a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 9 September 2013
Revised 26 June 2014
Accepted 22 July 2014
Keywords:
Adiabatic-CAES
Renewable integration
Sub-surface pumped hydro
Tri-generation
Underwater-CAES
a b s t r a c t
A signicant percentage of the global energy demand is expected to be met through widespread supply of
renewable electricity in the near future. However, renewable energy outputs are variable due to a stochastic characteristic of their sources. Electrical power system operators around the world are faced with
difculties of integrating these variable power sources into the existing power grids. Energy storage systems are one of the possible solutions for mitigating the effects of intermittent renewable resources on
networks, allowing increased renewable energy utilization, and providing exibility and ancillary services for managing future electricity supply/demand challenges. This paper presents a comprehensive
review of energy storage technologies that are currently engaged for power applications, including
pumped hydro, compressed-air, battery, ywheel, capacitor, supercapacitor, superconducting magnetic
and thermal systems. The study compares the characteristics of these systems, and presents their
technological development status and capital costs. Some directions for future work are also highlighted.
Furthermore, particular attention is paid to some new storage technologies such as: adiabatic, underwater, isothermal and small-scale compressed-air; sub-surface, seawater and variable-speed pumped hydro,
and pumped heat systems, which hold opportunity for future smart electrical grid applications, but there
is need for more research to actualize their promising potentials.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Recent concerns on the increase of carbon dioxide emissions
(CDE) in the environment, rising energy demands, and the liberalization of the electricity sector have informed the attention of global community to renewable energy technologies [1]. Renewable
energy, such as solar, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, wave or
tidal is an energy obtained from natural and persistent ows of
energy occurring in the immediate environment, with a huge
potential for alternative electricity generation [2]. Though integration of intermittent renewable energy (RE) generation is new in the
evolution of electrical power systems, it is receiving increasing
attention around the world, due to certain technical benets it
offers, including improvement of power quality and voltage prole,
enhancement of voltage stability and reliability, and grid support,
etc. [3]. However, grid-integrated renewable systems affect the
operational characteristics of existing power networks, because
of the stochastic nature of renewable energy sources [4,5]. In certain cases, the grid may not be able to accommodate the entire
RE generation at the PCC, and this will lead to curtailment of power
generation, to a level that could be allowed by the network
D.O. Akinyele, R.K. Rayudu / Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 8 (2014) 7491
75
Nomenclature
ATES
BES
BP
CAES
CES
CEST
CDE
CS
CSP
DER
DG
DR
ESS
EEST
Estorage
EM
EV
FES
HEB
HS
HTES
Hupper
Hlower
Li-ion
MEST
NaS
NBC
NiCd
PHS
PHES
PHEV
PCC
PSBB
PCM
RE
RTE
SCES
SMES
SoS
SPHS
SSPHS
TES
TEST
T/D
ToU
VSPHS
V2G
VRB
ZEBRA
ZnBr
x
I
nickelcadmium
pumped hydro storage
pumped heat electrical storage
plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
point of common coupling
polysulphide bromine battery
phase change materials
renewable energy
round trip efciency
super capacitor energy storage
superconducting magnetic energy storage
state-of-charge
seawater pumped hydro storage
sub-surface pumped hydro storage
thermal energy storage
thermal energy storage technologies
transmission and distribution
time-of-use
variable speed pumped hydro storage
vehicle-to-grid
vanadium redox battery
zero emissions batteries research activity
zinc bromine
velocity of ywheel
moment of inertia of ywheel rotor
density of water
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D.O. Akinyele, R.K. Rayudu / Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 8 (2014) 7491
Storage discharging
into network
Mid merit
generation
Generation profile
with storage
Storage charged
from baseload
generating plant
Baseload
generation
System Demand / MW
Peaking
generation
Generation profile
without storage
Storage used to
maintain frequency and
voltage by balancing
supply and demand
Storage charged
from baseload
generating plant
Generation
profile without
storage
6am
midday
6pm
midnight
Time of day
Fig. 2. Load prole of a large-capacity energy storage system [39].
