Earthing PDF

EARTHING
Prepared By : Dr. Alaa Baiumy Abd Elazim

Fellowship Of the American Society of Engineers ( ASE)
INTRODUCTION
Earthing is one of the most important design aspects of an
electric power system. Proper earthing contributes to the safety of
equipment and personnel as to proper operation of control and other
sensitive circuits. The primary reasons for earthing equipment and
neutral points of a power system are:
- To limit fundamental-frequency electric potential between all
uninsulated conducting objects in a local area.
- To limit touch and step potentials.
- To limit overvoltage on equipment and circuits for various
operation conditions.
- To limit system unbalances.
- To provide for relaying and subsequent isolation of faulted
equipment and circuits when phase to ground faults occur.
- To provide four-wire, three-phase power supply (low-voltage).
Any potential difference, if sufficiently high, between uninsulated
equipment or equipment and ground may damage equipment.
Similarly, such potential difference may set up a shock hazard to
personnel. Next to safety, isolating the faulted equipment or circuits
EARTHING Prepared by : Dr. Alaa Baiumy Abd Alazim
as soon as possible is important so that any damage to the faulted

and other nearby equipment is avoided or minimized. The earthing
of neutral points limits the magnitude of an overvoltage as well as its
propagation into other phases and parts of the equipment by holding
the neutral potential close to ground potential.
The earthing practices may be conceptually divided into three
different classifications:
System, equipment, and static and lightning earthing. System
earthing deals with earthing of the neutral of the power supply
equipment. For all practical and safety purposes, the neutral is
considered as a live conductor and has insulation strength
requirements. Equipment earthing deals with earthing of the
uninsulated metallic or non-conducting parts of the equipment.
Static earthing deals with safely discharging the built-up charge on
the equipment or some other object touching the equipment. A
person touching the keyboard of a computer and resetting the
computer is a familiar example of the effect of static discharge.
The lightning earthing serves a similar purpose, except the impulse
is caused by lightning and the discharge current and energy involved
are much larger.
Another important conceptual distinction should be understood
before dealing with the details of earthing. It is not uncommon
among power engineers to interchangeably use the terms earth,
ground, and neutral. Using these terms interchangeably may not
create a serious problem when the actual scenario being discussed is
well understood by all the parties involved. However, the three
terms are distinct and describe different aspects of earthing.
Depending upon the type, composition, and moisture content of the
earth, the resistance may vary from a few tenths to thousands of
ohms. A ground is basically a zero potential electrical network or

connection. By definition, the voltage difference between different
points of a ground is within safe limits. A ground is usually
connected to earth and/or neutral wire at one or more points.
Whenever large currents (such as line-to-ground fault currents or
lightning surges) pass through earthing points to earth, a high
voltage (due to finite resistance and inductance of earthing and
earth) may exist until the current ceases to flow. This is called the
ground potential rise (GPR). If the GPR is high, this may cause other
problems. Proper design of earthing should limit this GPR.
Why Earthing?
- Earthing protects human from danger of electrification caused by
any defect at consumers premises or at supply authority
premises.
- It protects the tall structures like towers against lightning
- Earthing increases the reliability of supply services, provides
stability of voltage condition and it is necessary for proper
functioning of certain equipment like 3-phase star wound
generator.
What is the Difference Between Earthing

and Grounding?
Earthing: is the process of making a connection to a general mass
of earth.
Grounding: is the process of making a connection to a least
potential point of the system.
The Advantages of Earthing

The practice of earthing is widespread, but not all countries in
the world use it.
There is certainly a high cost involved, so there must be some
advantages. In fact there are two. They are:
1. The whole electrical system is tied to the potential of the general
mass of earth and cannot 'float' at another potential. For example, we
can be fairly certain that the neutral of our supply is at, or near, zero
volts (earth potential) and that the phase conductors of our standard
supply differ from earth by 240 volts.
2. By connecting earth to metalwork not intended to carry current
(an extraneous conductive part or a an exposed conductive part) by
using a protective conductor, a path is provided for fault current
which can be detected and, if necessary, broken. The path for this
fault current is shown in (Figure 1).
Figure 1 Path for earth fault current (shown by arrows)
The Disadvantages of Earthing

The two important disadvantages are:
1. Cost: the provision of a complete system of protective
conductors, earth electrodes, etc. is very expensive.
2. Possible safety hazard: It has been argued that complete
isolation from earth will prevent shock due to indirect contact
because there is no path for the shock current to return to the circuit
if the supply earth connection is not made (Figure 2 a). This
approach, however, ignores the presence of earth leakage resistance
(due to imperfect insulation) and phase-to-earth capacitance (the
insulation behaves as a dielectric). In many situations the combined
impedance due to insulation resistance and earth capacitive
reactance is low enough to allow a significant shock current (Figure
2 b).
Figure 2 Danger in an unearthed system

a) apparent safety: no obvious path for shock current
b) actual danger: shock current via stray resistance and
capacitance
Ungrounded Systems
Historically, ungrounded systems were used initially because
the first line-to-ground fault would not cause interruption of power.
It did change the voltage to ground of the other two phases to full
line-to-line voltage to ground. Figure 2a shows the phasor
relationships to ground on an ungrounded system. When a second
line-to-ground fault occurs on another feeder, it causes a phase-tophase fault that interrupts two circuits instead of one.
It was discovered that there were multiple motor failures on this type
of system. When the system was analyzed, it was determined that
the distributed capacitance in parallel with a fault in an inductive
device or an arcing fault could be a resonant circuit where the
voltage could be several times normal (five or more times rated
system voltage). These transient overvoltages occurred on lowvoltage systems and caused multiple motor failures. To eliminate
this problem, grounding systems were developed and promoted.
Many ungrounded systems were the result of delta-connected lowvoltage windings. The transient overvoltages problem was
eliminated by grounding one phase of the delta winding. This
eliminated the high transient overvoltages, but still impressed full
line-to-line voltage on the other two phases.
A simple ground-fault detection system for ungrounded systems
consists of three lamps connected phase-to-ground. When all three
lamps have the same brightness, there are no grounds (faults)
present on the system. When one lamp goes out and the other two
are bright, that phase which has the lamp out has a ground fault.
These lamps are a resistance that is in parallel with the distributed
capacitance so it tends to damp some of the transient over voltages.
The lamps indicate which phase is grounded but do not indicate

where on the system the ground has occurred.
The operation of ungrounded systems requires that, at the indication
of the first ground (fault), maintenance should locate the fault and
correct it. This is one of the major disadvantages to ungrounded
systems: finding the fault.
What is Earthing ?
- Earthing is a connection to the general mass of earth by means of
earth electrode, and this connection is achieved by embedding an
earth electrode in earth.
- The effectiveness of the earthing connection is qualified as Earth
Resistance which measured in ohms.
- There are some factors which affect the earthing resistance:
1- the earthing electrode
2- the composition of the soil
3- the temperature of the soil
4- the moisture content of the soil
5- methods of placing earth electrodes in soil
- all these factors effect to reduce the total earth resistance
Earthing Conductors
To limit the potential rise on all metalwork to which persons
and animals normally have access, to a safe value under normal and
abnormal circuit conditions. The bonding together of all normally
exposed metalwork, such as gas, water, central-heating pipe work
etc., and the connection of that bond to the earth terminal, will
prevent the possibility of a dangerous potential difference arising
between adjoining pipe work under both normal and abnormal

conditions.
There are two main types of earth conductor, which are "bonding"
(also referred to as protective) conductors and earth electrodes.
Protective Conductor Types

