RUANE&TPO.

NEILL

RADIOGRAPHICTESTING-OVERVTEW
l.l Principles
Radiography
iscarriedourusingx-raymachines
oranificial gammasources(radio-isoropes).
X-raysor gammaravsDass
the
andrecordan imageon a
thrgugh objectto beradiographed

ri;;dia;io;i.iir,1.cthenrmyilrbedereinineo
;i:l;ffij:[,11ff1.,*.,:ooo,.:i*ide

ffi

ri"*inoffi ffi
f i;' ilI f Jfr'"t',Tt"

rr'.

x,ffi

when rhefilm is processed

a-negative
is produced.
than rhe-ihickerareas,rherefoie,nor, *.iJ-J"i"";' Thethinareasof anobjecrwilr bedarter
*ili' show up dark in rerationro the
**s, excepdons
areexcess
werdmiiii.iu,,"r,

;Tilii:i::*

"opp",incrusions
andrunssren

1.2Radiographicqualit-v
An overall.assessmenr
of radio-graphic
quariiyis madeby theuseofr.rna
gequariryindicators

t+dd"c.eas
ing in rhickness
rrreyare
f '.";il;Ji'i:rlT:ilJ ;il:' :: :IJe+-+\"therefore
show
oni-t".uaiog';tmc
moriwires
ril-.'ir,.
;itibl ;il#;;s,ffUff1r,il:
Thederr'sig'-degree
of blacknesrJu-lraiogtuphis also
measured
roensureit Iiesu,irhin
a specltted
rangefor oprimumqualiry.
1.3 X.radiographyversusgammaradiography
X-radiographyrequiresburky and
expensivemachineryin comparisonwith
raorography,
gamma
but x-radiosraohy
genera'yprodu""i-u"','#q"u,uyradrographs
x-ray machinescan bes;ir;h;din "na
andis safer.
irfr, un-rit. iu?ir,u. rou...r,
1.4Capabilities
and limitations
of radiography
*Jfr3iollt^"tageofradiographicresringistharapeftnanenrrccordisproduced,i.e.the
A majorlimitationof radioeraphy.is
rharit will onlydetectdefectswhich
oepthrnrelarionto rheaxis6f rhe
havesignificanr
J
x-ny beanro,
i... .ia.gr..pny wilr notusuaryde6crprare
ramrnarions'
lackof inter-runfusionoi cracks'ift;il;rfii
o
ro tnex-ravbeam.
u

2 X ANDGAMMARADIATIoN

2.1General
-$
' t ,
Radiarioncanbe eithererectrom-agr,tctic
energy,
u
e.g.
heat,
visibre'ight, infra-red,urtrauiorer.
o
x-rays'-gamma:.ays:or corpuscrlnr
energi'1suu"-aroilic
panicle
uurcenergy),
energy),e.g.elecu
alpna,beta,neutrons.
Pdr
elecrons,.,-.,u
' (o
r

I For x.radiognphyt50-J00kv
is typtcallyuscdon stccl wcldmcnts
i.rpro approximarcly40 mm rool
glllcgil.
: Cobalr60 (Co60)hasa vcn.hroh*.^,-,;-- ^^...^_

j."il;iil'r6!llf*f,9dng
,,p,ozoori-,-r]"i

Jnwql- vcryshonwqvslgngrh-ard
can

beuscdonmarcriis
icrdmins
rtic.crorc
p.oouccil;;;;;;";;"tii',:ljj,;"fl.ff|jl#d,mtrt
urj lo-mm
il,9!--;il'

I Acuvity is mqlsurcdin Cuncs(Ci)

or gi$hxqucrcts (GBq).
.l As I roughguidc:
rhcminimumd
'.;rtt rlrrcknicsi
in ,r,. .",n.'"iiil, ,itjor"-t#.f,.S"* u"Ori of a dcfccrcapabtcof bcingderccrcdis 2% of rhc

r :(t ljch 9l

.6

1.u

il

1.

to
\-

E.

w
( t
t

6r

o i
8r\

RUANE&TPO,NEILL
\

'

2.4 Gammaray generation

Gamma rays used in industrial radiography arb emittcd from anificial radioactive
isotopest-if a material is radioactiveit spontaneoustyemits corpuscularand
electromagneticenergy-the gamma radiation is a by-product produced from rhe
isotope.
of theradioaclive
disintegration
The activiryor strengthof a radioactiveisotopeis expressedin curies(Ci) or becquerels
(Bq). The hfCheftgJgllIryf4lqe, the greaterthe intensityof gammaraysproduced.
= I disintcgration
persecond;
I becque.5el
=
3.7 x l0'" becquerels I curie;
therefore:
persecond= I curie.
3.7i 10'0disintegrations
For indusrial radiography,it is usually more practicalto talk in terrnsof gigabecquerels
(GBq):
Giga= lOe
= l0e becquercls
I glgabecquercl
= I curie.
gigabecquerels
37
Radioactiveisotopesare usedtaking into considerationrheir half-lives;the half-life of a
radioactiveisotopeis thetimeit14!esfor$g rggvp tq qropro one half of itsinirial strcngth.
The activity of a
lsot
does not relateto the
raysproduce4[leneEatingpow-rd-epentls.nTh'
e
l
.
.
-Eh-dlhrs
r
l.
dependson rhespecificradioacriveelemenr

of the
1 ot tne gammarays produced
For example,cobalr60 (Co60)

hasa very highpenetratingpower-up to 200 mm of steel-- bEeau-s_e

rhegamr!4--radiation
emittedhasiviry shonriavelength.
There are threemain radioactiveisotopesused for industrial radiography:iridium 192
(Irl92), coba.lt
60 (Co60)andYuerbium169(Ybt69).
2.5 X-ray generation
X-raysusedin indusrial radiography
areproducedfrom electricalmachinesusuallyreferred
to asx-ray sersithex-raysthemselves
beingproducedfrom wirhin anx-rcy tubeor insert.
An x-ray tube consistsof an evacuatedglassbulb,
-.Theenclosingan anode-rhe positive
electrodi, anda cathode-rhe nesatittelEmle.
wiiFincathode-contains-ifilamEnt
a c[rvd reflecor oipZusing cupl
Whenthe filamentis heatedroa whitehot stateby a currentflow of a few amperes,
electrons
are emitted and are attractedtowardsthe anode'in a concentratedbeamformed by the
focusingcup. The beamsn-ikes
a rargetserinto rffif
energy-itrf energyconsisrsof appr5ximately97 to 99Voheat and I to 37o x-rays for
conventional
x-ny tubesup to 300kV.

I A radioactiveisoopc is an unsublcsarcofa chcmicalelemcntwhich hasa dilfcrcnt massto thc normal$atc

o[ the sarnzelcmenL
2 Thc anodeis somedmcsrefcrrcdto a:sthaanti-cathode.

o20R!92

RUANE&TPO'NEILL

Focusing cup

GtossenveloCe

-.\

Csthodcrtbmcnt

Electrorrs

Anode nrget 1

1_

X-Ray beam

i'l

Becauseofthe high amountof heatenergy produced,rhe anodeis made from coooerro

concluct
rhehearawav.Bur.copperhas
a low meltingpoinr,si rolEiEniTfie-EoppEr
niiilTing,
EStip-drmeriln-i6'dirighmeltingpoint is recessedif;to rheanodeatttrepoinr*iicrr i. ,*"r
oy tneelecronbeam.
This slip of metalalsoservesanotherpurpose,because,
thehighertheatomicnumberof *" (f

rffiHYJffi'l;:lT'm
"

'i,

and its high atomicnumbcrofJ4. _

y!:lt;
The areaon the_target
whichis su-uckby theelecrons is ftaliedt{foca sG. 41isarcashoutd
avoid localgvelhqnng, althoughfi.om rh-erad--io-frmcimagequatity
-aernirio;r
-,t**:+94-.to
p:"rlt 91 I,:*' rhe tocal spor should be as smqlljs possibleto provide gooa
(sharpness)
on rheradioggprh.
is requircdto cool the anode;gas,oil or waternormally beingemptoyed
lggilt:l*Tling
ror rnlspurpose.
The cooling systemandtheinscrtarecontainedtogetherin aneanhed,leadlinedconrainer,
Ine completeunit commonly bcing referred to as the x-ray tubehead. The tubeheadis
conrolled from the contro!panel.

o 20F69

RUANE&TPO'NEILL

2.6The x-rayequipmentcontrolpanel

(20 n di^ituh.dtk

L^gth,

The threecontrolsthatgoverna radiographic

exposureusingx-raysare thetimer,themA
controlandrhekV conrol.
2.6.1Timer
Thetimeris usuallycalibrated
in minutes.Theexposure
timefor anexposure
is preser;
whenrheequipment
is acrivared,
the timercounisdown from the orisetvalue. The
exposure
timewill paniallvgovernhowmuchradiationis goingto rlachrhefilm.
2.6.2Milliamps(md)
:< .ri The mA-controls,h"l inrr^iryt orlquanrirylofx-rays. When rhe mA is increased.
rhe
j SD currenrflow th1oughthefilamenris increased,
which causesthe Ela4qg41_.lg:gg_hprrcr
re-su.tttng
tn anlngreage
< ^r/
in thei4tensityof elecrols released.The greaifi-Feinrensiry
or
erectrons
stnlqng
the
rarger,
thegreatertheintensityof thex_raysproduced.
C
The mA controlon convenrional
x-raye4uipment
may only allow for a maximumof 6
to 12mA to beused,thevaluebeingrireasuied
acrossihe r,ibe,i.e. berween
thecarhode
andtheanode.Thevaluerequired
fora specificexposurcis usuallypreseton rhepanel,
this valueis rrsuallyat,or closeto, rhema{imuminA possiblewith theequipmenr
for
thepurpose
o|n{n,.i4lg.*p*.!-jII"'

An increase
in kV, i.e.a shonening
of wavelengrh,
hasan adverse
affecton thecontrasr
anddefinirionof a radiognphic
iriage. Cenaii srandard
$EatFArions,rtJs-29-t0:
l9E6lT hc radiograp hi.etd minaiii$fus io tt wclded circunfere ndal bwr joints in stcel,
statentaximunrkV valuesfor this rcason.

