AmericanVampiresandtheOngoingAmbiguityofDeath...

by
MichaelE.Bell,KritikosV.10,March2013
intertheory.org
Volume10,March2013,ISSN15525112
AmericanVampiresandtheOngoingAmbiguityofDeath
MichaelE.Bell
OnJuly21,1788,theCongregationalministerofBelchertown,Massachusettsconfidedhis
suspicionsthatadeceasedfamilymemberwasfeedingonitslivingkin.InalettertoColonel
ElijahWilliamsofStockbridge,ReverendJustusForwarddescribedhisgreatconcernwhen
hisdaughterbeganbleedinginwardlyastheyjourneyedtoStratford.Hewrotethathis
anxietywasthatofaparentwhosefamilywassowastedwithconsumptionthreedeadwith
it,andtwomoreinimminentdangerofdeath.Forwarddescribedhowhehadconsulted
manyaboutopeningthegravesofsomeofthedeceased,toseewhethertherewereany
signsofthedeadpreyingontheliving.Hecontinuedthat,althoughmanyadvisedtoit,and
mostthoughtitawful,others,includingDr.WilliamsofHatfield,spokeinsuchamanner
aboutit,thatsomeofthefamilywerenotsoonreconciledtoit.Despitetheirobjections,
however,theyconsented,andlastFridaymotherDickinsonsgravewasopened.Shehad
beenburiedalmostthreeyears.Inanapparentallusiontoasimilarcase,Forwardnotedthat
nothingappearedlikewhatwasrepresentedinMr.Smithsson.MarthaDickinson,
Forwardsmotherinlaw,waswastedawaytoamereskeletonwhenshedied.Inanalmost
clinicaldescription,Forwarddescribedwhattheysawwhenthegravewasopened:The
coffinhadmoistureinittowardsthefoot,facefallenintothebones,thelungs,consumingas
fastasanypart,didnotproperlyadheretogetherbutseemedlikemealalittlewettish.Dr.
Scottofthistownopenedthebody.Wedidnottrytoseparatethelungsfromthebody,but
burieditagain.Someoneinthegatheringsuggestedthatperhapsshewasnottheright
person.Undauntedbythissetback,Forwardconcludedtosearchfurther.OnMonday
morning,thedayhisletterwasdated,heopenedthegraveofhismarrieddaughter,Martha
Dwight,whohaddied...almostsixyearsago.Whentheycutintoherbody,they
discoveredthatthelungswerenotdissolved,buthadbloodinthem,thoughnotfresh,but
clotted.However,Forwardcontinued,thelungsdidnotappearaswewouldsupposethey
wouldinabodyjustdead,butfarnearerastateofsoundnessthancouldbeexpected.The
liver,Iamtold,wasassoundasthelungs.Apparentlyconvincedthattheyhadfoundthe
malevolentcorpse,theyputthelungsandliverinaseparatebox,andburieditinthesame
grave,teninchesorafoot,abovethecoffin.
Duringhisheartstrickenattempttosavethelastremnantsofhisfamily,thecourseofaction
resortedtobyForwardagraduateofYaleUniversity,whoalsoservedashistowns
medicaldoctorearlyinhisfiftysixyeartenureasitsministerwasnotanarcaneorarbitrary
ritualdreamedupbysomesortofweirdwizard(whichishowsuchincidentsincreasingly
wereportrayedinAmericanperiodicalsasthecountrybecamemorecivilizedand
scientific).No,itwasanancientfolkremedyoftenlabeledvampirismbyoutsidersthat
requiredexhumingthebodiesofdeceasedrelativesandcheckingthemforsignsconsidered

tobeextraordinary,usuallyfreshblood(thatis,liquidblood)intheheartorothervital
organs.Asinallfolktraditions,therewereavarietyofmethodsusedtokillthevampireand
cureitsvictims.Fromthelateeighteenthcenturyandcontinuingintothemidtwentieth
century,variouscombinationsofthefollowingmeasureswereemployedbyAmericans
desperatetohalttherelentlessonslaughtofconsumption:
removalandburningofvitalorgansparticularlytheheartsometimes,ingestingthe
ashes
burningtheentirecorpse,sometimesinhalingorstandinginthesmoke
turningthecorpsefacedownandreburyingit
searchingfor,anddestroying(sometimesbyburning),avinefoundgrowingfromthe
corpse
removingtheshroudfromthemouthofthecorpse
rearrangingthebones,especiallytheskull,ofthecorpse.
YoumayhavenoticedthattheexactprocedurescarriedoutbyJustusForwardarenotonthe
listaboveasfarasInowamaware,reburyingvitalorgansinaseparatecontainer,apart
fromthecorpse,isuniqueintheAmericantradition.