The circuit protective conductor is a system of conductors
joining together all exposed conductive parts and connecting them to
the main earthing terminal. Strictly speaking, the term includes the
earthing conductor as well as the equipotential bonding conductors.
The circuit protective conductor can take many forms, such as:
1. A separate conductor which must be green/yellow insulated if
equal to or less than 10 mm2 cross-sectional area.
2. A conductor included in a sheathed cable with other conductors.
3. The metal sheath and/or armoring of a cable.
4. Conducting cable enclosures such as conduit or trunking.
5. Exposed conductive parts, such as the conducting cases of
equipment.
This list is by no means exhaustive and there may be many other
items forming parts of the circuit protective conductor as indicated
in Figure 3. Note that gas or oil pipes must not be used for the
purpose, because of the possible future change to plastic (nonconducting) pipes.
Figure 3 Some types of circuit protective conductor
Earth Electrodes
The earth electrode is the component of the earthing system
which is in direct contact with the ground and thus provides a means
of releasing or collecting any earth leakage currents. In earthed
systems it will normally be required to carry quite a large fault
current for a short period of time and so will need to have a crosssectional area large enough to be able to carry this safely. Electrodes
must have adequate mechanical and electrical properties to continue
to meet the demands on them over a relatively long period of time,
during which actual testing or inspection is difficult. The material
should have good electrical conductivity and should not corrode in a
wide range of soil conditions. Materials used include copper,
galvanized steel, stainless steel and cast iron. Copper is generally the
preferred material for reasons described later. Aluminum is
sometimes used for above ground "bonding", but most of the

standards forbid its use as an earth electrode due to the risk of
accelerated corrosion. The corrosive product - an oxide layer - is
non-conductive, so could reduce the effectiveness of the earthing.
Earth Electrode Shapes

Earth electrodes can be following shapes
a) Driven Rods or pipes
b) Horizontal Wires
c) Four Pointed Stars
d) Conductive Plates
i) Round Vertical Plates
ii) Square Vertical Plates
e) Buried Radial Wires
f) Spheres made of metal
Feature of Other Shapes

- the electrode should made of metal, which has a high conductivity
normally Copper is used
- the size of the electrode should be such that it is able to conduct the
expected value of stray current for expected duration of stray
current.
- the resistance of electrode should not increase with time, it should
have high resistance to soil and atmospheric corrosion.
Types of Earth Electrodes

Earth electrodes must ideally penetrate into the moisture level
below the ground level. They must also consist of a metal (or
combination of metals) which do not corrode excessively for the

period of time they are expected to serve. Because of its high
conductivity and resistance to corrosion, copper is the most
commonly used material for earth electrodes. Other popular
materials are hot-galvanized steel, stainless steel and lead.
Earth electrodes may be rods, plates, strips, solid section wire or
mats.
Three types of copper rods are commonly available.
Solid Copper
Copper clad steel rod ( copper shrunk onto the core)
Copper bonded steel core (copper is molecularly bonded to nickel
plated steel rod)
Solid copper rods not prone to corrosion, but are expensive and
difficult to drive into hard ground without bending. A steel cored
copper rod is used for this reason, however those rods that are
simply clad are prone to the cladding tearing away from the core
when driven in rocky ground, or when bent. This exposes the
internal steel core to corrosion. The most cost effective solution is
the molecularly bonded steel cored copper rod.
The electrode can take a number of forms, the most common of
which are described below.
Driven Rods
These are the most common form of electrodes (Figure 4),
because they are relatively cheap to install and can be used to reach
into deeper, low resistivity soil with only limited excavation and
backfilling. They are available in a range of lengths, diameters and
materials.
Figure 4 Driven rod

The rod is either of pure copper or copper plated steel. The plated
type is normally used when mechanical driving is necessary, since
the steel used has high tensile strength. The copper plating should be
of high purity copper and electrolytically applied. The latter helps
ensure that the copper plating does not slip off during driving! Solid
copper rods are used in more aggressive soil.
Conditions, for example when there is a high salt content. Stainless
steel rods are more anodic than copper and can be used where
galvanic corrosion is possible. However, stainless steel has poor
current carrying capabilities in comparison to copper and this must

be taken into account.
There are threaded portions at each end of the rod which allow a
pointed spike, a hardened (high strength steel) driving head or
additional rods to be screwed on. Rolled threads are stronger than
cut threads and it is important for plated rods that the plating is
intact across the threaded section. Some manufacturers also have a
cross head drilling spike which is particularly useful if the rod
couplings have a greater diameter than the rod. It is claimed that this
type of head permits driving to greater depth. Rods are readily
available in diameters of 15 mm to 20 mm diameter (solid copper)
and 9.5 mm to 20 mm diameter (Copper Bond). Lengths are 1.2 to 3
meters for individual rods.
Shielded sections of rod are also available for use when, for
example, there is a highly corrosive layer of soil through which a
deep driven rod must pass. The shielding would be of, say, PVC to
prevent contact between the rod and the corrosive soil. Of course
this section will not contribute towards reducing the impedance
value, because it is not in contact with the soil.
Plates
There are several types of plate used for earthing purposes,
but the only type which is generally considered as an electrode
would be solid and of substantial size. Lattice type plates, as
illustrated in Figure 5 are used for potential grading and would not
be expected to pass significant amounts of fault current. They are
normally made of copper or steel mesh (Figure 5).
Figure 5 Earth Plates

Plate electrodes are of copper or ribbed cast iron. The cast iron
plates normally are a minimum of 12 mm thick and either 915 mm
or 1,220 mm square. Copper plates are typically 600 mm to 900 mm
square and between 1.6 mm and 3 mm thick.
Where multiple plates are used, they must be some distance apart to
prevent any interaction. Normally this is a minimum of 2 m,
possibly extending to 9 m.
Horizontal Electrodes
These are made from high conductivity copper strip or
stranded conductor. Strip is normally the preferred material as it has
a larger surface for a given cross section area and is considered to
have a superior performance at higher frequencies, due to a slightly
higher capacitance when installed in the soil. It can be more difficult
to connect (for example to vertical earth rods), so may involve a
slightly higher installation cost.
To reduce overall costs, strip is often used for the electrodes which
will be required to carry most current (i.e. the perimeter electrode
and main plant connections) whilst smaller, stranded conductor

would be used elsewhere Strip which is installed underground is
normally fully annealed (ref. BS 1432, Specifications for copper for
electrical purposes: high conductivity copper rectangular conductors
with drawn or rolled edges - C101) so that it can be bent easily.
For above ground purposes PVC sheathed strip, solid or stranded
conductors are available. Tinned or lead covered copper tape is also
available for special applications.
Performance of Earth Electrodes

The earthing system designer is normally faced with two
tasks:1. Achieve a required impedance value, and
2. Ensure that touch and step potentials are satisfactory.
In the majority of cases there will be a need to reduce these values.
Initially the designer should concentrate on achieving a certain
impedance value. This value may have been decided from
considerations of protection. The factors which influence the
impedance are:- The physical dimensions and attributes of the earth electrode
system.
- Soil conditions (composition, water content etc.).
The earthing system consists of conductive material above ground
(bonding conductors etc.), metal electrodes within the soil and the
surrounding soil itself. Each of these will contribute towards the
overall impedance value. The earthing system components will be
covered first and soil discussed at the end of the chapter. However, it
is important to recognize that the characteristics of the soil strongly

influence the earthing system performance. The most important
characteristic of the soil is its resistivity, which is measured in Ohmmeters.
The system of metal electrodes will present an impedance to current
flow consisting of three main parts. These are;
- the resistance of the electrode material
- the contact resistance between the electrode
- the surrounding soil and finally a resistance dependent on the
characteristics of the surrounding soil.
Effect of Electrode Shape, Size and Position

