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History of Computers or Data Processing

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History of computer or data processing can be divided into three

ages. Mainly depending on devices used.
(1) Dark Age (3000 B.C. 1890 A.D.)
Simple manual and mechanical devices.
Abacus (3000 or 5000 B.C.) Developed in china. It is a frame with
beads strung on wires or rods.
Napier John (1617) (Scotsman) Napier Bones + / to + - (invented
logarithms)
Robert Bissaker or Oughtred (English mathematician) invented
Slide Rule in 1632, which helped to solve complex problems
relatively quickly using logarithms concept.
Blaise Pascal French mathematician, invented 1st mechanical digital
computer/calculator, Can perform + - on whole numbers, named
Pascalline in 1640 or 1642. It has gears and wheel (Meters today).
Joseph Marie Jacquard (French) in 1804(19th century) invented
Automated punch-card machine to operate Weaving loom, used data
coded on cards to give series of instructions to automate weaving.
Charles Babbage (British) in 1823 invented All purpose problem
solving Machine called Difference Engine which had mechanical
memory, to store results.
Charles Babbage also called Father of the (modern) computer.
Because its concepts led to modern computer. He also designed but
never built very big an analytical engine
Augusta Ada understood Charles Babbage ideas value and write
papers on them in 1840. She suggested use of binary system in
computers. She is also called first programmer. She gave concept of
loop used in programming.
George Boole, English mathematician in 1850 invented Boolean
Algebra based on binary system 0 and 1, which then became
basics of computer.
(2) Middle Age: (1890 A.D. 1944 A.D.)
Electromechanical accounting machines.
Dr. Herman Hollerith (English mathematician) in 1880 built the 1 st
electromechanical punch card data processing machine, which
tabulated data in 1890 census in one-fourth time. His company later
became IBM.
Vannevar Bush and his colleagues in early 20th century 1931 at
(MIT) created differential analyzer, an electronic machine that solves
simple differential equations. It was a mechanical analog computer
that performs calculation by rotating of various shafts.
(3) Modern Age (Since 1944)
Fully electronic and automatic computers were developed capable of
performing long sequence of arithmetical and logical operations.
In 1944, electromechanical computer MARK-I was built by
Professor Aiken under IBM. It is 1st automatic sequence controlled
calculator machine 51 x 8 feet high. It had electro mechanical relays,
and uses electricity. In 1945 they build Mark-II, which was fully
electronic computer. In future relays were replaces by vacuum tubes.

Generations of Computer Hardware

There are five generations of (electronic) computer (hardware). In
each generation new technologies were used and performance and
applications of computer were increased.
First Generation (1951 1959)
A group of people thinks that first generation was started in 1946
when binary number system was used and concept of pre-stored
instructions as program was introduced.
Main Identity, use of
Vacuum Tubes
External Storage
Magnetic Tape & Magnetic Drum
Input
Punch Card
Output
Punch Card and paper
Languages
Machine & Assembly languages
Operations
Human operators to set switches
Typical Example
UNIVAC 1
Second Generation (1959 1965)
Main Identity, use of
Transistors
External Storage
Magnetic- core storage
Commonly Magnetic Tape but Magnetic
disk introduces
Input
Punch Card and Magnetic Tape
Output
Punch Card and paper
Languages
High Level Languages, e.g. Fortran,
COBOL, BASIC
Operations
Human operators to handle punch cards.
Typical Example
Honeywell 200
Third Generation (1965 1971)
Main Identity, use of Integrated Circuits (ICs)
External Storage
Improved Disk Storage
Input
Keyboards
Output
Monitors
Languages
More High Level Languages, e.g. RPG and
Pascal
Operations
Less involvement for human operators,
because of first complete operating system
Advantages
Family of computers allowing compatibility.
Marketing
Mini Computers used commercially
Typical Example
IBM System/360
Forth Generation (1971 Present)
Main Identity, use of LSI (Large Scale Integration) and
VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)
External Storage
Magnetic Disk
Input
Keyboards
Output
Monitors
Languages
Forth Generation Languages and Application
programs for microcomputer were popular.
Marketing
Introduction of micro computers
Typical Example
Compaq Deskpro 386 (micro computer)
Burroughs B7700 and HP 3000 in (Mini
computers)

Fifth Generation (Future)

Main Identity, use of True Artificial Intelligence, Human like
thinking and reasoning.

Uses Of Computer In Society and World

Where computers are used?

Business, Banking & Industry

E-Banking E-Commerce E-Trade, E-shop, E-marketing, Stock Exchange, Credit
Cards, CAD (Computer Aides Designing) CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing)

Science & Technology

Simulation Programs, Space sciences, Atomic sciences, Weather forecasting.
(Mainly super computers), Virtual Reality

Medical &Health
Online Operations or proxy operations, robotic (arm) operations, Medicine
research, Transcription. Expert systems. LASER operations. Blood Testing.

Engineering
Tools designing & testing, Architects
AutoCAD

& Civil engineering designing e.g.

Education
Children Education with graphics shows difficult processes graphically. Library
support, dictionary and encyclopedia support. Internet: huge databases, libraries,
databases, tutorials, discussion forums and search engines for searching particular
topics. Mathematical problem solving. Online Testing

Sports
Software showing techniques of different sports. Used in training. Suggests
strategies watching opponent past performance. In cricket graphical support in
decision-making, speed checking, 3 dimensional affects. Also keep data and
statistics and for quick search of records. Practice for players in tennis and cricket.

Computer games
Computer games for children using graphics. Stories, Also board games testing
logic and IQ. E.g. Chess. Online games on internet where many people share
games.

Music, Movie & Entertainment

Computerized piano and other instruments, Software to alter music change pitch
voice and improve voice quality. Mix sounds. Alter movies make clips edit movies,
different light affects. Cartoon Making. Special affects in movies e.g. space films

Home
Writing letters, organize work. Computerized systems manage home for switching
lights control washing machines, heating & cooling, security systems and other
home appliances. Also Blue Tooth technology to keep watch.

Art
Artists are also using computer technology and computerized pictures are also
available. Used to give light affects, color combination etc.

Defense
GPS (Global Positioning Systems) warheads, weapons, missile technology.
Warning systems, Radars Air craft control, training software using simulation &
virtual reality.

Communication
Internet, mail, chat file and data transfer. Network sharing of hardware and
software. EDI (Electronic Data Interchange).