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motor with a very high speed (10,000 r.p.m for low-speed rotors,
>10,000100,000 r.p.m for high-speed rotors), to spin the ywheel;
to discharge the energy, the motor regenerates through the drive
(reverses), and supplies power to the network through a suitable
interface power electronic converter [21,42]. Eq. (2) represents
the energy stored in a FES system [2,42]. The moment of inertia is
a function of mass and radius of the rotor [2], and the higher the
velocity of FES, the larger the energy stored. Flywheels have an
expected lifetime of 15 years [16] with several thousand charge/
discharge cycles compared to batteries, but possess short discharge
duration like capacitors; they have high self-discharge and frictional losses. FES systems have a high efciency, which is usually
in the range of 90% and 95% [2,10,16,2426]. Fig. 5 shows the beacons generation 4 ywheel storage technology, which has up to
100,000 charge/discharge cycles and a lifespan of >20 years [43].
Estorage 0:5Ix2
Estorage 0:5LI2
D.O. Akinyele, R.K. Rayudu / Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 8 (2014) 7491
79
PbSO2 SO2
4 4H 2e $ PbSO4 2H2 O
I I1 I2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IN
V V1 V2 . . . . . . . . . . . . VN
where I, I1, I2 and IN is the current through the battery, cell 1, cell 2,
and cell N, respectively; V, V1, V2 and VN is the output voltage of the
battery, voltage across cell 1, cell 2 and cell N, respectively.
Lithium-ion batteries
This technology is <40 years old, and it is recognized in electronics and transportation industries, especially in the operation
of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and power grid applications [24]. A Li-ion battery has a high energy-to-weight ratio and
low self-discharge loss [16,25]; it has a cycle life of 10,000 and an
efciency of 100% compared to all other BES technologies; it has
no memory effect. Its negative electrode is made of graphite,
while the positive electrode is a lithiated metal oxide, such as:
Lithium cobalt(III) oxide (LiCoO2), Lithium nickel dioxide powder
(LiNiO2) or LiMnO2, etc. [16,44]; the electrolyte is made up of a
lithium salt such as Lithium hexauorophosphate (LiPF6) or
Lithium perchlorate LiClO4, etc., which has been dissolved in an
organic carbonate solvents. The lithium cations migrate to the
anode during charging and to the cathode during discharging a
form of intercalation chemical reactions [24,45,126]. Eqs. (8)
and (9) show the reversible reactions involved in the charged/
discharged states, at anode and cathode, respectively [45]. Li-ion
batteries have a higher energy density (75200 Wh/kg) compared
to leadacid, NiCd and NiMH batteries; they also have a cell voltage of 3.6 V compared to 1.2 V and 2.0 V for nickel and leadacid
technologies, respectively [29]. Fig. 8(a) illustrates the lithium-ion
battery.
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D.O. Akinyele, R.K. Rayudu / Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 8 (2014) 7491
Fig. 8. (a) Schematic diagram of Li-ion. (b) Diagram of NiCd batteries [53,58].
10
Metalair batteries
These batteries are a type of fuel cell which employs metal as
the fuel and air as the oxidizing agent [16]; they are environmentally friendly and have a potential to offer a cost-effective storage
option in the future; however, the major challenges with metal
air batteries are that they have a low RTE (<50%) and poor recharging capacity [16].
Energy storage for energy management
Some ESSs offer a continuous energy discharge for several
hours; the application of such systems in electrical networks is
referred to as energy management (EM), through which energy
could be shifted over longer timescales [11]. The storage technologies used for EM include CAES, PHS, TES, High-energy BES (ow
batteries). PHS and CAES are presently employed for applications
D.O. Akinyele, R.K. Rayudu / Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 8 (2014) 7491
systems include the requirement for an underground cavern, dissipation of heat into the atmosphere, consumption of fossil fuels, and
generation of pollutant emissions from their combustion processes
[16,97,98]. The diabatic-CAES system has been described above;
however, recent technological efforts have led to development of
the following systems:
Adiabatic-CAES: this system has been designed to eliminate the
need for fuel in CAES technologies, by storing the heat energy
generated during compression, and then use it to reheat the
air during expansion [97,98]. In this case, the combustion chamber in the conventional CAES has been replaced by a thermal
energy storage (TES) system. Adiabatic-CAES is a promising
technology because of its scalability, environmental friendliness, hybrid storage property (CAES/TES) and high energy storage efciency [98,99]; the elimination of combustors and fossil
fuels also gives it an economic advantage over the conventional
CAES. The major components of an adiabatic-CAES plant include
compressor, TES, underground cavern and air turbine [98].
