L5 Metal Casting2012

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices
Clay Moulding
Metal Casting
Sunil Jha
Room No. 351, Block III
suniljha@mech.iitd.ac.in
Ph. 1125
web.iitd.ac.in/~suniljha
Steps in Casting
Pattern and Mould

Melting and Pouring
Solidification and Cooling
Removal, Cleaning, Finishing and Inspection
Casting Process Flow
Casting Process Overview
Sand Mould
Ladle
Molten Metal
Casting
Parting Line
Pattern and Mould
A pattern is
a replica of the final product and is used for preparing mould
cavity
made of wood or metal
Cope Pattern
Pattern
Drag Pattern
Pattern and Mould
Mould cavity
which contains molten metal is essentially a negative of the final product
Mould material
should posses refractory characteristics and withstand the pouring

temperature
When the mold is used for single casting, it made of sand and
known as expendable mold
When the mold is used repeatedly for number of castings and is

made of metal or graphite are called permanent mould
For making holes or hollow cavities inside a casting, cores made of

sand are used.
Pattern and Mould
10
Pattern and Mould
11
Melting and Pouring
12
Melting and Pouring
13
Melting and Pouring
Several types of furnaces are available for melting

metals
Furnace selection depends on
the type of metal,

the maximum temperature required and
the rate and the mode of molten metal delivery.
Before pouring, provisions are made for the escape

of dissolved gases.
The gating system should be designed to minimize
the turbulent flow and erosion of mould cavity.
The other important factors are the pouring
temperature and the pouring rate.
14
Solidification & Cooling
The properties of the casting significantly depends

on the solidification time cooing rate.
Shrinkage of casting, during cooling of solidified
metal should not be restrained by the mould
material, otherwise internal stresses may develop
and form cracks in casting.
Proper care should be taken at the design stage of
casting so that shrinkage can occur without casting
defects.
15
Removal, Cleaning, Finishing and

Inspection
After the casting is removed from the mould
it is thoroughly cleaned and

the excess material usually along the parting line
and the place where the molten metal was
poured, is removed using a potable grinder.
White light inspection, pressure test,

magnetic particle inspection, radiographic
test, ultrasonic inspection etc. are used
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Removal, Cleaning, Finishing
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Pattern & Mould

Open and Closed Mould
18
Sand Casting
Expendable Mould
Permanent Pattern
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Sand Casting
20
Chaplets: To avoid Core Shifting
21
Patterns
Choice of pattern depends on:
Pattern
Configuration of casting
Number of casting required
Pattern Types
Single-piece pattern
Split pattern
Follow board pattern
Cope and drag pattern
Match plate pattern
Loose-piece pattern
Sweep pattern
Skeleton pattern
Cope Pattern
Drag Pattern
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Patterns
a) Split pattern,
b) Follow-board,
c) Match Plate,
d) Loose-piece,
e) Sweep,
f) Skeleton pattern
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Pattern Geometry
a) Solid Pattern
b) Split Pattern
c) Match-Plate Pattern
b) Cope and Drag Pattern
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Solid Pattern (Single Piece)

Pattern
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Split Pattern
Cope Pattern
Drag Pattern
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Match Plate Pattern
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Cope and Drag Pattern
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Pattern Allowances
Pattern always made larger than final job

Excess dimensions Pattern Allowance
Shrinkage allowance
Contraction of casting
Liquid Pouring Temp to Freezing Temp

Change of phase Liquid to Solid
Solid casting Freezing Temp to Room temp
Draft allowance
To withdraw pattern from mould
Machining allowance
For final shape
29
Mould Material
Major part of Moulding material in sand casting are
1.
2.
3.
70-85% silica sand (SiO2)

10-12% bonding material e.g., clay etc.
3-6% water
Requirements of molding sand are:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Refractoriness ability to remain solid at high temp

Cohesiveness bonding
Permeability gas flow through mould
Collapsibility ability to permit metal to shrink after solidification
The performance of mould depends on following factors:

(a)
(b)
(c)
Permeability
Green strength
Dry strength
30
Desirable properties of a Sand

based Molding material
Inexpensive in bulk qty

Retain properties through transportation and storage
Uniformly fills a flask or container
Compacted or set by simple methods
Sufficient elasticity to remain undamaged during
pattern withdrawal
Withstand high temperatures and maintain its
dimensions until metal solidifies
Sufficient permeable to allow the escape of gases
31
Desirable properties of a Sand

based Molding material
Sufficiently dense to prevent metal penetration

Sufficiently cohesive to prevent washout of mold
material into the pour stream
Chemically inert to metal being cast
Good collapsibility to permit easy removal and
separation of casting
Can be recycled
32
Effect of moisture, grain size and

shape on mould quality
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Melting and Pouring
The quality of casting depends on the method of melting.