Government Departments
Usually in record keeping and searching data, generate quick reports
Traffic control
Theft automobiles
Census & Elections
POLICE records
Legal Systems

Analog signals: Analog signals are the continuous waveform.

Amplitude

Frequency

Phase

Factors of Analog signals: Amplitude: - The height of wave.

Frequency: -The number of cycle a wave takes in a second.
Phase: - Phase is the angle of the wave.
Digital signals: Digital signals exist in two states either 1 or 0, Where 1 means on and
0 means off.
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Types of Computer
(Classification of Computers by Type)
Analog Computers:It is a computer that measures data varying continuously in value,
such as speed or temperature.
An analog computer operates in a completely opposite way to the
digital computer. Data are represented in an analog computer as voltages, a
very compact but not necessarily robust form of storage. A single capacitor
(equivalent to the Digitals computer transistor) in an analog computer can
represent one continuous variable. They are used in areas where physical
quantities are measured. They represent numbers by physical quantity. They
drive data from some form of measurement such as length, speed, and
voltage passing through a point, pressure, and temperature. Their output is
usually in form of dials or graphs. They are for specific purpose and perform
that particular job only. They have high speed but less accurate than digital
computers.

Digital Computers:A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with
quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number system 0 or 1.
A computer accepts and processes data that is converted into binary
numbers. Most computers we use today are digital.
A computer in which operations are based on two or more discrete
states is digital. Digital computers are based on two states, logical on and
off, represented by two voltage levels. Different arrangements of which
are used to represent all types of information numbers, letters, graphics
symbols, and program instructions. They perform arithmetical and logical
operations. They have great accuracy but less speedy than analog but more
speedy as compared to human.

Hybrid Computers:A computer that contains both digital and analog circuits is called
hybrid. They are special purpose computers. They have speed of analog but
accuracy of digital computers. They are usually used for special problems in
which input data derived from measurement (analog form and) is converted
into digital and processed by computer. They are used for digital processing
of data collected in analog form. For example hybrid computer is used in
hospitals to get reading of patient through analog devices and then convert
these measurements in digits for display or further process.

Classification of Computers by Purpose

Computers may be classified as (i) special purpose and (ii) general purpose.
(i)
Special purpose computers are designed to solve special problems
like machine control or process control. Most analog computers are
special purpose. They are widely used in industrial robotics.
(ii) They are designed to solve a large variety of problems. Most of
them are digital computers. They are mostly used in business and
commercial data processing. They are classified as follows.

Classification or Types or Shapes of Digital Computers

(Classification of Computers by Size)

Super Computers
Main Frames Computers
Mini Computers
Micro Computers

Super/Maxi Computers: The Mightiest Computer and, of course, the most expensive known as
Supercomputers are also the fastest: they can process trillion of instruction
per second. Supercomputer can be found in mainstream activities as in stock
analysis, automobile design, special effects for movies, and even
sophisticated art work. However for many years super computer customers
were an exclusive group: agencies of the federal government. The federal
government uses Supercomputers for tasks that require huge data
manipulation, such as weather forecasting, atomic fission (testing)
simulation and space sciences and weapon research. They are usually for
specific task and have different operating system and other software. They
may have multi processors. Thousands of users can access it simultaneously.

Main Frames Computers:They are largest most powerful and very expensive computers.
Mainframes are capable of processing data at very high speed millions of
instructions per second and have to access to billions of characters of data.
Their principle use is for processing vast amount of data quickly, so some of
the obvious customers are large organizations like Banks, insurance
companies, manufacturers, large mail-order house, airline with space
companies doing complex aircraft design, and other like these. A key
characteristic of large computers is that they are designed for multiple users.
For Example, many reservation clerks could be accessing the same computer
at the same time to make reservation for waiting customers. They have
memory from 32 MB to GBs. They support approximately 500 to 2000
users. Example is IBM 3090.

Mini Computers:A minicomputer is an earlier medium-scale, centralized computer that

functioned as a multi-user system for up to several hundred users. They are

smaller than mainframes having less memory and processing capabilities, so

they were cheaper than mainframes and are for medium size business. The
minicomputer industry was launched in 1959 after Digital Equipment
Corporation introduced its PDP-1, a low price computer in those days as
compared to mainframe. Some mini computers are designed for single user.
In Multi-user users can access a centralized mini system through dumb
terminals. It is a standard PC for departmental use, scientific laborites.
The processor was typically built using low integration logic.
Integrated circuits, thus distinguish it from a microcomputer, which is built
around a microprocessor- a processor on one IC (or maybe a few) ICs.

Microcomputers:A small digital computer based on a microprocessor and

designed to be used by one person at a time. But can be use in network with
other computers. It is often called personal computer or just PCs. They are
smallest least expensive and now used by 90 % of people also because they
are multipurpose tool. They are called micro because of their size and use of
small micro Chip. Originally they had small capabilities but today they are
more powerful than early mainframes. Their price is low so they are popular
in small business and homes. They are of different sizes and purposes. They
are categorized by size as Desktop (small enough to be fit on a desk), Laptop
or Notebook (portable), Palmtop or PDA (Personal Digital Assistants) (less
powerful than desktop or notebook, used for special applications of quick
use). Example is Pentium, Compaq

Workstations:In terms of PC power, are the powerful machines called

workstations. It is used by specialized workers such as engineers, financial
traders and graphics designers. Workstations are small enough to fit on a
desktop but approach the power of a mainframe.

One way to categorize is (a) for organizations and (b) for

individuals
Computers for Organizations:- Network Servers, Mainframe,
Minicomputers, Supercomputers.
(i) Network servers are powerful personal computers with special software
and equipment that enable it to function as primary computer in the network.
(ii) (iii) (iv) all discussed
Computers for Individuals:- Desktop, Workstations, Notebook or laptop,
Tablet, Handheld, Smart Phones
(i) Desktop:- A PC that is designed to sit on or under a desk or table. They
are very powerful. (ii) discussed (iii) Notebook or laptop:- They are
approximate the shape of an 8.5 by 11 inch notebook and easily fit inside a
brief case. People frequently set these devices on their lap, they are also
called laptop computers. (iv) Tablet:- It is newest development in portable
full-featured computers, they offer all the functionality of a notebook PC,
but they are lighter and can accept input from a special pen called a stylus or
a digital pen. That tap or write directly on screen. (v) Handheld PC : They are computing devices small enough to fit in your hand. A popular type
is PDA (Personal digital assistance. It is used for special applications, such
as taking notes, displaying telephone numbers, and keeping dates of
meeting. (vi) Smart Phones :- Some cellular phones double as miniature
PCs. These phones offer advanced features not typically found in cellular
phones, they are sometimes called smart phones. These features can include
eb and E-mail access, etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of computer

Why we use computer? Why and how it is better than manual work.