These components could be congured into the desired storage
scale. Salt and concrete are suitable thermal energy storage
materials in adiabatic-CAES system [99]. The worlds rst adiabatic-CAES plant, referred to advanced adiabatic-CAES (AACAES) demonstration plant, is expected to go on stream in Germany by 2016, by RWE Power and its partners [99101]. The
focus of the project is to achieve system efciencies of 70%.
The AA-CAES by RWE is shown in Fig. 10.
Isothermal CAES: this emerging technology attempts to address
some of the challenges with conventional diabatic- or adiabaticCAES [98,102], by eliminating the requirement for fuel and high
temperature heat energy storage, thus, offering an improved
RTE of (7080%) and a relatively low cost. The air is compressed without a change in temperature, allowing minimal
work for compression while maximizing the work needed for
expansion, through effective heat transfer with surroundings
of the air vessel [98,99].
Small-medium scale CAES: large-scale CAES plants usually
require suitable geological formations for storing air [16,98
101]. However, small-medium scale CAES, with a capacity of
110 MW, having articial pressure vessels is a more exible
CAES option without caverns and TES [103,104]. This technology can be used for a tri-generation purpose, including
81
distributed electricity generation and storage, air-cycle heating and cooling in a single process [98], which can signicantly reduce energy costs and greenhouse gas emissions in
the future.
Underwater/ocean-CAES: this is a promising storage option in
the absence of underground cavern, which could be integrated
with offshore renewable energy resources such as wind, tides
and waves [99]. The compressed air is stored in an underwater
air storage chamber installed on the seabed; the pressure of the
compressed air is kept constant requiring no pressure throttling, thus, allowing efcient extraction of energy from the compressed air [99]. The authors in Ref. [98,99] have proposed
constant-pressure CAES combined with pumped hydro storage,
and conceptual design of ocean compressed air energy storage
(OCAES), respectively. Also, an energy storage solution has been
patented by Hydrostor, based in Canada. This technology utilizes semi-adiabatic underwater-CAES (UW-CAES) with a
potential to store large-scale electricity for durations of
448 h, at applications between 1 and 50 MW [105]. UW-CAES
is promising for future applications of microgrids and DERs. It is
also expected to be delivered at optimum costs for the intended
markets.
Pumped-hydro storage
The PHS is also a means of storing off-peak electricity from
power grid and delivering it at peak demand periods. It is a low
cost and widely employed option for large-scale storage applications; it consists of two interconnected reservoirs at different elevations (lower and upper), a means to pump water to the upper
reservoir at off-peak hours and a turbine to produce electricity
when water is released to the lower reservoir at peak demand periods [12,16,24,26]. PHS has a RTE of 7080%, but usually at 75% [12]
depending on its scale, design and the technical arrangement; it
has an expected lifetime of 4060 years [16]. Eq. (11) shows that
the energy stored in a PHS is proportional to the product of volume
of water, and the difference in height between upper and lower
reservoirs [21]. The constant of proportionality is the product of
the density of water and the acceleration due to gravity. If a big
volume of water or a large difference between the two heights
could be achieved, a large energy will be stored by PHS.
11
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D.O. Akinyele, R.K. Rayudu / Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 8 (2014) 7491
83
Fig. 13. Schematic diagrams of: (a) CES; (b) hot-TES [16,54,59].
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to leadacid batteries [11]. The commercially available high-temperature batteries include NaS and ZEBRA; while VRB and ZnBr
are the ow batteries. Flow batteries are scalable, suitable for
large-scale applications, and environmentally benign (non-toxic)
[25,42]. The ow battery is an ESS in which the electrolyte contains one or more dissolved electro-active species owing through
a power cell/reactor in which the chemical energy is converted to
electricity [16]. Its shortcomings are possession of a low energy
density (though higher than leadacid), and the need for pumping
mechanisms, which might limit their use for stationary applications in the future [24,25].