Molten metal is prevented from oxidation by covering the molten
metal with fluxes
The two main consideration during pouring are the temperature
and pouring rate
Fluidity: Capability of molten metal to fill mold cavities

Characteristics of molten metal
Casting parameters
Fluidity of molten metal is more at higher temperature but it

results into more amount of dissolved gases and high
temperature also damage the mould walls and results into poor
surface quality of the casting
34
Fluidity
Characteristics of molten metal
Viscosity
Surface tension
Inclusions
Solidification pattern of the alloy
Casting Parameters
Mold design
Mold material and surface characteristics
Degree of superheat
Rate of pouring
Heat transfer
35
Gating system
Minimize turbulent flow to reduce
1.
2.
3.
4.
absorption of gases,
oxidation of metal and
erosion of mould surfaces
Regulate the entry of molten metal into the mould

cavity
Ensure complete filling of mould cavity, and
Promote a temperature gradient within the casting
so that all sections irrespective of size and shape
could solidify properly
36
Gating system
A: pouring basin
B: Weir
C: Sprue
D: Sprue well
E: Runner
F: Ingates
G: Runner break up
H: Blind
J: Riser
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Cooling and Solidification
Pure metal
38
Mechanism of Solidification
Pure metals solidifies at a constant temp. equal to its

freezing point, which same as its melting point.
The change form liquid to solid does not occur all at
once. The process of solidification starts with nucleation,
the formation of stable solid particles within the liquid
metal.
Nuclei of solid phase, generally a few hundred atom in
size, start appearing at a temperature below the freezing
temperature.
A nuclei, more than a certain critical size grows, and
causes solidification.
39
Mechanism of Solidification
By adding, certain foreign materials (nucleating agents)

the undercooling temp. is reduced which causes
enhanced nucleation.
In case of pure metals fine equi-axed grains are formed
near the wall of the mold and columnar grain growth
takes place upto the centre of the ingot.
In typical alloy, the columnar grains do not extend upto
the center of casting but are interrupted by an inner zone
of equiaxed graines.
By adding typical nucleating agents like sodium,
magnesium or bismuth the inner zone of equiaxed
grained can be extended in whole casting.
40
Crystal structure in Castings
41
Dendrite formation
In alloys, such as Fe-C, freezing and solidification occurs over a

wide range of temp. There is no fine line of demarcation exists
between the solid and liquid metal.
Here, start of freezing implies that grain formation while
progressing towards the center does not solidify the metal
completely but leaves behind the islands of liquid metals in
between grains which freeze later and there is multidirectional
tree like growth.
42
Riser
Risers are added reservoirs designed to feed

liquid metal to the solidifying casting as a means
for compensating for solidification shrinkage.
Riser must solidify after casting.
Riser should be located so that directional
solidification occurs from the extremities of mold
cavity back toward the riser.
Thickest part of casting last to freeze, Riser
should feed directly to these regions.
43
Why Risers?
The shrinkage occurs in three stages,

1.
2.
3.
When temperature of liquid metal drops from Pouring

to Freezing temperature
When the metal changes from liquid to solid state, and
When the temperature of solid phase drops from
freezing to room temperature
The shrinkage for stage 3 is compensated by

providing shrinkage allowance on pattern, while the
shrinkage during stages 1 and 2 are compensated
by providing risers.
44
Riser Location & Types

Top riser
Riser located on
the casting
Side Riser
Riser located
next to the casting
Blind risers
Open Riser
45
Cleaning and Finishing

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Casting is taken out of the mould by Shaking and the