Advantages
We use computer to make our work fast and efficient. It has following
advantages.
(a) Speed: - It is very much faster than human and today computer
perform several millions of instructions in one second which
human cannot do.
(b) Accuracy: - The results of computer are much accurate than human
manual work. It is accurate in mathematical calculation and also in
record search. It can get particular data from millions of records
and there is no chance of mistake or error. Human can make
mistake.
(c) Repetitive job:-It can perform repetitive jobs continuously as it
cannot be bored.
(d) Run for long time without tiring: - It can work for long hours
without being tired as compared to human.
(e) Multipurpose Tool: - It is multipurpose tool and satisfies people
related to different fields.
(f) Variety of tasks simultaneously:-It can perform different tasks
simultaneously. So it can satisfy different type of users at a time.
(g) Can be programmed:-It can perform number of tasks
automatically according to a given program.
(h) Decision Making:- It also has capability of decision-making
according to given conditions. It cannot fever or bias anyone.
(i) Economical: - It may be economical as it can do work of many
people alone but it depends upon its own expenses.
(j) Large Storage: - It can store huge amount of data and information,
which can be increased, but this is not possible for human.

Disadvantages
There are some disadvantages or limitation of computer.
(a) Inflexible:-It is inflexible means it follows only given instruction
and slight change in command with same meaning is not
acceptable.
(b) Need All Details:-It need full details of task; if any one is missing
it cannot work and cannot assume anything of its own.
(c) Expensive:-Its equipments are expensive and also maintenance is
costly. It also changes quickly so update cost is high.
(d) More staff:-It also needs more technical staff and also training cost
which can increase expense of organization.
(e) Loss of Data: -Data may also be lost. So for this backup is needed.
It cost more and also time is needed to recover or re-enter data.

Four Elements or Parts of Computer System

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. User
4. Data
1.Hardware
Computer hardware consists of all the physical tangible items parts or
components related to computers. Any thing that you can touch and see
related to computer can be termed as computer hardware. All the devices

including processor, input devices, output devices and storage devices are
computer hardware. Examples are Mouse, Key Board, RAM, Monitor.
Firmware:- In ROM there are certain programs which are necessary for
computers. They are read only and cannot be changed by compute. They
need special equipment to change it. They are called firmware. It is
software that is permanently or firmly built into hardware.
Live ware:- Users are sometimes called Liveware or Humanware.
Computer cannot work without human so operators, designers and
programmers are needed. They are called Liveware. This term is for all
people who have concern with computers.

HARDWARE
Q

What is Computer? What is information processing Cycle? Describe

Different parts of Computer and their work.
A computer is an electronic computational machine consisting of
interconnected devices that work together. It accepts raw data from its
input devices perform a range of predefined operations on the input
data with the help of stored set of instructions called program (with
high speed and accuracy) and generate useful information (according
to the user need). The result is shown through output devices or stored
by storage devices.
OR A computer is an electronic data processing machine.
Information processing cycle (How Computer Works)
A computer converts data into information by performing
various actions on the data. For example mathematical operation to
add two numbers or a logical operation to compare two numbers and
then display results. These operations are part of a process called the
information processing cycle, which is a set of steps the computer
follows to receive data, process the data according to instruction from
a program, display the resulting information to the user and store the
result. Information processing cycle has four parts
1. Input:- In this part the computer accepts data from some source,
such as user or program for processing.
2. Processing:- In this part computer processing components perform
action on the data, based on instructions from user or program.
3. Output:- It is optional step in which computer shows output
through some output device like monitor, speaker or printer or send it
to another computer.
4. Storage:-It is also optional step in which computer stores result
permanently on some storage medium like tape, disk, hard disk, etc.
Parts or units of Computer and their work
The computer basically consists three units additionally a forth one.
1. Input unit
2. CPU (Central Processing Unit)
3. Output Unit
4. Storage Unit (Secondary)
1. Input Unit
It provides the means for communicating with computers. It
converts data (in text or other form) from user readable
(understandable) form in to computer acceptable (or
understandable) form. E.g. punch card in early computer and now
keyboard and mouse, etc.
2. CPU (Central Processing Unit)

It is the main unit of computer. It consists of microprocessor,

memory and other circuitry for different tasks called motherboard.
By definition, the CPU is the chip that functions as the brain of a
computer. Technically Memory and Processor chips form CPU. It
is the place where raw data is converted into meaningful
information, processing and calculations take place. It can be
divided into three subunits.
MU (Memory Unit)
ALU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit)
CU (Control Unit)
ALU, CU and a small fast memory called register are on a single chip
called processor. Processor is the brain of the computer; it organizes
and carries out instructions either from user or software. MU or
memory is on a separate chip. Also cache memory may be present.
Memory Unit:-Its main function is to hold data and program
instructions to be executed by the computer in RAM (Random Access
Memory). It also contains basic instructions which computer used for
hardware use and configuration and operations in ROM (Read Only
Memory). It is usually built on a separate chip. There may also be a
fast memory called cache, which logically lies between processor and
memory.
Arithmetic and Logical Unit:- It performs all arithmetical and logical
operations. Arithmetical operations include addition subtraction
multiplication and division. Whereas logical operations include
comparing values or two strings (patterns) of zeros and ones and
always gives result in true or false.
Control Unit:-It governs all the computer activities and monitors
execution of programs. It controls and coordinates computer system as
brain in human body. It carries out program instructions, which
determines what operation to perform and pass control to next
instruction to be executed. It also coordinated the input output
operations within the CPU. For example data is received from input
device by control unit and sent to memory, from memory to ALU and
finally result is sent to memory or the output unit. It works like traffic
cop direct the flow of data between components of the CPU and
manage all resources.
3. Output Unit
It receives result from CPU in form of electrical signals and convert
them into text or pictorial form that can be understand by user. I.e.
converts data from computer understandable form to user
understandable form. Output can also be saved to storage devices
for further use. Examples are printers and monitor.
4. Storage Unit
It is also optional unit in which computer stores result permanently
on some storage medium like tape, disk, hard disk, etc. This stored
data can be used in future.

