CHAPTER 6

RESONANCE AND CRITICAL SPEED TESTING

BASIC CONCEPTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Resonance and critical speed tests are carried out to obtain information about the dynamic
characteristics of a machine and its structural support and piping. Information about resonances
and critical speeds is helpful in machine diagnostics and when a machine and its associated
structures must be redesigned to overcome chronic problems.
Resonances and critical speeds are frequencies and speeds that are governed by natural
frequencies, damping, and vibratory forces. A resonance is a condition in a structure or machine
in which the frequency of a vibratory force such as mass unbalance is equal to a natural frequency of the system. If the vibratory force is caused by a rotating machine, the resonance is called a
critical speed. At or close to this speed the vibration is amplified. Testing techniques for natural
frequencies of structures differ from machines because the machines generally have speeddependent dynamic characteristics. Machines are tested at critical speeds to obtain the best data.
Resonances are often artificially excited with hammers and shakers to obtain natural frequencies
of foundations, structures, and piping.
This chapter is concerned with basic concepts, techniques and instrumentation used to
determine the dynamic characteristics of machines and their associated structures, foundations,
and piping. Examples are provided for each type of test.

Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes

The natural frequency of a machine or structure is governed by its design6.1. A machine
can be thought of as a mass-elastic body and represented by masses connected to springs, as
shown in Figure 6.1. Each machine system has a number of natural frequencies that can be excited by impact, random forces, or harmonic vibrating forces of the same frequency. In general,
natural frequencies are not multiples of the first natural frequency; exceptions are rare instances
involving simple components. A natural frequency becomes important in machine diagnosis when
a forcing frequency occurs at or close to a natural frequency. A state of resonance then occurs
that produces high vibration levels. Vibration levels governed by vibratory forces and damping
that might otherwise be normal are then amplified to the point that excessive vibration can
structurally damage the machine usually its bearings.

6.1

Mode shapes of a system are associated with

natural frequencies. A mode shape is defined as the
deflection shape assumed by a system vibrating at a
natural frequency. A mode shape does not provide information about absolute amplitudes of motions of a system. (Damping and vibratory forces must be known to
obtain absolute amplitudes.) Rather, it consists of deflections at selected axial locations in the system that are
determined relative to a fixed point, usually the end or
center of a shaft. Two mode shapes for a turbine rotor
Figure 6.1. Lumped-Parameter
Modeling of Rotors and Structures

are shown in Figure 6.2. Note that no absolute amplitudes are provided.

Figure 6.2. Two Mode Shapes for a Turbine Rotor

The vibration characteristics of a system can be expressed in terms of a linear weighted
combination of its mode shapes (Figure 6.3). The vibration of each mode considered is added
within the applicable speed or frequency range to obtain the total vibration magnitude at each
speed or frequency. The weighting factors are dependent on damping, vibratory forces, and proximity of a forcing frequency to a natural frequency. When the forcing frequency is close to a natural frequency, the weighting factor is amplified predominantly by a single mode, and the vibration
response assumes the shape of that mode. Figure 6.4 shows the forced response of a turbine
rotor to mass unbalance when the rotor is operating close to its first critical speed. Note that the
shape of the rotor is similar to the mode shape of the rotor at its first natural frequency (see Figure
6.2).
6.2

Excitation
A machine or structure
can be excited by one or more
vibratory forces.

The force

may have a single constant

frequency,

as

occurs

with

mass unbalance. Multiple frequencies occur in engines and

reciprocating compressors. A
variable single frequency is

Figure 6.3. Modal Analysis

typical of a synchronous motor

on startup. An example of random frequencies is pump cavitation. Vibratory forces can be
caused by various factors including design, installation, manufacture, and wear. Common forcing
frequencies for machines were listed in Table 1.4.

Figure 6.4. Forced Response of a Turbine Rotor to Mass Unbalance

Interference Diagrams
An interference diagram is used to locate resonances and critical speeds with respect to
operating speed. The vertical axis (see Figure 6.5) contains the natural frequencies and forcing
frequencies. The horizontal axis is the operating speed of the machine. The point of intersection
of one or more forcing frequencies and the natural frequency is a critical speed. Whether or not
the point is actually a critical speed depends on the amount of force and damping in the system.
Figure 6.5 is an interference diagram for a rotor subject to mass unbalance. A single forcing frequency is present. An interference diagram can be generated from computer models or test data.
Computer-generated interference diagrams are often validated using test data.

6.3

Measurement and Analysis

The

tools

required

to

determine critical speeds and resonances are excitation devices,

transducers, and analyzers. Excitation devices include hammers,
shakers, and machine motions.
Transducers commonly used are
accelerometers, velocity pickups,
Figure 6.5. Interference Diagram

proximity probes, optical pickups,

and magnetic pickups. Instruments

for analyzing data include meters, oscilloscopes, tracking filters, data collectors, and FFT
analyzers.