A dominant part of the impedance is that due to the physical
orientation of the earth electrodes. The graphs in Figure 6-1 to
Figure 6-6 illustrate the effect that changes in these dimensions can
have on the impedance and enable the designer to assess the relative
merit of each option. These are further discussed below:
Increasing the Buried Depth of a Vertical Rod in Uniform Soil.
Figure 6-1 shows the benefit that can be achieved in soils of

different resistivity by increasing the buried length of the rod. It also
shows that the improvement per unit length decreases as the rod
length increases. However the graph illustrating the performance in
uniform soil does not tell the complete story. The decrease in
resistance obtained via a long rod may be particularly desirable in
non uniform soil conditions. Figure 6-2 demonstrates the
improvement in electrode resistance possible when increasing the

length of a rod in a soil which consists of three layers. The top two
layers are of relatively high resistivity down to a depth of six metres.
The resistance of the rod is high until it extends beyond these layers,
due to the high resistivity of the soil surrounding it.
Figure 6-1 Resistance v Rod Length
As the rod length increases the overall resistance falls progressively

more quickly. This is due to deeper soil with better electrical
properties being reached. In this case there is a clear improvement in
performance with each additional meter of rod installed, far greater
at this depth than for the rod in uniform soil. Once the rod reaches
about 15 meters length, there is little difference in the resistance of a
rod in this soil structure compared to one in uniform soil of 50 Ohmmeters resistivity. However, the per unit improvement with each
additional meter installed starts to reduce rapidly as in the case of

uniform soil.
In soil conditions as illustrated in Figure 6-2, it is important that the
top section of the rod has a low longitudinal resistance as this
section provides the connection to the beneficial electrode beneath.
This could be achieved by using either a solid copper top section or
a plated section with an increased cross section.
Figure 6-2 Resistance v Rod Length in Multilayer Soil

In some soil conditions, particularly where there is a limited area
available, use of vertical rods may prove to be the most effective
option, but it does depend on the soil structure.
Finally, it is important to note that vertical rods give a degree of
stability to the impedance of an earthing system. Normally they
should be of sufficient length that they are in or near the water table
(if it exists at reasonable depth at the location) and below the
freezing line. This means that the impedance should be less

influenced by seasonal variations in water content or temperature.
Increasing the Length of a Horizontal Conductor.

different resistivity by increasing the length of a horizontally laid
earth electrode.
Figure 6-3 Resistance v Horizontal Conductor Length

It should be noted that the calculations in this example do not take
account of the linear impedance of the conductor, so the values are
optimistic for long lengths. Again, the improvement per unit length
decreases as the electrode length increases. Horizontally laid strip is
generally considered to be a good option, particularly when it is
possible to route this in several different directions. This further
increases the reduction possible, although not by 50%. For high

frequency applications, increasing the number of available routes in
this way does significantly reduce the surge impedance.
Increasing the Side Length of a Square Earth Grid/Plate.

different resistivity by increasing the area encompassed by the earth
electrode. Whilst it shows that the improvement per unit area
decreases, the reduction in resistance is still significant. In fact this
is, more often than not, the most effective way of reducing the
resistance of the earthing electrode.
Figure 6-4 Resistance v Square Loop Side Length
Increasing the Radius of an Earth Rod.

different resistivity by increasing the radius of the rod. There is a
rapid reduction in the benefit per unit increase in diameter once this
exceeds 0.05 meters, except in soil of high resistivity where the
same effect is noticed at about 0.2 meters diameter. Normally there
is little to be gained by extending the radius of earth electrodes
beyond that necessary to deal with the mechanical and corrosion
requirements. Tubes can be used instead of solid conductors to
increase the external surface area, whilst moderating the increase in
volume of the metal used. However, the increased installation cost
may outweigh the value of the performance increase. In rocky
conditions it may be advantageous to increase the effective diameter
of the electrode by surrounding it with material which has a lower
resistivity than the surrounding rock.
Figure 6-5 Resistance v Rod Radius

Buried Depth
This only provides a marginal reduction in impedance, but at
a relatively high cost, so is not normally considered. It should
however be remembered that the greater the burial depth, the smaller
the voltage gradients on the surface of the soil. Within a substation a
high voltage is required above the electrode, to minimize touch
voltages. However, if an earth electrode extends into a field, then a
low surface voltage is required to reduce step potentials. In some
cases it is advantageous to increase the depth of electrodes to reduce
the risk of electrocution to horses, cattle and other animals. They are
more susceptible to step voltages than humans because of the
distance between their front and rear legs. For rods, this can be
achieved by installing a plastic pipe around the top metre or two of
each rod.
Proximity Effect.
If two earth electrodes are installed close together, then their
zones of influence will overlap and the full benefit possible will not
be achieved. In fact, if two rods or horizontal electrodes are close
together, the combined earth impedance of the two can be virtually
the same as for one, meaning the second is redundant. Spacing,
position and soil characteristics are the dominant factors in this.
Figure 6-6 shows how the overall resistance of two five metre
vertical rods changes as the distance between them is increased.
From this it can be seen that the rods should be more than 4m apart
in uniform soil. Calculations of this type are the basis for the
established practice of installing electrodes at least the same distance
apart as their length.
Figure 6-6 Combined Resistance of Two Vertical Rods

as Separation Between them is Increased
Practical Notes on Earthing by Driving Rods

From the point of view the most suitable form of electrode is
the driven rod. Practically no excavation is required.
The practical advantages of the driven rods over other forms may be
summarized as follows:
1- The low cost of driven rods when compared with other electrodes.
2- Where the permanent moisture level is at a remote considerable
depth, rods can be driven to such a depth and the result will be a
reduction in resistance.
3- At the seaside the driven rods are not affected much by variation
of the upper surfaces of the sea sand due to the weather conditions in
summer and winter.
4- The connection between the earth rod and the conductor to which
it is coupled can be quite simple and can be placed above the
ground.
5- If artificial treatment with a salt solution is considered necessary,

the process is simpler with earth rods than with any other
electrodes.
6- Quite a number of electrodes can be driven for the same cost of a
single earth plate, giving a much lower earth resistance.
7- The longer length of driven rod has the advantage of reaching the
soil of lower resistivity and thus gaining a great decrease in
resistance than that due to the increase length alone.
Rod Electrodes in Parallel

If the desired earth resistance cannot be achieved with one
earth electrode, the overall resistance can be reduced by connecting
a number of electrodes in parallel. These are also sometimes called
arrays of rod electrodes.
The combined resistance of parallel electrodes is a complex function
of several factors, such as the number and configuration of
electrodes, the separation between them, their dimensions and soil
resistivity. This does not take into account the effect of the
horizontal conductors connecting the rods in the array. The rule of
thumb is that rods in parallel should be spaced at least twice their
length to utilize the full benefit of the additional rods.
If the separation of the electrodes is much larger than their lengths
and only a few electrodes are in parallel, then the resultant earth
resistance can be calculated using the ordinary equation for
resistances in parallel. In practice, the effective earth resistance will
usually be higher than this. Typically, a 4 spike array may provide
an improvement of about 2.5 to 3 times. An 8 spike array will
typically give an improvement of maybe 5 to 6 times.
Multiple Rod Installation

