INDEX
Puppet forms
Painting Styles
Dance forms
Classical
Folk
Tribal
Theater forms
Music
Indian Architecture
Indian Literature
Religions
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114
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Puppet Forms
of India
Rod Puppet
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1. String Puppets
Jointed body and limbs that allow movement.
Made of wood, or wire, or cloth stuffed with
cotton, rags or saw dust and are usually small.
Manipulated by operating the control as well as
by loosening or pulling the relevant string.
Regional variations:
Andhra Pradesh (Koyya Bommalata),
Assam (Putala Nach),
Karnataka (Sutrada Gombeyata),
Maharashtra (Kalasutri Bahulya),
Rajasthan (Kathputli),
Orissa (Gopalila),
Tamil Nadu (Bommalatam) and
West Bengal (Tarer or Sutor Putul).
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1. String Puppets
Kathputli, Rajasthan
Carved from a single piece of wood.
Large dolls that are colorfully dressed.
Costumes and headgears are designed in the medieval
Rajasthani style.
Uses highly dramatized version of the regional music.
Oval faces, large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips.
Wear long trailing skirts and do not have legs.
Manipulated with strings attached to puppeteers fingers.
Kundhei, Orissa
Made of light wood.
Have no legs but wear long flowing skirts.
Have more joints and are, therefore, more versatile,
articulate and easy to manipulate.
Music of Odissi dance.
Puppeteers hold a wooden prop, triangular in shape, to
which strings are attached.
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1. String Puppets
Gombeyatta, Karnataka
Styled and designed like the characters of
Yakshagana, have joints at the legs,
shoulders, elbows, hips and knees.
Music is dramatic; blends folk and
classical elements.
Manipulated by five to seven strings tied
to a prop.
2. Shadow puppet
Flat figures cut out of leather, treated to make it translucent.
Pressed against the screen with a strong source of light behind it.
The manipulation between the light and the screen make
silhouettes or colourful shadows, as the case may be, for the
viewers who sit in front of the screen.
Prevalent in Orissa. Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
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2. Shadow puppet
Togalu Gombeyatta, Karnataka
Small in size.
Regional music used.
The puppets differ in size according to their
social status, for instance, large size for kings and
religious characters and smaller size for common
people or servants.
2. Shadow puppet
Ravanachhaya, Orissa
Small in size and are in one
piece with no joints.
Made of deer skin and are
conceived in bold dramatic
poses.
Not coloured, hence throw
opaque shadows on the screen.
Apart from human and animal
characters, many props such as
trees, mountains, chariots, etc.
are also used.
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3. Glove puppet
The head is made of either papier mache,
cloth or wood, with two hands emerging
from just below the neck.
The rest of the figure consists of a long
flowing skirt.
The movements are controlled by the
human hand the first finger inserted in the
head and the middle finger and the thumb
are the two arms of the puppet.
Popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West
Bengal and Kerala.
Dialogues play an important role here.
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3. Glove puppet
Pavakoothu, Kerala
Presented usually in a play form. Their
occurrence is almost confined to a few local
villages.
Uses the narrative format prevalent in Kathakali.
The puppets, found in Palghat district, are more
than four centuries old. They are carved
delicately on woods, up to two feet high and
beautified with colour paints, gilded tin,
transparent corals and peacock feathers.
The puppeteer manipulates puppets sitting on an
elevated platform and use instrumental music,
such as, Chenda drums, conch shell, etc.
Puppeteers perform together for an hour or two
in the evening in front of a brass oil-lamp.
The episodes used are from Mahabharata.
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3. Glove puppet
Bener Putul, West bengal
Means dolls of commercial people.
Belong to the scheduled caste of the old palanquinbearers (Kahar). They are normally from among
land-less labour.
The puppets are one and a half foot high, with
terracotta heads and wooden arms.
The puppeteers sing songs during the show and
play Domru (small drums) to attract crowd.
The music is based on either common folk tunes or
even popular Hindi or Bengali songs, full of robust
humour and sarcasm.
The puppets have anklets fixed on arms, which are
used to keep rhythm by clapping.
There are pairs of male and female puppets used by
the puppeteers with two hands.
The themes are based on social events like linguistic
differences, escapade of lover- couples, or even
family planning.
The puppeteer starts early in life and roams from
fair to fair, charging money for each song.
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3. Glove puppet
Sakhi Kundhei, Orissa
The puppeteers are poor agricultural labour, running
small shops for livelihood.
They perform Sakhi Natch showing the dalliance of
Krishna with Radha and the milkmaids.
The puppeteers, belonging to a subcaste of Rajput,
claim to have migrated from Vrindaban.
The puppet for Radha is with anklets round her
waist, called Chandra Badani (moon-faced) and the
music draws heavily on folk melodies accompanied
by Dhol (barrel-shaped drum).
The puppets, gaudily dressed, have definite
expressions to depict emotions. The puppeteer
operates with right hand and plays the dhol with left
hand, while singing the lyrics.
One puppeteer, with another playing the drum, often
manipulates the puppets.
Treats Radha and Krishna as common village boy
and girl.
The songs are from medieval poetry, using folk
melodies popular in the village.
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3. Glove puppet
Gulabu & Sitabu, Uttar Pradesh
The puppeteers, sitting in an open
space, use resplendent dolls and mount
shows around the theme of two women
: Gulabo and Sitabo.
The narrative, recited in a singsong
voice,
is
about
the
quarrel
between Sitabo, the helpless wife and
Gulabo, the beautiful mistress of the
same man, around petty social
happenings.
The songs are interspersed with bawdy
jokes and caustic humour, often
reflecting the local incidents. The
puppets are made of papier-mache with
tinsel jewellery.
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4. Rod puppet
Extension of glove-puppets, but often much larger and supported and
manipulated by rods from below.
Found mostly in West Bengal and Orissa.