Excitation Devices. Regardless of the excitation device selected, amplitude and frequency must
be controlled. If parameters are being evaluated, a steady or transient excitation is necessary; the
vibration response to the excitation must be measured and analyzed. Sweep excitation can be
induced artificially by mounting shakers on bearing caps or casings. Sweep excitation can be
produced at synchronous frequency by mass unbalance, a bowed rotor, and/or misalignment during startup or coast down; the machine is thus producing its own excitation. Figure 6.6 shows the na-

ture of excitations caused by mass

unbalance the magnitude in-

creases as the square of the speed

and by misalignment the
magnitude remains constant relative to speed.
s
Figure 6.6. Comparison of Harmonic Vibratory Forces

6.4

Excitations that occur at nonsynchronous frequencies can also be used for condition analysis and identification of parameters. Nonsynchronous frequencies are produced by oil whirl at
subsynchronous frequencies; by excessive misalignment at two and three times synchronous
speed; by transient torsional excitation, which varies from 120 Hz at startup on 60-cycle machines
to zero at operating speed, depending on the slip frequency; and by rolling element bearing excitations, which consist of non-integer multiples of shaft speed. The magnitudes of many of these
excitation sources are difficult to quantify because they arise from faults, but quantification is necessary for modal analysis.
The fact that impact excitations are produced naturally in reciprocating machines is advantageous for parameter identification but bad for normal operating conditions. Engines can be excited at frequencies up to 12 times the operating speed. Half orders can exist in four-stroke cycle
machines.
If naturally-occurring impact excitation is not available in a machine, a hammer or shaker
can be selected to excite natural frequencies. However, it is necessary to exercise caution when
these tools are used to excite operating machines to avoid bearing damage. Figure 6.7 shows a
modally tuned hammer; the sensor in the head of the hammer measures force. Phase information, which is useful in identifying natural frequencies, can be obtained when a hammer is used
in conjunction with a dual-channel analyzer.
Hammers are also used to conduct impact, or bump, tests on structures and piping.
Hammer tips (see Figure 6.7) with various levels of resiliency are used to obtain the waveforms required to provide the necessary data.
If a hammer is not available, a four by four timber about five feet long is adequate for bump
tests. Sledge hammers with steel heads, unless covered by an elastomer, are not ade-

Figure 6.7. Modally Tuned Hammer

quate for impact testing.

These hammers

bounce off the structure and do not put enough energy into the system. Shakers and calibrated
hammers provide the controlled excitation needed for modal testing.

6.5

Sensors. Sensors are selected to obtain vibration signals that provide information about the dynamic characteristics of a machine or structure. Permanently mounted proximity probes are used
to obtain information about the critical speeds of a rotor. Seismic sensors, velocity pickups, and
accelerometers are placed on the casing, foundation, piping, and other structures to determine
natural frequencies and mode shapes. Moving a sensor to different locations while applying a
fixed force with a hammer or shaker provides information about mode shapes.
Analyzers. The instrumentation used to measure and analyze a resonance or critical speed depends on the goals of the test and the instrument available. Meters and oscilloscopes are adequate for simple structural testing to obtain natural frequencies.
A tracking filter is best for rapid run-up/coast-down tests. Vibration is indicated in the filtered frequency band, which is governed by a reference signal generated by a proximity
probe/notch or optical pickup/reflective tape. Peak vibration levels and phase changes indicate
critical speeds.
The single-channel FFT analyzer or data collector can be used for impact tests in either
the time or frequency domains. Triggering can be free or from a hammer source. Vibration peaks
indicate resonances. During impact tests a uniform (none) window or a Hanning window with a
pretrigger should be used on the analyzer. Some analyzers have special windows for impact
tests.
The dual-channel analyzer is used for impact tests when force and vibration measurements are available. The force (source) is usually recorded in channel one; vibration (response)
is recorded in the second channel. The resulting transfer function of vibration/force is classed as
a mobility (velocity/force). Phase and coherence are generated simultaneously. Changes in
phase provide confirmation that a natural frequency is present at a vibration peak. Coherence is a
measure of the amount of measured force coming from the impact hammer and the relationship
between the source (excitation) and the response (vibration).
Most analyzers have special windows that force the signal to zero at the end of the FFT
sampling process (see Chapter 3) one for the source and one for the response.
The sampling time required for the FFT process is relatively long. When FFT spectrum
analyzers are used for critical speed tests, rapid coast downs or startups will result in loss of data
the analyzer may not be able to take samples fast enough to obtain sufficient data points for a
continuous vibration versus frequency curve. If the transient time is known, the number of data
points can be calculated.
6.6