Input Devices
Input is the process of entering data or to translate incoming data into
machine-readable form for computer processing. The devices or
hardware attached to CPU are called peripheral devices. An input
device is also a peripheral device. There are many input devices but

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keyboard is usually called standard input device.

1. Keyboard: It is used to enter data usually in text format or to perform other
controlling functions.
It has Numeric key pad, cursor movement keys, function keys,
extended keys, alphanumeric (alphabets, digits and special
characters), combination or modifier keys (control, alternate and
shift) and special purpose keys.
About 101 keys for text input and other control operations
When key pressed keyboard controller chip sends its
corresponding code in keyboard buffer called scan code.
2. Mouse: Pointing device usually with an arrowhead.
Quick movement and positioning of cursor
As we move it to flat surface its pointer moves due to movement
of ball at its base, that moves roller buttons inside.
Usually used in GUI environment for pointing or selecting any
area.
Used do draw graphics.
Normally have one to four buttons right and left are most common
and are for separate purpose.
Five functions pointing, clicking, double clicking, dragging and
right click
3. Joy stick: Used in games
Uses a lever to control position of cursor
Work like cursor keys (cursor movement)
4. Track balls: Popular and usually used with laptops.
Upside down mouse
We use finger to move ball and rollers inside to moves cursor.
Less space than mouse.
5. Trackpads: Touch sensitive surface e 1.5 to 2 inch for pocket computers. So
finger movement on it moves pointer in direction of finger.
Less space less movement than mouse.
Usually used in Laptops.
6. Light pens and Digitizer: Electronic pen write on a pad or directly on screen
It can make selections place objects and indicate dimensions by
touching screen. It does not emit light but it reacts to light by
photosensitive detector and on its base sends screen position to
computer.
Used for graphic, mechanical and architectural or selection, also
used in signatures
Digitizer is like light pen but instead of drawing on screen it uses a
separate pad called a graphics tablet on which pointing device is
moved.
When write on graphic tablet called digitizer and called light pen

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when write on screen directly.

7. Touch screens: Accept input directly on monitor by finger or any object touch on
screen.
Sensor in or near screen. It passes infrared beams or ultrasonic
waves over screen surface, when they are interrupted by some
contact with screen the location is recorded.
Used in public information, stores for simple instructions
8. Image scanners: Convert image into electronic form by light sensing
Convert it into color or black and white picture
Translates printed images into understandable electronic format.

Optical Recognition
It occurs when a device scans a (clear) printed surface and translates
the image into machine-readable format that a computer understands.
These are types of scanners.
Three types are OMR, OBR and OCR
9. Optical Mark Reader (OMR): Locates a series of marks of pen or pencil (usually black)
Used in multiple choice questions
Simple form of optical reader, checks whether mark is there or not,
does not checks shapes.
10.Optical Bar code Reader (OBR): Read barcodes by a laser beam, a little better than OMR.
Barcode is present on products series of thick and thin black bars
and spaces arranges to represent data also called product codes.
They show manufacturer name and type of product.
Convert it into numbers which are sent as input
11. Optical Character Recognizer (OCR): It is the most sophisticated type of optical device.
Translates page of text as graphics into string of characters.
Or translates bitmap into editable text format.
It is like human eye but problem with unclear font or handwriting.
It recognizes specially shaped alphabets or digits. Usually used to
recognize tags of product.
Also OCR software used with scanners to convert bitmap to text.
12. Microphones and Voice recognition (Audio input): Accepts sound input and records it in digital form like songs (mp3)
Accept audio input and turn it into text and computer instructions
with voice recognition software.
13. Video input(pc video camera and digital cameras): Pc video and digital cameras can get and covert still picture or
motion into digital form, which can further be edited.
Digital cameras and web cams are example. They are portable.
14. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) and Magnetic
Strip Reader: Interpretation by computer of a line of characters written in
special magnetic ink, which may or may not be seen by human
eye.

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Q
A

They are processed by banks to check bank identification,

check number and customer account number by using these
devices.
Magnetic strips are thin bands of magnetically encoded data
found in credit cards and auto teller (ATM) cards, currency,
phone cards, attendance cards and in high security areas for
identification. They are read and interpreted by magnetic strip
reader devices.
How Keyboard Works?
When we press a key on a keyboard (the circuit behind it is connected
and) a tiny chip called keyboard controller notes it and places a code,
indicating key in a memory called keyboard buffer. (A buffer is a
temporary storage area that holds data until it is processed). This code
is called scan code. The keyboard controller then sends a signal to
computer called interrupt request. Then system software (operating
system) receives a complete keystroke from memory location in
keyboard buffer. The system software evaluates the request to
determine appropriate response. The keyboard buffer can store many
keystrokes at a time. It is necessary because sometimes user presses
next keys before computer read previous ones. If buffer fills it
normally beeps. When codes go in CPU they may be converted into
ASCII or other codes used depending on software used in computer.

Output Devices
Output is the process of translating data that are in machine-readable
form into form, which is understandable to human and other machines.
The information that is the result of processing is also called output.
An output device is a peripheral device that enables a computer to
communicate information to human or other machines. There are many
output devices but monitor is usually called standard output device.
Output can be of two categories (a) output that can be read or used by
people (b) data that are sent to secondary storage devices to be used
later.
Soft Copy:-It is screen display or voice output and lost when other
output is shown or computer is turned off. It is volatile. We do not
have any authentic proof of output.
Hard Copy:-It is output on paper, relatively stable and permanent
form of output. Usually nonvolatile. We can see it after computer is
turned off.
Some output devices are hard copy and some are soft copy.