VRB: this technology stores energy by electron transfer between
different ionic vanadium materials. During the charge process at
the anode, V3+ is converted to V2+ by accepting an electron, but
during discharge, V2+ ions are converted back to V3+ leading to
the release of an electron [42]. The same process of electron transfer occurs at the cathode between ionic V5+ and V4+ [24,42]. VRB
has a lifetime of 510 years and an efciency of 85%, but poses a
negative effect to the environment by generation of toxic remnants [16]. Fig. 14(a) is a schematic diagram for VRB.
ZnBr: this technology is a form of hybrid system in which a
high proportion of the energy is stored through plating solid
zinc onto the negative plates, in the electrochemical stack,
when it is being charged [114]. During discharge, Zn and Br
react together to form ZnBr [16]. The chemical reactions at
the cathode and anode are represented by Eqs. (12) and (13),
respectively [42].
NaS: this technology has a high power and energy density more
than four times that of leadacid BES [25]; it consist of molten
sulphur at the cathode, and sodium at the anode, which are separated by beta alumina membrane ceramic electrolyte (NaO and
Al2O3); the electrolyte allows the sodium to pass through it and
then combine with sulfur to produce sodium polysulphides
[16,24,25,46]. The battery is maintained at a temperature of
300350 C [16]. The shortcoming of NaS is that there is need
for an external heat source for its efcient operation.
Fig. 14(b) is a schematic diagram for NaS.
ZEBRA: this BES is called sodium nickel chloride; it has a high
temperature property (300 C), and uses nickel chloride and
liquid sodium as cathode and anode, respectively [16,97]; it
can operate between 40 C and 70 C without the need for
cooling, and also possesses a high cell voltage of 2.58 V. Every
12
Zn $ Zn2 aq 2e
13
14
Fig. 14. (a) Schematic diagrams of: (a) VRB; (b) NaS [55,46].
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Table 1
Comparison of properties of storage technologies [16].
Technology
Discharge time
Cycling capacity
PHS
CAES
CES
HTES
NaS
VRB
ZEBRA
ZnBr
NiCd
Leadacid
Li-ion
Fuel cells
MetalAir
SMES
FES
SCES
CS
1005000
5300
0.1300
060
0.058
0.033
00.3
0.052
040
020
00.1
050
00.01
0.110
00.25
00.3
00.05
124 h+
124 h+
18 h
124 h+
Secondshours
Seconds10 h
Secondshours
Seconds10 h
Secondshours
Secondshours
Minutes hours
Seconds24 h+
Seconds24 h+
Milliseconds8 sec
Milliseconds15 min
Milliseconds60 min
Milliseconds60 min
Very small
Small
0.51%
0.051%
20%
Small
15%
Small
0.20.6%
0.10.3%
0.10.3%
0
Very small
1015%
100%
2040%
40%
Hoursmonths
Hoursmonths
Minutesdays
Minutesmonths
Secondshours
Hoursmonths
Secondshours
Hoursmonths
Minutesdays
Minutesdays
Minutesdays
Hoursmonths
Hoursmonths
Minuteshours
Secondsminutes
Secondshours
Secondshours
20,00050,000 [93]
10,00030,000 [93]
4060
2040
2040
515
1015
510
1014
510
1020
515
515
515
2500
12,000+
2500+
2000+
20002500
5001000
100010,000+
1000+
100300
100,000+
20,000+
100,000+
50,000+
20+
15
20+
5
of 24/kWh/cycle; fuel cells have the highest power and per cycle
costs of >$10,000/kW and 600020,000/kWh/cycle, respectively
[16]. Further research will be needed to make fuel cells economically viable in the future. It is evident that BES has a high energy
and per cycle cost compared to PHS, CAES and CES technologies.
Leadacid, NiCd, NaS, ZEBRA, Li-ion, VRB and ZnBr systems have
the following costs: $200400, $8001500, $300500, $100200,
$6002500, $1501000 and $1501000/kWh [16], respectively;
their per cycle costs are 20100, 20100, 820, 510,
15100, 580 and 580/kWh/cycle, respectively.