.: .10l:ch92

RUANE&TPO'NEILL

The kv meterson thecontrolparelsforconventionalx-rayequipmentarepeatkV values

m.eelg!944atessrherube,i.e. betweenthe cathole andihe-anode. The maximum kV
y^h_rgh
9anbe use-fis-pfimarilygovemedby_thetubehead;typicatmaximumvaluesare
200 kv' 250 kv and3il0 kv. The valuerequiredfor a specifii"*pot;;. it ;;u"riyJi"r",
on thepanel.
2.7 Comparisonof x and gammarays for industriatradiography
2.7.1Safety
+
Using x-ray machinesis, normally
.q"{er.tqg using gammasourcesbecausex-ray
machinesmay be swirched
off like a lightbulb,wherEaithere
is a consrant
emissionof
raqlatlonwltha garnma
source.
Gammasources
mustalwaysberetumedto theirshielding
contalners
whennot in use.
2.7.2 Quality of radiographic images
Assuming.variables
suchastestmaterialthickness,film ty^p^e_erc.
remainsconsrant,x-rays
produced.byconvenrional
j00 tv, p.oaute u.i[.'lu"i,ty
equipT^enr,
say
up
ro
I:TI

trte2oi cbooiioto'pes,
u..uur.,nlli-!*is;;;;

:*.i:trt*.1-T3
]ii;er
wavelengnsthan^::
gammasources.
the1lYtterbium169(Yb 169)mayproduce
radiographs
comparable
to thoseproduced
by using
x-rays.
2.7.3Handting
Gamma sourcesare easierro
^handlein comparisonwith bulky and fragile x_ray
equipment.
Thesizealsoallowsfor
gammasourclsro beusedin diff,icultandiniccessibte
areasfor x-ray machines,e.g.on pi-peracks.
2.7.4 Cost
Cammasourcesandcontainers
are muchcheaperthanx-rayequipment.
2.7.5Versatitity
and wavetengrhs
of-x-rayscan be adjusredfrom chex-ray connot panet.
l* l:::::ill
and.wavelengtlsof gammaradiationcannorbe adjusred,althoughthe
,t_::_1lj:",:tjl
lnrenstry(acrrvlry)reduces
with time_see hajf_lives.
cenain gammasourceshavea very high penetratingpowerwhich enabresthem to b
usedon very thick material,
e.g.
mir sieer.Mosiionventionar
x-raymachines
w l
not penetratemorethan50 mm of!5b
steelalthoughtherearehugex-ray michines,e.g. the
linear acceleratorandthebetatron.whichcan"proauceiuaiaionof i *uueringn irrictr
can penerateas muchas,andusuallymorethdn,gammaradiation.

@ 20 Fcb 92

.+lie
RUANE&TPO'NEILL

3 RADIOGRAPHICFILM
3.1 The make-upof a radiographicfilm
Radiographic
Frlrnis usuallymadelp ofsevenlayers:a centralbaselayerandthrcecoatings
on eithersideconsisting
of a subbinglayer,emulsionandsupercoat.
Ha"aJerne-c! qc-},tr"j-n

6ill"

b"")ce lr^h*-ltuatat'
sa'. Pjlc+lef

'

Gr.-.IoJ,'D1-.
<oo'bo+e#*wr
Base
The ptrysical
characterisdcs
of emulsion
do notallowit to beusedby itselfwirhoursuppon.
therefore.
it.is appliedto a subsu-ate
knownas the base. The basl mustbe transparLnt'.
chemicallyinenandmusrnotbesusceptible
roe{pgnggnindcallgag!9n.Grassis in ideal
subsu-ate
tomeerrhese
req.uiremenrs,
butfor appticatio-ilwhere
rh-SEEGro
beradiographed
-pg!yg$g1
arcurved,e.g.on.pipes,ir is necessary
for a flexiblebaseto beused.
ang!sg,l,blstg
althoughnot quireasstableasglass,arewidely employea6iGitr-lliidGii.
-u-iacggre,
Subbinglayer(substratum)
The subbinglayersadhererheemulsionto thebase;the materialemployedfor rhisis gelarine
plus a basesolvent.

Emulsion
The.layers9.fnri.rng.nimponance
arerhe rwo emulsionlayers.Theselayersconsisrof
millionsof silverha^lide
crystats-usually
silverbromide;theiizesof rhecrysials
areusua
ll;,
'
between0.1and 1.0micromeres
(p.m)andaresuspended
in a gelarine.
bindingmedium.

is produced
LEilmemulsion
bv-mixinC:plg${4+]{l+riTa!9 ald{allr suchaspqrassiur-n

wlul a
a.solurign
-ur(,rruuc,
suluuon !fui.laune.
of qelauneoJ
l nerareanoremperature
remfiaruror
ielatine.ThEiiiES?t
bromide,lvitl
ifr'l-rain
rnesrarn
o.ru9g:4!-C-Sg!t&!
o-ffirx-rne
mrxlnsgouef
soverns

sr?ei rapto,mrxtns
ttn
t@uces
ar Io
grainsEu
ucesthe
the finest
finestgrain
sruci-uis,*heieasilo"
mlxrog ar nlgn remperarureproducesemulsionswith larger grains.
en large grain

structures.are
required,ro producea fastemulsion,somesilveriodidqis usuallyinciudedin
the formula.
The. sizes of these crysrals and the distribution, effect the find radiographic
quality/appearalce;
thelergelthecrvstalsizethegreaterthesensirivity
Various
tn radiarion.
shapesof crystalsexisr,b
e.
The reasonfor two layersof emulsion
is to givea fasterfilm speed,
can
i.e.rheradiographs
/
producedquicker,andhigherradiographic
be
colrast.,(
I
Supercoat(anti-abrasion
Iayer)
Radiograptric
emulsionis s'sceprible
to mechanical
andchemical
damage,
soro pre'enr.or
at leastreducethis,theemulsion
is coatedwith a layerof hardened
gelirine.
Althoughthe.supercoar
offerssomeprotection
againsr
chemicalattack,e.g.oil fronrrheskin
duringhandling,ir musrallorvfor chemicalreadtions
ranks.
to rakeplacein rhe"processing

I In prac(iccthc bascrvill not bc toolly tnnqrarcntandthcrcforcwilt posscsssomcphorographic

dcnsiry.

ii-'l0 Fcb 92

RUANE& T PO'NETLL

3.2 Film types

Radiographicfilm may begradedin termsof grainsize or speedt:
.
Ulra fine grain-excepdonal radiographicqu3!E burygl5!9v/jp9gd. _
' -::.
Finegrain-slow speeil.
.
Mediumgrain-medium speed.
.
Coarsegrain-poor radiogiaphicquatitybur fast speed.
Radiographicfilms are alsodividedinto two types:direct_rypeor salt
screentype,
Di rect-type-films areintendedfordirectexposurto gammaorx--rays
or for exposurcusing
leadinrensifying
screens.Someof thesenh"s ;t 5. ;iraute ro.'uie *i,'t riI.i.-"i"rri.
or salt(fluorescent)
intensifying
screens.
Saltscreentylefikns aredesigned
tobe usedexclusivelywirh salt(fluoresc.ent)
intensifying
are
able
to
prodqcqraqiqgFptrs
with minrmumexposureandarewidely used
." F'99nt:'
Tney
X_- rn medicalradiography.

t.rJ

3.3 Film speed

AJilm factoris a numberwhichrelatesto thespeedof a panicularfilm
andis obtainedfrom
a Fims charaueristiccurve;seeAppendixC. '
TheSCRAIAscaleis a scaleofrenusedfor film factors;the smaller
the film facrorthe faster
the film. Film manufactufls ma.yhavetheir o*n r"ir" *hi"h
;;t-;;;t'n*i-n."ru..
o,
opposireway to theSCRATAscafe.
Exampleto the SCRATAscale:
A fllm with a factorof l0 wil be twice as fastcomparedto a film wirh
a factorof 20.
This meansto sayof thefilm with a ra"roroiioio6k four minutis
ro
i*poi.,ln.n
'
tt.
tilm with a factoi of l0 witt requiret*" -t""t"i i. gl;;;;;;;;;;;i;:""
Typesof filrn with their corrcsponding
SCRATA film factors:

Dupont
Kodak
Kodak
Agfa Gevaen
Dupont
Agfa Gevaen
Kodak.

Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium

. Fine
Fine
Fine
Fine

20
25
30
J)

Veryfine
Veryfine
Veryfine

uscdforgrain.sizean-dspcdcan be misreading.Thc rcrmsuscdare

l}:l:gl:b.gy
usuaflyrerarive,e.g. a
Irnc
g*,n lrlm mav bc consideredto be fasior srow
dcpendingon-whatir is h;,"g ""rp.;
#"1;;."-'
O 20 Fcb92

- l
'I

RUANE&TPO'NEILL

4INTENSIFYINGSCREENS
4 . 1G c n e r a l
A radiographic
firm is normalysandwiched
bctweentwo inrensifyingscreens
whenexposed
ro x-raysor gamma_rays.
Intensifying
screens
havean exuaihoiographic"ii"ti Jn ,r,.
emulsionrhereby
reducingtheexposurE
needed
to atrainrhe.equi.ea?erisiry
Therearerhreemaintypesof intensifying
screens:
!
l. Leadscreensl.
2. Fluorescent
(salt)scrcens.
3. Fluoromerallicscreens.
closecontacr
between
screens
andfilm is essenriar
in orderroobtainsharpimages.Screens
musrbe keprfree from dusr.andscrarches,
if rhis is not donethey miy u"1*" o" in"
radiographic
image-especiallyin thecaseof fluorometallic
unan,iores6.nir"i."ni"
,1.2Leadscreens

kir

Fr

Leadscreens
consistof a rhinleadfoil of uniformthickness,
usuallystuckonroa rhinbase
cardin rhecaseof reusable
screens,
or sruckonto a thin sheerodpipi, *n." ,i.J *im
pre-packed
film.
L-ead
screens
inrensify-the
image-by
emirtijr)berl-radiarion
(etecrons)
whensruck.byx-rays
raysof sufficienr.energy
Th.inreniliiaaaioa
acron
rs
only
achreved
wrrhx-rays
:l
^s..1*u
aoove
approximately
l2[lt! andgammaraysabovesimilarenergyievels.
wilr alsoimproverheradiographic
imageby paniallyfilteringout scatrer
t^r,l-d-,t:l:r"r
r i t dI
a on'

used:rh.ethickne-ss
of thefronrscreenmustbemarched
rolhewavelensrh
Ly-:l::.9^,:.::l.are
.,r
raora.onberngused,sorharit wilr passrheprinraryradiation
whilesropping
", ,nuir.,"or
thesecondary
radiationaspossible.
The screens
areusuallybetween
9.02ryf and0. t5 mnr rhickandarecommonlyborhrhe

s"anre-thtckness,
e.g.9.]l,?5,mm;
tnisavoiaitrre
pioLi.'ii'.r"""ii"",ry
r."irriig
i dai,tfi.'i"i
r,
the screensrhewrong *ay round!
screen
theeffectof backscauered
radiadon.
]he
lear
1gt5!ywn
Lead

screens
arebliableandshouldbehandledwirhcareif bucklingis to beavoided.
IIthc
feadscreens
areio be usedmorerhanonce,".g. in aoii"rr* as opposedo rollfilm
or
pre'packedfilm,
rhey.become
d.usty
andshould6. r..qu.ntrydusred*irh a nneu.'ust.tr
screens
becomeroo dirrv or splashed
wirh riquid,rheymay'becleanedwirhcotion-wool
dampedrvirha weakdeiergeni
solurion.whr';';ri. ;;;";; becomerooscrarched
or dirry
causingtheradiographicqria.liryto be impaireJ,in"y ,i,i,.iia
bercplacedbt;;;;;;;.'
4.3 Fluorescent
(salt)screens

^t\

\F"

,/'/

Fluorescent
screens
aremadeup frommicrocrysrals
of a suitable
melalric
sart.usuan:
appliedroa supponing
rt
i.
u"li-.^ra.
dLu-ygJlls$glC
l.nese
r ',LJe5Lrccrs'
screens,wnen
when suDJected
subjectedto x-rays
x-raysor gamma
gammaravs,
rays,emit
emit light
lisht radiation
radiarionto
ro which
which rhr

the
filrn.issensitive.This lilhr radiation
it i" oli..i proponion
to
rhe
received
radiation
an6
''results
in a largeincreasJof
effecrive
radiarion_--

'0

%.<'

I ()rhcrmcullicscrccns
cxis!for lesscommoo
applicarions.
hasa longcrwavelcngth
thanthcprimarybcamIronrwhichit is dcrivc-d
tcss
:.:t:11:r
andis rhcrctbrc
l r : l I rIldliuol
r g :. i C c : r l s q
f\-nf

'l \For

A p t o * n d i xB .

Therc are two typesof fluorescentscreen:

l. High definition(fine grain)screens
2. High speedor rapids-reens
The intensification
actionof highspeedscreens
is ar leasttwicetharof the highdcfinition
screens.
A radiographobtainedu-singfluorcsccntscrcenswill havelowcr definition comparedto a
radiographta-kenusinglead screensor no screens,
and rhe imageproducedhai a grainy
appearunce
dueto thescreens
saltgrains.
Becauseof the resuking.lossof imagequality,fluorescentscreensare only usedwhere
essential,
to avoidexcessively
longexposurctimes,e;g.on thickwalledspecimens.
4.4 Fluorometallicscieens
Fluorometallicscreensare a combinationof a sah screin and a Ieadscreen;they are made
up of from a basecard,a leadlayer,a saltlayer(calciumtungsrare)
anda thin protecrive
layer.
Thereis more thanone type of fluorometallicscrcen:
Type I -for x-raysup ro 300kV.
Type 2-for x-rays300-1000kV, Ir 192.
Type 3-for Co60.
Providingthe correcrtype of fluorometallicscreenand film are usedwirh rherangeof
radlatronbelngused,substantial
reducrions
in exposure
rimeor kV canbeachieved.
Bedause
paniatlyfikerout scatterradidtion,
yill
the
imageproduced
on theradiograph
lh:J:{.tll.r
wlll be betterthanoneobtainedusingfluorescent
screens,
but ihe imagewill srill reiarna
grainyappearance
dueto thesaltcrys-tals.
Thesescreens
arenorcommonlyuseddueto highcost.Theirapptication
is similarto those
-'
applications
wherefluorescent
icreensmay be-used,
i.e.on thii[ *" J.p""i-Lnr.4.5 Comparisonof intensifyingscreens
Screent.vpe

Order
of image
quality

Order
of speed

Intensification
factorr

How intensification
is achieved

Lead

2-3

Berapaniclesand
characteristic
x-ravs

Fluorescent

8-15

Light radiation

Fluorometallic

.'

5-10

Light radiation

None

N/A

N/A

I Thc inlensificadon
factorrclatesto thercducdon
in crposrrcdme,c.g.an inrcnsification
facorof 3 will
reduce
cxposurefromsaysix minutesto twominutcs. '

OIAp92

l0

RUANE & T P O'NEILL

S IMAGE FORMATION
When radiationpasses.through gbjTr ir is differentially absorbed
dependinsuDonrhe
?n
thickness.
and

any.differing
materiar
densities.
rt'";ai;d;;'d;utlil#;e'"]'iii" -- -"' iiiii
"-" .ia.
of theobjectwilrlargely
determine
thennucr,.r""t"niu"l-ortrreriaiog*'pt:
The pordonsof rajl"iographic
filrn which rec.eivesufficient quantitiesof actinic

radiationr undergo
minutechanges.Thesechangesaresosmalltheyarei"'i'iur"ioir''-ffiioii"i'iur"
whenusingconventional
microscopes;
thishiddeniilAi;
knownasti tareit inai'e.' fne
latentimagecanbedefinedasthehidd'enimag""",i"Ji?e."pr'i"i'r-"iLffi.i"i.
radiation bur bcfore developmenr.
Therefore,radiation alonedoesnot conven a radiographic film into visible
a
readable imeoa
The sequenceof processesto artain a radiograpfri"-i?""i"'-" as
follows:

l'

The slvql ialide grystarswhich haveabsorbd a sufficienrquantity

of radiarionare )
paniallyconvenedinto metallicsilver_-rhL is tf," i"r"nt ,.ug".

crystals
are

th:,errL;

1ia5l9"1ea
thedeveloper
tgeotrfgd.bt
*^":":rgil]lr.
completely
ccinvens
theaffecred
crysraliinro'metallic'suver.
3. Theradiognphannn:^i1-f,r1"t
upryaranceby
J1.
fi.xation;
: '.-- thefixerremovesrheunexposed
andthereforeundeveloped
crystats.
6 FILM PROCESSING
6.1General
Film processing
may becarriedout manuallyor by usingautomadcfilm processors.
Manualfilrn orocessine
rakesplacein a darkroornundertheilluminarionof
safeltphrswhich
usuallyconsistof ordiiarv tigit o"rus#iil;."r;;'d^.
other coroursfor riitersexist,

lnJ:*r::,*:

"hosen
muit.i,it rigr,ioi;-*"""i1'""g,r,'*ii"r,doesnotderimenta'y
affect

The darkoom shouldpreferabrybe divided into two

sides,a dry side for roadinsand
unJoading
of.cassenes
ind

a wei.sidef". p;o.;;;;"g;;r,l i, !o tr,Jnlrii J" ".ii,ji!rn.a

priortodevcloomenr.
The*et siaeoirne?;G;;;ii
"rualryhavefivetanksairanged
in the followin! sequence:

l. Developerunk.
Stopbaih.or
rinseank.
?
J. rlxer tank4. Finalwashtank.
5. Wetringagenttank.
when theexposedFrtrnhas
bcenunloadedfrom its ----'-' ir is placedinroafrane, or spira!
It rrsa long(ilm, andplacedinto thedevclofir.- cassette,
6.2 Developer
Developeris usuallysuppliedas.ariquidconcenratc
andis to bc d utcdwirh waterara rario
govemedby theminufii:turersrnstrucrions,
e.g. I pan developerto 4 panswarer.
DeveloPj:r
temperature
shouldbe -inaccordance
with the manufacturers
I : 4-v
recommendation
s
but is ryp.ically-20'tf:C.
-_:,,
O"""foi-"ni,i.n"
is
again
T^r_ry.:'-F-fiig",
dependantuponthe
manutacturers
recommcndarions
or specification;
fli --uuL p.o"irsing a'eueiopin/timeis
typicallybctwecnfour andfive minures.The
time shouldbc rakenfrom whenrhefirm hrrs
thedeveloperwith a^suitable
darlqoo.iii*.i. ii"i""lir""'it'r." rsin thedeveloperir is aeirared
torapproximately
20seconds
andthen^g,,."a"pp.ii;;i;ii;;;;#fi.o;;#r"#,.r.
Agitadonallowsfor freshdeveloper
to ijow ovJr'thentm ana preventsrhepossibiliryof

\]ctinic

radiauon,in thiscontexLis rharwhich wrllalfccr

rhefilm cmulsion,i.e. rorm a larcnri.r*J'.