Monitor
It is soft copy output device and also called standard output device. It
is TV like device that displays data by small bright dots. A pixel is the
smallest piece of a display screen that can be controlled individually.
The more pixels the clearer and sharper the image. Two elements
determine the quality of monitor image, one monitor itself and other
video controller (Graphic Card). Monitors are of two types.
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
FPD (Flat Panel Display)
Both of them may be monochrome (two color) or color (many color)
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
They are used with desktop computers and provide brightest and

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clearest picture. But they are big and heavy and require lot of power
not suitable for portable notebook computers. They are like T.V.
It contains a picture tube. In CRT the back of monitor screen is
coated with phosphors in grid of dots, chemicals that glow when
struck by electron beam. The smallest focusable dots are called
pixel. Back electron gun shoots a beam of electron to the screen
and its intensity is controlled. A color monitor works in same way
but it has three colorless electron beams. Each pixel on screen is
made of three tiny red green and blue phosphors arranged in
triangle. Different colors can be displayed by combining various
intensities of three beams, which continuously scan every pixel (of
phosphors).
Qualities of good CRT Monitor :- When buying monitor we
should see its clear, crisp and sharp image specially near screen
borders. It does not cause eye problem. Even it is good we check
some specifications.
Size
Resolution
Refresh rate
Dot pitch
Size:-It is physical size of picture tube measured diagonally. The
bigger is good and costs more.
Resolution:- It is the number of pixels on screen expressed as matrix.
Resolution of 640x480 means 640 pixels horizontally across the screen
and 480 pixels vertically down the screen. Monitor specification show
a range of resolution, actual resolution is determined by the video
controller not by monitor itself. Greater the resolution better, sharper
and clearer the image.
Refresh Rate:-It is the number of times per second the electron gun
scan every pixel on the screen. It is measured in hertz. Phosphors dot
fade quickly so screen flicker if not refreshed quickly. A refresh rate of
72Hz or higher should not cause eyestrain.
Dot Pitch:-In color monitor there are three dots, red, green and blue in
each pixel, it is the distance between these phosphors dots that make
up a single pixel. If these dots are close the image is crisp otherwise
cause eyestrain if dot pitch is greater than .28 millimeters.
The Video Controller
Video controller also responsible for image quality of monitor and it
determines its actual resolution. It is an intermediary device between
CPU and monitor. It contains video dedicated memory and other
circuitry to send information for monitor display. It has circuit board
called card. Its power is monitor dependent. It also has its own
memory. Video controller cards may be CGA, EGA, VGA and SVGA.
2. FPD (Flat Panel Display)
They are normally used with notebook computers require less power
of battery. They are small and light and are less than one inch thick.
There are several types of FPD but most common are
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
GPD (Gas Plasma Display)
(a) LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):-They are most common and
produce image by aligning molecular crystals. When voltage is
supplied the crystals line up to block light from passing through them.

14

They are normally transparent but become opaque when charges with
electricity. The absence of light is seen as characters on screen. They
do not flicker and are very common in digital watches. Disadvantage is
that they have narrow visible angle and are not as bright and contrast
and visible as CRT monitors. There are two main categories of LCD.
Older Passive matrix relies on transistors for each row and each
column of pixels. Advantage is less expensive and used in laptops.
Monitor has narrow viewing angle and also refresh rate is low so
screen looks dim. Newer Active matrix technology assigns a transistor
to each pixel and it turned on and off separately. So refresh rate is good
and picture is bright, viewing angle is wider and backlighting screen
technique make it good contrast. But it needs much power. They are
expensive than passive matrix.
(b) GPD (Gas Plasma Display):-It work by trapping electrically
charged gas (plasma) particles between glass plates. The plasma at the
pixel emits light as the current is applied. Characters are formed by
lighting the appropriate pixels. They are becoming popular but are
expensive and have good quality.

Printer
It is hard copy output device. They usually give output on paper. Can
Print both text and graphics. Different printers have different advantages
and different qualities in printing but in evaluating printer four areas are
more important.
1. Image Quality:-It is also known as printer resolution and is usually
measured in DPI (Dot Per Inch). More DPI betters the quality.
2. Speed:-It is measured in number of pages or text a computer can print
in a minute PPM (Page Per Minute). It is different for text and graphics
as graphic printing is slow.
3. Initial Cost:- It is purchase price of computer.
4. Operational Cost:-It is the cost of ink or toner, which varies with
type of printer. It sometimes also includes paper material they use.
There are two types of Printers.
1. Impact Printers
2.Non Impact Printers
1. Impact Printers
They are also called noisy printers print by hammering or pin striking on
ink ribbon, which leaves impression on papers. They are useful to
produce carbon copies.
There are two types of impact printers.
Character-at-a-time printers:-This is like ordinary typewriters. Speed
is measured in character per second. They may be 80 or 132 column and
may be color or one colored. They have following examples
Daisy Wheel:-In that the wheel looks like a daisy and at the end
of each petal is a fully formed character. When hammer strikes on
petal the image of ribbon is transferred on paper. Disadvantage is
that slow, no graphic and only one or specific font.
Dot matrix: -They use print head containing pins from 9 to 24.
Head moves across the papers and pins strike to form different
characters and graphics. A 24-pin dot matrix is called Letter
Quality (LQ) produce better crisper image than 9-pin. They can
produce different fonts and graphics with pin combination.
Line-at-a-time printers: -When massive printing is required and no
quality concern as in utility bill printing we use high speed line printers.

15

They print whole line at once and have range of 400 to 8000 LPM (Line
Per Minute). Usually of 132 columns and have 132 printing heads. They
have following examples.
Drum printers:-It has complete characters set engraved around
the circumference of each print position of the drum. Numbers of
print positions across the drum are equal to number of characters
in a line. One complete round is required to print whole line.
Chain printers: -They use a chain of characters wrapped round
two pulleys. It has one hammer for each print position. The chain
rotates around whole line and hammers strikes when particular
character reaches to required position. Then page moves to next
line.
Band Printers: -Same as chain but uses steel band instead of
chain.
2. Non Impact Printers
They are quieter printers as do not use a striking device and so cannot
produce carbon copies. Non-impact printers form
characters and images without making direct physical
contact or striking between printing mechanism and paper.
Their output is better than impact printers. They are
recognized as follows based on the technology they use.
Inkjet Printers:-In Ink-Jet tiny nozzles spray charged ink
particles that passed though an electrical field which arrange ink
droplets in to characters. The ink is absorbed and dries instantly.
They produce quality output, sharp images and are used in
business presentations but their operational cost is high. Speed is
approximately 250 characters per second.
Thermal Transfer Printers (Thermal Wax): -It is cheaper
alternate of ink jet and use heat to transfer ink to paper. It bonds
the ink onto the paper by heating pins that press against a special
wax inked ribbon. They produce color images by melting colored
wax onto papers. They are faster than inkjet printers.
Some thermal printers use special heat sensitive papers,
which become black where hot pins strike (No wax). Example
is Fax machines.
Dye-diffusion or Dye-sub Printers: -They produce images by
heating a ribbon to vaporize a dye and diffusion paper. They are
expensive and produce millions of different shade. Used in
photography for quality images.
Electrostatic printers: - They are fast and high resolution and
used where complex images are needed, as in maps and IC
design. They are very expensive color printers.
Laser Printers: -LASER printers are similar to photocopying
machine. They are expensive and print quality is higher. They are
used to produce sharp, crisp images of both text and graphics.
They are quiet and fast. They can print in different fonts (type,
style, size) and even in different colors.