Fig. 16 shows the costs for some storage systems employed for a
number of stationary applications in the US. Provision for area regulation has the highest cost of $7502000/kW; cost of offering
voltage support and renewable energy time-shift are the least
(<$500) [49]. ToU energy management has a cost of $1250/kW,
while T/D upgrade deferral costs $7501100/kW. Wind generation
grid integration (short duration) and electric service reliability cost
$5001000/kW and $350900/kW, respectively. The cost of providing electric service power quality, renewable capacity rming,
wind generation integration (long-term), T/D upgrade deferral
and demand charge management are $350900/kW, $700
850/kW, $200800/kW, $480700/kW and $600/kW, respectively. The author in Ref. [24] also identied energy cost as one
of the limiting factors for capacitor storage technologies; for
instance, the energy costs of CS and Li-ion are $3626/kWh and
$300/kWh, respectively, whereas the power cost of CS is $7.3/
kW, which is low compared to $30/kW for Li-ion, respectively.
TES has also been reported in Ref. [51] to have a relatively low
energy cost of $72240/kWh compared to BES technologies which
could cost more than $300/kWh (excluding power conversion system cost).
Energy storage applications in utility grid systems
Although energy storage systems are referred to as limited
energy resources with a narrow band of dispatch and operation,
they are suitable for the following applications: peak reduction
and load leveling, frequency regulation, spinning reserve, enhancement of reliability and power quality, and enabling greater penetration of renewable energy resources, etc. which has been
previously discussed [11,12,16,21,22,25,38,42,6192]. ESSs are
also used in transport systems. BES is central to the operation of
BEVs and PHEVs. The application of storage systems in grid integration of renewable energy resources and electric vehicles are
discussed below.
86
Technology
W/kg
Wh/L
PHS
0.51.5 [16]
CAES
CES
HTES
NaS
3060 [16]
150250 [16]
80200 [16]
150240 [16,94]
VRB
1030 [16]
ZEBRA
ZnBr
150200 [16,94]
150180 [16,94]
3060 [16]
NiCd
Leadacid
5075 [16]
3050 [16],
3550 [93]
75200 [16,94],
120200 [96]
80010,000 [16]
1503000 [16]
0.55 [16]
1030[16]
2.515 [16], 5 [95],
25 [96]
150300 [16]
75300 [16], 180 [93]
60150 [16]
5080 [16]
150315 [16,94]
200500 [16,94]
500+ [16]
5003000 [16]
50010,000 [16]
0.22.5 [16]
2080 [16]
1030 [16]
500+ [16]
210 [16]
Li-ion
Fuel cells
Metalair
SMES
FES
SCES
CS
0.055 [16]
0.51.5 [16]
1030 [16]
150230 [16,94]
36 [16]
120200 [16]
120500 [16]
150250 [16,94]
0.52 [16]
Cost
$/kWh
$/kW
/kWh/cycle
7185
6580
7089
4050
5100 [16]
6002000 [16]
0.11.4[16]
250 [16]
330 [16]
400800 [16]
200300 [16]
3060 [16]
10003000 [16],
1503000 [94]
6001500 [16],
1751500 [94]
150300 [16,94]
7002500 [16],
1752500 [94]
5001500 [16]
300600 [16]
24 [16]
24 [16]
15100 [16]
300500 [16],
250500 [94]
1501000 [16,94]
8590 [94]
75 [16], 6075[94],
7585 [93]
72 [93]
7090 [16], 7080 [93]
100200 [16,94]
1501000 [16,94],
500 [93]
8001500 [16]
200400 [16]
6002500 [16],
5002500 [94]
10004000 [16]
10002000 [16]
100,000+[16]
<50 [16]
>97 [16], >95 [95]
9095[16], >80[95], 90[93]
<75>95 [95], 7580 [93]
1060 [16]
100010,000 [16]
10005000 [16]
3002000 [16], 2000 [93]
100,000+ [16]
6090 [16]
200400 [16]
5001000 [16]
1633 [16]
5002000 [16]
4001500 [16]
5005000 [16],
500010,000 [95],
20005000 [96]
100, 000 [16]
220300 [16]
10400 [16]
820 [16]
580 [16]
510 [16]
580 [16]
20100 [16]
20100 [16]
600020,000 [16]
325 [16]
220 [16]
D.O. Akinyele, R.K. Rayudu / Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 8 (2014) 7491
Table 2
Additional comparison and cost metrics for the storage technologies.
