Fire is one of the main hazards associated with storage tanks containing flammable liquids.
These tanks are usually closely spaced and in large groups, so where a petroleum fire
occurs, adjacent tanks are susceptible to damage leading to further development of the
fire. The structural behavior such as thermal stability and failure modes of the tanks under
such fire scenario are very important to the safety design and assessment of oil depots.
However, no much previous studies are available at the moment. This report presents a
systematic exploration of the potential thermal and structural behaviors of an oil tank when
one of its neighbor tanks is on fire. Under such scenario, the oil tanks are found to easily
buckle under rather moderate temperature rises. The causes of such buckling failures are
the reduced modulus of steel at elevated temperatures, coupled with thermally-induced
stresses due to the restraint of thermal expansion. Since the temperatures reached in such
structures can be several hundred Centigrade degrees, any restraint to thermal expansion
can lead to the development of compressive stresses.
Acknowledgements
The project group is deeply grateful to its internal supervisors Dr.Younis Jamal (Mechanical
Department, UET Lahore) and external advisor Rana Ijaz Sahib (Descon) for their
tremendous guidance and encouragement during this project. Many thanks to the
Chairman Mechanical department Dr. Hameed ullah Mughal for providing us with such
learning opportunity for our better grooming of technical skills.
Finally our project group would like to thank Mechanical Department and University of
Engineering and Technology for their continued support and corporation.
Abstract.I
AcknowledgementII
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Properties Of Fluids Stored In The Steel Tank ............................................ 1
1.2 Types Of Tank .............................................................................................. 2
1.3 The Cylinder ................................................................................................. 7
1.4 Tank Bottom ................................................................................................ 8
1.5 Foundation Of Tanks.................................................................................. 10
1.6 Materials .................................................................................................... 11
1.7 Codes And Design Consideration ............................................................... 12
2. Failures Of The Storage Tanks ......................................................................... 14
2.1 Motivation .................................................................................................. 14
2.2 Major Causes Of Tank Failure In Large Depot Fires .................................... 16
2.3 Methodologies............................................................................................ 18
2.4 Analytical Solution ...................................................................................... 18
2.5 Heat Transfer Analysis ................................................................................ 19
2.6 Proposition Of Empirical Model ................................................................. 19
2.7 Thermal Shell Buckling ............................................................................... 20
3. Calculations...........21
3.2 Problem Statement.......................................................................................31
4. References..........32
1. INTRODUCTION
The principal scope of this report is the study of steel tanks that failed due to natural
hazards and ways to mitigate damage in future events. This chapter contains a number of
considerations that are important to isolate theme structures that are representative of
what would be found in practice.
b) Specific Gravity:
Specific gravity is another important physical property of the liquid stored. It is a measure of
the relative weight of one liquid compared to water. Specifically it is the ratio of the density
of the liquid divided by the density of the water at 15.5C. For example, petroleum oil,
kerosene and gasoline have a specific gravity of 0.82, 0.80 and 0.70 respectively. Care must
be exercised if there is a significant increase in the specific gravity of the new liquid because
the effective hydrostatic pressure acting on the tank walls will be greater if the design level
is not reduced, and could cause damage on the cylindrical shell.
c) Vapor Pressure:
The vapor pressure of a pure liquid is the pressure of the vapor space above the liquid in a
closed container, and increases with increasing temperature. It is an important
consideration in order to select the type of tank and its roof and is crucial for the purpose of
characterizing fire hazardousness.
d) Boiling Point:
The boiling point is also important. It is necessary to know the temperatures at which some
liquids should be stored, always below its boiling point. For example, some flammable and
combustible liquids are prohibited by the fire codes to be stored at temperatures above
their boiling point.
e) Pressure:
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. In the United States, the engineers working in
this field commonly use inches of water column or ounces per square inches to express the
value of pressure or vacuum in the vapor space of a tank, because the pressures are usually
very low relative to atmospheric pressure. According to this pressure the designer should
determine the strength and thus thickness of the tank. For both cylindrical and spherical
shells, the most complex part of the tank to design is the junction between the roof and the
cylinder because several conditions may occur:
I.
II.