From a theoretical viewpoint the most economical installation
consists of a single rod electrode to whatever depth is required for
the resistance desired. Wherever site conditions, are unsuitable for
deep driving, multiple rods must be used. The most satisfactory
method of approach to this problem is to drive an initial test rod on
the site and having obtained its resistance to earth. Determine the
number of electrodes required for a given resistance. Since 90 % of
the resistance to earth is situated within an area the radius of which
is roughly equal to the length of the rod, the electrodes should be
spaced far enough away from each other so as not to overlap the
resistance areas of their neighbors.
With spacing equal to approximately twice the length of each
electrode, each additional rod introduces a new area of unused soil
and the resistance is reduced by an amount which is almost inversely
proportional to the number of rods installed. In this way, with two
electrodes the combined resistance is roughly 50 % of the resistance
of one rod alone. With three electrodes the combined resistance is
33.33 %.
If the rods are connected together with a bare-copper conductor, this
also helps to reduce the resistance further as the conductor will
generally be buried about 18 in. below the surface, and will also
conduct some of the fault currents to earth. As the number of rods
increases, the effect of overlapping becomes more apparent and in
general on a given area a limit is reached at which the reduction in
resistance obtained by installing additional electrodes does not prove
economical and it is necessary to extend the area of the installation
to obtain an drop in resistance.
Complex Electrode Arrangements

For more complex arrangements of electrodes, more detailed
analysis to take all of the above factors into account is required.
The Figures (except Figure 6-2) illustrate performance in uniform
soil conditions. Unfortunately, in practice, it is unusual to find
uniform soil conditions. A multi-layer soil is more usual. For
example, there may be a surface layer of loam or peat above sand,
gravel or clay. Further underneath the material may change to rock.
This may be represented as a three layer soil structure, the resistivity
of the layers increasing with depth.
At another site there may be silt or sand/gravel and then a water
table a few meters below the surface. This may form a two layer
structure, with the resistivity beneath the water table being
significantly lower than that of the surface layer. The actual soil
structure and the electrical properties of each layer will affect the
electrode resistance value and it may be important to assess this at
an early stage.
The values shown in the graphs were obtained using computer
software which takes into account soil structure and electrode
geometry. In addition to calculating the value for straightforward
electrodes, this type of software can deal with complex
arrangements. However, some relatively straightforward formulae
are available to enable a reasonably accurate prediction of the
resistance of electrodes in soil which is of uniform resistivity. It
should be noted that different formulae are used by different
standards and whilst these often provide similar values, this does
mean that particular care is needed to ensure that the correct
formulae and approach is used, depending on the design
specification and the standard on which this is based.
In the case of a rod, the formula is:
Where:
R = resistance of rod (W)
r = soil resistivity (W m)
l = length of rod (m)
d = diameter of rod (m)
For a short, buried horizontal conductor, the formula is:
Where:
R = resistance of horizontal buried conductor ()
l = length of conductor (m)
d = diameter of conductor (m)
h = height below ground (m)
Q = 1.3 for circular conductors
Q = 1.0 for strip conductors
The above formula has been simplified to:
Ground-grid Mesh Electrodes

Another example of the use of conductors buried under the
surface of the earth is the ground-grid mesh. Grid meshes are often
used to complement rods or can be used separately when deep
driven rods are impractical due to soil and terrain considerations.
Grid meshes are often used for the earthing in substations to create
an equipotential platform and also to handle the high fault currents
returning to the transformer neutrals. They are particularly useful
when multiple injection points are required, at a substation for
example. In this case a number of items will be connected to the grid
at various locations, the mesh provides a good earth irrespective of
the injection point of the fault current. Earthing resistance of buried
grid meshes can be considerably lower than those implemented
using vertical earth spikes. Increasing the area of the grid coverage
can also significantly reduce the earth resistance.
Contact Resistance
In the formulae and computer simulations it is assumed that
the earth electrodes are in perfect contact with the surrounding soil.
It is to reduce this contact resistance to a minimum value that it is
important to ensure that the backfill material is of the appropriate
type clearly, large, dry stones surrounding the electrode would have
a detrimental effect on its performance. In fact, in a new installation,
the most significant resistance is likely to be at the interface between
electrodes and soil. This arises mainly because the soil has not yet
consolidated.
Soil Resistivity
The most important remaining factor influencing the

impedance of the earthing system is the impedance of the medium in
which the earth electrodes are situated, i.e. the soil.
Because soil resistivity is such an important factor governing the
performance of earth electrodes, it needs to be discussed in some
detail. Soil resistivity is expressed in Ohm-meters. This unit is the
resistance between the two opposite faces of a one meter cube of
uniform soil. The value obtained is thus in Ohm-metre2 per meter,
which is traditionally shortened to Ohm-meters. Some typical
resistivity values are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Typical values of resistivity for different soils
Type
Resistivity (Ohm-metre)
Sea water
0.1 - 1
Garden soil/alluvial clay
5 - 50
London clay
5 - 100
Clay, sand and gravel
40 - 250
Porous chalk
30 - 100
Quartzite/crystalline limestone
300+
Rock
1,000 - 10,000
Dry concrete
2,000 - 10,000
Wet concrete
30 - 100
Ice
10,000 - 100,000
The two main factors which influence the soil resistivity value are
the porosity of the material and the water content. Porosity is a term
which describes the size and number of voids within the material,
which is related to its particle size and the pore diameter. It varies
between 80/90% in the silt of lakes, through 30/40% in sands and
unconsolidated clay to a few percent in consolidated limestone.
As mentioned previously, it is most unusual to find soil which can
be described as uniform for earthing purposes. We are interested in
soil to a significant depth as the earth fault currents flow deeply into
the ground. There may be thin layer of soil on the surface, with
layers of rock underneath. Each successive layer of rock would have
fewer cracks, be more solid and would be expected to have a higher
resistivity.
If an electrode was installed at the surface, then the distance,
thickness and actual resistivity of each of the layers would be
important factors influencing its eventual resistance value.
Temperature and water content have an important influence on the
soil resistivity and hence the performance of the earthing system. An
increase in water content causes a steep reduction in resistivity until
the 20% level is reached when the effect begins to level out.
Dissolved minerals and salts in the water may help further to reduce
the resistivity, particularly where these are naturally occurring and
do not become diluted over time. The water content will vary
seasonally and is likely to cause variations in the impedance of the
earthing system. Whilst there is data on the effect this has on
individual rods, we are not yet aware of the effect on larger
substations which encompass a larger area. The very high resistivity
of ice (table 1) compared to water, shows why it is necessary to
install the electrodes beneath the freezing line. This is about 0.6
meters depth in the UK, but may be deeper in exposed, mountainous

locations.
Figure 7 Effects of Moisture, Temperature, and Salt

Upon Soil Resistivity
How to Reduce Resistance ?
By soil treatment technique, when the soil available is high
electrical resistance, then its resistance can be lowered by chemical
treatment. The treatment is limited to the area in the neighborhood
of earth electrode.
How to Make this Treatment ?
- Earth electrode buries at least 3 meters into the ground with
charcoal and coke.
- Place the powder mixed with chemical salt in a circular trench