Moulding sand is recycled often with suitable additions.
The remaining sand, some of which may be embedded
in the casting, is removed by means of Shot blasting.
The excess material in the form of sprue, runners,
gates etc., along with the flashes formed due to flow of
molten metal into the gaps is broken manually in case
of brittle casting or removed by sawing and grinding in
case of ductile material.
The entire casting is then cleaned by either shot
blasting or chemical pickling.
Sometimes castings are heat treated to achieve better
mechanical properties.
46
Casting Defects
Defects may occur due to one or more of the

following reasons:
Fault in design of casting pattern

Fault in design on mold and core
Fault in design of gating system and riser
Improper choice of molding sand
Improper metal composition
Inadequate melting temperature and rate of
pouring
47
48
49
50
Classification of Casting
Defects
Surface Defects
Internal Defects
Blow, Scar, Blister, Drop, Scab, Penetration,

Buckle
Blow holes, Porosity, Pin holes, Inclusions, Dross
Visible Defects
Wash, Rat tail, Swell, Mis run, Cold shut, Hot tear,
Shrinkage/Shift
51
Surface Defects
Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases which
displace molten metal from convex surface.
Scar is shallow blow generally occurring on a flat
surface.
A scar covered with a thin layer of metal is called blister.

These are due to improper permeability or venting.
Sometimes excessive gas forming constituents in
moulding sand.
Drop is an irregularly-shaped projection on the cope
surface caused by dropping of sand.
52
Surface Defects
A scab when an up heaved sand gets separated

from the mould surface and the molten metal
flows between the displaced sand and the mold.
Penetration occurs when the molten metal flows

between the sand particles in the mould. These
defects are due to inadequate strength of the
mold and high temperature of the molten metal
adds on it.
Buckle is a v-shaped depression on the surface

of a flat casting caused by expansion of a thin
layer of sand at the mould face.
53
Internal Defects
The internal defects found in the castings are

mainly due to trapped gases and dirty metal.
Gases get trapped due to hard ramming or

improper venting.
These defects also occur when excessive

moisture or excessive gas forming materials are
used for mould making.
54
Internal Defects
Blow holes are large spherical shaped gas

bubbles
Porosity indicates a large number of uniformly

distributed tiny holes.
Pin holes are tiny blow holes appearing just

below the casting surface.
Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the

metal matrix,
Lighter impurities appearing the casting surface
are dross.
55
Visible Defects
Insufficient mould strength, insufficient metal, low

pouring temperature, and bad design of casting
are some of the common causes.
Wash is a low projection near the gate caused by

erosion of sand by the flowing metal.
Rat tail is a long, shallow, angular depression

caused by expansion of the sand.
Swell is the deformation of vertical mould surface

due to hydrostatic pressure caused by moisture in
the sand.
56
Visible Defects
Misrun and cold shut are caused by insufficient

superheat provided to the liquid metal.
Hot tear is the crack in the casting caused by

high residual stresses.
Shrinkage is essentially solidification

contraction and occurs due to improper use of
Riser.
Shift is due to misalignment of two parts of the

mould or incorrect core location.
57
Shell Molding
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
A match plate or cope-drag metal pattern is heated and

placed over a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting
resin.
Box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on
the surface to form a hard shell.
Box is repositioned so that loose, uncured particles drop
away.
Sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes for
complete curing.
Shell mold is stripped from the pattern
Two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by
sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished.
The finished casting with sprue is removed.
58
Shell Molding
59
Shell Molding
60
Shell Molding
Advantages & Limitations
Shell thickness typically 9 mm is used

Surface of shell mold cavity is smoother than sand mold.
Easy flow of molten metal, good surface quality
Finish is of the order of 2.5 micrometer.
Good dimensional accuracy
Can be mechanized for mass production and is very
economical
Gears, valve bodies, bushings, and cam shafts are typical
products
Expensive metal pattern as compared to sand casting
Difficult to justify for small quantities manufacturing
Possible on small to medium size parts
Suitable for steel castings less than 10 kg.
61
Investment Casting
62
Investment Casting
Process Steps
Pattern creation
The wax patterns are typically injection

molded into a metal die and are formed
as one piece.
Several of these patterns are attached
to a central wax gating system (sprue,
runners, and risers), to form a tree-like
assembly.
The gating system forms the channels
through which the molten metal will
flow to the mold cavity.
63
Investment Casting
Process Steps
Mold creation
This "pattern tree" is dipped into a