RESONANCE TESTING TECHNIQUES

Resonance and critical speeds are dependent on natural frequencies and forcing frequencies. The purpose of resonance and critical speed tests is to obtain information about the dynamic properties of a machine or structure. Natural frequencies are as much a property of a machine
as its weight or size. The condition of resonance can amplify a vibration in a machine that would
otherwise be considered normal. Critical speeds are a special case of resonance in which the
vibrating forces are caused by the rotation of the rotor.
Critical speed testing is often more complicated than resonance testing because the natural frequencies encountered are functions of stiffness and mass which may be dependent on machine speed. Resonance tests can be conducted on piping, machine support structures, or pedestals during shutdown, but the machine must be rotating during critical speed tests. Therefore,
different techniques and instrumentation must be used to determine resonances and critical
speeds.
Conducting a Resonance Test
The purpose of a resonance test is to determine the natural frequencies of any structure
that does not have dynamic physical properties; that is, properties that change with speed or time.
Such structures include piping, casings, and machine supports. The natural frequencies of the
entire system are compared with the frequencies of the vibratory, or forcing, frequencies on an
interference diagram (Table 6.1) to determine whether or not the system is resonant.
Table 6.1. Constructing an Interference Diagram6.3
1.

Determine the important sources of vibratory forces; e.g., mass unbalance, misalignment,
gearmesh, engine gas, and inertia forces. Important engine forces can be determined from
a star diagram6.2.

2.

Plot the frequency of the vibratory force in CPM or Hz against speed in RPM. For example,
a mass unbalance has a forcing frequency equal to the speed of the rotor, sometimes called
a once-per-revolution (1x) vibration.

3.

Measure or calculate the natural frequencies at a number of different speeds. The machine
can be struck prior to operation to determine the natural frequency when shut down. If the
natural frequency does not vary with speed, the plot is a straight line (see Figure 6.8). If the
natural frequency varies with speed, as is the case with fluid-film bearing, impact tests must
be conducted at various speeds. However, the natural frequency at a critical speed can be
obtained with a coast-down test. If this test is not possible, the natural frequencies are calculated from a validated model. A mass-elastic model6.4 is constructed from drawings or
sketches of the hardware and validated using test results either at the critical speed or zero
speed. The natural frequencies are calculated at a number of speeds so that the curve of
natural frequency versus rotor speed can be plotted.

6.7

The level of sophistication in resonance testing depends on the available

instrumentation and the complexity of the
system. The testing technique is outlined
in Table 6.2. The first consideration is the
type of force that will be used to excite the
natural frequencies of the system.

The

forcing frequency must either match the

natural frequency or be impulsive in nature.

Figure 6.8. Interference Diagram

Table 6.2. Conducting a Resonance Test

1.

Determine the vibrations of the structure at a number of known points during operation; see
Figure 6.9. These points should allow an approximate modal description of the vibrations in
the structure. Reference the vibrations to the forces by using a strobe light or key phasor if
possible. If the machine speed is variable, do a waterfall, or cascade, diagram of vibration
versus speed (Figure 6.10) to obtain data for the interference diagram.

2.

Construct an interference diagram from the best available data. The waterfall diagram will
show resonant points.

3.

Strike the structure with a 4 x 4 timber, mallet, or hammer with a soft head in the direction of
the desired mode. If the desired mode is not known, strike the structure in several directions.
The direction shown diagrammatically in Figure 6.9 vertical and horizontal usually provide useful data.

4.

Striking rate is determined by the data acquisition time of the FFT setup. Strike only once per
data acquisition period.

5.

Striking force is determined by the response (damping) in the structure. Do not overdrive the
source strike lightly and increase if required. This means a bit of trial and observation of
the response.

6.

Measure and record the vibration levels at a number of reference points on the structure (see
Figure 6.9). The peaks on the spectrum of vibration levels at various measurement points indicate the natural frequencies of the structure (Figure 6.11). Some natural frequencies are
not seen at all measurement points. These are nodal points.

6.8

Sinusoidal vibrating forces can excite natural frequencies. However, these forces must be swept through

Sensors

the frequency range until a frequency is found that

matches a natural frequency. The shape of a vibratory
force need not be sinusoidal (Figure 6.12), but is must
have the same period as the natural frequency. A nonsinusoidal force will generate orders of the fundamental
Figure 6.9. Sites of Impact
and Reference Points

forcing frequency that will in turn excite natural frequencies (see Figure 6.8). This phenomenon often occurs in
normal machine operation.

IPS

Y: .452 IPSrms
Figure 6.10. Waterfall or Cascade Diagram

6.9

Figure 6.11. Natural Frequency of a Vertical Pump from an Impact Test

It should be noted that natural frequencies of large structures
below 15 Hz are difficult to excite with an impact test. For this reason
a shaker, used in conjunction with a power amplifier and a signal generator (Figure 6.13), may be required to excite the natural frequency of
interest. The natural frequencies are determined by sweeping through
the frequency range of interest, focused energy is introduced to the
structure. An example of a mechanical shaker is a variable-speed
motor with a double-ended shaft with disks for mass unbalance. Other excitation sources, including random forces, can be added to the
shaker to excite natural frequencies instantaneously.
Some frequencies in random forces will be the same as, and
thus excite, natural frequencies. This phenomenon can be seen in
Figure 6.12. Excitation
signatures taken from operating machines. Random energy in the
Shapes

6.10

system will excite natural frequencies. Figure 6.14 shows a gearbox in which a natural frequency
is excited by all of the random vibration in the system.