around but not touching the electrode.
- There are some kinds of chemical treatment soil:
1- Sodium chloride
2- Calcium chloride
3- Sodium nitrate
4- Magnesium sulphate
But this method has some disadvantages:
1- it is not permanent i.e. must be replaced because the natural
drainage of salt.
2- the corrosion of the rod is accelerated but the copper electrode
can solve this problem.
Soil Treatment to Reduce Resistance
Where it is not possible to obtain earth resistance low enough
for the purpose in mind by installing further electrodes, the
resistance of existing electrodes can be decreased by as much as 90
per cent by means of artificial treatment of the soil in its immediate
neighborhood. This is done by dissolving in the moisture normally
contained in the soil some substance which has highly conducting
properties of its own. Among the substances used are sodium
chloride (common salt) , magnesium sulphate, copper sulphate, and
calcium chloride. The selection of the salt solution to be used
depends largely on cost, availability, and the corrosive effects of the
chemical. The usual method of application is to dig a trench round
electrode, spread the salt in the trench, add a few gallons of water
and fill in again. In station installations requiring artificial treatment
it is often worth while to provide a concrete manhole-type structure
around the electrode, care being taken to prevent direct contact

between electrode and salt solution by providing a short length of
pipe around the electrode (Figure 8).
Figure 9 shows the effect of artificial treatment showing the initial
decrease in resistance immediately after treatment and the gradual
increase in resistance as the salt is washed away by continual water
seepage, necessitating re-treatment after, approximately every three
years, depending on the annual rainfall and the efficiency of the site
drainage. This is, in fact, the big disadvantage of this method of
obtaining a low-resistance earth, as each installation will require
attention every three years.
Figure 8
Figure 9 Effect of Artificial Treatment
Some Methods of Placing Earth Electrode in Soil

- When heavy soil or rock is present at depths of 12 ft to 18 ft the
best solution is to drive a large number of electrodes and connect
them in parallel.
- Where rocks are present 3 or 4 ft under the surface the only
solution is use a horizontal wire buried at least 18 inch below the
surface.
System Grounding
In industrial and commercial power systems, the system should
operate grounded. There are, however, other methods of operation
that have been used historically and have operated satisfactorily for
several years but not have all of the advantages of the operation of a
grounded system. Systems can be defined as:
Ungrounded (although these are grounded through the
distributed capacitance of the system)
Solidly grounded (needed in four-wire systems with line-toneutral loads)

Resistance-grounded (either low-or high-resistance)
Reactance-grounded (a special case that is not found in
industrial and commercial systems)
There are advantages and disadvantages with each of these methods
of grounding, but for industrial and commercial power systems, the
resistance-grounded system has the most advantages.
Solidly Grounded Systems

Solidly grounded systems are grounded by connecting the
neutral of the system to ground or by connecting one phase to
ground. With solid grounding, over voltages on the system are
eliminated. One phase connected to ground does impress full line-toline voltage on the other two phases, but it eliminates the problem of
transient over voltages. Four-wire systems with line-to-neutral loads
must be solidly grounded. Solidly grounded systems do not limit
ground-fault current. If a ground fault occurs in a motor or
generator, only the fault impedance limits the fault current. Burning
of the laminations in the machine core can result in major damage
that would require restocking the core of the machine. This would
increase the cost of repair. For this reason, medium-voltage systems
are resistance-grounded to limit the damage to machines connected
to it.
It has been the practice to solidly ground low-voltage systems. Until
ground sensor devices were available to detect low ground-fault
currents, it was necessary to solidly ground low-voltage systems to
have enough ground-fault current to trip circuit breakers or operate
fuses in motor controllers. With the availability of ground-fault
sensors, it is now possible to limit ground faults through the use of

high resistance grounding and still sense and operate a circuit
breaker or an alarm to indicate the faulted circuit. These low-current
faults will not blow fuses.
Resistance-grounded Systems
When the source of the power in a system is a star-connected
transformer or generator, the neutral connection of the source is
grounded through a resistor. Resistance-grounding is classified as
low-resistance or high-resistance.
If a system neutral is not available, then a grounding transformer can
be used to derive the system neutral. This transformer can be either a
zigzag connection, or a three phase distribution-type transformer in
delta. The normal impedance to positive sequence current is high,
but the impedance to zero sequence current is low so that any
ground fault current will flow through the transformer.
Resistance-grounded systems have all of the advantages and none of
the disadvantages of other methods of grounding, with the exception
of allowing the system to operate with one phase grounded. This,
however, can be done with a high-resistance system. Medium
voltage systems use low resistance grounding. Low voltage systems
use high resistance grounding.
A low resistance grounded system is one that limits the fault current
of a line to ground fault to a value in hundreds of amperes. Because
sensitive fault detection is available, the lower ground fault
minimizes the damage at the fault. Ground sensor relaying is
sensitive and can detect a ground fault of 10 to 15 A and
instantaneously trip the circuit breaker. If all circuits on the medium
voltage system have ground sensor relaying, the ground resistor can
be rated as low as 200 A. If there are multiple sources, i.e., more

than one transformer and/or generator, the resistors will be in
parallel so a larger ground fault current will result. See Figure 10.
Solidly grounded
Resistance grounded
Resistance
grounded with
grounding
transformer and
resistor
Reactance grounded
Figure 10 Different grounding types
Reactance Grounded Systems

A power system can also be grounded by placing a reactance
in the neutral to ground circuit. As in the resistance grounded
system, the magnitude of the reactance determines the operating
characteristics of the circuit. Reactance grounded system are used in
industrial power systems only under exceptional circumstances.
Sometimes generator neutrals are reactance grounded. In some
European countries, transformer neutrals in transmission systems are
reactance grounded. In industrial and commercial power systems,
resistance grounded systems give the best service under both steady
state and transient conditions.
Other Considerations
In system grounding practices, the selection of grounding
points is important. There are several factors to be considered in
selecting the grounding points:
Grounding at each voltage level
Grounding at source, but not at load
Grounding at each major source bus
Number of sources
Reference ground during isolated operation
At least one grounding point at each voltage level is necessary. This
is achieved because most of the transformers have delta
(ungrounded on the high side) - star (grounded on the low side)
windings. Autotransformers have common neutrals. At every stepdown level, the transformer neutral is grounded on the low side.
Where delta-delta windings are used, or when isolated operation
creates a floating neutral conditions, a grounding transformer is
required.
Whenever impedance grounding is used, the impedance in neutral
should be applied properly. The five important factors are:
Limiting of line to ground fault current
Providing sufficient fault current for detection and relay
operation
Having proper thermal rating (I2 R)
Having proper voltage rating
Being within neutral BIL
The Qualities of a Good Earthing System are:

1) Must be of low electrical resistance.
2) Must be of good corrosion resistance.
3) Must be able to dissipate high fault current repeatedly.
Design of Low Resistance Earth