slurry of fine ceramic particles, coated
with more coarse particles, and then
dried to form a ceramic shell around
the patterns and gating system.
This process is repeated until the shell
is thick enough to withstand the molten
metal it will encounter.
The shell is then placed into an oven
and the wax is melted out leaving a
hollow ceramic shell that acts as a
one-piece mold, hence the name "lost
wax" casting.
64
Investment Casting
Process Steps
Pouring
The mold is preheated in a furnace

to approximately 1000C (1832F)
and the molten metal is poured
from a ladle into the gating system
of the mold, filling the mold cavity.
Pouring is typically achieved
manually under the force of gravity,
but other methods such as vacuum
or pressure are sometimes used.
65
Investment Casting
Process Steps
Cooling
After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is

allowed to cool and solidify into the shape of the
final casting.
Cooling time depends on the thickness of the part,
thickness of the mold, and the material used.
Casting removal
After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can be

broken and the casting removed.
The ceramic mold is typically broken using water
jets, but several other methods exist.
Once removed, the parts are separated from the
gating system by either sawing or cold breaking
MEL120: Manufacturing
Practices
66
(using liquid
nitrogen).
Investment Casting
Process Steps
Finishing
Often times, finishing operations such as grinding or sandblasting

are used to smooth the part at the gates.
Heat treatment is also sometimes used to harden the final part.
67
Investment Casting
Advantages & Limitations
Parts of greater complexity and intricacy can be cast

Close dimensional control 0.075mm
Good surface finish
The lost wax can be reused
Additional machining is not required in normal course
Al, Cu, Ni, Carbon and alloy steels, tool steels etc. are the
common materials
Preferred for casting weight less than 5 kg, maximum
dimension less than 300 mm, Thickness is usually
restricted to 15mm
68
Die Casting
In Die casting the molten metal is forced to flow

into a permanent metallic mold under moderate to
high pressures, and held under pressure during
solidification
This high pressure forces the metal into intricate
details, produces smooth surface and excellent
dimensional accuracy
High pressure causes turbulence and air
entrapment. In order to minimize this larger in-gates
are used and in the beginning, pressure is kept low
and is increased gradually
69
Die Casting
70
Die Casting
71
Die Casting Machine
72
Hot Chamber Casting
73
Hot Chamber Casting
74
Cold Chamber Casting
75
Cold Chamber Casting
76
Centrifugal Casting
A permanent mold made of metal or ceramic is rotated at high speed

(300 to 3000 rpm).
The molten metal is then poured into the mold cavity and due to
centrifugal action the molten metal conform to the cavity provided in
the mould.
77
Centrifugal Casting
Castings are known for their higher densities in the outer most
regions.
The process gives good surface finish
Applications: pipes, bushings, gears, flywheels etc.
78
Comparison of Casting Processes
79
Comparison of Casting Processes
80

L5 Metal Casting2012

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MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Pattern and Mould

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Casting Process Flow

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Casting Process Overview

Pattern and Mould

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Pattern and Mould

which contains molten metal is essentially a negative of the final product

should posses refractory characteristics and withstand the pouring

When the mold is used repeatedly for number of castings and is

For making holes or hollow cavities inside a casting, cores made of

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Pattern and Mould

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Pattern and Mould

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Melting and Pouring

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Melting and Pouring

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Melting and Pouring

Several types of furnaces are available for melting

the type of metal,

Before pouring, provisions are made for the escape

Solidification & Cooling

The properties of the casting significantly depends

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Removal, Cleaning, Finishing and

After the casting is removed from the mould

it is thoroughly cleaned and

White light inspection, pressure test,

Removal, Cleaning, Finishing

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Pattern & Mould

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Chaplets: To avoid Core Shifting

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Choice of pattern depends on:

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

b) Cope and Drag Pattern

Solid Pattern (Single Piece)

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Match Plate Pattern

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Cope and Drag Pattern

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Pattern always made larger than final job

Liquid Pouring Temp to Freezing Temp

70-85% silica sand (SiO2)

Requirements of molding sand are:

Refractoriness ability to remain solid at high temp

The performance of mould depends on following factors:

Desirable properties of a Sand

Inexpensive in bulk qty

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Desirable properties of a Sand

Sufficiently dense to prevent metal penetration