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4. Rod puppet
Putul Nautch, West Bengal
Costumed like the actors of Jatra, a traditional
theatre.
Carved from wood and follow the various artistic
styles of a particular region.
Used to be of human size, but existing puppets
vary from 3 to 4 feet in height.
Music of Jatra theatre (drum, harmonium and
cymbals).
Puppeteers themselves sing and deliver the stylized
prose dialogues along with a group of musicians.
Manipulated by a bamboo-made hub tied firmly to
the waist of the puppeteer on which the rod
holding the puppet is placed.
Puppeteers move and dance imparting movements
to puppets.
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4. Rod puppet
Rod puppets, Orissa
Yampuri, Bihar
Painting Styles in
India
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PATTACHITRA
Traditional painting of Orissa, India.
Based on Hindu Mythology and inspired by Jagannath
and Vaishnava cult.
Natural colours are used in fully old traditional way by
Chitrakaras that is Oriya Painter
Is painted on canvas (Patta). Carefully done
craftsmanship, rich colors, unique designs & creative
motifs, & simple themes, which are chiefly mythological
in origin on canvas.
Paintings on the cave walls of Khandagiri and Udayagiri,
Konark temple, and many other temples in Orissa.
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Kaikottikali, Kerala
Also known as Thiruvathirakali.
Dance performed by women, in order to attain everlasting marital bliss, on
Thiruvathira day in the Malayalam month of Dhanu (December- January).
The sinuous movements executed by a group of dancers around a nilavilakku,
embody 'lasya' or the amorous charm and grace of the feminine.
The dance follows a circular, pirouetting pattern accompanied by clapping of
the hands and singing.
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Paravalli Kali
Mixed dance of the aboriginals of dense forest of Travancore area.
Both men and women participate.
They dance holding arms together, or shoulder to shoulder, linked in a backlock
posture.
The men and women change their positions which amazing speed.
The entire group of dancer sings songs and move swift rhythm in a circle.
The linked arms swing to the rhythm in a fascinating wavelike movement.
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Paniyar Kali
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Theatre forms in
India
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Bhavai, Gujrat
Traditionally performed during Navratri before the
shrine of Amba Mata or before a lamp symbolizing the
deity.
Important centres are Kutch and Kathiawar.
Instruments used in Bhavai are: bhungal, tabla, flute,
pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi, manjeera, etc.
In Bhavai, there is a rare synthesis of devotional and
romantic sentiments.
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List.
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Burrakatha
A storytelling technique used in villages of Andra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The troupe
consists of one main performer and two coperformers.
It is a narrative entertainment that consists of prayers,
solo drama, dance, songs, poems and jokes.
The topic will be either a Hindu mythological story or
a contemporary social problem.
Harikatha, also known as Katha Kalakshepa, is a
variant which narrates tales of Lord Krishna, other
Gods and saints.
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Chattisgarh and in the neighboring tribal areas of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
Musical narration of tales from the Mahabharata with one lead narrator-singer, enacting and
singing with an ektara.
No use of stage props or settings, it mainly relies on mimicry and rousing theatrical
movements. Sometimes the singer-narrator breaks into an impromptu dance, at the
completion of an episode or to celebrate a victory with the story being retold.
During a performance, as the story builds, the tambura becomes a prop, sometimes it
becomes to personify a gada, mace of Arjun, or at times his bow or a chariot, while others it
becomes the hair of queen Draupadi or Dushshasan thus helping the narrator-singer play all
the characters of story.
Teejan Bai is most renowned singer to this style.
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Music of India
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Music of India
Includes multiple varieties of folk, popular, pop, classical music
and R&B.
India's classical music tradition, including Carnatic and Hindustani
music, has a history spanning millennia and developed over
several eras.
It remains fundamental to the lives of Indians today as sources of
spiritual inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment.
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Music of India
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Music of India
Uttarakhandi folk music
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Music of India
Rajasthani
Rajasthan has a very diverse cultural collection of musician castes, including Langas, Sapera, Bhopa,
Jogi and Manganiyar (lit. the ones who ask/beg).
Rajasthan Diary quotes it as a soulful, full-throated music with Harmonious diversity.
The haunting melody of Rajasthan evokes from a variety of delightfully primitive looking
instruments.
The stringed variety include the Sarangi, Rawanhattha, Kamayacha, Morsing and Ektara.
Percussion instruments come in all shapes and sizes from the huge Nagaras and Dhols to the tiny
Damrus.
The Daf and Chang are a big favourite of Holi (the festival of colours) revellers. Flutes and bagpipers
come in local flavours such as Shehnai, Poongi, Algoza, Tarpi, Been and Bankia.
Ganasangeet
Eg: Apni Azadi Ko Hum Hargis Mita Sakte Nahin, ajadee hoyni tor, Kadam kadam badhaye jaa,
Vande Mataram etc.
Generally sung in chorus carrying some social message.
The songs are usually about Freedom, community strength, patriotism.
Due to the British occupation in India, a lot of protest songs about anti-imperialism/pro-socialism
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Indian Architecture
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Indian Architecture
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Indian Architecture
The Mauryan Period
Ashoka, first Mauryan to "think in stone".
Mostly indigenous in origin, some exotic forms show the
influence of Greek, Persian and Egyptian cultures.
Beginning of the Buddhist School of architecture in India.
Ashokan pillars were lofty free standing monolithic columns
erected on sacred sites. Originally there were about thirty pillars
but now only ten are in existence, of which only two with lion
capitals stand in situ in good condition at Kolhua and Laurya
Nandangarh respectively.
Sarnath pillar - finest pieces of sculpture of the Ashokan
period.
The Chinese traveller Fa-hien was so impressed by Ashokas
palace near Patna that he stated that "it was made by spirits" and
that its carvings are so elegantly executed "which no human
hands of this world could accomplish".