If the design of a low resistance earth is approached from a
theoretical basis, certain assumption must be made, which in many
cases are not justified. The most important of these assumptions is
that the resistivity is uniform throughout the resistance area, and it
will be appreciated how difficult it would be make allowance for
any variation in this factory in a purely theoretical discussion of this
problem.
On this basis, a series of curves which give at a glance the resistance
of a limited number of electrodes at various depths and resistivities
were prepared as shown in figure 11.
For example, in soil with a resistivity of 10 000 ohm/cm3, to obtain a
5 ohm earth installation with three rods it will be necessary to drive
each rod to a depth of 8 m or about 25 ft. With four rods a depth of
6.5 m or about 20 ft will be required.
However, a more practical approach to this problem is to base the
design on the results of a test rod which should, as has already been
pointed out, be driven to its maximum depth and its resistance
measured; say, at a depth of 30 ft a resistance of 10 ohm is obtained
To obtain one ohm resistance it will probably be necessary to drive
12 rods, and the correct spacing should be about 60 ft.
The cost of this one ohm earth would be of the order of 25 using
galvanized mild-steel rods and bare-copper interconnecting
conductor. This is about the average cost of an earth with a
resistance of this order; the cost of higher resistance earth in average
conditions may be estimated on a proportional basis from this figure,
which is very much less than the cost of installing less efficient earth
electrodes.
Figure 11 Graph of Resistance of Electrodes
With higher resistivities, of course, the cost would increase also on a

proportional basis. In rocky soil, however, where earth rods cannot
be used the cost is still higher and unless the capital cost of the
associated electrical equipment is high, it may be uneconomical to
attempt to obtain such a low resistance and other means of

protection must be investigated.
Distribution Voltage due to Earthing Resistance
in Faulted Transformer
If we have a transformer on the outdoor substation. If the
tank of the transformer is connected to an earth electrode of the
form hemisphere. If the high voltage pushing is short circuited as
shown in figure 12 through the arc a short circuit current will flow
through the earth.
If the radius of the hemisphere = r
The potential at its edge = I / 2 r
For a radius = r1 on the earth
The potential = (I / 2 )(1/r - 1/ r1).
The curve of the potential due to the flow of current (I) will be as
illustrated in figure 12.
At the moment of S.C. a man can be found at point 1 & no danger
but if he will touch the tank a voltage = V touch will be across him.
If a man is going towards the transformer a voltage V step will be
across him which is very danger for his life.
For this reason the system of earthing must be done to be safe for the
persons who are working in the region of the earthed apparatus.
The curve of distribution of potential along the surface of earth is
given in the last figure. At the time of short-circuit, a human being
can be in zone of increased potential. If during this, be touches the
tank of the transformer, a voltage, equal to the difference of
potentials of tank and earth in the place of location of foot of the
human being, the so-called "touch voltage" V touch can be applied
to him. A human being going towards the transformer is subject to
the "step voltage". Vs < V touch which depends on the length of step
(on an average 80 cm.) and the distance from the human being up to
the earthing arrangement .
Figure 12 Basic shock situations

For safety of serving personal, it is necessary to design the earthing
arrangement of a sub-station in such a way that the touch and step
voltages did not in any case exceed the permissible values.
Improving an Earthing System

Whether improving an existing system or ensuring that a new
system will meet its design specifications, the following points can
be used to improve the final system performance.
Factors to Consider
Low soil resistivity is to some extent tied to an electrolytic
mechanism with such characteristics as - chemicals composition,
soil ionization, homogenous grain size and even distribution, playing
a large determinant due to the effect on the retention of soil moisture
and packing density in contact with the electrode.
Obtaining a satisfactory earth resistance has always been a problem
in areas of poor soil conductivity. Most National and International
Lightning Protection codes require an earth resistance of 10 ohms or
less to be provided for a lightning protection installation.
The laying of copper grids, tapes and rods alone may not always
provide the desired result. Even if copper materials are used and the
specified resistance level is achieved, seasonal fluctuations in soil
moisture can cause variations in the resistance level. In dry periods it
is possible for the earth resistance to rise above the as installed level.
This variation is earth resistance can affect the integrity of the entire
lightning protection system. If suitable electrical resistance cannot
be simply and economically attained by the installation of a standard
earth grid, an application of earth improving compounds will assist.
Such compounds consist of chemical solutions of good electrical
conductivity which, when mixed with water and poured onto the
earthing grid and surrounding soil become a gelatinous mass,
forming an integral part of the overall earthing system. Field tests
have shown dramatic improvement in earth resistance when such
compounds are added to high resistivity soils such as shale or silica.
Soil Resistivity Testing

Introduction
The resistance of a driven earth electrode is determined by the
resistivity of the soil, which is influenced by various factors
including moisture content, soil temperature and the depth of the
electrode. Soil resistivity measurements taken at the intended site
provide a valuable insight into how the desired earth resistance value
can be achieved and maintained over the life of the installation, with
the minimum cost and effort.
When designing earthing systems for electrical distribution systems,
lightning protection systems, instrumentation and process control
systems or static earthing in hazardous areas, one of the main
objectives is to establish a suitable low resistance connection to the
general mass of ground. However, this is often difficult to achieve
and depends on a number of factors:
Soil resistivity
Stratification of surrounding soil
Size and type of electrode used
Depth to which the electrode is buried
Moisture and chemical content of the soil.
Making a Measurement
When designing an earthing system to meet safety and
reliability criteria, an accurate resistivity model of the soil is
required. The following sections outline the major practical aspects
of the measurement procedure and result interpretation.
1. Principles
Soil resistivity values vary widely depending on the type of
terrain, e.g., silt on a river bank may have resistivity value in the
order of 1.5 -m, whereas dry sand or granite in mountainous
country areas may have values higher than 10,000 -m. Factors that
affect resistivity may be summarized as: Type of earth (e.g., clay, loam, sandstone, granite).
Stratification; layers of different types of soil (e.g., loam backfill
on a clay base).
Moisture content; resistivity may fall rapidly as the moisture
content is increased, however, after a value of about 20% the rate
of decrease is much less. Soils with moisture content greater than
40% do not occur very often.
Temperature; above freezing point, the effect on earth resistivity is
practically negligible.
Chemical composition and concentration of dissolved salt.
Presence of metal and concrete pipes, tanks, large slabs, cable
ducts, rail tracks, metal pipes and fences, etc.
Topography; rugged topography has a similar effect on resistivity
measurement as local surface resistivity variation caused by
weathering and moisture.
When defining the electrical properties of a portion of the
Earth, a distinction between the geoelectric and geologic model is
required. In the geoelectric model the boundaries between layers are
determined by changes in resistivity, being primarily dependent
upon water and chemical content, as well as texture. The geologic
model, based upon such criteria as fossils and texture, may contain
several geoelectric sections. The converse is also common.
As earthing systems are installed near the surface of the Earth,

the top soil layers being subject to higher current densities are the
most significant and require the most accurate modeling.
The Wenner and Schlumberger test methods are both
recommended,
with
testing
and
interpretation
techniques
summarized in the following sections.
2 Soil Resistivity Testing Procedure Guidelines

The purpose of resistivity testing is to obtain a set of
measurements that can be interpreted to yield an equivalent model
for the electrical performance of the earth, as seen by the particular
earthing system. However, the results may be incorrect or
misleading if adequate investigation is not made prior to the test, or
the test is not correctly undertaken. To overcome these problems, the
following data gathering and testing guidelines are suggested:
An initial research phase is required to provide adequate
background information and determine the correct testing program.
Data on the geological, geographical and meteorological nature of
the area and nearby metallic structures is very useful. For instance
the geological data regarding strata types and thickness will give an
indication of the water retention properties of the upper layers and
also the variation in resistivity to be expected due to water content.
By comparing recent rainfall data, against the seasonal average, and
maxima and minima for the region it may be ascertained whether the
results are realistic or not.
A number of guidelines associated with the preparation and
implementation of a testing program are summarized as follows:
Figure 13
(a) Test Method
Factors such as maximum probe depths, lengths of cables
required, efficiency of the measuring technique, cost (determined by
the time and the size of the survey crew) and ease of interpretation
of the data need to be considered, when selecting the appropriate test
type. Three common test types are shown in figure 14. The
Schlumberger array is considered more accurate and economic than
the Wenner or Driven Rod methods, provided a current source of
sufficient power is used.
Figure 14 Resistivity Test Probe Configurations