---- - .+4-.---.=---.--

e 20F.b 92

II

:,

RUANE&TPO'NEILL

bromidestreaklnp,'agitationarsocutsdowndcveropmenttime. The
framesor spirarsshould
tanfstoprevents
ro prevenrsanyair
any air uub'ulesiiitin"
Y-',ap@
thelt-anks
setding
on
firm whi-ch
whiih can
c,n cause
.ar,(.
oh
the
film
Y]ry?!{.fii1he.
light spotson the finishedradi,ograph.
Developeris madeup asfollows:

Constituents

Action

Chemicalsin common
use

Developing
agent(s)

Reducesrhe exposed silver halidc

griunsto metallic silver.

Metol.
Hydroquinone.
Phenidone.

Accelerator

A chcmical which gives - tat*

reacrron which
spceds
up
qevelopmenL

Borax.
Sodiumcarbonate.
Sodiumhydroxide.

Preservative

Preventsoxidation of the developer.

Sodiumsulphate.

Restrainer

Controls the level of development

fogging.

Potassium
bromide.

Sequestering
agent

Prevents the formation of scale.

Sodium
hexametaphosphatc.

Reptenishment
The activiry of thedcveropergradu_afly
dccreascs
with-useandage. Replenishment
ensues
that the acdviw of the developer*a rrt"
a"""ioping
-vlir!n'""pp.o*io,arely
ume requrrcd remainsconsranr
tfuoughourrhe useful life of rh6 dJ"ld;:
l mz of film has becn
developed'
about400"rr
to
be
added.
Afrerconrinuous
I?:.1eri-;iii'r,rl"ii"i":l.ils
replenishmentthe oualitvot
the.imagew'I be.affectedand the developerwill
haveto be
changed. A commirn eui
timeis when
thereplenisher

addJexceeds

t*icJthe;ri"ii, #iiSl,lil:|.liiiffg

6J Stopbath
The stopbathmay be:
.

An acid stopbarh.
A watersprayrinsc.
A freshwitei tank.

,t):_n:::,:ln::ent.rype

;ffi

of stopbathis an acid stopbathwhich is typically

madc up of

sstopstt'"'"actlJ["?it'"ai'J.p"11il.1ii,ilJi"""""r6p.,

Films shouldbe placedandagita.ted

in thestopbatry'rinse
urk for at reastl0 seconds;if rhis
rs not doneproperly,the fixei will
,*" Uoo[.,i"Ju*rf rr*.
6.4 Fixer
Fixer is suppliedas a liquid conccntrare
andis to be d utedwith water,usuaflvat a rado of
ro

i,l;:"flf;:

3or4pans
*ater
(f"u";-;;i;";;;ilr";;

iii.i riiiilii)f i'e,^,i,

Fixationis theprocess*hi:[tf-9:.
rhcundevelopcd
silverhalidecrysralsandJtre.,rhe
devilopedcrystals,therebyproducingddiograpr,s
or " diu'g-"orti.irlla"ur")
lt;fr|i;:"t

' 20 Fcb92

t2

'

!{tiirf .

,s!fmq$!*....

RUANE&TPO,NEILL
The fixer conains chemical< . c .h_^_

'Effi
[*T:t!;",:ff:,f"::$1ffi
!

ffii.:H:n
*:

'l,lr;;:r-,fi
jxf
mlxs':tr"'ft
#,ff
f
ift
#i:i:Ti"#:"T,:,:,"i:.i{J:
",f
t: [:l
"ir*i
^'ii',i.::^
ffil?,lflt
Thefilms musrbc agiu

ff ff Hk :::lt
iii:H:,"t,"

1?,'T
?
;fL:ill iHtr:
j:i;..i{$jui";*:lm

:*:l*;.st*m.r*s[:l;it*i,,",U*H:ei
6.5Finalwash
washedpreferabry
in a rankwith
ll=_:.p$_*
zu Jrrnutes. This

siluJ-coiiii"lllrlfi'#n'llff"I#"J;Iff#
rh;i::3il'oruut"
frxineandremov",
l?t';
remov

- qrLrrxerwhrchis an acid' Yeliow

ucen"surrciinttJ
rog appears
on firrnswhich

havenor

6.6 Wettingagent
f:tting

agentreducesrhesurface
rensionof thewatera
utact

i" even
spois
drying
oiiiil;:ff,HlT;.Xl':::::j::."rF
orrhe
rlm;
P:,_q"u::',,
wetdngagents
are
is
to'beailutJilil|i;.1':Tt*-s'
_,,rataradoorrpp,?,"i#iirl"r;"i,#*ffi:,rrJ;i:Jlf

warer.

Filmsareonlydippedin
andourof

the weningagent.

6.7 Dryingrhefitm
Iniriallyexcesswateris rc

drvinelauiner,
oiiii. jiJi'TfYf^lg thefilmswithas

,fJ.f.#Ji,fr..?,1ffi
;?,..lo#"xafl
ff"f;?]ruffi
fi*i"H;i$Tfi
r#::iFj

Thedrvingdmewilrdenend
onthcremperature,
*
* Tvpical
the-rerative
drving
humiditv
tir.r -" i5 ninii,JJn"o"ir:igr,gd
of
,T:;*
i'fi,"g ""binet,45minures
ina&ying
7 RADIOGRAPHIC
QUALITY
7.1General
Radiographic
qualitycanbc discussed
usingthrecmain rerms:

):. ffil:ti*:i:;',",ora
-r.

rteldson " r.oiog*pilhit contrastis the degreeof differencebetwecndensiry

Definition_ RadioeI
' aphicdefinitionis thedegreeofsharpness
or densicy
fields.
ar rheboundaries

iflTi"f,UJ;i:ii:n1;:*^,riviry.
'FL ^--

radiograph
rerares
itsdegree
orbrackness.

sensitiviry
isatermused
togiveanindication
or

,'"5llf._._l*oSualitiesofar"g_,-o-q:?!i:i"ilymeasured:-d.1i_rlV"gasensitivity.
Densiry
i;.4;1."'"""t"gadensiromererandscnsiriviryis,niiru'.Ia'u'ng
animagequariryindicaror

ffi:.*[f;*##s"f,#ffjff#ffij]irr,trff
i*:lr^::
O20Fcb92

... l'.qt.rv.

, r

RUANE & T P O'NEILL

7.2 Density
7.2.1Generat
:
The density of a radiograph relatesits degreeof blackness.
A high densiryor dark areaabsorbsmore right than a row
densityor light area. The
greatertheamountof blackmetalic sitve.g.iins
in an -""'on u ,iJiogrulr,, rt "
lrcient
morelight is absorbedandthedenserrh;;;';;i;;.
More radiationnasses
rhroughthethinnersectionsof a specrmen,
e.g. arcaswherecracks

or lackof fusibnarepr"sinq*,.i"?o;;;r;'il;
radiographasdenseareas.

i,irr ere.t"Eifih.*'rp ." ,i,.

7.2.2Measuringdensity
" p.*essed radiograph
is measurcdusinganinsu-ument
ca,ed.a densirometer,
P:::tjy-gi
tnrscomparesthe incidentfighi.with the transmitid righL
ana
.
logarithmic ratio. Incident'ligtrtis_rignfi.;;-ri.,-; ;i""*"r; e*preiies ,h";;;i;;.
traasmitted
light
is
lighr
ransminedthrougha filrn whe*nthe filfrr is on tti "ie*!r..
Densiry= Lngro

incident light
transmitted light

If the incidentlightwas316timesgreaterthantheo:ansmiued
light:
uensity = LoErc =

Density- Logro 316

Density- 2.5
Note-:^[f the ransminedlight was l,/lOth of incident
tight D = I.0, if it was l/lOOth
D = 2.0,l/1000thD =3.0eic
Beforeuse,densitometenshouldbecaribrared
using a calibrateddensiry
known densities-on the samEviewer wtrich is strip-a stip
,o-r.^lll.conniningto be used for
rnterprcungthe radiograph.
The minimum densitvin theareaof interest,
i.e. the werd,requircdby specificationsis
typically betwecnl-jand 2.5- H";;;;rhill;;iAffis
pracdcalto dererminewhen
theareaof intercsthasmanvrhickn*;."trgeli-"iiJ
,h#|i
densirychanges-as is the
casewirh cenain ryoesof m.m.a-,
wclds.-i"",hf;i,;;;;",he
specificationmay specify
that thedensityis i6 be measurea
m-eaia't'ei/a;.il;;i"
"" werdreinforcemenr
The maximumdensitystatedin a specificadon
will typically bi 3.0 or 3.5.
7.2.3Lack of density_causes
.
Underexposureto radiation.
.
msutncrentdevelopmenr
rime.
.
uevetopertemperaiurc
roo
low.
.
Exnausteddeveloper.
.
Inconecrdevelopir.
.
Solurionof deveioper
tooweak.