Its existence was pointed out during the excavations at
Kumrahar, near Patna, where its ashes have been found
preserved for several thousand years.
Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador of Selucas Nikator who
visited the Mauryan court described Chandragupta Mauryas
palace as an excellent architectural achievement
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Indian Architecture
THE STUPAS
SANCHI STUPAS:
hemispherical in shape with a low base.
symbolized the cosmic mountain.
inscription by the ivory carvers of Vidisha on the southern
gateway throws light on the transference of building material
from perishable wood and ivory to the more durable stone.
AMARAVATI STUPA:
built in 2nd or 1st century BC was probably like the one at
Sanchi
but in later centuries it was transformed from a Hinayana
shrine to a Mahayana shrine.
GANDHARA STUPA:
further development of stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut.
the base, dome and the hemisphere dome are sculpted.
stupas of Nagarjunakonda in Krishna valley were very large.
Maha Chaitya of Nagarjunakonda has a base in the form
of Swastika, which is a sun symbol.
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Indian Architecture
The Mathura School Of Art( 50 B.C. - 500 A.D.):
At the holy city of Mathura between 1-3 A.D.
Established tradition of transforming Buddhist
symbols into human form.
Buddhas first image can be traced to Kanishkas reign
(about 78 A.D.).
Earliest sculptures of Buddha were made keeping the
yaksha prototype in mind.
Strongly built - right hand raised in protection and left
hand on the waist.
The figures do not have moustaches and beards as in
the Gandhara Art.
Seated figures are in the padmasana posture.
Not only produced beautiful images of the Buddha
but also of the Jain Tirthankaras and gods and
goddesses of the Hindu pantheon.
Although of indigenous origin, but greatly influenced
by the Gandhara School of Art.
Guptas adopted, further improvised & perfected
Mathura School of Art.
Observed at - Sarnath, Sravasti and even as far as
Rajgir in Bihar.
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Indian Architecture
Indian Architecture
Mughal Architecture
Mughal architecture is the architectural style developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th and
18th centuries throughout the extent of their empire in the Indian subcontinent.
It was an amalgam of Islamic, Persian, and Indian architecture The Mughal Emperors gave a new
direction and impetus to architecture. Examples of the style can be found in India, Pakistan,
Afghanistan and Bangladesh.
The Mughal dynasty was established after the victory of Babur at Panipat in 1526. During his fiveyear reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few of which have
survived.
His grandson Akbar built widely, and the style developed vigorously during his reign. Among his
accomplishments were a tomb for his father Humayun, the Agra Fort, and the fort-city of
Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar's son Jahangir commissioned the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir.
Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan, who constructed the
Jama Masjid, the Red Fort, the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, and the most famous Mughal
monument, the Taj Mahal, as well as many other fine examples of the style.
While Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb commissioned some buildings such as the Badshahi Mosque in
Lahore, his reign corresponded with the decline of Mughal architecture and the Empire itself.
Under Jahangir the Hindu features vanished from the style; his great mosque at Lahore is in the
Persian style, covered with enameled tiles. At Agra, the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula, which was
completed in 1628, was built entirely of white marble and covered in pietra dura mosaic.
Jahangir also built the Shalimar Gardens and Nishat Bagh, and their accompanying pavilions on
the shore of Dal Lake in Kashmir. He also built a monument to his pet deer, Hiran Minar in
Sheikhupura, Pakistan and due to his great love for his wife, after his death she went on to build
his mausoleum in Lahore.
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Indian Architecture
Mughal Architecture
Shah Jahan
Taj Mahal
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Indian Architecture
Mughal Architecture
Aurangzeb and later Mughal architecture
In Aurangzeb's reign (16581707) squared stone and marble was replaced by brick or rubble with
stucco ornament.
Srirangapatna and Lucknow have examples of later Indo-Muslim architecture.
He made additions to the Lahore Fort and also built one of the thirteen gates which was later named
after him (Alamgir).
Aurangzeb also built the Badshahi Mosque which was constructed in 1674 under the supervision of
Fida'i Koka. This mosque is adjacent to the Lahore Fort and is the last in the series of congregational
mosques in red sandstone and is closely modeled on the one Shah Jahan built at Shahjahanabad.
The red sandstone of the walls contrasts with the white marble of the domes and the subtle intarsia
decoration.
Additional monuments from this period are associated with women from Aurangzeb's imperial family.
The construction of the elegant Zinat al-Masjid in Daryaganij was overseen by Aurangzeb's second
daughter Zinat-al-Nisa.
The tomb of Aurangzeb's sister Roshan-Ara, who died in 1671, and the garden surrounding it were
neglected for a long time and are now in an advanced state of decay.
Bibi Ka Maqbara was a mausoleum built by Prince Azam Shah, son of Emperor Aurangzeb, in the late
17th century as a loving tribute to his mother, Dilras Bano Begam in Aurangabad, Maharashtra.
The Alamgiri Gate, built in 1673 A.D., is the main entrance to the Lahore Fort in present day Lahore. It
was constructed to face west towards the Badshahi Mosque in the days of the Mughal Emperor
Aurangzeb.
Another construction of Mughal era is the Lalbagh Fort (also known as "Fort Aurangabad"), a Mughal
palace fortress at the Buriganga River in the southwestern part of Dhaka, Bangladesh, whose
construction started in 1678 during the reign of Aurangzeb.
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Mughal Architecture
Mughal gardens
Mughal gardens are a group of gardens built by the Mughals in the Islamic
style of architecture. This style was influenced by Persian gardens and
Timurid gardens. Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the
walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and
canals inside the gardens. The famous gardens are the Char Bagh gardens
at Taj Mahal, Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, Delhi and Kashmir as well as
Pinjore Garden in Haryana.
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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
India's Hindu temple architecture is developed from the creativity of Sthapathis and Shilpis, both of
whom belong to the larger community of craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma (caste).