In the Wenner method, all four electrodes are moved for each
test with the spacing between each adjacent pair remaining the same.
With the Schlumberger array the potential electrodes remain

stationary while the current electrodes are moved for a series of
measurements. In each method the depth penetration of the
electrodes is less than 5% of the separation to ensure that the
approximation of point sources, required by the simplified formulae,
remains valid.
(b) Selection of Test Method Type
Wenner Array
The Wenner array is the least efficient from an operational
perspective. It requires the longest cable layout, largest electrode
spreads and for large spacing one person per electrode is necessary
to complete the survey in a reasonable time. Also, because all four
electrodes are moved after each reading the Wenner Array is most
susceptible to lateral variation effects.
However, the Wenner array is the most efficient in terms of
the ratio of received voltage per unit of transmitted current. Where
unfavorable conditions such as very dry or frozen soil exist,
considerable time may be spent trying to improve the contact
resistance between the electrode and the soil.
Schlumberger Array
Economy of manpower is gained with the Schlumberger array
since the outer electrodes are moved four or five times for each
move of the inner electrodes. The reduction in the number of
electrode moves also reduces the effect of lateral variation on test
results.
Considerable time saving can be achieved by using the
reciprocity theorem with the Schlumberger array when contact
resistance is a problem. Since contact resistance normally affects the

current electrodes more than the potential electrodes, the inner fixed
pair may be used as the current electrodes, a configuration called the
Inverse Schlumberger Array. Use of the inverse Schlumberger
array increases personal safety when a large current is injected.
Heavier current cables may be needed if the current is of large
magnitude. The inverse Schlumberger reduces the heavier cable
lengths and time spent moving electrodes. The minimum spacing
accessible is in the order of 10m (for a 0.5m inner spacing), thereby,
necessitating the use of the Wenner configuration for smaller
spacings.
Lower voltage readings are obtained when using
Schlumberger arrays. This may be a critical problem where the
depth required to be tested is beyond the capability of the test
equipment or the voltage readings are too small to be considered.
Driven Rod Method
The driven rod method (or Three Pin or Fall-of-Potential
Method) is normally suitable for use in circumstances such as
transmission line structure earths or areas of difficult terrain. It
allows shallow penetration for hard ground, requires a very localized
measurement area and reduces the inaccuracies encountered in two
layer soil conditions.
( c ) Traverse Locations
Soil resistivity can vary significantly both with depth, and
from one point to another within a site, and as such, a single soil
resistivity measurement is usually not sufficient. To obtain a better
picture of soil resistivity variations, it is advisable to conduct a

detailed surve
The Line Traverse technique is a commonly used method for
performing soil resistivity surveys. In this method, a series of
imaginary parallel lines are drawn across the area to be surveyed,
and a number of soil resistivity measurements, at various stake
separations, are performed along each of these lines. Larger earthing
systems require a greater number of traverses ( >4).
Taking a number of measurements along each line, using different
stake separations, will provide an indication of how the soil
resistivity varies with depth, whilst taking measurements along
different lines will indicate how the resistivity changes across the
site.
In this way, a picture of the soil resistivity at the site can be
produced and the areas of lowest resistivity identified. By measuring
the resistivity at different depths and combing these results with the
results from different stake separations, it is possible to determine
whether any advantage can be gained by installing the earthing
system to a greater depth.
A Line Traverse survey is a cheap and simple way of mapping
variations in soil resistivity at a site and could well provide
significant cost savings, in terms of material and labor, when
attempting to achieve the required resistance figure.
It is also useful to include a check traverse near to, yet
beyond the influence of the grid. Measurements are re-made on this
traverse when undertaking an injection test on the installed grid, to
correlate the test results with the initial measured conditions at the
time of design.
(d) Spacing Range

The range of spacings recommended includes accurate close
probe spacings ( > 1 m), which are required to determine the upper
layer resistivity, used in calculating the step and touch voltages, to
spacings larger than the radius or diagonal dimension of the
proposed earth grid. The larger spacings are used in the calculation
of remote voltage gradients and grid impedance. Measurements at
very large spacings often present considerable problems (e.g.
inductive coupling, insufficient resolution on test set, physical
barriers) they are important if the lower layer is of higher resistivity
(2 > 1). In such cases considerable error is introduced if a realistic
value of 2 is not measured due to insufficient spacing.
(e) Practical Testing Recommendations
It has been found that special care is required when testing to:
Eliminate mutual coupling or interference due to leads parallel to
power lines. Cable reels with parallel axes for current injection and
voltage measurements, and small cable separation for large spacings
(> 100 m) can result in errors;
Ensure the instrumentation and set up is adequate (i.e. equipment
selection criteria, power levels, interference and filtering.
Undertake operational checks for accuracy (i.e., a field calibration
check.
Reduce contact resistance (use salt water, stakes and/or the reverse
Schlumberger.
Instruct staff to use finer test spacings in areas showing sharp
changes (i.e. to identify the effect of local in homogeneities and give
increased data for interpretation). Plot test results immediately

during testing to identify such problem areas.
Testing an Earthing System
Earth Resistance of an Electrode Measurement
When an electrode system has been designed and installed, it
is usually necessary to measure and confirm the earth resistance
between the electrode and true Earth. The most commonly used
method of measuring the earth resistance of an earth electrode is the
3-point measuring technique. This method is derived from the 4point method, which is used for soil resistivity measurements.
The 3-point method, called the fall of potential method,
comprises the Earth Electrode to be measured and two other
electrically independent test electrodes, usually labeled P (Potential)
and C (Current). These test electrodes can be of lesser quality
(higher earth resistance) but must be electrically independent of the
electrode to be measured. An alternating current (I) is passed
through the outer electrode C and the voltage is measured, by means
of an inner electrode P, at some intermediary point between them.
The Earth Resistance is simply calculated using Ohms Law; Rg =
V/I.
Other more complex methods, such as the Slope Method or the Four
Pole Method, have been developed to overcome specific problems
associated with this simpler procedure, mainly for measurements of
the resistance of large earthing systems or at sites where space for
locating the test electrodes is restricted.
Regardless of the measurement method employed, it should be
remembered that the measurement of earth resistance is as much an
art as it is a science, and resistance measurements can be affected by
many parameters, some of which may be difficult to quantify. As

such, it is best to take a number of separate readings and average
them, rather than rely on the results of a single measurement.
When performing a measurement, the aim is to position the auxiliary
test electrode C far enough away from the earth electrode under test
so that the auxiliary test electrode P will lie outside the effective
resistance areas of both the earth system and the other test electrode.
If the current test electrode, C, is too close, the resistance areas will
overlap and there will be a steep variation in the measured resistance
as the voltage test electrode is moved. If the current test electrode is
correctly positioned, there will be a flat (or very nearly so)
resistance area somewhere in between it and the earth system, and
variations in the position of the voltage test electrode should only
produce very minor changes in the resistance figure.
The instrument is connected to the earth system under test via a
short length of test cable, and a measurement is taken.
Measurement accuracy can be affected by the proximity of other
buried metal objects to the auxiliary test electrodes. Objects such as
fences and building structures, buried metal pipes or even other
earthing systems can interfere with the measurement and introduce
errors. Often it is difficult to judge, merely from visual inspection of
the site, a suitable location for the tests stakes and so it is always
advisable to perform more than one measurement to ensure the
accuracy of the test.
Fall of Potential Method