,*"jf[tilHltc

o20Rbq2

capable
of whitclighrinrcnsiries
suiablefor viewhgradiographs
upto rhemaximum

l4

'"u'ftairo,*iri*,* '
7.2.4Excessivedensity-causes
.
Overexposurero radiation.
.
development
Excessive
time.
.
Developertemperature
too high.
.
Incorrectdeveloper.
.
Solutionofdeveioper
roosrong.
7.3Radiographiccont rast

!'

7.3.1General
Ra4iographiccontrastis the degreeof differencebetweendensity
fields on a
radiograph.
whena radiograph
conrains
onryblacksandwhitesandnointermediate
tonestheconrrast
ishrgft,'
whenonlvtonesofa simirar
densiry
existthecont-rsr
ist -, tr,"op,i.r..r"i."ii
may

liebetween
ihese
r*oe*r,e"'is,
i1a.1d9l'.5g_r!931-d;tgffiil#iili;::

If,-an application
,specificarionis not permirting any derecteddefects in rhe weld
wharsoever.
rhenrhecontrastshouldider[y be a;higli ai possibre,i.e. trigt
.onr.usii!
idealfor detectingdefecrs.
lf however,an aoolicarionspecificarionpermittedcenain
defects,dependingon rhe
defects
through
thickness

dimensions,
aswelrasr."gir,-*aloi*i;,h;ffi];';";l;'i;
necessary
rohavearanseof tonesontheradiograpi,s'io
tnatitrettrio;;ili;il;;;p;;

of the defectsand rhehleighr

or weld relntorcemenrs
can be assessed,

Therefore',rogain.more.informarionabout the through

thicknessdimensionsof any
detecrsand rhewerd irserf.we needto haveintermediaie
lones,r.e.greysrn additionro
blackand whites.
Note: We are assumins,h",_]L:1"_g:rhicknesschanges
or materialdensirychanges
presentin order ro give Is densrrycnanges.
The following chartshowsrhecrireriawhich affect radiographic
contrast:

I ll a r li()giaph shows a wi(r(:rangcof

toncsit is said ro havc *,ide ratitude-

,r\Fa:

l5

.'?.r,:.'
i

R U A N E& T p o , N E r L L

;i

7.3.2Measuring radiographic contrast

Radiographic
con'asr is nor usua'y measured
excrusivcty;it is normalryassessed
subjectively,
butcoutdbemeasurcd
5y;;;;;;;';;,ep
*edge type I.e.t..
A wiretypeI.Q.I.-used to measurc
sensitivity- primarilygivesinformationabourrhe
radiographiccontrasr,but rhedegreeor a"i.niiion 'uiro govems
the resurr.
7.3.3Insufficientcontrasr_causes
'i
Radiationwavelength
too shon,i.e.kV/penetrating
power
too
hish.
'
over exposureto ridiarion, compensateiro. uy sn?ftinJ
ai",,r"io"o.n.n,
,i...
.,,,. prolonged
develoDmenr
in iooc6n "A;i;;i;.
"*.uurtJaluXill
Unsuitableor wronglymixed developi
Insufficientfixadonl
.
Fogt seealsoSection7.5.

'

7.3.4Excessive
contrast_causes
.
Radiationwavelenghtoo long_kV/penetrating power
too low.
.
Incorrectdevelooei
.
prongly mixedievelooer.
.
Underexposu.e,
compensated
for by a prolongeddeveloDer.
7.4 Definition
7.4.1General
Radiographicdefinitionisthedegreeofsharpnessat
the boundariesof densit,v
fields.
Therearemany facrorsthllqovem rhe final
definition
on
a
radiograph,
includingrhe
geomeryof rheser-uoduringexposure.and
the n rtnivpe used. perfectdefinirioncan
neverbeobtaineddue-tothee-xisti"." ori)"ittlii;e;h";1",
;";;;;;;;;h";;'";rr.
7.4.2Measuringradiographicdefinition
Radiographicdefinition is not usually measurcd
exch,sively; it is normally dlsessed
subjectively,
butcouldue.eusr.eJ6!

tJiri E3_Agl*e

r.e.t..

Atuplex ryp" I:QJ.is a rypeIII r.e.t. ,o 95 39[7,

refen-ed
ro ii a cgli. - io'A' ,, .^^",.,. ^r --:-- ^.
,,Tge q.ualityindicators,also

:"ffiitl

tdmthatorrrv-o
Goarat.
*;,.rinioir,..;;cl;'i;;l::r'l'iifi
'" '^' ;: il:':l,:*:iTi
discernabiliry.
>iliry.The
Thetotal
rotalimage
unsharpness,
ffi. u"rr,".p".ii,'iii
U. i; F;;;;;;'by:

U,(nm)=/a6

:
where:
d is thewidrhof rhewire
a is thespacingbctweenthc two wires
Note: TypeIII I'e'r.s arepracedin lhe cenre
of thc film adjacentto the werd.

OmFcbgZ
I
;l

t6

RUANE&TPO'NEILL

7.4.3Poor definition-causes
.
(o.f.d.)tooFcat.
Objecrro film distance
.
Radiation
sourceto film distance
ro-oshon.
.
Dimensions
of focalspotor gammasourcetoo large.
.
KV roohigh.
.
Vibration/movementduringexposure.
.
Poorcontactbetweenfikn andscreens.
Saltscreens.
:
.
Coarsegrainedfilrn.
.
Fog;seealsoSection7.5.

.6j

7.4.4Inherent(film) unsharpness
i:
on a radiographcausedby sray erecrons
Ill=j.^l"rjlyn":: exposed.crystals
lh. unsharple.sl
which
haveaffectedadjacenrcistals. Inherenr
L_T"ralI
!.,o'n
unsnarpness
alwaysexrsts,
rrsmagnirude
depend.ingon
grainiize,graind.istribution
and
radlatron
energyused;i( increases
with a reducrion
in wavelenethl
7.4.5Geometricunsharpness
Geomeo-ic
unsharpness
or penumbra
is rheunsha.rpness
on a radiograph
causedby the
geomeryof theradiation
beamin rerarion
ro rheobjecr--'
being
raaiogiaphJ."a irr. iirr"
"
Penumbra
a.lways
exissandborders
all densiryfieids.
Thedimensio-ns
of thefocalspor,orgammasource,objecrto
" film distance
(o.f.d.)and
focalsporto film disrance
p*".6;.'-'
1f.f.d.;'att-affecr
To minimisepenumbra
wemustadhere
ro rhefollowingcondirions:
.
The sourceor focalspotshouldbeassmallaspossible.
.
O.f.d.shouldbeassmallaspossible
.
F.f.d./s.f.d.
shouldbeaslongaspracricable.

I Sourccro t'ilnrrtisuncc(s.ld.)if usincrarnma

ndiation.

:0 | .h .r:

t7

RUANE& T PO'NETLL
Penumbrasizecan be calculatedby the following formula:
renlunbra

sizeof sourcex o .f .d,\

ff.d. - o f.d.

The maximumpenumbraallowedon radiographsis specifredin cenain standards.In

conractualsituarionswherethestandards
do-noiquoteina*i.numpi"r.uo ,"r*i, -'-it "y
may be agreedwirh theclienr;a maximumpenumbra
of 0.25mni i, orr.r,ur"J.
The BS 29.10doe.snot quorea
_maximumpenumbravalue,but recommendsthat the
penumDra
levelsdo notexceedthemaximumlevelsspecified
for inherentunsharpness.
The minimum f.f.d/s.f.d.chans in BS 2910 are'primarily U"i"O ."'
o.",I-U*
consideracions,
i.e.if rhese
chansarebeingadheredro ihepenu-b." i, .o"iia'"i.Jio u.
acceptable.
7.5 Fog
Fog is unwanted densityon a radiographand may be sub-dividedinto rhe folowing
terms:
.
9r9-Vfog-often simplytermedfog.
.
Yellow foe.
'
Dichroicf5e-qreenishcorourby reflectedrighr.pink via rransmitted
Iight.
.
Motrledfoel
7.5.2Causesof fog
7.5.2.1Grey fog
.
AccidennleTpgsseto actinicradiation
_ light,x-rays,gammarays.When
ts causedbv lisht leaks,e.g.becauseof a failty cassitre]ir is oferi termea fog
itgn
foe.
.
Scatter.
.
Unsuitabledarlcroomlighting, e.g.wrong safelighrs,whire tighr entering
darkroom.
.
Bad film storage.

t.
ri

7.5.2.2Yettowfog
.
Insufficientfinal wash.
.
Exhausted
fixer.
.
Prolongeddevelopment
in badlyoxidizeddeveloper.
7.5.2.3Dichroicfog
.:
.

in exhausted
developingbarh.
!,ofongegdevelopment
rum
stuckto anorher
film in fixer.
Developingrankcontaminared
wirh fixer.