Figure 6.13. Shaker Test Setup

A reciprocating compressor sometimes
rings the piping around it. (Figure 6.15). Engines
behave in a similar way. Four-stroke cycle engines
provide half-order excitations in addition to orders
of operating speeds. Even a broken gear tooth will
generate natural frequencies.

Machine motion

causes an impact-like force that excites natural frequencies that might or might not be desirable.
The most popular method for exciting natural frequencies is to strike (excite) a machine or
structure with a timber or a hammer. The range of
frequencies excited is dependent upon the duration
of the impact. Hard-faced steel hammers tend to
Figure 6.14. Gearbox Vibration

bounce off a structure and so provide a short-lived

6.11

Figure 6.15. Ringing of Piping by a Reciprocating Compressor

impact. As a result only high frequencies are excited. To excite natural frequencies of 10 Hz or
less a soft tip must be used on the hammer6.3.
For resonance testing, the structure, piping, or machine should be as close as possible to
its operating state. Parts of a machine cannot arbitrarily be removed and tested. For example,
the natural frequencies of a gear not mounted on its shaft differ from those when the gear is
mounted. Similarly, the natural frequencies of a machine mounted for shop testing differ from
those of the machine mounted on its normal foundations.

Determination of Natural Frequencies from Impact Tests

The level of sophistication and detail of resonance testing varies. A simple resonance test
often provides the necessary structural natural frequency information. However, better information and greater detail can be obtained from more sophisticated dual channel tests and instrumentation Chapter 8.

6.12

Storage analog or digital oscilloscopes can be used to observe instantaneously the vibration resulting from an impact to a structure. A trigger level must be set on the oscilloscope in the
single sweep mode. The vibration signal from the impact will be held on the screen of the oscilloscope (Figure 6.16). The natural period is obtained by counting the divisions in one period of vibration and multiplying that number by the time-per division setting on the time base (Chapter 3).
In Figure 6.16 it can be seen that two divisions are contained in the period, or vibration
cycle. The oscilloscope was set at 5 milliseconds per division. The natural period, therefore, is
= 2 div. x 5 m sec./div. = 10 m sec. = 0.01 sec.
The natural frequency is one divided by the natural period.
f n = 1/ = 1/0.01 sec./cycle = 100 cycles/sec. (Hz) = 6,000 cycles/min.
The procedure with a digital oscilloscope is similar except that the period is read directly with a
cursor.

Figure 6.16. Vibration Signal Shown on an Analog Oscilloscope

6.13

FFT Setup and Impact Procedure

Table 6.2 outlines the steps required for impact testing while Table 6.3 relates to the FFT
setup.
Table 6.3. FFT Setup for Impact Testing
1.

Set Fmax so that natural frequency of interest will be included in the spectrum.

2.

Set number of lines to obtain required resolution.

3.

Take data collector off autoranging and approximate range required to not over or under
load the analyzer.

4.

Select a uniform or Hanning window.

5.

Set the trigger on the vibration use a 1/3 sample pretrigger, if the Hanning window is
used.

6.

Select one to four (4) averages depending on the noise on the data.

7.

Select scale factors to reflect transducers or recorded data.

8.

Set autoscaling off select scales for displays during impacting or processing of recorded
data.

9.

Set display to view time and frequency during test.

10.

Readjust setup and/or striking force as required after initial data are analyzed.
Set the FFT frequency span, Fmax, wide enough to capture the natural frequency of inter-

est and any other natural frequencies in the vicinity generally FMAX = 2 x FN. Select the number of lines that will provide adequate resolution. If the test is complete and resolution is not adequate to separate natural frequencies, it will have to be repeated unless it has been tape recorded.
Set the range of the analyzer so it will not overload or have insufficient dynamic range. Do
not use autoranging. Just because the response is low in amplitude does not mean that it is not
important.
Select a uniform or Hanning window. If the vibration does not ring down to zero at the end
of the data sampling time, leakage will occur and a uniform window is not appropriate. If a Hanning window is used select a pretrigger of 1/3 to 1/2 of the data sampling time (Figure 6.11). Otherwise the Hanning window will destroy the data. In Figure 6.17, an impact test on a vertical
pump was conducted with a uniform window. Note the time waveform is intact.
Set the trigger on the vibration signal. Use a pretrigger with a Hanning window otherwise data will be lost (Figure 6.18). The reduction of amplitude by a Hanning window if the data

6.14

are not suitably positioned in the buffer are shown in Figure 6.19. The upper trace is not windowed. The lower trace is windowed this is what the FFT uses to calculate the spectrum.