Thenumberofvampireincidentsor,Ithink,moreaccurately,therapeuticexhumationsIve
uncoveredintheNortheasternUnitedStates(andtoalesserextent,intheSouthand
Midwest)nowtotalsmorethaneighty.Thedocumentationthatestablishesthepracticeis
diverse,includingeyewitnessaccounts,familystories,locallegends,newspaperarticles,
localhistories,townrecords,journalentries,personalcorrespondence,genealogies,
gravestones,andevenactualhumanremains.Theevidencesuggeststhattherapeutic
exhumationsprobablywerenotuncommon,especiallyinNewEngland,duringthelate1700s
andthroughoutthe1800s.Asthefollowingexamplesindicate,theevidencealsoshowsthat,
intheearlyyears,atleast,thispracticewasknowntoandaccepted,sometimesactually
endorsed,bythecommunityatlarge,bytownofficials,bymedicaldoctors,and,aswehave
justseen,evenbyclergymen.
InFebruaryof1793,thefriendsandfamilyofCaptainIsaacBurton,ofManchester,Vermont,
disinterredtheremainsofhisfirstwife,Rachel,who,notlongaftertheyweremarried...
wentintoadeclineandafterayearorso...diedofconsumption.Burtonhadremarried
HuldaPowel,whowasdescribedasaveryhealthy,goodlookinggirl.ButHuldasheath
soonbegantodeteriorate,andwhenshewasinthelaststagesofconsumption,astrange
infatuationtookpossessionofthemindsoftheconnectionsandfriendsofthefamily.They
wereinducedtobelievethatifthevitalsofthefirstwifecouldbeconsumedbybeingburned
inacharcoalfireitwouldeffectacureofthesicksecondwife....Theytookouttheliver,
heart,andlungs,whatremainedofthem,andburnedthemtoashesontheblacksmithsforge
ofJacobMead....Suchwastheexcitementthatfromfivehundredtoonethousandpeople
werepresent.Thisaccountwasfurnishedmebyaneyewitnessofthetransaction.
AttheCumberland,RhodeIsland,TownCouncilmeetingofFebruary8,1796,Stephen
Stapleswasgrantedlibertytoexhumethebodyofhisdaughter,Abigail,totryan

experimentinanattempttosaveanotherdaughter,Livina,providedthathereburyAbigails
bodyinaDeasentManner.
InWoodstock,Vermont,about1830,theCorwinfamilyhadadeceasedbrothersbody
exhumedandexamined.Findinghisheartundecayed,andcontainingliquidblood,theheart
wasremovedandburnedtoashesinanironpot.Accordingtoanelderlywoman,who
witnessedthiseventasayounggirl,theceremonywasattendedbyalargeconcourseof
people.Itwasconductedbytheselectmen,attendedbysomeoftheprominentcitizensof
thevillagethenresidingonthecommon....oldmenofrenown,soundmindedfathers
amongthecommunity,discreetcarefulmen.Moreover,Therewasageneralconsensusof
opinionamongallthephysiciansatthattimepracticinginWoodstock...thatthiswasacase
ofassuredvampirism.
OneofthemostpoignantcasesappearedinanoldhistoryofthetownofHarvard,
Massachusetts.Thepreemptiveactionurgedbythedyinggirl,embeddedinthefollowingtext
derivedfromafamilystory,probablyoccurredabout1794:Whenthatfelldestroyer,
consumption,brokeintoafamilycircleandbegantobearawayitsvictimsinslowbutsure
succession,humiliatingthemostselfconfidentphysicianswithasenseoftheirimpotence,
thereoftencametolightastrangedelusionthevulgarbeliefthatiftheheartofonewhohad
diedwiththatdiseasewereburned,andthemembersofthehouseholdinhaledthefumes
fromit,theywouldescapethedoomhangingoverthem.Thereisawellattestedtraditionthat
aboutacenturyago,inaconsumptivestrickenfamilyofHarvardalreadybereftofeightor
moreofit'syouth,adyinggirlextractedfromfriendsasolemnpromisethatherheartshould
beconsumedforthebenefitofhersisters,andherlastwishwasdulycarriedout.Oneof
thesesistersatleastsurvivedtoacknowledgetoherinquisitivegranddaughterwhoheardthis
tradition,thatthestorywasessentiallytrue.