A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, the garbha graha or womb-chamber, in which the
idol or deity is housed, often called circumambulation, a congregation hall, and sometimes an
antechamber and porch. The garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikara.
All the Hindu temples in India follows the architecture defined in Shilpa Shastras.
However, there are artistic variations in terms of construction of shikara depending on regional
culture
SHIKHARA
MANDAPA
VIMANA
garbha-griha
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Indian Architecture
History of Temple Architecture
Representation of the macrocosm (the universe) as well as the microcosm
(the inner space).
The Ashtadhyayi of Panini, the great grammarian of the 5th century BCE
speaks of images that were used in Hindu temple worship. The ordinary
images were called pratikriti and the images for worship were called archa.
Patanjali, the 2nd-century BCE author of the Mahabhashya commentary on
the Ashtadhyayi, tells us more about the images.
Deity images for sale were called Shivaka etc., but an archa of Shiva was
just called Shiva. Patanjali mentions Shiva and Skanda deities.
There is also mention of the worship of Vasudeva (Krishna).
Some images could be moved and some were immoveable.
Panini also says that an archa was not to be sold and that there were
people (priests) who obtained their livelihood by taking care of it.
Panini and Patanjali mention temples which were called prasadas.
The earlier Shatapatha Brahmana of the period of the Vedas, informs us of
an image in the shape of Purusha which was placed within the altar.
The Vedic books describe the plan of the temple to be square. This plan is
divided into 64 or 81 smaller squares, where each of these represent a
specific divinity.
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Indian Architecture
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
Nagara architecture
Nagara temples have two distinct features :
In plan, the temple is a square with a number of graduated projections in
the middle of each side giving a cruciform shape with a number of reentrant angles on each side.
In elevation, a Sikhara, i.e., tower gradually inclines inwards in a convex
curve.
The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the Sikhara
and, thus, there is strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation.
Style is widely distributed over a greater part of India, exhibiting distinct
varieties and ramifications in lines of evolution and elaboration according to
each locality.
An example of Nagara architecture is the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.
(detailed image on next page).
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Indian Architecture
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
Dravidian architecture
Four following parts, differing only according to the age in which they were executed:
The principal part, the temple itself, is called the Vimana (or Vimanam). It is always square in
plan and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more stories; it contains the cell where the
image of the god or his emblem is placed.
The porches or Mandapas (or Mantapams), which always cover and precede the door leading to
the cell.
Gate-pyramids, Gopurams, which are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that
surround the more notable temples.
Pillared halls or Chaultrisproperly Chawadis -- used for various purposes, and which are the
invariable accompaniments of these temples.
Contains temple tanks or wells for water (used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests),
dwellings for all grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or
convenience.
Structure of a typical
Drvaidan viman
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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
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Indian Architecture
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
Gadag Architecture style
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Indian Architecture
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
Kalinga architecture style
The design which flourished in eastern Indian state of Odisha and
Northern Andhra Pradesh are called Kalinga style of architecture.
The style consists of three distinct type of temples namely Rekha
Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula.
Deula means "temple" in the local language. The former two are
associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temple while the third is
mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples.
The Rekha deula and Khakhara deula houses the sanctum
sanctorum while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer dancing and
offering halls.
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Indian Architecture
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
Mru-Gurjara temple architecture
Originated somewhere in 6th century in and around areas of Rajasthan.
Shows the deep understanding of structures and refined skills of Rajasthani craftmen of bygone
era.
Has two prominent styles: Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara.
Scholars believe that Mru-Gurjara temple architecture is entirely Western Indian architecture
and is quite different from the North Indian temple architecture.
This further shows the cultural and ethnic separation of Rajasthanis from north Indian culture.
There is a connecting link between Mru-Gurjara architecture and Hoysala temple architecture.
In both of these styles architecture is treated sculpturally.
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Indian Architecture
CAVE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
AJANTA CAVES
Located near village of Ajintha in
Aurangabad.
Discovered by the British officers while
hunting a tiger in 1819 AD.
30 cave temples at Ajanta are set into the
rocky sides of a crescent shaped gorge in the
Inhyadri hills of the Sahyadri ranges.
5 caves are Chaitya-grihas, & rest are
Viharas(monasteries).
Caves were constructed in two phases, first
group around 200 BC and second group
around 600 AD.
Depicts a large number of incidents from
the life of the Buddha (Jataka Tales).
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Indian Architecture
CAVE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
ELLORA CAVES(5th -13th Cen AD)
Located in Aurangabad city.
3 major religion of india- Hinduism, Buddhism & Jainism.
Buddhist Caves:
Built around 5th-7th century AD
Cave 10 is famous and known as Carpenters Cave or
Vishvakarma Cave with a 3.3m high seated Buddha at the far
end.
Cave 11 has the images of Durga and Ganesh also a Buddha
shrine, it is belived that it was converted in to hindu temple
after being deserted by buddhist.
Hindu Caves:
6th and 8th century AD.
Cave 16 also known as Kailasa Temple which is a multi
storeyed temple carved out of a single rock, built by
Rashtrakuta emperor Krishna I.
Jain Caves:
Belongs to Digambara faction.
Total 5 caves.
Most notable are cave 30 (Chotta Kailash), cave 32 (Indra
Sabha), and cave 33 (Jagannath Sabha).
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CAVE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
ELEPHANTA CAVES
Network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island,
or Gharapuri (literally "the city of caves") in Mumbai Harbour.
The island, located on an arm of the Arabian Sea, consists of two groups
of cavesthe first is a large group of five Hindu caves, the second, a
smaller group of two Buddhist caves.
The Hindu caves contain rock cut stone sculptures, representing
the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva.
Dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries, although the identity of the
original builders is still a subject of debate.
Hewn from solid basalt rock. All the caves were also originally painted in
the past, but now only traces remain.