Figure 6.17. Impact Test on a Vertical Pump with a Uniform Window

6.15

Figure 6.18. Data from an Impact Test Processed with a

Uniform (Upper) and Hanning (Lower) Window Without Pretrigger

6.16

Figure 6.19. Impact Test Results with a Hanning Window. Upper Trace not Windowed
The interval of impacting should be greater than the data sampling time so that one impact
is recorded per FFT sample. Otherwise sideband noise will occur (Figure 6.20). The choice of
using single or multiple-averaged impacts depends on the noise within the data. The choice of
averaging has to be made on a case by case basis. Usually four (4) averages provide a good
compromise. The level of impacting should be just enough to get response. Do not try to kill it!
Figure 6.21 shows data from a dual channel impact test on a fan support structure. The
trigger was on the instrumented hammer. An exponential response window (Chapter 3) was used
on the velocity signal and a force window was used on the hammer signal. The upper plot is the
transfer function mobility (IPS/lb) and the lower plot is phase. Approximate 180 phase changes
in the vicinity of transfer function peaks are used to identify natural frequencies. The real portion
(transfer function multiplied by the cosine of the phase) is used to develop mode shapes. The imaginary part of the transfer function (transfer function multiplied by the sine of the phase) is used
to evaluate damping.

6.17

Figure 6.20. Sideband Noise from Multiple Impacts in FFT Sample

Y: 33.302

Figure 6.21. Impact Test on a Fan Mounting Structure

6.18

CRITICAL SPEED TESTING TECHNIQUES

The natural frequencies of a machine or structure are governed by its design6.1. Critical
speed testing can be more complicated than resonance testing because the natural frequencies
encountered can be functions of machine speed [4] e.g., when fluid-film bearings or large overhung masses such as fan impellers are part of a system stiffness or effective mass can change.
Natural frequencies can be measured during startup or coast down of a machine to obtain
its critical speeds. However, the values of the natural frequencies obtained during startup may be
variable because of the acceleration and loads imposed on the rotor. For this reason coast-down
tests provide the best data. In addition, some machines turbines, for instance do not
achieve thermal stability during startup (Table 6.4).
Table 6.4. Conducting a Critical Speed Test
1.

Select one or more appropriate sensors to measure the vibration. Proximity probes measure relative shaft displacement and are preferred if they are permanently installed. Otherwise, mount seismic sensors either velocity sensors or integrated accelerometers as
close to the bearing as possible in the horizontal and vertical directions. If casing resonance
is suspected use casing mounted sensors.

2.

For a permanent or temporarily mounted trigger use a proximity probe or a magnetic pickup
adjacent to an indentation or mark on the rotor. A combination of an optical pickup and reflective tape or paint (hot surfaces) may also be used.

3.

Wire the vibration pickups and trigger to a tracking filter, tape recorder, or FFT analyzer.

4.

If the vibration pickups and trigger are permanently mounted, a coast-down test of the machine can be performed directly.

5.

Run the machine at 10% to 15% overspeed if possible, then cut the power and allow the
machine to coast down from normal operation as data are being recorded. Otherwise
measure and record data prior to and during the time the power is cut.

6.

If either sensors, trigger, or both must be mounted, record the startup. Run the machine until it is thermally stable before cutting power for the coast-down data.

7.

Process the data and identify the critical speeds. They will be peaks in the spectrum. Depending on the plot they will be peaks in the spectrum from an FFT analyzer, peaks from the
tracking filter in a Bod plot, or loops from the tracking filter in a polar plot.

8.

It is a good idea to record coast down and startup data prior to and after an outage.

Use the Interference Diagram for Test Planning

Figure 6.22a shows that, for rotor supported on fluid-film bearings, the natural frequency
can change as changes in speed influence the stiffness properties of the machine6.4. In this case
the natural frequencies vary with speed because the stiffness of fluid-film bearings is a function of
6.19

speed. The natural frequencies of rotors mounted on rolling element bearings are constant and
not speed dependent because the stiffness of the bearings is relatively constant it varies slightly with load.
Figure 6.22b shows the variation in fluid-film bearing stiffness with rotor speed (vertical
lines) superimposed on the variation in natural frequency of the rotor with bearing stiffness (horizontal lines). Rotors with large overhung impellers have gyroscopic effects that stiffen the rotor
as speed increases, thereby raising the natural frequency6.5.

Figure 6.22. Change in Natural Frequency with Speed

Mass unbalance is typically used to excite natural frequencies during tests to identify critical speeds. If other excitation sources are present at two, three, or more times running speed,
natural frequencies may be excited at lower speeds. That is, the first natural frequency would be
excited at one half the normal first critical speed called a half critical if an excitation at two
times running speed is present (Figure 6.22).
Because natural frequencies can vary with speed, ringing a nonoperating rotor mounted
on fluid-film bearings during a bump test does not provide correct natural frequencies for the system. Thus, in systems in which the natural frequencies vary with speed, the bump test is not useful except when modeling a rotor to determine the natural frequencies of the machine at rest.