When the pressures dominate on the cylinder, the roof deflects to accompany the
lower shell
When there is an internal pressure that exceeds the weight of the plates and framing
of the roof, this junction tends to separate from the shell.
b) Elevated Tanks:
A less common class of aboveground tanks supported by columns or frames is called
elevated tanks. They are almost exclusively employed by municipal water supply
companies.
c) Underground Tanks:
Underground tanks have less capacity than aboveground tanks and are usually limited to
between 20,000 and 75,000 liters (5,000 and 20,000 gal) with most being less than 45,000
liters (12,000 gal). They require special considerations for the earth loads to which they are
subjected, because of their contents. Underground tanks store fuels as well as a variety of
chemicals. Another aspect to consider is buoyancy, because they are anchored into the
ground, they should not be able to pop out during periods when ground water surrounds
the tank. In addition, because they are underground, they may be subjected to severe
corrosion. For the purpose of this work, attention is restricted to aboveground tanks, for
which buckling is an important design consideration for wind loads.
b) Low-Pressure Tanks:
Within the context of tanks, low pressure means that tanks are designed for a pressure
higher than atmospheric tanks. This also means that these tanks are relatively high-pressure
tanks. Tanks of this type are designed to operate from atmospheric pressure up to about
100 kN/m2.
e) Fixed-Roof Tank:
A shallow cone roof deck on a tank approximates a flat surface and is typically built of 4.76
mm thick steel. Most aboveground tanks have cylindrical shapes on the part that contains
fluids. The cylinder is an economical, easily fabricated shape for pressure containment. An
important feature of such cylindrical tanks is that the top end must be closed. As discussed
before, the relatively flat roof and bottom or closures of tanks do not lend themselves to
much internal pressures. As internal pressure increases, the tank designers use domes or
spherical caps.
f) Conical Roof:
Cone-roof tanks have also cylindrical shells in the lower part. These are the most widely
used tanks for storage of relatively large quantities of fluid. The tanks that we will study in
the following chapters are of this type. They have a vertical axis of symmetry, the bottom is
usually flat, and the top is made in the form of shallow cone as illustrated in Figure 1.1.
They are economical to build and the economy supports a number of contractors capable of
building them. Cone-roof tanks typically have roof rafters and support columns except in
very small-diameters tanks, see Figure 1.2. Details of the central part of the roof are also
shown in Figure 1.2.
h) Dome-Roof Tanks:
This type has almost the same shape of the
umbrella type except that the dome
approximates a spherical surface more closely
than the segmented sections of an umbrellaroof, see Figure 1.3. There are several ways to
fabricate such tanks. One of them is known as
the tank airlift method, in which the roof and
the upper course of shell are fabricated first,
then lifted by air that is blown into the tanks as
the remaining lower courses of steel shell are
welded into place.
j) Floating-Roof Tanks:
These tanks have a cover that
floats on the surface of the liquid.
The floating cover or roof is a disk
structure that has sufficient
buoyancy to ensure that the roof
will float under all expected
conditions, even if leaks develop
in the roof. They are frequently
used in large diameter tanks to
prevent the evaporation of
volatile fluids. The disk is built
with approximately 200 mm gap
between the roof and the shell,
avoiding contact between both
elements as the roof moves up
and down with the liquid level. A rim seal seals the gap between the floating roof and the
shell, as shown in Figure 1.5.The two categories of floating-roof tanks are external floating
roof (EFR) and internal floating roof (IFR). If the tank is open on top, it is called an EFR tank.
If a fixed roof on top of the tank covers the floating roof, it is called an IFR tank. The
function of the cover is to reduce air pollution and evaporation losses by reducing the
surface area of liquid that is exposed to the atmosphere. A fixed-roof tank can easily be
converted to an internal floating-roof tank by simply installing a floating roof inside the
fixed-roof tank. Similarly an external floating-roof tank can be converted into internal
floating-roof tank by covering the tank with a fixed roof or a geodesic dome.