This is one of the most common methods employed for the
measurement of earth resistance and is best suited to small systems
that dont cover a wide area. It is simple to carry out and requires a
minimal amount of calculation to obtain a result.
This method is generally not suited to large earthing installations, as
the stake separations needed to ensure an accurate measurement can
be excessive, requiring the use of very long test leads.
Normally, the outer test electrode, or current test stake, is driven into
the ground 30 to 50 meters away from the earth system, and the
inner electrode, or voltage test stake, is then driven into the ground
mid-way between the earth electrode and the current test stake, and
in a direct line between them.
The Fall of Potential method incorporates a check to ensure that the
test electrodes are indeed positioned far enough away for a correct
reading to be obtained. It is advisable that this check be carried, as it
is really the only way of ensuring a correct result.
To perform a check on the resistance figure, two additional
measurements should be made; the first with the voltage test
electrode (P) moved 10% further away from the earth under test, and
the second measurement with the (P) electrode moved 10% closer to
the earth under test.
If these two additional measurements are in agreement with the
original measurement, within the required level of accuracy, then the
test stakes have been correctly positioned and the DC resistance
figure can be obtained by averaging the three results. However, if
there is substantial disagreement amongst any of these results, then
it is likely that the stakes have been incorrectly positioned, either by
being too close to the earth system being tested, too close to one
another or too close to other structures that are interfering with the
results. The stakes should be repositioned at a larger separation
distance or in a different direction and the three measurements
repeated. This process should be repeated until a satisfactory result

is achieved.
Figure 15 Four Terminal

Method of Measuring Earth Resistivity
The 62% Method
The Fall of Potential method can be adapted slightly for use
with medium sized earthing systems. This adaptation is often
referred to as the 62% Method, as it involves positioning the inner
test stake at 62% of the earth electrode-to-outer stake separation
(recall that in the Fall-of-Potential method, this figure was 50%).
All the other requirements of test stake location - that they be
in a straight line and be positioned away from other structures remain valid. When using this method, it is also advisable to repeat
the measurements with the inner test stake moved 10% of the earth
electrode-inner test stake separation distance, as before.
The main disadvantage with this method is that the theory on
which it is based relies on the assumption that the underlying soil is
homogeneous, which in practice is rarely the case. Thus, care should
be taken in its use and a soil resistivity survey should always be
carried out. Alternatively, one of the other methods should be
employed.
Other Test Methods
Many other methods exist for taking earth resistance
measurements. Many of these methods have been designed in an
attempt to alleviate the necessity for excessive electrode separations,
when measuring large earth systems, or the requirement of having to
know the electrical centre of the system.
Three such methods are briefly described below. Specific
details are not given here, but instead the reader is referred to the
relevant technical paper where these systems are described in detail.
(a) The Slope Method
This method is suitable for use with large earthing systems,
such as sub-station earthing. It involves taking a number of
resistance measurements at various earth systems to voltage
electrode separations and then plotting a curve of the resistance
variation between the earth and the current. From this graph, and
from data obtained from tables, it is possible to calculate the
theoretical optimum location for the voltage electrode and thus, from
the resistance curve, calculate the true resistance.
The additional measurement and calculation effort tends to

relegate this system to use with only very large or complex earthing
systems.
(b) The Star-Delta Method
This technique is well suited to use with large systems in built
up areas or on rocky terrain, where it may be difficult to find
suitable locations for the test electrodes, particularly over long
distances in a straight line. Three test electrodes are used, set up at
the corners of an equilateral triangle with the earth system in the
middle and measurements are made of the total resistance between
adjacent electrodes, and also between each electrode and the
earthing system.
Using these results, a number of calculations are performed
and a result can be obtained for the resistance of the earth system.
(c) The Four Potential Method
This technique helps overcome some of the problems
associated with the requirement for knowing the electrical centre of
the earthing systems being tested. This method is similar in set up to
the standard Fall of Potential method, except that a number of
measurements are made with the voltage electrode at different
positions and a set of equations are used to calculate the theoretical
resistance of the system.
The main draw back with the Four Potential method is that,
like with the Fall of Potential method, it can require excessive
electrode separation distances if the earthing system being measured
is large.

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EARTHING

Prepared By : Dr. Alaa Baiumy Abd Elazim

as soon as possible is important so that any damage to the faulted

ohms. A ground is basically a zero potential electrical network or

What is the Difference Between Earthing

EARTHING Prepared by : Dr. Alaa Baiumy Abd Alazim

The Advantages of Earthing

Figure 1 Path for earth fault current (shown by arrows)

EARTHING Prepared by : Dr. Alaa Baiumy Abd Alazim

The Disadvantages of Earthing

Figure 2 Danger in an unearthed system

EARTHING Prepared by : Dr. Alaa Baiumy Abd Alazim

The lamps indicate which phase is grounded but do not indicate

between adjoining pipe work under both normal and abnormal

Protective Conductor Types

EARTHING Prepared by : Dr. Alaa Baiumy Abd Alazim

Figure 3 Some types of circuit protective conductor

sometimes used for above ground "bonding", but most of the

Earth Electrode Shapes

Feature of Other Shapes

Types of Earth Electrodes

combination of metals) which do not corrode excessively for the

Figure 4 Driven rod

current carrying capabilities in comparison to copper and this must

EARTHING Prepared by : Dr. Alaa Baiumy Abd Alazim

Figure 5 Earth Plates

and main plant connections) whilst smaller, stranded conductor

Performance of Earth Electrodes

is important to recognize that the characteristics of the soil strongly

Effect of Electrode Shape, Size and Position

Figure 6-1 shows the benefit that can be achieved in soils of

improvement in electrode resistance possible when increasing the

Figure 6-1 Resistance v Rod Length

As the rod length increases the overall resistance falls progressively

additional meter installed starts to reduce rapidly as in the case of

Figure 6-2 Resistance v Rod Length in Multilayer Soil

freezing line. This means that the impedance should be less

Increasing the Length of a Horizontal Conductor.

Figure 6-3 Resistance v Horizontal Conductor Length

increases the reduction possible, although not by 50%. For high

Increasing the Side Length of a Square Earth Grid/Plate.

Figure 6-4 Resistance v Square Loop Side Length

EARTHING Prepared by : Dr. Alaa Baiumy Abd Alazim

Increasing the Radius of an Earth Rod.

Figure 6-5 Resistance v Rod Radius

Figure 6-6 Combined Resistance of Two Vertical Rods

Practical Notes on Earthing by Driving Rods

5- If artificial treatment with a salt solution is considered necessary,

Rod Electrodes in Parallel

Multiple Rod Installation

EARTHING Prepared by : Dr. Alaa Baiumy Abd Alazim

Complex Electrode Arrangements

In the case of a rod, the formula is:

EARTHING Prepared by : Dr. Alaa Baiumy Abd Alazim

Ground-grid Mesh Electrodes

EARTHING Prepared by : Dr. Alaa Baiumy Abd Alazim

The most important remaining factor influencing the

Garden soil/alluvial clay

Clay, sand and gravel

EARTHING Prepared by : Dr. Alaa Baiumy Abd Alazim

meters depth in the UK, but may be deeper in exposed, mountainous

Figure 7 Effects of Moisture, Temperature, and Salt