7.5.2.4Mottled fog
.:

O 20 Fcb92

badlystored,
e.g.in dampsurroundings.
Slll
l.
rlm out of dare.

l8

' ' I

RUANE&TPO'I.TEILL

7.6 Artifacts
7.6.1General
An anifact is a spuriousindicationon theradiographicimagc,e.g.a fault in or on the
trlm usuallycausedby mishandlingor incorrectdeveloping.An anifactmayappearto
bea defectin the weldor parentmateriat;ananifactmay
- alsomaska fault i-ntheweld,
therefore,ir is essentialthatanifactsshouldbeavoided.
i'l

7.6.2Staticdischarge
Static.discharge
marksmay occur when rhefilm is pulledquickly from betweenthe
intensifyingscreensin a dry atmosphere.Theappearance
on the ridiographis usually
lightninglike,but ir mayalsobemottled.
7.6.3Reticulation
Reticuladonis a nerlike.smrctureappearing
in thc emulsiondue to ruprurecausedby
excessivelemperarure
differencesbetweenthe processingtanks. k ii a rareanifait
nowadaysfoYothe flexible/plastic
natureof modernday eirulsions.
7.6.4Diffractionmottle
Diffracrionmotrle.may.occur
in a weldareaona radiographicimagebecause
of rhegrain
strucrure.and
grarnorienration
of certainmaterialsmitchingthe wavelengrh
oi rhe
radiation
in acenainway.Austenitic
stainless
steelsand
aluminium
weldsarepinicularly
susceptable.
Diffractionmotrlehasrheappearance
of fineporositythroughout
theweldarea.[r mav
be reduced
or eliminared
by changingrhewavelengih
of ra-diation,
i.e.increasing
kVt,
or by changingrheradiarion
angleby approximarel!
5..
7.6.5Causesof ot her artifacts
7.6.5.1
Light parches
.
.
.
.

Film wasnot agitaredlapped

duringdevelopment
or fixation.
Film insufficienrly
rinsedafierdevelopmeni.
Dropsof fixer fell onrofilrn priorto dlveloomenr.
Mechanical
demage
to emuliion.
Impuririesberwee-n
screenand l-rlm.

7.6.5.2Dark patches,linesor streaks

.
Dropsof develo-per
fallenonro film prior to development.
.
p-rogsof warerfa.llenonrofilm prioi ro development.
.
Mechanical
damage
ro emulsionafterexposurc.
dryingof firm,i.e.whentherearestilldroplers
.' !low anduneven
of wareronrhe
Frlm.
.
Uneven
drvine.
.
Scrarches
on liad screens.
'
Bendingof film afterexposurc
(usually
berween
twofingerscauses
darkcrescenr
shaped
marks).
7.6.5.3tVhitishdcposit
.
Warerusedro makeup processing
solurions
too hard.
:

I DiffrJcrionmordcoftcn incrcasqs
witha rcductionin kvl

.' :() tjch 9!

l9

RUANE&TPO'NEILL

7.7 Sensitivity
7.7.1Generat
whenusedin its generalsense,is an overail assessment
of quality
l.*^,:gl^"llriuiry.,
wnlch relatesto the radiographictechnique'sability to detect fine defectS0n
a
radiograph.
The sensirivityqssociated
with a radiograph
is direcrlyaffectedby rhe radiosraphrc
contrastand definition,thereforeall thoie factorswhic-haffect contrasrand definiiion
will alsoaffectthesensitivity.
7.7.2Measuringsensitivity
Sensitivityis measured
by the.use
of imagequatiryindicators(l.e.Ls),alsoknownasa
penelramercrs-Thercarevarioustypesof t.e.I.i the typecommonly
usedconsiits-of
wires within pl.a9tic.
packaging.
r-ni
*irei
placed
are
Eansversely
across
::y:" ili"
I
*tngexamined
during_exposrrre.
The
sensitiviryon
theresukant
ra,iioe.uol,
llg::'99"u
rs thengrvena numerical
valueby dividingtherhickness
of ihe smallest*i." "isiu-tetn
theradiograph rhethickness
oithe spec-imen
in ttreateaueing"iu,nrn"i;ih;i;;;"
-by
multipliedby 100in ordertoexpress
theiesultasa percentage
of ri" ,p;;i;;; ;i;i;k;;;;,.
SensiriviryVo
=

:+

thicknessof specimen

x 100

The lowcr thc figureobtained,thehigtrerthesensitiviry. [t must

be noredhowever,that
theobtainedI.Qll. sensitivity'.raue
?""s noiiii.iiiv i.r.,. ro rheminimumrhickness
changeor defecisizedetectable
uy ttri iaaiog.apnii'i"""r'l
niqu" ,r.a.
BS 39'1\-lmage qualiryindicatorsis a standard
whichspecifies
threetypesof I.e.I.:
-wire rype.
Type I
-step wedge/hole
typc.
Iype lt
Type Irl -!u.i{ex tiire type'forexcrusivelymeasuring
definition;seeSection
7.4.2.
type I.Q.t.sar.eplacedadjaccntto the wetd in the cenre of the film.
li:P-:-{9.4",e
r ne sensrtrvrrv
is assessed
in the sameway as for wirc typesexcepryou usethe hore
diamererinsteidof a wirethicxness.
of duplex.wires,
I.e.I.saremadeof thesamematerial2
asthespecimen
Yill,l::*:"Ogon
oerngexaminedandareavailablein a varietyof thicknessranges.
Technically;
thebesrposition
to placean-I.e.I.is on thesourcesideof thespecimen,
but

forpractical
reasons
i.e.r.(s)
"rdorten

fr..ia_-;;;h;;i7;;d;;i;.G;;;;'#i;il'"*i
tnespecimen..Itmayalsobsta*d thit_they
.ust bepoiitionedin tr," -". ,r-n"i" ti"
worstsensitivity.is
expected..
A specificaiion
retatirijit raaiogralhi"iesd;;'hd;

olameterplpeweldsmaystate:
"Fo11
pa.noramic
exposurc
at leastoneI.e.l. mustbepresent3,
placedat the6 o,clock
positio.n".Reason:-because
this areais moresusceltibreto backscatterfrom the
qrarr I n a'l

I somctimes
theminimumnumber
of wireswhichhaverobevisibleon r}rcradiograph
is spcciliedinsaad.
2 Al0roughit is desirabrc
for rhclet an-d
*re.specimen
o
be
of
fre
samc
marcnar,
il
is
nor
arwavsoossible
or
pmcucabrc
roaccom'rish
due!orrt1"1111"11i11i1r,

F;;;J;r;ffi;s made
fomauoved
crehehs,
rherQr
matcrialchoscnshouldhavcsimilarradiaLion
absorptiory'transrirission
proprues to fic testspccimen.
3 BS 2910callsfor four lel's placcdar Ute
3, 6, 9, and l2 o,clockpositions.
O l0 l;cb 92

20

RUANE&TPO'NEILL
"Fora.multip-le
expc-sure.technique
two I.e.r.smusrbeused,oneareachendof the
ntmwlrnlnz) mmoI lhe.dtagnosdc
film length,withthethinnestwirefacingtowards
theoutside".Reason:the-outside/end
of ifilm on a multipleexposure
sior is the
leastsensitiveareaduetofade off.
7.7.3Specificsensitivityterms
to sensitivitywhichmay be encounrered;
rhe
Tl9r" g" manyspecificterms.relating.
following terms are in accordancewirh BS 36g3-Terms usid in non-desrruuue
testing: Part3-Radiological flaw d.eteuion:
Contrastsensitivity
Thedensirydifferenceona radiograph
afterprocessing,
producedby a smalrchange
in specimen
thickness.
Note: It is usuarry
expressed
asa percentage
ofthe toralspecimen
rhickness.
Defectdetectionsensitivity
ln a radiorap.h,
theminimum_dimension
of a specified
defecrtharcanbediscemed,
measured
in rhedirecrion
of rhe.primary
radiarlon
beam
andusuay e*presseJ
"s a
percenrage
of thespecimen
rhickness.
FIarvsensitivity
Theminimumflaw5126
dgls6lxble
underspecifiedconditions
usuallyexoressed
as
a percenrage
of rhespecimenrhickness.(see ilso defectdrtrrrio,,t tliiiirrtii.
Imagequatityindicatorsensitivity
Thedimension
in thedirection
of theradiation
of therhinnesr
step-wirh-hole
or wire
tharcan be clearryidenrified,
expressed
as a percenrage
of rrierhict<nis.s
of rne
materialundereximrnarron.
Notc: Theduprex;wire
imagequalityindicatoris baiedon a differentprincipre
and
glvesa measure
of unsharpness
only.
Thicknesssensi ti vit_v
The smallest
changein rhickness
whichcan be detected
by radiography,
usua'y
expressed
asa percenrage
of thespecimen
thickness.
8 RADIOGRAPHICTECHNIQUES
8.1General

,/

techniques
for wetdson ,,".Y are lisrcd in BS2910_Radio,raDttic
l:^*g_lill"
'and
e-ramrltarnn
ot rtlsto, wgrdc! circwnferenda! buu joints
itt srccT
BS2600-Rad[ographic
exantination
offiio'n-*iiili butt iointsin steer.
Theradiographic
examination
of.apratewerdwourdresultin a single
walr,singrcimage
being
used;
however,
rheie
are
essentially
four
*ays
to
.iaiograptr
a'ginn/f,pe
llllTtqu"
wetd:
l.
t
J.

4.