EFR tanks have no vapor space pressure associated with them and operate strictly at
atmospheric pressure. IFR tanks, like fixed-roof tanks, can operate at or above atmospheric
pressure in the space between the floating roof and the fixed roof. A flexible seal is
provided in floating roof tanks to seal the gap between the cylinder and the roof. A detail of
such designs is shown in Figure 1.5, as presented by Kamyab and Palmer (1994)
(Fig.1.5)
A seal can take a radial deflection of the cylindrical shell not larger than about 150mm, and
this is enough to account for construction imperfections, thermal deflections and
deflections due to pressure of the liquid stored. However, vertical settlements of the
foundation may induce large radial displacements and this would make that the seal
becomes ineffective and the roof does not operate well.
shell. Some tanks without a roof have a wind girder ring welded on the outside; a girder
may have a thickness of the order of 7 mm with a width that may range between 100 and
200 mm. Other tanks have a stiffening ring to prevent local buckling of the shell under wind
pressures,as shown in Figure 1.6.
a) Flat Bottom
They are the most common end closures of tanks. These tanks appear flat but usually have
a small designed slope and shape. For tanks less than about 6-9 m in diameter, the flatbottom tank is used. The inclusion of a small slope as describe above does not provide any
substantial benefit, so they are fabricated as close to flat as possible.
b) Cone Up:
These bottoms are built with a high point in the center of the tank. Crowning the
foundation and constructing the tank on the crown accomplish this. The slope is limited to
about 25 to 50 mm per 3 m run.
c) Cone Down:
The cone-down design slopes toward the center of the tank. Usually, there is a collection
sump at the center. It is very effective for water removal from tanks. This design is
inherently more complex because it requires a sump, underground piping, and an external
sump outside the tank.
d) Single Slope:
This design uses a planar bottom but it is tilted slightly to one side. This allows for drainage
to be directed to the low point on the perimeter, where it may be effectively collected.
Since there is a constant rise across the diameter of the tank, the difference in elevation
from one side to the other can be quite large. Therefore, this design is usually limited to
about 30 m.
e) Conical Bottom:
The second type is the conical bottom. The designers often use it to provide a complete
drainage or even removal of solids. Since these types of tanks are more costly, they are
limited to the smaller sizes and are often found in the chemical industry or in processing
plants.
c) Slab Foundations:
The concrete slab foundation has the
advantages of the concrete ring-wall but is
usually limited to tanks with diameters less
than 10 m. Often the edge of the slab will be
sufficiently thick to provide for anchorage. A
slab foundation is very versatile, but its high
cost limits it to use in small tanks. The slab
provides a level and plane-working surface
that facilitates rapid field erection. Pilesupported foundations: The pile-supported
foundation is usually found where the soil bearing pressures are very low. Examples might
be river deltas and land adjacent to bays. They are also used where high foundation uplift
forces are encountered resulting from internal pressure or seismic loading. The tank shown
in Figure 1.7 has a concrete slab and 432 piles supporting it.
1.6 Materials:
Tanks are constructed from a number of different materials based upon the availability and
cost of the material, ease of fabrication, resistance to corrosion, compatibility with the fluid
stored. Sometimes specialized composites and techniques are used in tank construction,
but these are the exception.
a) Carbon Steel:
Carbon steel or mild steel is by far the most common material for tank construction. This
material is readily available, and because of the ease with which it is fabricated, machined,
formed, and welded, it results in low overall costs. The material properties most commonly
assumed for modeling are a modulus of elasticity of 2.068 x 1011 N/m2, Poissons ratio of
0.3, mass density of 7849.7 kg/m3, and yield strength of 2.156 x 108 N/m2.
b) Stainless Steel:
Stainless steel, usually the austenitic group of stainless steels, is an important material used
for storage of corrosive liquids. Although the material cost is significantly more than that of
steel, it has the same ease of availability as carbon steel.
d) Aluminum Tanks:
Aluminum tanks are suitable for a limited number of materials. It is the less common metal
used to build tanks. These tanks remain ductile at temperatures much lower than those of
carbon steel. However, nickel steels and stainless steels have largely supplanted the market
for aluminum tanks. Code requirements that govern tank designs often have very specific
material selection requirements and limitations. Most modern codes include provisions in
the material selection criteria that ensure materials with sufficient toughness under the
service conditions to prevent brittle fracture.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
The susceptibility of the material to brittle fracture is also one of the most important
material selection considerations. Brittle fracture is the tensile failure of a material
showing little deformation or yielding. Brittle fractures typically start at a flaw and
can propagate at high speeds, resulting in catastrophic failures.
Corrosive effects in tanks may be divided into internal and external ones. The most
common is the external corrosion that is usually minimized by the used of coatings
for carbon steel tanks.
The selection of a design metal temperature is important in ensuring that materials
are selected which are tough enough to prevent brittle fractures under the service
conditions.
Ensuring a material with adequate toughness. One way to ensure that selected steel
has adequate toughness for the design metal temperature of the tank is to prooftest each plate by impact toughness testing samples at or below the design metal
temperature (DMT).