The island was called Gharapuri and was a Hindu place of worship
until Portuguese rule began in 1534.
The Portuguese called the island Elephanta on seeing its huge gigantic
statue of an Elephant at the entrance. The Statue is now placed in the
garden outside the Bhau Daji Lad Museum at Byculla in Mumbai.
This cave was renovated in the 1970s after years of neglect, and was
designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 to preserve the
artwork. It is currently maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India.
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Indian Architecture
CAVE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
BHIMBETAKA CAVES
Located near Bhopal in the Raisen District Madhya Pradesh.
First referred in the archeological records in
1888 AD as Buddhist site. Later discovered
by Dr Vishnu Wakankar in 1957-58.
More than 700 shelters. Bhimbetka group
(243) & Lakha Juar group (178).
Rock paintings can be traced back to the
Stone Age era, closely 30000 years old.
Excavations revealed history of continuous
habitation from early stone age (about 10000
years) to the end of stone age (c. 10,000 to
2,000 years).
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Indian
Literature
110
Vedic Literature
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Vedic Literature
Vedas
RIG VEDA
SAMA VEDA
TRAJI
YAJUR VEDA
ATHARVA VEDA
Four
Vedas
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Vedic Literature
Vedas
RIG VEDA
Praise of GODS
YAJUR VEDA
SAM VEDA
ATHARVA VEDA
Origin of Music-Sabda
Brahma Nad Brahma
Vedas of Worship
Various branches of
Science,
Ayurved,
economics
including
Vedic Math
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Vedic Literature
Rigveda
Vedas
Yajurveda
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Vedic Literature
Vedas
Samaveda
Artharvaveda
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Vedic Literature
Vedanta
Prasthatrayi refers to three holy books.
The Upanishads
The Brahma-Sutra
Vedic Literature
Vedanta
Upanishads
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Vedic Literature
Vedanta
The Brahma-Sutra
Teachings of Vedanta are set forth in a systematic
and logical order.
Also known as Vedanta Sutra, Uttara-mimamsa
Sutra, Shariraka Sutra and the Bhikshu Sutra.
Consists of 555 aphorisms or sutras, in 4 chapters,
each chapter being divided into 4 sections each.
The first chapter (Samanvaya: harmony) explains
that all the Vedantic texts talk of Brahman, the
ultimate reality, which is the goal of life.
The second chapter (Avirodha: non-conflict)
discusses and refutes the possible objections against
Vedanta philosophy.
The third chapter (Sadhana: the means) describes
the process by which ultimate emancipation can
be achieved.
The fourth chapter (Phala: the fruit) talks of the state
that is achieved in final emancipation.
Indian tradition identifies Badrayana, the author of
the Brahma Sutra, with Vyasa, the compiler of the
Vedas.
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Vedic Literature
Vedanta
Bhagavad Gita
Part
of
the
Sanskrit
epic
Mahabhaarata (200 BC to 200 AD).
700 verses in 18 chapters.
A conversation between Lord
Krishna and his close friend Arjuna in
the middle of the battle field just
before the start of the Kurushetra
battle.
Arjuna loses his heart and refuses to
fight his eachers and relatives, and
Krishna revives him by his wise words
of wisdom.
Presents
a
synthesis
of
the
Brahmanical concept of Dharma,
theistic bhakti, the yogic ideals of
liberation
hrough
jnana, and
Samkhya philosophy.
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Vedic Literature
Puranas
The Puranas are post-Vedic texts which typically contain a complete narrative of the
history of the Universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of the kings, heroes
and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology and geography.
There are 18 canonical Puranas, divided into three categories, each named after a
deity: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. There are also many other works termed Purana,
known as 'Upapuranas.'
Some of the well known Puranas are Brahma, Bhagvat, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu, Agni,
Matsya and Garuda.
The Puranas follow the lines of the epics, and the earliest Puranas were compiled in
the Gupta period.
They are full of myths, stories, legends and sermons that were meant for the
education of the common people.
These Puranas contain important geographical information/ histories and deal with
the mysteries of creation, re-creation and dynastic genealogies.
This period also saw the compilation of various smritis or law books written in verse.
The phase of writing commentaries on the smritis begins after the Gupta period.
Amarasimha the Sanskrit Lexicographer, states that a Purana should describe five
topics; (1) Sarga (Creation) (2) Pratisarga (Secondary creation) (3) Vemsa
(Geneology) (4) Manvantara (Manu periods) and (5) Vamsanucarita (dynastic
history)
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Vedic Literature
Itihasa
Ramayana
The Ramayana is one of the great Hindu
epics.
It is ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and
forms an important part of the Hindu literature
(smti).
It depicts the duties of relationships,
portraying ideal characters like the ideal
father, ideal servant, the ideal brother, the
ideal wife and the ideal king.
The
name
Ramayana
is
a
tatpurusha
compound
of Rma and ayana ("going, advancing"),
translating to "Rama's Journey".
Consists of 24,000 verses in seven books
(kas) and 500 cantos (sargas).
Tells the story of Rama (an avatar of the Hindu
Supreme-GodVishnu), whose wife Sita is
abducted by the king of Ravan. Thematically,
the Ramayana explores human values and
the concept of dharma.
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Vedic Literature
Itihasa
Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is a more complex work which
covers almost every aspect of life and living.
It is the longest existing epic consisting of 1,20,000
shlokas.
Said to be the story of an ancient battle between
two branches of a family, the Bharatas.
Said to be composed around 400 B.C.
Also known as Jaya or victory, the Mahabharata is
said to have been composed by the great sage
Vyasa, the compiler of the Vedas.
Vyasa taught the Mahabharata to his son Suka.
It is said Narada taught it to the gods or devas while
Suka taught it to the gandharvas, the rakshasas and
the yakshas.
Vaisampayana, one of Vyasas chief disciples,
narrated the story at a great sacrifice conducted by
Janamejaya, the descendent of the Pandavas and
it spread further.