D.O. Akinyele, R.K. Rayudu / Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 8 (2014) 7491
Table 3
Storage technologies development status.
System
Development
status
Description
Mature
Commercial
Demonstration
Pilot
Laboratory
Idea
Fig. 16. Market opportunity and price points for application-specic storage options [46,49].
87
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associated with PHS, CAES and NiCd may affect their uptake in
the future, say 1520 years upwards [11,16,24,38], except there
are technological innovations to reduce their environmental
impacts. Therefore, particular attention should be paid to the following storage options by research community: adiabatic-CAES,
isothermal-CAES, and small-medium scale CAES, underwater/
ocean-CAES, sub-surface PHS, seawater PHS and variable-speed
PHS [97109]. The use of adiabatic-CAES will eliminate fuel consumption, lead to signicant reduction in pollutant emissions,
and increased adoption of DERs in the future. Isothermal-CAES
has a potential to eliminate fuel consumption; it also does not
require TES. Small-medium scale CAES with articial pressure vessels will eliminate the need for geological formations and TES, and
allow a widespread application of DGs [121,122] in the future. Also,
the tri-generation capability of small-medium scale CAES systems
will not only reduce energy costs, but will also facilitate signicant
reductions in CDEs. Fundamental research is required in developing
ocean/underwater-CAES. This ESS option does not require an
underground cavern, and can also be integrated with offshore
renewable resources to harvest a greater amount of wind energy.
More work is needed for developing SSPHS systems. It has a potential to reduce environmental impacts of PHS, by positioning either
the lower or upper reservoir, or both reservoirs at sub-surface.
The use of existing sub-surface structures is also a good economic
consideration for building SSPHS plants. Also, more research is
required in bringing about developments in seawater-PHS system,
which offers an advantage of utilizing less land (only one reservoir
is needed on land), and VSPHS which has a capacity to offer ancillary services to electrical grids. There is still much opportunity for
development in recycling of NiCd, and other BES systems [125].
It is expected that FES and SCES technologies will nd greater
power quality and frequency regulation applications. However,
both ESSs need further development. The safety issue with ywheels must also be addressed. There is much opportunity for
research to adopt SCES systems for high-power applications,
because of their exceptional power density. In 2025 years, electricity grids are likely to: have a high degree of smartness, integrate
a greater proportion of RE technologies, EVs and other DERs, which
will require viable, efcient and cost-effective energy storage systems. This will be a road map to actualizing sustainable power networks, by reducing full reliance on capital intensive peaking power
plants that are still been currently used. Future electricity grids are
expected to utilize the potentials of a large number of EVs for ancillary services; however, this aspect still requires intensive R and D.
Further system investigations are also necessary in studying the
temporal characteristics of availability of EVs [11].
Though fuel cells are non-rechargeable and cannot be used for
cyclic storage of energy, they are a potential energy source for
future applications [16,24]. More work is required for developing
fuel cells, including direct methanol, molten carbonate and solid
oxide [16]. Hydrogen is also a non-polluting alternative fuel [60],
which could offer a scalable storage option for renewable power
generation in the future. However, Hydrogen storage currently
suffers from a low RTE (<50%) [16,93]. Thus, more research is
necessary to develop a more efcient HS technology for future
applications. Metal air batteries have the potential to be a costeffective ESS in the future, but R and D will be required to improve
its recharging capacity. More research is also needed in the following systems: PSBB, solar fuels, ATES, concrete storage, PCM, which
are likely to be prominent storage options in the future. PHES is
scalable, and has a relatively low capital cost with less environment impacts compared to PHS. These benets will probably make
it a competitive storage option in the near future, but it also needs
more research.
The increased penetration of RE technologies will probably
require extensive applications of hybrid storage solutions, where
D.O. Akinyele, R.K. Rayudu / Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 8 (2014) 7491
Conclusion
89
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D.O. Akinyele, R.K. Rayudu / Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 8 (2014) 7491
dling future electricity supply/demand challenges. The development of low-cost and high performance energy storage solutions
will therefore require intensive and extensive R and D efforts.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to acknowledge Victoria University of Wellington for its support for this work through its Research Trust.
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