In a laser printer image is produced on paper by directing a

laser beam at a mirror (millions of times per second) that bounces
the beam at a point of a drum creating a negative electrical charge.
Toner, which is composed of tiny particles of oppositely positive

16

charged ink sticks to the drum in the places the laser has charged.
Then paper rolls by the drum and the toner is transferred off the
drum to the paper. Then a hot roller with pressure and heat bonds
the toner to the paper. The drum is then recharged for the next
cycle. LASER printers have built in RAM chips (buffer) to store
document output from the computer, which allows us to continue
working without any slowdown.

Plotters
It is hard copy output device. It is special type of output device. Like
printer it gives images on paper but typically used to print large format
images such as maps, construction drawing in CAD systems.
Early plotters were big mechanical devices almost as big as billiard
table that use robotic arms holding pen or pencil, which draw images on
stationary piece of paper. They are called table or flatbed plotters.
They are very slow.
A variation is roller or drum plotter, which uses one drawing arm,
which moves side to side and paper is moved, which is rolled back and
forth.
In recent years mechanical plotters are replaced by thermal and
inkjet plotters as well as large format dye sub printers.

Sound Systems or Speakers or Voice out put

They give sound as output. Speakers and their associated technology are
key output systems and part of multimedia. They are good for blinds or
where display is not easy. They may require a sound card, a device that
support voice input output. Sound system includes multimedia speakers,
which generate clear voice using sound cards. A beep sound can also be
generated (with different tones) to produce sound.

Data Projectors (Multimedia Projectors)

Colorful slides and images can be shown directly from computer disk
and displayed or projected on a wall or large screen. To get this picture
on big screen Data projectors are used. They are also called digital
light projectors and video projectors. It plugs into one of the computer
ports and then projects the video output onto an external surface. They
can display 16 million colors at high resolution. They display output
from a VCR or DVD or computer disk.
Most of them use LCD technology to create images called LCD
projectors. They give good image in dim light conditions. Newer models
use digital light processing (DLP) technology to project brighter crisper
images in normal light conditions. DLP devices use a special microchip
called a digital micro-mirror device, which uses mirrors to control the
image display.

Storage Devices
Storage devices are used to hold data temporarily or permanently. It may
be program instructions or data values.
There are two types of storage devices
1. Primary storage or Internal Storage or (Semiconductor) Memory
2. Secondary Storage or External Storage or Permanent storage

1.

Primary storage or internal memory

This is also called (main) memory or internal storage because it is inside

computer. It is usually measured in MB. It is used by computer for its
own data processing. In memory data can be accessed directly because

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each location is identified by an address.

Memory unit is divided into two parts. ROM (Read Only Memory) and
RAM (Random Access Memory).
ROM:-It is preprogrammed memory which has programs needed for
computer like basic instructions and booting or startup
information. (These programs are also called firmware, software
permanently build into hardware.). Basic Input Output System
(BIOS) is also ROM and sometimes called ROM BIOS. Its
contents are set by the computer manufacturers. The instructions
in ROM are permanent which can only be read and cannot be
changed or written by the computer. It retains instruction even
when power is switched off. It is non-volatile memory. Besides
simple ROM computer may have other types of ROM. Some
types are as follows.
PROM: - (Programmable Read Only Memory):-It allows chip to be
programmed by user only once and then cannot be altered
further as in boot ROM.
EPROM:- (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) :- It is like
PROM but it has transparent quartz window converting the
internal circuitry. It is done by removing the chip from circuit and
exposing window to ultraviolet light. Thus chip contents can be
changed or chip can be reprogrammed.
EEPROM:- (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory) :- It can be erased and reprogrammed electrically (by other
device not by computer) so there is no need to remove it from circuit. It
is used in stores where price list is stored in it and changes frequently.
Flash Memory: - It is special type of memory. It combines best features
of ROM and RAM. Like RAM it lets a user or program to access data
randomly and also lets you to overwrite any or all of its contents any
time. Like ROM it is non-volatile, so data is retained even if the power
is turned off. It is used in digital cameras and also in computers when we
want data to store after power off. It stores data by turning millions of
tiny actual switches on and off. These switches store binary values that
make up the data. We can then remove data later or enter new data. It is
mainly used as secondary storage.
RAM:-It is part of the main memory where data and program
instructions are held during program execution. Most of
main memory consists of RAM. It is volatile memory
because information stored in it can be changed or erased
by computer during processing. Data can be read and
written in it. Its contents are lost when computer is powered
off. It has many types some are as follows. RAM in not
found only in CPU but it is also used in other places in
computer as in newer sound and video cards or some
printers have their own RAM.
DRAM (Dynamic RAM): - It is commonly used in PCs. It is highdensity means more memory per chip and low cost. It needs periodic
pulses of electricity to maintain its contents. It has access time of about
60 nanoseconds. This is called memory refreshing.
SRAM (Static RAM): - It has faster access time about 10 nanoseconds
and does not need to be refreshed quickly. Its main disadvantage is that
it is costly.

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SDRAM( Synchronous Dynamic RAM):- It is for high speed data

manipulation. Others are FPM RAM (Fast Page Mode RAM), EDO
RAM (Extended Data Output RAM), etc.
Parts of RAM:- (Logical Division)
Conventional or Base Memory: - The first 640 KB of the total
memory of the computer is called conventional RAM or base memory. It
must be needed and used by Operating System and other programs to
perform basic operations.
Extended Memory: - All the memory above base memory (640 KB). It
is the extended memory. It is used to load different programs but not
necessary. It is used to handle large programs and for efficient and
increased performance of computer. Big Operating systems like
windows XP need this memory.
Special Types of Memories or Special Purpose Memories: Registers:-It is very fast memory type. A register holds an instruction or
data to be worked on immediately. It has only one piece of data at
a time. It is part of processor. Their size determines the overall
speed of computer. E.g. AX (accumulator), CX (counter)
Buffers:-It is temporary holding space for data. It may be part of CPU
(Memory) or built separately into devices used to input or output
data. It can hold many data at a time depending upon its size. It
acts as intermediary between CPU and input output devices. As
these devices are slower than CPU buffer holds data until used by
these devices. Example is printer buffer, which holds data to be
print until printer complete its work and lets CPU free to do other
work.
Cache: - It is special type of buffer now used in PCs. It is high-speed
memory and logically located between CPU and main memory.
Its purpose is to increase speed of data and instruction access. It
does this by storing most frequently used data and instructions
and then sent it to processor when needed again.