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Vedic Literature
Mahabharata
Itihasa
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VEDA
ARANYAKA
BRAHMANA
RIG
Aitereya, Kousitaki
Aiterya, Kousitaki
YAJUR
Taittiriya, Brhad
Aranyaka, Maitr Ayania
SAMA
ATHARVA
Gopatha
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Ashtadhyayi
Written by Panini ,a famous Sanskrit grammarian from
Pushkalavati, Gandhara of ancient Indian.
He is mostly famous for his Sanskrit grammar Ashtadhyayi.
He formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology, syntax and
semantics in the grammar.
The Ashtadhyayi is the initial text of the grammatical branch of
the Vedanga.
It is one of the most important auxiliary academic texts of Vedic
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Indica
Writeen by Megasthenes, a Greek traveler,
historian, diplomat, geographer and author.
He visited India at the time of Mauryan Empire in
304 BC.
Considered as the first foreigner Ambassador to
India. He stayed in India for a long time.
The hellenistic king Seleucus I sent him to India as
an ambassador to the court of King
Chandragupta Maurya of Mauryan Empire.
His famous work Indica is the first Western well
known account of India.
Provides detail account of the social, political
and economic life of India to the Greek world
which was the source to work by the later
historian like Diodorus, Strabo.
He mentioned about the culture, history and
religion of India. In his work he also described a
caste system.
He referred about Himalayas and the island of Sri
Lanka
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Manu Samhita
Written by Saint Manu.
It is believed that Manu was the ancient
teacher of sacred rites and laws.
He was a religious practitioner and a
scholar in astrology.
Also known as the Manu-Smriti or ManavaDharmasastra
It is a famous Sanskrit text about code of
law and Dharmasastra textual of Hinduism.
Talks about the principles, morals, duties
and schedules that a person should follow
in its life.
Has total 12 Chapters and 2685 Shlokas
(verses).
It formed the root of Hindu law.
Considered as one of the oldest important
texts during the time of 200 BC and 200 AD.
According to Hindu ritual, the Manu Smriti
records the words of Brahma.
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Arthashastra
Written by Kautilya/ Chanakya who was the Prime
Minister of Chandragupta Maurya.
It describes the art of running a kingdom: how to
appoint ministers, officials, and judges; how to
collect and keep revenues; how to wage war; how
to manipulate and/or make treaties with
neighboring kings.
Its
pragmatic
the-ends-justify-the-means
suggestions have often been compared to the
16th-century writings of the Italian political
philosopher Niccol Machiavelli.
The book explained in detail how a king in financial
need might replenish his treasury: by taking more
grain from farmers and more gold from traders or
(this with several variations) by proclaiming a tree,
a shrub, a house the site of a spectacular miracle
and then living on the donations given by believers.
In addition to all this, the book also included lists of
magical potions and spells to be used against
enemies or in case of a revolt.
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Kamasutra
Written between 400 BCE and 200 CE on
human sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature by
Vtsyyana.
A portion of the work consists of practical
advice on sexual intercourse.
It is largely in prose, with many inserted
anustubh poetry verses.
"Kma" which is one of the four goals of Hindu
life, means sensual or sexual pleasure, and
"stra" literally means a thread or line that holds
things together, and more metaphorically
refers to an aphorism (or line, rule, formula), or
a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a
manual.
Contrary to popular perception, especially in
the western world, Kama sutra is not just an
exclusive sex manual; it presents itself as a
guide to a virtuous and gracious living that
discusses the nature of love, family life and
other aspects pertaining to pleasure oriented
faculties of human life.
The Kama Sutra is the oldest and most notable
of a group of texts known generically as Kama
Shastra.
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Religions in India
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Religions in India
Hinduism
The Hindu religion, exactly like the country of its birth, is unique.
Where Christians have the Bible and the Muslims their Koran, Hindus can
pick from a whole range: the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagwad
Gita, the Mahabharata or the Ramayana.
Major Hindus Deities
Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, Lakshmi, Parvati, Saraswati, Durga, Rama,
Hanuman, Krishna or Ganesha are some of the most popular deities.
You may worship any of them or just concentrate on the Supreme Spirit
which is believed to be enshrined in every person.
Some Hindus begin the day with a visit to the neighborhood temple;
others adhere to fasts and rituals. While some go on pilgrimages and
bathe in holy rivers; still others declare all rituals redundant.
Hinduism thrives and revels in all its contradictions. Within its elastic
structure, it allows great flexibility and is much more tolerant than any
other religion of the world.
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Religions in India
Hinduism
Concepts and Beliefs
Atman
Though casually described as the self, atman is actually the eternal within us. You could call it the
spirit or soul that is enshrined in every human being. When an individual attains moksha, his atman
is believed to merge with the divine or the universal consciousness.
Dharma
Derived from the Sanskrit root dhara (to bear, to support, to maintain), dharma literally means `that
which is established by law, duty or custom'. When used in the context of Hinduism, it implies an
order of values which links the individual to the social and the cosmic. Hindus believe that each
act bears certain consequences in individual, social, ethical and cosmic terms. A dharmic act,
therefore, is one that brings positive results.
Four Ashrams
The four ashrams or stages of life prescribed for a Hindu presume that a person will live to a good
100 years. The first 25 years are set aside for learning, the next for life as a householder, then comes
the quarter dedicated to self-control and abstinence and the last quarter involves renunciation or
withdrawal from the world.
Karma
Actions or deeds performed by an individual in a lifetime. In fact, karma is believed to accrue from
past births. Moksha simply cannot be attained till one has neither good nor bad deeds to one's
credit.
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Religions in India
Hinduism
Mantra
A sacred syllable or ritual incantation which is believed to have the power to convert word into
reality, like the root mantra Om which is supposed to be the sound of the vibration of the world
when it was being created.