I | ,\tr o:

Singlewall,singleimage
(SWSt)-film inside,source
oursrde.
ilage(swsl)-film outside'
(internal
rnside
source
exposure.
*gf
.::ll'-s11qte
usually
ru panoranric
).
singleimage(DwSI)-film outside,sourceourside(excernal
3r?:ort""*i""'
doubleimage(DwDl)-film outside'sourceoutside(elliptical
.o.:o""orf*;""'

2l

RUANE&TPO'NEILL

The panoramictcchniqueis usuallythe prefcrredrechniqueif the equipmcntis avaitabte,

accesspermitsandtheminimumf.f.d.reluirements
-i .n.t. This is duero rhefactrhatrhe
entlreweldcanbeexaminedin oneexposure,
andgirodsensitivity
canbeachieved
because
of a lower levelof scatterandkv in "oo'p*iton-fiih i doubtewalred
exoosure.
8.2 SWSI: sourceoutside,film inside
For srandard
exposures,
theradiationbeamis positioned
at normarincidcnceto the werd
faceand film paisingthroughthe""n"" oiir,";;il:""
tegtliqqe is primariryintendedfor 100mm diameterpipe werdsandabove,where
l!i.'
accessto the intemalweldareapermits.Themaindisadvaniales
of ttristiitrnique'arerhe
numberof exposures
reouiredddeto a_large
amounroilaoe offi";i ih;;;;;;u'ip""ts
or
positioning
rheradiation
source
atsufficie"nr
r.i.a.*r,* a".n";;il'i;#;i;lrl.iuj,rr.
r,
is a technique
moresuitedto large.diameter
pipei,uissetsandrankswherethecurvarureis
closer to a flat plareand thereforitrasa reau'cfi iire-cr'onrheamount
of fadeoff.
The requiredminimumnumber.ofexposures
to coverthe full circumference
of the weld
dependson thewall thickness,
pipediimeteranai].J*.r.a.; seetablei; BS 2910:"8.3 SWSI: (panoramic)sourceinside,film outside
For standardexposures,
theradiationbeamis positionedat normalincidence
to the weld
face and fitm pissingthroughthe c"nte orlli" *"ial *,tt'
equal
f.f.d./s.f.d.
aroundrhe
circumference.This-rechniq-ue
cannotbe usedif the mrnimumf.f.d./s.f.d.requiremenrs
cannotbemer.
8.4 DWSI
This techniqueis commonlyappliedto all wcldswherethe
useof a panoramic
---""'!
is
. - - -- technique
not possibleor practicable,'e.g.-on
smalldiameterpipewelds.
F_orsrandard,
exposurcs
on any-diameterof pipeweld, theradiationbeamis posirioned
ar
approximarety
85'ro rheweld'face
andfilm.'\iirtr rhisiicrrnique'il;ff;;t;;Un_l"nno,
be posirionedat normarincidencero rheweld ponion
u"-ing.;;i";-6;;;;r.
,-r.'"'*""iaon
theradiation
source
sidewillsuperimpos";;;iih"
F;il,ffi;Jj'i"*rtiii:i"
,"irllituur"
radiograph.This problemmaintyap'pties;t;; ;:i;;'*'-."v
rubes;
the
x-ray
tube
mustbe
movedapproximaiely.60 *rn. ro it "'siai of rh; ;-ld:r;
rhe
cenrral
line
of
the
x_rav
beam
'c-"
snootspasrthe tubesideweldresurtingin a diagnosri--;.!;;il"?;ilrio"
*"rd
must also be rakenro ensurerhatthe numberrapeon the
sourcesidedosnot interferewith
the image,.i.e.
shoorthroughrrom rrreofpositJiii" "i t" werdto thatwhich
rhenumber
tapeis posirioned.
;:r.

The requiredminimumnumberofexposures
!o cover the fu circumference
of the weld
dependson thewalt thickness,
pip. Jii-"ilii"i;i.il
;" tablein BS 2910.
8.5 DWDI
This techniqueis only appliedto weldson pipeor
finings90 mm diameteror below.
The film ca-ssetres
are not benrar.ound the pipe circumfercnceunlike
with the orher
techniques;flar.cassettes
areused-which
"t. ,r,iurjiy"}iri"i to rheweld to recordane ipticar
pytposelv
produced
bvofrsetting
*refocat'spoi
lruqir
onenrit oitlnlii.a-_"Fro.
the eltrpricalinrageof rheweld,rhetu& siae*itiis ai leasr
lnt"rp.et.d
as well as rhe firm side
weld-

expos
uresareusualry.required,
offserby 120'toeachother:thisresults
I ::irg.:flhree
t"rerprerabre

lx119t11o,tj'*
or
tne weld.

areas
onrheraariogiaptr
*trictriiouta
couer
rn.rurr.iit;;i;;;"".

borepipework,
it is sometimes
permitred
by specification
I:l::,3".^'llll
or'pip";'inli'*irr
crientfor rhe
raorarron
to passrhrough
rhecenrre
of theweld'ain",,""r i'^.io*t" l"iii.
produce
a radiograph
wirhrherubeside*"ta sup"rr-poi"doverrhe
film sideweld.
O I Apr92

22

:'*fi{r.*
RUANE & T P O'NEILL

/'/t
8.6sandwich
rechnique
L"ffi
is a radiographictechniquisometimesusedin orderto savetime.
T.h:::(:.i:!.,,:chnique
rt mayDusedon comDonenrs
whereiherearesu6stantiar
ttriitnessaiieil";;;;;;;i";';.
densirvona singreradibgraph
to beo"t oiip".ilr"uii"" "" "iir,iiiti,hi.;k;;;il;,;;
,;;'";",
sideor both. Rarherrhanci.ry our two seferateshotsat different
eip.ii,i*,
i"l
.".rr'*ia
or position,cassetres
mav be-loaded*i*ir*o-nf-i.
i*o raaiog.Jphs;'i;;;;;L
produced-one

forrhethicksideanatr,.oir,"r-ro.
tt Jininn",siae-rfi;;"t;iii;;;;;;"

producedin a singleexposure.

i,j
The filrns are usuallvof different
!pudsl.9.g.a fine grainedfilm Ioadedwirh a very fine
rr.lqr'
howevir,rhe
qrained

same
"ii..t *hi L piJ-u;Ji;v
'- ---- - plil;;
thanusual,
betwssn
rwofilmsof rhesame,o""d.

l*i i.,..","i(i.r",

8.7 Parallaxtechnique
techniquer
may be.usedto determinethedepthof defecrsbelow
,r!::y:!!y.r:!iographic
rnesunaceof
a comDonen
r: thismaybeuiefurto knowfor reparrpurposes.
Itisatechnique
rhickspecimens,-e.g.
over50 ,"-, il; ;; rarelyusedbecause
::i::q!!:",bl.,ro
ulrrasonic
teshngcanusualrygiverhesameinforiradonquictei ana
at a lowercost.
Thetechnique
is usedafreradefecthasarreadybeen
detectedby conventional
merhods.The
procedure
involves
rheoracement
ofa tead-mirker
ontrr"iJJ."e ,iaeof a specimen,s
surface
closero theplanview'rocarion
of rhe ;"f"*-i;;;;-p;res
are made,eachat half rhe
offset

l#3 tr!?:1:";,and

toeach
other
inora",toflJorc"aaouui"1.a!.
"i ir,.l"ra

The followingcriteriaareusedro carcurarcr

thedistanceof thedcfecrfrom thefirm:
a.
b.

d.

Gap berweendefecrimaees.
images.
!1p. between leadmarke"r
f .r.o./s.
t.d.
Specimen
rhickness.
Dimensionof shifrberweensourceof radiadon.

9 DETERMINATIONOF EXPOSURE
9.1General
Many.factorsgovernrhefinalqualirysof a radiographic
image;all thesefacrors
J "'uJr
mustbe
considered
andconrolredin ord'erro'meet*irh a ipeiiEcaiiJ,iii.!'i,r*-.!"-s-ry'
T'hetimero usefor anexDos-ure
is onryone factorto considerfor an exposure,but it is this
fac,torwhich
changesmosrofren.
cr'n;;;;p;s;;ilriirL
u,u"ilycarcurated
fromspeciar
slrderules'usuallyrefenedrc asganmacxposure
calculators,
these
take
into
consideiarron
thefollowins:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Film densiq'ro beachieved.

Sourcelype.
Acriviryof source.
Film speed.
Jourcero film distance.
Material
ryoe.
Marerial
rhickness.

I Thcparallaxtcchniqucis somcdmcs
(crcncdto as thctubeshift method ethcn
anx-rayrubcis uscrJ.
: A formulaor a spccialgraphma,
bcuscdlo dctcrmincdefcctdcpth.
J Qualityis rcfcring to dcnsiry.conuasr
anddcllnirion.

i" l0 ljch 92

!5

RUAIVE & T P O'NEILL

r
of exposureis lessstraightforward'This is
thedetermination
f 'When usingx-rayequipment,
j"i""iiiv-.r
may be adiusted,and differentmachines
rad-iation
) becausethe wavelength-o
o.perated
of *-radiati6neverithoughthey may_beI producedifferenrquantities*i+iiii"t
eKposures
correct
to
determine
methodsareused
I bn r-h",uln" punelierdngs.fne f6tto*ing
I" whenusingx-rayequipment:
". By refercnceto previousexposurerecords'
b. Bv trial anderror-test shots'
'o,:
c. A-combinationof theabove'
charts.
d, By usingexPosure

-P.2 Considerations for exPosures

*d 9.2.1 Wavelength of radiation

and definition of a
The wavelength of radiation used will affect the densiry' contrast
radiographic image.