2. Secondary Storage or External Memory

Data and program in RAM loss when power is off, so there is need for
storing them for later use. Secondary storage media are used to store
data permanently. It usually used to stores data of the computer users.
They can store huge data and for longer period. The devices, which store
data on secondary storage and access them, are also called I/O devices.
Note that there is difference between device and media. Data is
recorded on media and equipments used to store or retrieve, are device.
They are relatively slower than main memory. There are two main
types according to the media used magnetic and optical storage devices.
They can also be divided according to method of storing files and
retrieving them or access methods. There are two access methods.
(1) Direct access storage devices (2) Sequential Access Storage devices
(1) Direct Access or Random Access: - It is also called random access
devices. In it data or instruction can directly be stored and accessed by
selecting its name and location (address) directly without searching
other data. All data has table of its address. Example is RAM, hard disk
and floppy. It is like in CD player where we can play any song by
selecting it from list. It takes equal time to start whether it is first or last
song in list.
(2) Sequential Access Storage devices: - They do not have unique

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address and cannot be addressed directly. Data is stored one after

another in sequence. Locating particular data requires searching from
start until desired item is found. Example is magnetic tape. It is like
audiocassette. First song can take less time and if we want last one we
have to move forward one by one song and it will take time.
There are two main types according to the media used
magnetic and optical storage devices.
Magnetic Storage devices
Optical Storage devices
Magnetic Storage devices: -Magnetic technology uses media
surface, which is coated with millions of iron oxide particles. They all
can act as magnet when are exposed to electricity. The read write head
of device has electromagnet, which generates magnetic field in iron
particles when passed over it. They record 0s and 1s by altering
direction of current in electromagnet. To read data process is reverse.
Electromagnet passes over media without current and senses small
charge on media which is represented by zero and one.
There are many magnetic storage devices some are as follows:
Direct Access
(i) Disk or Diskette or Floppy: - It stores data on disk of plastic
(Mylar) coated with iron oxide and enclosed in a plastic. They are small
and portable. It has a motor, which rotates disk on a spindle and
read/write head moves on it, which can spot at any place on disk. Head
has electromagnet, which can write data on storage medium by
generating magnetic field in the iron when pass over disk. It records
strings of 0s and 1s by altering direction of current in electromagnet. To
read data process is reverse. The read/write head passes over disk with
no current, so slight current of both directions passes back from charged
storage medium to head. The drive senses the direction of current and
data is read. It is direct access storage device.
A disk must be formatted before use. Formatting makes
disk able to store data otherwise it is peace of plastic. Formatting may be
different in different operating systems. Usually formatting makes tracks
and sectors on floppy. There are many sectors per track. Their number
per track depends on size and capacity of disk. One sector can store 512
bytes or KB. It comes in many sizes and capacity. The sizes are 5.25
inch and 3.5 inch. The capacity usually is 1.2 MB and 1.44MB.
It may be single sided (data are recorded on single side) or
double sides (data stored on both sides. They are available in different
densities, but common are double (low) density and quad (high) density.
I) 5.25 inch, double sided double density have capacity 360 KB.
40 tracks * 9 sectors per track * 2 double sides =720 sectors total
1 sector =0.5 KB, 720 * 0.5 = 360 KB
II) 5.25 inch, double sided quad density have capacity 1.2 MB.
80 tracks * 15 sectors per track * 2 double sides =2400 sectors total.
1 sector =0.5 KB, 2400 * 0.5 = 1200 KB or 1.2 MB
III) 3.5 inch, double sided double density have capacity 720 KB
80 tracks * 9 sectors per track * 2 double sides =1440 sectors total.
1 sector =0.5 KB, 1440 * 0.5 = 720 KB
IV) 3.5 inch, double sided high density have capacity 1.44 MB
80 tracks * 18 sectors per track * 2 double sides =2880 sectors total.
1 sector =0.5 KB, 2880 * 0.5 = 1440 KB or 1.44 MB

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(ii) Hard Disk (Fixed and removable): - Fixed hard disk is used for
large storage of data and is also faster than floppy. Like floppy it is also
divided into sectors and tracks but physically very different from it. It is
strong and reliable and used to store data for long time. It is stack of one
or more metal platters coated with iron oxide, which spin on one
spindle. Unlike diskettes where disk and drive are separate the hard disk
and drives are a single unit so they are called both hard disk and hard
drive. It includes hard rigid metal platters, the motor that spins the
platters and set of read/write heads encased in a sealed vacuum chamber.
The speed of rotation is measured in rpm (Rotation Per Minute). Data is
saved and accessed form both sides of platters through many heads, so it
is faster than floppy.
Removable hard disk gives speed and capacity of hard drive
and portability of floppy. A removable box encloses the disk, drive and
read/write head in a sealed container, which can be moves from one
computer to another.
Sequential access
(iii)Magnetic Tape Drives (Reel to reel, Cassette Tape, Cassette
Cartridge tape): - They read and write data on surface of a tape. They
are sequential access and are used for backup purpose and for data that
is not frequently used. They are cheap and can store huge data. They are
or inch ribbon Mylar plastic with thin layer of iron oxide.
In Reel-to-Reel tape is placed on reels about 10 inches in
diameter. Store large data and usually used with large computer systems.
Cassette Tape drive is like audiocassette recorder but write
digital data 0s and 1s rather than analog data. Tape is enclosed in a
plastic case. Usually used with small computers.
Cartridge tapes are like cassette tapes but have greater data
storage density (more storage in less area).
Optical Storage devices:- It is alternative of magnetic storage and has
greater storage capacity. Optical storage technique uses LASER beam to
write data. Laser uses a concentrated narrow beam of light focused and
directed with lenses, prism and mirrors. This beam creates pits in areas
it hits and left the remaining areas as land. Thus 0s and 1s are stored as
lands and pits. Lands are flat areas on metal surface and pits, which is
depression or hollow. The drive reads 0s and 1s from spinning disk by
focusing a laser on disk surface. Some areas reflect the laser light into a
sensor interpreted as 1 whereas others scatter the light and absence of
reflection is interpreted as a 0. There are two common types of optical
technology. (1) Most commonly and widely used is CD, which include
CD-ROM, WORM, CD-R (2) Other type now being popular is hybrid
technology, that combines magnetic and optical technology. These
devices are called magneto-optical devices.
Random Access
Compact Disk (CD-ROM): - Device is CD-ROM and also medium is
called CD (compact disk). Usually used to store music. Data is written
in a long continuous spiral that starts at outer edge and winds inward to
the center. Data is stored in lands and pits. It holds data of about 700
MB. The device is capable only to read data but cannot write it.
Write Once Read Many (WORM), CD-Recordable: - CD-R drives
allow you to create your own CD-ROM disks or write data to disks that
can be read by any CD-ROM device. After data written on CD it cannot