Maya
Generally the illusion that this tangible world is the real world and success herein the ultimate goal
of life. According to Hinduism the real world is the world of the soul, not of the body and the
senses.
Moksha
Final release or liberation of a soul from the endless cycle of death and rebirth.
Samadhi
The internal ecstasy attained through meditation by a yogi (someone who has renounced the
world to lead a life of meditation). This is usually the final stage of ecstasy when the soul transcends
the human body to merge with the cosmos.
Samsara
The endless cycle of death and rebirth which believes that a soul is reincarnated till it has evolved
enough to attain moksha.
Samskaras
A Hindu is expected to perform certain rituals throughout this life from the moment of conception
of life to death. Numbering to about 40, these samskaras include a child's naming ceremony,
marriage and the funeral rites performed by the off-spring of the dead.
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Religions in India
Hinduism
Tantra
Yantra
Yoga
Yoga can broadly be described as the method of attaining the ultimate goal
(liberation of soul from the body) by mastering the body, the senses and the mind
through physical exercises and meditation. (see Yoga under Healing Systems of India)
A sight peculiar to India and Hinduism is that of saffron-clad hermits with matted locks
who often travel from one holy place to another with scarcely a possession in the
world.
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Religions in India
Hinduism
Brahma
Saraswati
The goddess of learning and wisdom, Saraswati is the consort of Brahma. She is
believed to have invented the Sanskrit language and is the patroness of the arts and
sciences. Floating on a lotus, she is often shown playing the veena (a stringed musical
instrument).
Vishnu or Narayana
One of the three most powerful Hindu gods, Vishnu is the second of the Trinity of
Creator-Preserver-Destroyer. When Vishnu is asleep on the coils of Ananta (the manyheaded snake), the universe is in a state of dissolution. When he wakes up, the
universe evolves. The cycle goes on thus., and it goes on forever. Periodically, Vishnu
descends to earth to protect truth and virtue and to destroy evil. His earlier avatars
(incarnations) were in animal forms. In his seventh, eighth and ninth incarnations,
Vishnu appeared as Rama, Krishna and Buddha respectively.
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Religions in India
Hinduism
Lakshmi
Vishnu's consort, Lakshmi, is the Goddess of wealth, plenty and prosperity. Bedecked
with jewellery, she is shown sitting on a lotus. When Vishnu appeared on earth in the
form of Rama, she faithfully followed as his wife Sita. In Vishnu's avatar as Krishna, she
became both Radha and Rukmini.
Shiva
Shiva, the most-feared of the Hindu gods, has the aspect of an ascetic and is the
destroyer in the great Trinity. He has many roles to play. He is the Great Yogi
meditating on Mount Kailasa (in the Himalyas). He is Nataraja (Lord of Dance),
creating and destroying. He is Bhooteshwar, the lord of wandering spirits and lost souls.
He is Pashupatinath, the lord and protector of all animal life. In another aspect he is
the seed of life and his phallic symbol is worshipped in many temples. The cobra, the
bull Nandi, the trishul (trident) and the linga (phallus) are all symbols of Shiva.
Shakti
Shiva's spouse is Shakti (Energy) in the forms of Uma, Parvati and Durga. While Shiva
stays aloof meditating on Mount Kailash, his power to act is embodied the form of the
goddess or Devi. In her beneficent form she is Parvati, while in her terrifying form she
appears as Kali. The cult of Shakti worship is especially strong in North India and in the
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eastern state of West Bengal.
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Religions in India
Hinduism
Gods & Goddesses
Ganesha
The elephant-headed god, son of Shiva and Parvati, is known for his wisdom and
brings prosperity. His birthday is considered the most auspicious day of the year and
Hindus always invoke his name before beginning any new enterprise.
Rama
Vishnu in his avatar as Rama is referred to as Purshottam, the perfect man whose each
act is governed by dharma. The purpose of the incarnation was to rid mankind of the
menace of the powerful, ten-headed demonking Ravana.
Krishna
The most human of the Hindu gods, as a child he delighted in stealing butter. As a
youth wearing a crown of peacock feathers and dressed in yellow silk, he held cows
spellbound as the flute-playing cowherd. As the beloved of all the gopis (milkmaids),
he held them entranced with the magic of his flute and performed the rasleela
(dance) with them. In his mature years, Krishna appears as an astute statesman and
later the wise philosopher whose teachings are embodied in the Bhagwad Gita.
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Religions in India
Buddhism
Around 530 BC a young prince named Siddhartha Gautama challenged
the ideas of the Brahmin priests and created a new world religion.
Born in 563 BC into the warrior caste, he lived in luxury in his familys
palaces and never experienced pain, suffering, or death
He married a beautiful woman and they had a son.
One day while riding in his chariot outside the palace walls, Gautama
saw a sick man, an old man, and a dead man.
He realized that life was an endless cycle of pain and that the only way to
escape that cycle was to seek wisdom.
He left his family when he was about 29 and became a homeless
wanderer with five other men who were also seeking wisdom.
Gautama tried to find wisdom through physical suffering and harsh
discipline but instead he gained only pain.
At last, after days of meditating deeply in the shade of a tree, Gautama
felt that the truth had come to him.
At this point, he became known as The Enlightened One, or Buddha.
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Religions in India
Buddhism
Four Noble Truths
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Religions in India
Buddhism
By following the Eightfold Path, anyone could attain nirvana-which was the release from all pain and suffering
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Religions in India
Buddhism
Buddha taught his followers to treat all living things (humans, animals, and
even insects) with kindness and love
Buddha eliminated the caste system, the rituals associated with Hinduism,
and the ancient language (Sanskrit) of the Vedas and Upanishads
Concerned with all human beings---women as well as men, and lowborn
as well as highborn
Primarily a monastic religion---young men leave their families to become
monks dedicated to the Eightfold Path and achieving enlightenment
(and, eventually, nirvana)
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Religions in India
sikhism
Sikhism is perhaps the second youngest world religion, about 531 years at the end of
the millennium. Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, was born a Hindu and belonged to the
Punjab where he lived between 1469-1539. Since Punjab was home to both Hindus and
Muslims, Nanak grew up observing the ill-will between the two religious communities.
