) T (t) CR (t) IR (t) rex (t)

(2)

where o is the initial elastic spring deection at room temperature, P (t) the accumulated elastic cladding deection caused by the
coolant overpressure from t = 0 to t = t, T (t) the accumulated thermal expansion difference between spacer grid and cladding from
t = 0 to t = t, CR (t) the accumulated cladding creep-down from t = 0
to t = t, IR (t) the accumulated spacer grid irradiation growth from
t = 0 to t = t, and rex (t) is the accumulated elastic spring deection
loss due to spring force relaxation from t = 0 to t = t.
The value of o is determined by unstrained spring height, fuel
rod pitch and initial cladding diameter, while the values of P (t),
T (t), CR (t), IR (t) and rex (t) are calculated with the use of reactor operating conditions and relevant fuel design data. A schematic
diagram of elastic spring deection as a function of burnup may
be drawn, as shown in Fig. 10. As an illustration for grid-to-rod
gap formation, changes in the residual elastic spring deections,
which were calculated by the GRIDFORCE program, are shown in
Figs. 11 and 12. From these gures, it can be said that the initial
spring force of 12 N does not generate a grid-to-rod gap at any
spacer grids at the FA burnup of 22 MWD/kgU, whereas that of 8 N
generates grid-to-rod gaps at the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th spacer grids.
With the use of Eq. (1), changes in the residual spring forces were
calculated for initial spring forces of 8, 12 and 18 N as a function
of burnup, as shown in Fig. 13. From this gure, it is found that
the grid-to-rod gap starts to form at 18, 24 and 28 MWD/kgU for
the initial spring forces of 8, 12 and 18 N, respectively. It is obvious

Fig. 10. A schematic diagram of elastic spring deection as a function of burnup.

K.-T. Kim / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 756762

Fig. 11. Residual spring deection at FA average burnup of 22 MWD/kgU for an

initial spring force of 12 N.

Fig. 12. Residual spring deection at FA average burnup of 22 MWD/kgU for an

initial spring force of 8 N.

that the lower initial spring force generates the larger grid-to-rod
gap at the same burnup or the earlier grid-to-rod gap. Therefore,
one can say that some grid cells with the initial spring force less
than 12 N, the minimum initial spring force required in the design
specication, may be susceptible to the GTRFW-induced fuel fail-

761

ure. Furthermore, the probability of the GTRFW-induced fuel failure

goes up sharply when combined with the self-excited FA vibration. Considering that the initial spring loss of the 1661KOFA is
mainly due to the FR loading process with 0.33 m/s, however, the
impact of the additional initial spring force loss and the cladding
creep-down on the unexpected early grid-to-rod gap formation is
considered relatively small. On the other hand, it should be noted
that the initial spring force loss during the FR loading process can
be reduced drastically if the loading speed is changed from 0.33 to
0.18 m/s, as shown in Fig. 6. Accordingly, the GTRFW-induced fuel
failure could be eliminated if one would develop the 1616KOFA
with hydraulic-balanced mixing vanes and adopt the FR loading
speed of less than 0.18 m/s.
Based on the wide spectrum of test results obtained in this
study, guidelines against the GTRFW-induced fuel failure are proposed as follows. Firstly, to minimize FA-induced vibration, one
should develop spacer grid design with hydraulic-balanced mixing vane pattern across the spacer grid assembly. The spacer grid
with mixing vanes considered needs to be veried against the selfexcited fuel assembly-induced vibration through the ow sweep
tests of the full-scale fuel assembly covering operating range of
nuclear power plants considered. Secondly, to minimize the gridto-rod fretting wear caused by insufcient grid-to-rod supporting
conditions, one should maximize the grid-to-rod contact area but
minimize the grid-to-rod gap size during the fuel lifetime. It should
be kept in mind that the lower initial spring loss during the FR
loading process, the smaller cladding creep-down and the smaller
spacer grid width growth will generate the smaller grid-to-rod
gap. Finally, with the use of the full-scale FA containing oxidized
and non-oxidized FRs with various grid-to-rod gap sizes, the FA
endurance tests need to be performed to verify the effect of the
FR supporting conditions and the FA vibration on the fretting wear
rate (Lu, 2001).
4. Conclusions
A wide spectrum of various tests and some measurements were
performed to investigate root causes of the grid-to-rod fretting
wear-induced fuel failure observed in the 1616 Korean Optimized
Fuel Assemblies. The primary root cause is considered to be the selfexcited fuel assembly vibration occurring in the operating range
with the peak amplitude of about 20 105 m with the frequency
of between 1 and 20 Hz. The second effective root cause might
be the initial spring force loss during the fuel rod loading process
with 0.33 m/s loading speed. The grid-to-rod gap appears at much
lower burnup with the one-sided 95% lower limit of initial spring
force than expected with minimum initial spring force required
in the design specication. On the other hand, guidelines against
the GTRFW-induced fuel failure are proposed, indicating that the
GTRFW-induced fuel failure might be eliminated if one develops the
1616KOFA with hydraulically balanced mixing vanes and adopts
the FR loading speed of less than 0.18 m/s.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Basic Atomic Energy Research
Institute Program through the National Research Foundation of
Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (No. 2009-0075907).
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