6.20

Rotors are often lifted out of a machine and rung to obtain natural frequencies. In such
cases only the natural frequencies of the rotor are obtained, not those of the system. The effects
on natural frequencies and critical speeds of fluid-film bearings, pedestals, and supporting foundations would be accounted for as they are in Figure 6.22.
The natural torsional excitation of
motors and engines is often used in resonance and critical speed testing. The interference diagram would show no variation of
natural frequency with speed (see Figure
6.23) for an example of an interference diagram with no variation in natural frequency).
In synchronous motors an excitation at
twice slip frequency is obtained during
startup that excites the first and second torsional natural frequencies of the unit. The
result is a sweep of a single frequency. Because the excitation varies from 120 Hz (60
Figure 6.23. Synchronous Motor Start-Up

Hz power) to zero, the second critical

speed is encountered before the first (Fig-

ure 6.23). Engines are usually tested by sweeping through the speeds from low to high idle, so
that the many engine frequencies will excite the natural frequencies of the system. These frequencies are
then identified using an interference diagram (Figure
6.24).

An

interference

diagram

for

an

en-

gine/generator is shown in Figure 6.24. The first torsional natural frequency can be excited at engine
speeds of 1,050 RPM, 1,400 RPM, and 1,800 RPM at
6, 4.5, and 3.5 orders of excitation respectively. The
torsional test data (Figure 6.25) show that the 4.5x order torsional vibration excites the first natural
Figure 6.24. Calculated Torsional
Critical Speeds of an Engine/Generator Unit

frequency as indicated on the interference diagram.

6.21

When a system experiences a

natural impact or random excitation, a
number of natural frequencies will be generated in the vibration signal.

These

frequencies can often be identified as natural frequencies by changing machine

speed. If the frequencies do not change
with small changes in machine speed and
the rotor is mounted in rolling element
bearings, chances are great that they are,
natural frequencies.
Mode shapes can be measured
when several sensors are mounted on a

Figure 6.25. Torsion Test

machine.

The sensors selected identify

modal properties of the machine (Chapter 8). For example, the noncontact proximity probe is
used to assess vibration modes of the rotor; seismic sensors on the casing, pedestals, or foundation are used to determine structural modes.

Using Tracking Filters

A tracking filter (Figure 6.26) can
be used to generate a Bod plot (Figure
6.27) or a polar plot. The Bod plot is a
record of amplitude and phase versus
speed usually filtered. A trigger off the

Figure 6.26. Tracking Filter

shaft is used to generate the phase record.

Figure 6.27 is a Bod plot of a coast-down test of a 4,000 HP boiler feed pump. Mass unbalance is the excitation source. The synchronous speed tracking filter that was used tracks the
once-per-revolution amplitude and phase of the vibration as the speed of the unit changes. A
trigger must be mounted on the machine so that a reference signal can be obtained. Multiples of
operating speed can be tracked with the proper reference signal.
In Figure 6.27, critical speeds occur at 2,000 RPM, 2,600 RPM, and 3,500 RPM. The first
critical speed involves the motor. The second and third critical speeds are associated with the
pump drive unit.

6.22

The vibration peaks and phase

changes theoretically 180 indicated
natural frequencies at the speed of the
machine. A critical speed would be indicated by the interference of the natural
frequency and the forcing frequency on
the interference diagram. It can be seen
that the natural frequency at operating
speed is not necessarily the natural frequency measured during the start-up or
coast-down test. An interference diagram
is helpful in visualizing the natural frequencies of a machine at speed other than
critical speeds.

Using the FFT Spectrum Analyzer

The peak hold feature of an FFT
spectrum analyzer can be used to provide

Figure 6.27. Bod Plot of a Coast-Down Test

data on critical speeds. However, the frequency range selected must be high enough to track the coast down. The peak hold feature
holds and displays the peak values of all data after each spectrum is computed (figure 6.28a).
The acquisition time of the block of data analyzed is dependent on the frequency span selected.
The lower the frequency span, the longer the acquisition time.

The formula for acquisition time is

N
f

N is the number of lines, usually 400. The number of samples is a measure of analyzer resolution. The acquisition time can be decreased by reducing the lines of resolution. In addition, use of
overlap processing also reduces data acquisition time. With overlap processing data from the
previous sample are used in calculating the spectrum. In typical machine coast-down tests the
process of computing the FFT is faster than the data acquisition.