21

be changed but you can write data on other parts of disk until it is full.
Phase Change Re-writeable :- It is like WORM as a laser write and
read data on disk. But unlike WORM data can be written more than
once or overwrite new data by deleting old on a special rewriteable
compact disk. This is due to the laser beam altering the molecular
structure of the disk. One disadvantage is that sometimes they may not
be read by normal CD-ROM and to read them (phase change)
rewriteable drive is needed. It holds data of about 650 MB.
Digital Versatile Disk (DVD-ROM):- Digital Versatile Disk is a high
density medium capable of storing huge data. It stores data on both sides
of disk. DVDs look like CDs and can play normal CD-ROMs but CD
ROMs cannot play DVD. Each side stores data up to 4.7 GB so both
sides hold up to 9.4 GB of data. It can store full-length movie or video
so also called Digital Video Disk.
DVDRecordable (DVD-R):- It lets you to record data onto a special
Recordable Digital video disk. Once data is recorded on DVD-R disc it
cannot be changed.
DVD-RAM:- It is newest optical technology which lets us to record,
erase and rerecord data on a special disc.
Sequential Access
(i) Optical tape: - It is like magnetic tape in that it is sequential but data
is stored by optical technology. They are in cassette form.
Solid-State Storage devices:- They are unique as they do not use disks
or tapes and have no moving part. It is neither magnetic nor optical;
instead it used ICs to hold data. Some are volatile and some not. They
are fast as they have no mechanical moving part and also because they
already store data electronically, the way, it is used by CPU. They do
not need head or sensor to find and convert data from magnetic or
optical form to electronics form.
Q How Operating System finds data on Disk? How data is organized
in DOS or windows?
The disk must me magnetically mapped so that the computer can go
directly to a specific point to search data. The process of mapping is
called formatting. A disk must be formatted before use. Formatting
makes tracks and sectors on disk. A track is a magnetic circle and
number of tracks depends on the type of disk, usually 80 in floppy and
several hundred on hard disk platters each side. Each track is a separate
circle like bulls eye target. They are numbered from outermost circle to
the innermost starting with 0. Each track is also spilt into smaller parts
or segment called sector. A sector can store up to 512 bytes of 0.5 KB of
data. Operating system like DOS or windows locate data by labeling
tracks and sectors. The location of all data is kept is a special place on
disk. The labeling of tracks and sectors is called soft or logical format. A
logical format by DOS or windows creates four areas on disk.
(i) Master Boot Record (ii) The file allocation table (FAT)
(iii) The root directory (iv) The data area.
The (Master) boot record is a small program that runs when we
start computer. It checks whether basic components (files) necessary to
run DOS or windows operating system are present or not and also
checks validity of disk format. It transfers control to OS programs that
process startup or booting. Boot record also has information about
number of sectors per track etc.

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The File Allocation Table records the location of each file and
status of each sector. When we write a file to disk OS check FAT for an
open area, stores the file and then writes name and location of file in
FAT. It is for the use of computer. DOS has two copies of FAT.
Information in FAT is not used by users but they use folder or
directory information. Directories contain files (names) and other
directories entries. They can construct hierarchical structure. The top
folder is called root. It has some information about files, like name size,
time and date it created. In windows directory is called folder.
The remaining part of disk is called data area where all files and
actual data are stored.
DOS External Commands
ATTRIB Displays or changes file attributes.
COMP Compares the contents of two files or sets of files.
CHKDSK Checks a disk and displays a status report.
current drive.
DISKCOMP Compares the contents of two floppy disks.
DISKCOPY Copies the contents of one floppy disk to another.
DOSKEY Edits command lines, recalls Windows commands, and creates macros.
FC
Compares two files or sets of files, and displays the differences between them.
FIND Searches for a text string in a file or files.
FINDSTR Searches for strings in files.
FORMAT Formats a disk for use with Windows.
HELP Provides Help information for Windows commands.
LABEL Creates, changes, or deletes the volume label of a disk.
MORE Displays output one screen at a time.
PRINT Prints a text file.
SUBST Associates a path with a drive letter.
TREE Graphically displays the directory structure of a drive or path.
XCOPY Copies files and directory trees.

DOS Internal Commands

BREAK Sets or clears extended CTRL+C checking.
CD, CHDIR
Displays the name of or changes the current directory.
CLS
Clears the screen.
COPY Copies one or more files to another location.
DATE Displays or sets the date.
DEL, ERASE
Deletes one or more files.
DIR
Displays a list of files and subdirectories in a directory.
ECHO Displays messages, or turns command echoing on or off.
EXIT Quits the CMD.EXE program (command interpreter).
MD, MKDIR
Creates a directory..
MODE Configures a system device.
MOVE Moves one or more files from one directory to another directory.
PATH Displays or sets a search path for executable files.
PAUSE Suspends processing of a batch file and displays a message.
PROMPT Changes the Windows command prompt.
RD, RMDIR
Removes a directory.
REM Records comments (remarks) in batch files or CONFIG.SYS.
REN, RENAME Renames a file or files.
TIME Displays or sets the system time.
TYPE Displays the contents of a text file.
VER
Displays the Windows version.
VERIFY Tells Windows whether to verify that your files are written correctly to a disk.
VOL Displays a disk volume label and serial number.

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