Many organizations have contributed in some way to storage tank technology. The most
important ones are:
Figure 2-1a
Figure 2-1b
Figure 2-1c
A global view of the site during the burning stage of damage to tanks during and after the
fire is shown in Figures 2-1a, 2-1b and 2-1c. This striking recent fire incident offers the direct
motivation of this study.
2.2 Major Causes Of Oil Tank Failures In A Large Oil Depot Fire:
The main hazards associated with storage tanks containing flammable liquids are fire and
explosion (Chang and Lin 2006). Fires or explosions are likely to occur when vapors or
liquids are released into areas where there may be an ignition source, or when an ignition
source is introduced into an area where there may be flammable atmospheres. The extent
of the fire or explosion hazard, depends largely on the temperature of the liquid, how much
of the surface area is exposed, how long it is exposed for, and the air movement over the
surface. From the structural safety point of view, explosion is without doubt the most
dangerous hazard for the adjacent tanks, as the shockwave from explosions is easy to cause
structural damage (Baker et al. 1982, Ruiz et al. 1989, Islam et al. 1992).
Explosions are believed to be the major reason of the failure of tanks in Buncefield as in the
Report (Board 2010). Another possibility of causing the tank failure could be heating from
the fire, however this factor was somehow less mentioned in the Buncefield Report.
In the presence of a fire impinging on the tank shell, the metal undergoes a degradation of
mechanical properties therefore causes structural weakening and eventual collapse. In
other situations, where the fire is not spreading on the tank, the adjacent tank may still be
in danger of failure. The hazards arising from such a situation are due to fire radiation.
Radiation heats up the neighboring tanks and results in a non-uniform temperature rise in
the tank where the part facing the fire is hotter than the part opposite to it. This can lead
to the buckling failure of tanks, because the modulus of the steel (or other metals) used for
constructing the tank is reduced at elevated temperatures, coupled with thermally-induced
stresses due to the restraint of thermal expansion. Since the temperatures reached in such
structures can be several hundred degrees in Centigrade, any restraint to thermal
expansion can lead to the development of large compressive stresses. The high
susceptibility of thin shell structures to elastic buckling under very low stresses means that
this type of failure is easily provoked. However, no previous studies on this problem are
known to the best knowledge of the author.
Back to the Buncefield incident, although the pressure wave generated by explosions are
believed to be the major cause of the tremendous damage to the outlying area and the
huge fires involving 23 large oil fuel tanks (Johnson 2010, Board 2010), it is possible that
thermal buckling was an important triggering event for the leakage or spill of the stored oil
that occurred before the explosion. In fact, thermal buckling of the tank may actually induce
or accelerate the following explosion thus contributed to the catastrophic failure. Indeed, it
is difficult and even impossible to judge whether some of the failures in Fig. 2-1a were due
to explosion or thermal buckling. The buckling of the green tank in Fig. 2-1c was more likely
caused by thermal buckling rather than explosion, as will be seen in this thesis. Therefore, a
safety evaluation of the possibility of thermal buckling and its role in the possible tank
failures is urgently needed.
Currently, thermal buckling of oil tanks under fire scenario is a poorly studied problem,
relevant research is very rare. The current oil tank design codes (e.g. API 650 2007, NFPA 30
1996, EN1993 4-2 2007) have not provided any guidance for tanks under such fire scenarios
either. The role of thermal loading in structural failure has been almost ignored in the past
research or industrial tank design practices. This study stands as a complementary work to
the past investigations of oil tank failures.
A basic approach to minimize the risk of storages under fire condition is to do a proper
layout for the whole tank farm with safe separation distances. Various regulatory and
professional bodies like American Petroleum Institute (API) and National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) have suggested standards on such issue. The tanks are arranged in
groups by dike wall or bunds and separated from each other within one group. However,
for economic reasons, the minimum spacing specified in the codes does not guarantee the
safety of tanks from a fire. The researches on safe separation distance between two storage
tanks in a tank farm from fire therefore emerge (Sengupta et al. 2010, Atallah and Allan
1971).