6.23

If a 400-line FFT analyzer is set on a frequency span of 100 Hz (6,000 CPM), four seconds (400/100) are needed to acquire a sample. Because many samples are necessary to plot a
smooth curve during a start-up or coast-down test without data drop out, the frequency span of
the analyzer must be evaluated carefully prior to data collection. Resolution is lost with too wide a
frequency span. Too narrow a span may prevent the observation of the critical speed because
the data acquisition time is excessive. Table 6.5 illustrates the procedure

Table 6.5. Critical Speed Testing with an FFT

Determine approximate coast-down time
Set the FFT on peak hold
Select number of lines, FMAX, and overlap, and calculate data acquisition time
Divide coast-down time by data acquisition time to get number of data points in the peak hold
curve. This will determine the resolution of the data
Trigger FFT prior to coast down so a full sample is gathered prior to coast down
Consider, for example, Figure 6.28a, a 12 second startup of a two-pole motor that operates at
3,600 RPM. If the analyzer is set on 6,000 CPM (100 Hz) and four seconds are required for each
sample, only three data points will be obN
= 100
FMAX = 100 Hz
OVL = 80%
DAT = .2 sec

tained hardly sufficient for a curve. Increasing the frequency span to 400 Hz
(24,000 CPM) and decreasing the number
of lines to 100 means that a sample is
taken every 0.25 second (100/400 =
0.25);

12

second

span/0.25

sec-

ond/sample is equal to 48 samples, or

one sample every 75 RPM. However, the
resolution is reduced to increments of
24,000 CPM/100 lines, or 240 RPM,
which yields 3,600/240 RPM, or 15 data
points over the frequency range between
0 and 3,600 RPM. Eighty percent overlap
processing i.e., 20% data retained

36 Data
Points

at 100 lines with a 100 Hz (6,000 CPM)

span provides a data acquisition time of

Figure 6.28a. Peak Hold Coast Down Test

6.24

0.2 second (100 lines per 200 Hz x 0.2),

Figure 6.28a. The resulting 100 points at

about 60 RPM intervals with a resolution of
100 CPM may provide an adequate plot. It
must be recognized that the small amount
of new data contained in each point processed compromises the analytic results.
Under these conditions a tracking filter is
necessary.
Figure 6.28b shows coast-down

Figure 6.28b. Coast-Down Tests

of a Steam Turbine

data of a steam turbine analyzed by an FFT.

In this example the coast
down and startup required
so much time that data acquisition is not an issue.
The dip in this spectrum at
2,400 RPM means that the
rotor is bowed.
Using Polar Plots
Figure 6.29 is a
polar plot produced by a
synchronous tracking filter
from a start-up test of a
turbine generator. The plot
used the amplitude (peak
to peak) and phase (angle
between a reference mark
and peak vibration) of vibration at various speeds.

Figure 6.29. Polar Plot of a Start-Up Test of a Generator Bearing

The tracking filter plots the

real (amplitude times co-

sine of phase angle) and the imaginary (amplitude times sine of the phase angle) at the various
speeds.

Figure 6.29 shows an example polar diagram. The generator is operating in the coun-

ter clockwise direction therefore phase lags are measured in the clockwise direction. The small

6.25

loop6.6 in Figure 6.29 identifies the first critical speed of the generator as 1,000 RPM. There is a
phase change of 90. The large loop is the second critical speed, 2,250 RPM. It shows the operating speed to be well above the second critical.

DAMPING
Damping information can be used to identify problems that might occur when a machine passes through or dwells on a critical speed. If significant damping is present, it is not necessarily
harmful to operate a machine close to a critical speed, but inadequate damping could result in a
disaster.
Evaluating machines subject to mass unbalance during operation as well as those operating close to a critical speed requires data on damping. Damping for a single mode can be estimated from the time domain, the frequency domain, or by phase. Modal testing techniques are
used when a system has more than one mode (Chapter 8).
Damping Ratio and Logarithmic Decrement
The time domain of the vibration of a steam turbine
casing subjected to an impact is shown in Figure 6.30. The
damped natural period, which is obtained directly from the
plot, is equal to 0.0125 second per cycle. The frequency,
which is the reciprocal of the period, is equal to 80.0 Hz.
The damping ratio can also be calculated form Figure
6.30. The damping ratio (C/CC) is a measure of modal viscous damping. It is defined as the ratio of damping in the system to critical damping. Critical damping is the lowest magnitude of damping that will not allow vibration. The damping
ratio varies from zero (no damping) to one (no vibration).
Figure 6.30. Time-Domain Data from an Impact Test on
a Turbine Casing

Typical damping ratios are 0.001 for steel; 0.05 for rubber;
0.025 for machines with rolling element bearings; and from
0.03 to 1.0 for machines with fluid film bearings.

The API

(American Petroleum Industry) recommendation is that machines passing through a critical speed should have a damping ratio greater than 0.0625.

6.26

The level of vibration of a damped system typically decreases with time at a rate that can
be used as a measure of damping. This measure is called the logarithmic decrement. It is defined in equation form as

xo
1
n
n
xn

=
=

logarithmic decrement
number of cycles of vibration measured

xo

amplitude of vibration, initial cycle

xn
n

=
=

amplitude of vibration, cycle n

natural logarithm to base e

The logarithmic decrement is related to the damping ratio by the following equation.