,f
\
0
h

tne1ne9r^ryi',!!:Igl"-t *"'
X-ray equipment-Thc lowerthekV usedto penetrate
kV mustbcusedto keeptheexposurctrmereasonaDle'
G tni "o'nuitt,butenough

\.!c

radioactive isotopes produce different wavelengths of

F\
..g

Gamma isotopes-Different

g{

will havelowei connastanddefinition'

radiationthanIrl92 andis
wa'nelengrh
i"i.",^-r.aiiii5" ".g.F"oo'i."a""", ,t,on".
usingCo60
orithesamespecimen
iraJiognpfrproAuced
morep"n"ouung,"U.i,
rherefore

9.2.2Intensityof radiationand expo3uretime

Theintensityoftheradiationreachingtheitlmandexposuretimewillaffectthedens
of theimage'.
to the
Radiationintensityandexposureti4" 9t9 related' Exposuretime is proportional
law:
reciprociry
as
rhe
is
known
.i;;di"tion; thisielationship
i;;;iit
Exposure= dmex intensiry
of say4 minutesand3 mA' then4 x 3 = 12'
youhadanexposure
_y;"
X-ray equipment-If
wouldbe'usingiz -elrnin,. you'could alsouse3 minutesand4 mA to
ih;id
12mA'
=
sive vou rhe same "rnoun, of i*potut" because3 x 4 12' or I minute

*\

T'."ri I rj.'"riiiit

of
amount
'i"io iita, z-;Z = 12etc.;all thesegivevouthesame

exposure.
ThehigherthemAsetongontheconEolpanel,.the'greatertheintensityofradiation
to
tf,.r.ior" tle aarter ttre imige witt bi, unlessthe time is reduced
;;;;A;-;d
compensate.
with an
Gamma isotopes-If you had an-exposurcof say 5 mhltes usingan.isotope
20
Ci-mins'
using
be
=
you-would
""iir-i-tv"i +iiti"s, the; 5 x 4 20, therefore
used,thegreatertheintensityof radiationproduced'
The hishertheacrivjryof rhersotope
;a if;;i;-,he
dar'kerrheimagl will be,unlessrhe rime is reduccdto compensale.

.rrij

9.2.3X-ray equipment

I
\

by kV)
The intensityof radiadon(govemedby mA) and quality of radiation(go.rerned

ang11,1?
The,kV
beingused'.
can6;;ff";ilby,r'iir..ii. circuitoitheequipment
vary trom
can
and wavelengths
be on the samepinel setting,but the radiationintensity
one set to another.

I Remembcrtlratdensityaffccs conrrast,
andconra$ affccs sensitivity.

' Flb ql

24

q
(

'.1

RUANE&TPO'NEILL
Filter types and thicknessesalso differ betweenx-ray tubes. Filters are usedto cut out
secondaryradiation to provide a more homogencousx-ray beam with lower resultant
scatterlevels. Filters affect the exposuretime, e.g. an x-ray tube with a ttrick fitter wiii
require more exposurethanan x-riy tube with a thinner filier.

'.

9.2.4Type of fitm
The higherthe speedof the film, the denserthe image comparedto tharof a slow film
at the sameexposure.Howsygl, the radiograph'sdefi-nitionfor a slow film ar the Sorrect
exposurewill bc berrerrhanrhat for a fast-fitm at the correcr exDosure.
9.2.5Intensifyingscreens
Usirg intensifying.
screensreducesthe exposurerequiredto artainthe requireddensiry,
but fluorescent
and fluorometallicscreenshavean adverseaffecton the definitionof the
radiographicimage.
9.2.6 F.f.d./s.f.d
The greaterthe f.f.d./s.f.d.rhe smallerthepenumbra,thereforethe bettertheradiographic
definition.But, x-raysandgammaraysobey rheinversesquarelaw. Thi inversesquare
law states:
"At
twicethedistancefrom thesource,the sameradiarioncoversfour rimesrhearea
bur the intensityof radiationis four times less. At four timesthe distancefrom rhe
sourcethe sameradiationcovers sixteentimes rhe area but the inrensityof rhe
radiadonis sixteenrimesless,etc.,'.
Therefore,with regard to exposure,rhe greater the f.f.d./s.f.d. the greaterthe exposure
shouldbe ro attaina givendinsiry.
The inversesquarelaw can be shownmathematicalryin relationto intensiry:
II
D22
12 Dt7
/ = intensiw
D = distanie
The following formula, basedon the inversesquare law, can be used to dererminenew
exposureswhen the f.f.d./s.f.d.
changes:
New Exposure -Nev';

Distance2x old Exposure

OId Distance2

9.2.7Object being radiographed

The radiationabsorptionandtransmission
characteristics
ofa matcrialdepcndsuponir

thickness,
densiryind aromicmass. rnis wirr-lrima;ii;;;;.iliaring
required.

ioo,ei

9.2.8processing
the film
Th.edensiry,
contrast
anddefinition
ofa radiograph
by rhetype,remperarure,
areaffecred
agitationandtimein thedeveloper.The develbpmenr
pro..., lnouli'nor beadlusted
outsidea.specifications
req-uirements
in orderrd co-pJntute ror incorreirexposures,
i,e.ro adjustthe densityoi a r:rdiograph,
rhe exposrjreshouldbe changed;'not
rhe
developing
process.

e | 4p.92

!)

RUaNE&t.pO'trgrr
r
93 Exposurc cha1(s
Exposurcchansprovidethecxposurccondirionsfor a givenrhickness
of marerialusing x _ray
cqulpmcnr. An exposurechan will show rhc cxpoiure ro use rn
mA_min for a clrosen
specimenrhicknessand kV in order ro arrainrnedinsiry tharrhechan is
basedon.
Exposurc chans are drawn up from preliminary chans made up from cxposures
using
differenrkilovolragcson slepwedges.
,r.
Thc vcnical scaleon ar exposurcchan is rogarithmicand rhehorizonral
scareis a'rh-eti..
Eachchan must show rlrcvariablesro which rhc chan is applicablcro:
a. Type of x-ray ser.
b. Film densirvc. Film type.
d- Intensifyingscreens
e. Focus to Frlrndistancc.
f. Developme
nt condlrions.
E. Marerialresrcd.
|2('

!,{o,ra

rdo ;f,o ,-2c ..4(,

-"J(, ia,

r..i
trt;

lri

I
I

I
I

tti

(
{

ti
, z

)!

0.{
I

t.

1t

''

av' 59

1''

: ' l - 1 C I t , : - S 5 (:.-t

LLI h=?ils )

OZrFcb92

26

RUANE&TPO'NEILL

9.4Guidelineexposures
usingx-rays
Thefollowingchanshows,guiderine
x-rayexposurcs
bn standard
walrthickncss
A.p.l. pipes
usingfinegrainfilm withleadscreens.
Technique
(BS2910)

Dia.(mm)

Time(min)

kv

I3 DWDI*

50

t.)

200

13DWSI

r00

l.l5

165

13DWSI

300

2.5

220

I3 DWSI

450

4.75

5
5

230

7 SWSr
13DWSI

450

1.15

t75

600

245

7 SWSI

600

t ; 75

13DWSI

900

270

7 SWSI

900

195

300
2t0

1 3D W S I

1050

7 SWSI

r050

t2
J.)

* Focusto film disrance

= 650mm.

e :0 Fcb92

mA

27

I
I

RUANE&TPO'NEILL

APPENDTX
A DETERMINATIoNoF FoCAL sPoT SIZE
Thefocalspotsizeof x-ray*.f.^:ll.:_,ts_" over
a.peri6dof time. To derermine
Ce
rnerocalspor,e'9.forpenumbra
rhesizeof
carcuradon-s,
rn"rorr'c,*iiiprocedure
maybcadopred.
t'
4 mmrhickconraining
a smallhoteabour
ii:::t:lg
l!:"1'tP:.?:iTlelv
"0.25
-" mm
oramerer,
exacdy
hatfwayberween
rhefocalspoi-una
;r"dt";;;;;
fi;:.
2. Expose-th""*oorT:.r"fplld.plt .*c"sriu"
otherwise
theimagewiil beblurrec.
onthefirmwilrberhesizeof rhefoca]'spor
ptusrwicetie diamereiof
fll;imaee
the

3-

O 20 l;cb92

o"$illi"_,ll,lTlj:9_1:t*

bymeasuring
therotardiameter
of theimase
andrhen

1r

'jid!ffiS..,.

RUANE&TPO'NETLL

APPENDTXC CHARACTERISTICCURVES
OF FILMS
A characterisdc
.for
curveis a cT,veon a graph.produced
a panicularfilm which showsthe
relationship
between
differenr
exposurci
aiplira -a tt " ..."fring densities.

l",ly#ifiXTilJ.":ill

showthatthedensiry
doesnotalways
varyin thesame
proponion

curveis producedbv aoolvir

o.u.roi,n"iu,
i^"-il#r;l"#JXid:,ffiTtf:T;ffiilT:iX"".fi,Hi,il,i:r,H1
thecorresponding

exposures.
Borhthe ";;.1;;"d;;"'i,y.1
"no nor,.onrar
axis(exposure)
in a logari-rhmic
scale.(log,oE);
thir--",iil'ir',n" mosrpracrrcar
1:t^"]tbrFd
merhodfor rhe
of a curve.whenihepoinrsobiaineJrt.
ffiu,1d.1nt"rpr"tadon
u.r"iJ".il .,nr""a'tog.it.i
uquueo.

Pr

If characterisdc
curvesof various
on onc graph,ir wi, bc seenrhar
ltrns yep superimposed
thefasterfilmslie closerro thelefr
venicaiaiil,-b#;r;*f*rer firmsattaindensiryar rower
exposures.
Therefore.itshourdteappreciatedtn"iiiiiprriiii"roobtain

ririitiiri'inr"ir^

trom the characterisoc

curvesor ttlms-

Thc*highestTt/rnconrrastof a given film

ries on the straight litte portionof irs characterisnc

curve,
thisindicares
rhedensiruian!e
*-k;ii-h;;;iui'oJi,i,nun,'
.
'nirn
.onrasr.Arso,rhesreeper
.hegradie of thesrraight
linepofriontl.,et igfrerifre
J8ntrur,.

O 20 Fcb 92

30