Religions in India
sikhism
Acknowledged As A Guru Nanak
Angad Dev, who started putting together the
Guru's writings, succeeded Guru Nanak as the
leader of the Sikhs. He also introduced a script
already being used by some Punjabis as the
official script of the Sikhs and called it Gurmukhi or
the language of the guru.
It was the fifth Guru, Arjun Dev, who commenced
the building of the Golden Temple at Amritsar. This
temple is the holiest shrine of the Sikhs and every
Sikh tries to visit it once in his lifetime. Arjun Dev also
collected the poems of Nanak, Kabir and other
saints and compiled them to form the scripture of
the Sikhs, called Adi Granth ('The First Book') or
Guru Granth Sahib ('Book of the Lord').
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Religions in India
sikhism
The Khalsa
The spread of Sikhism so alarmed the Muslims of India that they soon came to be persecuted. The
fifth Guru Arjun Dev was put to death by the Mughals on a charge of sedition in 1606. Later, Guru
Tegh Bahadur was executed in Delhi by the order of Emperor Aurangzeb. These two executions
forced the Sikhs to realize that they needed to organize themselves into a fighting force.
The 10 th and last Guru, Govind Singh, summoned a huge assembly of Sikhs on Baisakhi day in 1699.
He reminded them of their two martyred gurus and the need to unite and wage a war against the
Mughals. He then unsheathed his sword and demanded: "Is there anyone in this Sangat (assembly)
who is willing to offer his head for his Guru and Religion?
Everyone stayed silent in fear till the Guru had repeated his demand thrice. Eventually a Hindu
stepped forward. The Guru took him into a tent and emerged with a bloody sword. The same thing
happened four more times. After the fifith man had volunteered and stepped into the tent, the
Guru emerged with all five of them alive. These five men were proclaimed the Panj Pyares (the five
beloved ones) by the Guru.
The Guru then went on to declare that all members of the Khalsa brotherhood should be fearless
and ready to give their lives for their faith
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Religions in India
sikhism
Teachings & Beliefs
Religions in India
sikhism
The Five Ks
DONTs
Shaving or cutting of
Hair
Eating Halal ( Kutta )
meat
Adultery
Use of tobacco or
intoxicants (Smoking,
Drugs, Alcohol etc)
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Religions in India
islam
On the surface, Islam seems as dissimilar to Hinduism as chalk and cheese. After all,
Hinduism evolved gradually as a way of life while Islam was founded by a historical
person, the Prophet Mohammad.
According to Hindu mythology, Hinduism icons the existence of many God and
Goddesses, Islam strictly adheres to the concept of one god.
Hindus worship painted and sculpted images of their gods; Muslims regard idolatry
as the most grievous sin.
While the Hindu temple is enclosed on three sides and there is an air of mystery in
the dark inner sanctum, the Muslim mosque is open on all sides, exposed to light
and air. While Hindus agree that a person cannot become a Hindu, Muslims regard
the conversion of non-Muslims as a meritorious deed.
Religions in India
islam
The Advent of Islam
Islamic influence first came to be felt in the 7 th century with the advent of Arab
traders. This was followed by sporadic raids into India by Muslim traders, but the first
Muslim kingdom was established in Delhi at the end of the 12 th century.
The Muslims gradually spread their rule to the south and the east. During the reign of
Alauddin Khilji, only the southern part of India remained outside their power. With the
coming of the Mughals in 1506, Islam seeped deeper into India. Akbar's (1556-1605)
policy of religious tolerance brought the Hindus and Muslims still closer together.
Religions in India
islam
Festivals
Urs
An urs is usually the birthday of a Sufi saint which is celebrated at the grave or dargah
of the saint. Some of India's most venerated sufis are Salim Chishti in Fatehpur-Sikri (Uttar
Pradesh), Moin-ud-din Chishti in Ajmer (Rajasthan) and Nizam-ud-din Auliya in Delhi.
The urs at their dargahs are often an occasion for melas (fairs), qawwalis (hymns in
praise of Allah and his prophet Muhammad) and much frenetic dancing.
Eid
Id is celebrated twice very year and the two are separately referred to as Id-ul-Fitr and
Eid-ul-Zuha (Bakr-Id, when goats are traditionally slaughtered to make special
preparations). Id-ul-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan, the Muslim month of fasting. Id-ulZuha commemorates Abraham's attempt to sacrifice his son.
Muharram
Muharram mourns the murder of Imam Hussain, grandson of the Prophet, at Karbala.
Though it is an occasion for mourning, a colorful memorial procession is led through the
streets of Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and Hyderabad, to name a few.
Decorated and brightly colored tazias of bamboo and paper are carried as replicas of
the martyr's tomb. The procession proceeds to the frenzied beating of drums and
heart-renting cries of 'Hussain, Hussain !' A peculiar practice here is that young men
armed with leather whips often lash themselves repeatedly.
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Religions in India
Jainism
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Religions in India
jainism
As per Jainism, one must perform the
following ethical principles not only in
thought, but also in words (speech) and
action to attain the enlightenment and
ultimately liberation from all bonding. It is
also called as observing the Mahavrata
('Great Vows').
These vows are:
1. Nonviolence (Ahimsa) - to cause no
harm to any living being;
2. Truthfulness (Satya) - to speak the
harmless truth only;
3. Non-stealing (Asteya) - to take
nothing not properly given;
4. Chastity (Brahmacharya) - to indulge
in no sensual pleasure;
5. Non-possession/Non-attachment
(Aparigraha) - to detach completely
from people, places, and material
things.
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