The safe separation distance is defined as that at which the thermal radiation flux is equal
to a prescribed level. This level depends on what is required to conserve or protect (Atallah
and Allan 1971). The critical heat flux of 4.732kW/m2 is considered to be the safe intertank distances on the basis of that no material is expected to ignite (Crowl and Louvar
2002, Lees 1996, DiNenno 1995). This heat flux is equal to the energy radiated from a black
body with a temperature of 260. In another research a critical temperature of 540 is
deemed to be a threshold for the safety of steel tanks (Beyler 2004b) in determining safe
separations. However, would the steel tank really be safe under these critical
temperature? Although this defined temperature seems not very high to soften the steel
tank, the most important issue here is not the reduction of strength of steel under the given
temperature, but the stresses arisen from non- uniform temperature distribution in the
steel tank which may easily lead to catastrophic failure even if the maximum temperature is
much lower.
The aim of this study is to reveal and understand the behavior of a steel oil tank when it is
exposed to an adjacent fire, from a thermal buckling prospective view. The objectives
include revealing the thermal distribution patterns developed in an oil tank under the
heating from an adjacent tank fire, exploring the underlying mechanism responsible for the
buckling of tank structure, and discovering the influences of various thermal and
geometrical parameters on the buckling temperature of the tanks. A method which
facilitates understanding of tank behavior under fire environment will be performed to fill
this gap in current knowledge.
2.3 Methodologies:
The starting effort is put on the enhancement of the analytical solutions of stresses and
deformations in a cylindrical shell under an axisymmetric heating regime involving thermal
discontinuity at the liquid level. The thermal buckling behavior of tanks is then studied by
numerical simulations. First a solid flame model is chosen to represent the tank fire after
due consideration, and the heat transfer analysis is conducted using Abaqus to determine
the temperature distribution in the adjacent tank. The heat transfer analysis will be
followed by an extensive nonlinear finite element analysis of tanks under such scenarios.
The results from this study offers general understanding and provides useful information on
how serious the temperature gradient developed in the tank under such fire heating may
be for the thin-shell tank structure.
Being the first study on tank buckling under thermal loading, this study suffers some
limitations, especially the lack of direct experimental measurement, and also some
simplifications of both the fire model and tank model. However, results indicate clearly that
the fire loading is a major threat to the safety of adjacent tanks even if they are designed
satisfying all the requirements of current design standards.
this tank. In addition, this study served the purpose of demonstrating the critically
important role of partial filling in producing discontinuities in the shell response, and also
showed that relatively small thermal changes could produce relatively large local stresses.
However, it was quickly realized that an extension of this analytical treatment to the more
complex conditions that occur in practical unsymmetrically heated tanks was not very
feasible, so the study turned towards numerical solutions thereafter. Nevertheless, these
analytical solutions remain the only known ones for conditions of this kind, and there may
be applications for these solutions in problems unrelated to fire.
the diameter of the fire, location of fire and liquid level inside of the target tank are
proposed.
3. Calculations:
Important Parameters:
X=axial co-ordinate of cylindrical shell-(m)
a=radius of middle cylindrical shell-(m)
h=thickness of cylindrical shell-(m)
L=length of cylindrical shell-(m)
=characteristic length of cylinder-(m-1)
Y= -dimensionless co-ordinate of shell
w=radial displacement of the middle surface of the cylindrical shell, positive
inward-(m)
u=axial displacement of middle surface of cylindrical shell, positive in x direction(m)
p= Uniform internal pressure (Pa)
Q= Shearing force in cylindrical shell (N/m)
(1)
(2)
2-COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION:
Y=x
(3)
CASE A:
Fc= T1 + T2X+T3X2+T4X3
(4)
(5)
M=Mx
(6)
(7)
(8)
N = - Cn Nn +ap
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
CASE B:
Fc=T0e-bx
(13)
d=b/q
(14)
=4aT0/a4+4
(15)
(16)
M=Mx
(17)
(18)
(19)
N=-CnNn+ap-(d4/d4+4)EbT0e-dy
(20)
(21)
dw/dx=a/EhCnwn+be-dy
(22)
u=1/Eh*/4CnQn+(NX-ap)y-aDb3e-dy+c5]
(23)
CASE A and B:
Internal Bending Stress
x=6Mx/h2
(24)
=6M/h2
(25)
(26)
m= N/h
(27)
Total or principal stress (+ sign for outside surface and sign for inside surface)
x=Nx/h 6Mx/h2
(28)
=N/h 6M/h2
(29)
All The Above Equations Have Been Taken From TIMO SHINKO AND F.J.STANEK
1959.