2 C / Cc

2
1 C / Cc

C
C
for
0.5
Cc
Cc

The damping ratio can be estimated from the following relationship.

C C 2

C
Cc

logarithmic decrement

damping ratio

actual damping, lb. sec./in.

CC

2mn = critical damping

modal mass, lb. sec./in.

2 fn = natural frequency, radians/sec.

fn

natural frequency, Hz

The logarithmic decrement for the dominant pedestal mode at 83 Hz in Figure 6.30 is (1/7)

n (5.5/0.8), or 0.275. The damping ratio is 0.275/2, or 0.043.

6.27

Figure 6.31. Shaft Vibrations of a Turbine during Coast Down

(Courtesy C. Jackson)
Half-Power Method
Damping can be evaluated for a single mode of vibration with data from the frequency
domain (Figure 6.31). Half-power points of vibration response close to a critical speed or resonance are used. A half-power point is equal to peak amplitude multiplied by 0.707. The following
equation is used.

Q AF

fn

f2 f1

or

1
C

2
C
c

C
1

C c 2 AF

quality factor

AF

amplification factor

fn

natural frequency or critical speed; CPM, Hz, or RPM

f1

lower half power point obtained from spectrum Figure 6.32

f2

second half-power point; i.e., higher frequency at which a vibration response of

0.707 times peak vibration occurs consistent with fn.
6.28

The half-power method can be used to calculate a damping ratio of 0.16 from the turbine data
shown in Figure 6.31. The critical speed is 5,800 RPM, the first half-power point is 5,200 RPM,
the second half-power point is 7,100 RPM, and the amplification factor is 3.05.
Coast-down data can be used to calculate the damping of a rotor (Figure 6.32). The rotor
is part of a grinding machine that is mounted on a structural platform. The peak vibration at 0.245
inch per second can be used to identify the critical speed, which is 1,238 RPM.
The half-power points are used to obtain the amplification factor. At 0.707 times peak vibration, or 0.17 inch per second, the speed N1 and N2 at the half-power points are 1,350 RPM
and 1,140 RPM (see Figure 6.32). The damping ratio for a calculated amplification factor of 5.9 is
0.084. This relatively high value is surprising because the rotor is supported in rolling element
bearings.
The actual damping value can be calculated from single-degree-of-freedom theory. The
rotor weighs 525 pounds. The critical damping is calculated as follows.

Cc 2 m n
m

W/g, mass of rotor, 525 lbs./g, or gravitational constant, 386.1 in./sec.2

= 525/386.1 = 1.36 lb. sec.2/in.

natural frequency
= 20.6 Hz x 6.28 = 129.57 radians/sec.

CC

2 x 1.36 lb. sec.2/in. x 129.57 radians/sec.

= 352 lb. sec./in.

0.084 (352) = 29.6 lb. sec./in.

The structural natural frequency (28 Hz) of the platform could not be excited by a bump test but
was seen during a coast-down test.

6.29

N1

Figure 6.32. Coast-Down of a Grinding Rotor

Phase-Angle Method
The phase information associated with a frequency-response plot or a start-up or coastdown test can be used to evaluate damping. The Bod plot shown in Figure 6.31 contains a
change in phase angle with respect to speed as the rotor passes through a critical speed. The
formula for the amplification factor is

AF

AF

amplification factor

NC

critical speed, RPM

d/dN =

Nc d
360 d N

rate of change of phase angle with respect to speed around critical speed

The rate of change d/dN is approximated by the finite difference /dN. From Figure 6.31, N is
equal to 5,800 RPM and the finite difference is (458-380)/(6250-5250), which is 0.078. The amplification factor is
AF = (5,800/360)(0.078) = 3.95

6.30

REFERENCES
6.1.

Eshleman, R.L., Resonance and Critical Speed Testing. Part I: Basic Concepts and Instrumentation, Vibrations, 6(3), pp 3-7 (1990).

6.2.

Den Hartog, J.B., Mechanical Vibrations, McGraw-Hill Book Co. (1968) [Dover Books].

6.3.

Eshleman, R.L., Resonance and Critical Speed Testing. Part II: Resonance Testing Techniques, Vibrations, 6(4), pp 3-7 (1990)

6.4.

Eshleman, R.L., Modeling Turbomachinery for Design and Analysis, Rotor Dynamics and
Balancing Course, Syria, VA, May 15-19, 1989, Vibration Institute, Willowbrook, IL (May
1989).

6.5.

Eshleman, R.L. and Eubanks, R.A., On the Critical Speeds of a Continuous Shaft-Disk
System, J. Engrg. Indus., Trans. ASME, 89 (4) (November 1967).

6.6.

Halloran, J.D., Vibration Analysis of Rotating Machinery Using Polar Diagrams, Vibrations,
1(4), pp 2-10 (1986).

6.31