CHARACTERISTIC LENGTH
2=1.6523/ah
=1.6523/10*0.01
=(16.523)0.5
=4.06 m-1
DIMENSIONLESS COORDINATE
Yl=*L
Yl=81.2
CALCULATIONS @ y=0
MOMENT ABOUT THE AXIS
Mx=(1/4a2 )*(CnMn-2aD)*(T3+3T4 *y/)
M1=-2e-ycosy @y=0
(Timo Shinko)
M1=-2
M2=-2e-ysiny
(Timo Shinko)
M2=0
We dont have the value of D which is flexural rigidity so solving for
Flexural rigidity
D=(Eh3/12*(1-2))
D=18935.97 N-m
@ y=0 and Mx=0
0=(1/4*10*4.062) * [-2C1+0]-2*(0.192*1011)*10*12*10-6
0=-3.03*10-3C1-1535662080
C1=-499355.094
SHEARING FORCE CALCULATIONS
Q=(1/4a) *(QnCn+6DT4)
Q1=-2e-y(cosy + siny)
(Timo Shinko)
Q1=-2
Q2=-2e-y(siny - cosy)
(Timo Shinko)
Q2=2
Now calculating for C2
17500=(1/a*10*4.06) *(-499355.094*(-2)+2C2)+6*(18935.97)(12*10-6)(10)(500)
0=-4533.356+0.01231C2
C2=368266.1251
NORMAL STRESS TANGENT TO THE MIDDLE SURFACE
N=-CnNn +ap
N1=e-ysiny
(Timo Shinko)
N1=0
N2=e-ycosy
N2=1
N=-(-499355.094*0+368266.1251C1) + 10*1.01*105
N=1378266.125 N/m
m =1378266.125/0.01 N/m2
m=137826612.5 Pa
(Timo Shinko)
m=137.8266 MPa
CALCULATIONS @ y=81.2
MOMENT ABOUT THE AXIS
Mx=(1/4a2) *[CnMn-2aD(T3+3T4y/)]
M1=-2e-ycosy
M1=-2*e-0.812cos(812.2)
M1=1.663*10-36 N-m
M2=-2e-ysiny
M2=-2*e-81.2sin(81.2)
M2=-5.03414*10-36
Now solving for Mx
Mx=(1/4*10*4.062) *(-99355.094*(-1.663*10-36) +[368266.125*(-5.03414*10-36) =2(10)(1.2*10-6)(18935.91)(333.26+3(500)(81.2/4.06)
Mx=-1.55226*10-33-137855.0735
Mx=-137855.0735 N-m/m
bx=-8271.3 MPa
CIRCUMFERNTIAL BENDING STRESSES
b = 6M/h2
Where M = *Mx
Thus M = 0.3*(-137855.0735)
M = -41356.52205 N-m/m
Now for
b = 6*(-41356.52205)/0.012
b = -2481391323 Pa
b=-2481.391 MPa
MAXIMUM YIELD STRESS
y /2 =(bx+b)/2
y=10752.69MPa
(3.1)
Fig 3-1 Table of Properties of Steel (Mechanics of Material By F.P Beer and
Johnson)
3.2 Conclusion:
In our calculation we have obtained the value of stress from Eq 3.1. It is much higher than
the ultimate strength of the steel as in the Fig.3.1 . So at assumed temperature profile
points T1, T2, T3, T4 the design will fail due to high thermal stresses developed. This
conclusion is complying with the guide line of API 650 Appendix M (Requirements for Tanks
Operating at Elevated Temperatures) that tank temperature should not exceed 260oC.
4. References:
1. API 650 2007). Welded steel tanks for oil storage. American Petroleum Institute
2. Atallah, S., and Allan, D. S. (1971). "Safe separation distances from liquid fuel fires." Fire
Technology, 7(1).
3. Baker, W. E., Cox, P. A., Westine, P. S., Kulesz, J. J., and Strehlow, R. A. (1982). "Explosion
hazards and evaluation."
4. Beyler, C. L. (2004b). "Industrial fire protection engineering." Fire Technology.
5. Board, B. M. I. I. (2010). "Buncefield investigation".
http://www.buncefieldinvestigation.gov.uk/index.htm.
6. Chang, J. I., and Lin, C. C. (2006). "A study of storage tank accidents". Journal of Loss
Prevention in the Process Industries, 19(1): 51-59.