Thesetextsareafewamongmanythatrevealanalmostroutineacceptanceoftherapeutic
exhumations,showingthattheywerenotnecessarilymarginalized,butwere,indeed,partof
theofficialsocialfabricofsomecommunities.Thetextsalsodisclosethatthetiny
tuberculosismicrobewasagreatleveler.Thefamiliesofclergymen,selectmen,andbankers
diedjustasinexorablyasthoseoffarmersandlaborers.Iftherewasanyselectiongoingon,
itwasnotaccordingtoclass,socialstanding,orincome:youngpeople,especiallyfemales,
tookthebruntofthiswastingdisease.Duringthe1700s,tuberculosisinfectionshadbegunto
increasedramaticallyintheNortheast.By1800,almosttwentyfivepercentofalldeathswere
blamedonconsumption(inmostcases,probablypulmonarytuberculosis).Itremainedthe
leadingcauseofdeathinNorthAmericathroughouttheentirenineteenthcentury,wherea
diagnosisofconsumptionamountedtoadeathsentence.
RespondingtoanarticleintheChicagoTribunethatrecountedthe1892exhumationof
MercyBrown,inExeter,RhodeIslandoneofthelast,andcertainlythemostwellknown,
Americanvampireincidentananonymousletterwriterrevealedafarsightedunderstanding
oftherelationshipbetweentuberculosismicrobesandvampires,effectivelybridgingthe
wideninggulfbetweenscienceandfolklore.Inhisletter,titledVampiresandBacteria,the
writernotedthatthevampireisinvisible,anditsravagesaresupposedtobeunpreventable
byanyordinarymeans,themosteffectualmethodbeingtoexhumethecorpse,burnit,and

administertheashesinsomeformtotheafflictedsurvivors.Hisobservationthatthevampire
traditionisanideawhichcanbetracedbackalongwayinthehistoryofhumanthought
seemsaccurateandnotatallextraordinary.Buthisnextstatementisanattentiongrabber:
strangelyenough,hecontinued,thevampireideamaybeoneofthosewhichprovetohave
afoundationintruthjustaboutthetimethattheworldgetsreadytorejectitasafallacy.He
preemptedtheanticipatedobjectionstothisstartlingsuppositionbyadmittingthat,whilewe
cannotnowconsenttobelieveintheexistenceofahugevampirecapableofrenderingitself
invisiblewhileitpreysuponitsvictim,...themicroscopehasrevealed...alittleoneequally
destructive,thoughtoosmalltobeseenwiththenakedeye.Sciencenowwasawareofthe
existenceofmyriadsoftheselittleentitiesfeedingonthelargeranimalorganismsandliterally
killingthemoffbyinches.Moreover,hewrote,sciencealsohasshownthatconsumptionis
theleaderinalistofdiseaseswhicharedirectlytraceabletotheravagesoftheseminute
creatures.Theyarenotcalledvampires,butthatmatterslittlebecausebacilli...arebut
differentnamesformicroorganismswhichpreyontheairpassagesandaircellsofthe
humanframe,andnumbertheirvictimsbythethousandwherethevampireusedtobe
supposedresponsibleforthedeathofasingleindividual.Whilethesetinyspecksonthe
slideofamicroscope...maynotbeabletopassfromthecorpsewithinthegravetotheyet
livingbodyoutside,...itisproventheycananddomovefromoneanimatebodytoanother,
beingtransmissibleinmorethanoneway,andthattheythuscarrytheseedsofdeathfarand
wide,sometimesthroughmanysuccessivegenerations.Sothewriterseesthese
sequencesofapparentfollyandascertainedtruthasaprocessinherentlycapableofleading
toempiricallyvalidatedpropositions.InthelatenineteenthcenturyasscholarssuchasE.
B.TylorandSirJamesGeorgeFrazerviewedsuperstitionasabastardsciencesurviving
fromearlierstagesofculturalevolutionthisanonymousauthorstoodvirtuallyalonein
findingarationalcommongroundinthehumanmindthatcouldgenerateandsanctionboth
superstitionandscience:Itwouldbetoomuchtosaythatthevampiresuperstitionwasthe
parentofthebacillusdiscovery,butitmaybeexactlytruethatthelatterwouldneverhave
beenmadebutfortheconstitutionofthehumanmind,whichsetsittoinquireintothe
causationofthings,andmakesitsoanxiousforanexplanationthatitwillacceptafoolishone
inpreferencetonone....Lookingatthematterinthislightwemayregardtheconceptionof
avampireasthelegitimatepredecessoroftheknowledgerecentlyacquiredaboutthe
bacteriaandtheirworkindecimatingtheracebycausingtheclassofdiseasesattheheadof
whichstandsconsumptionasthemostpronouncedexampleofthedevastationwroughtby
thoseminuteorganisms.
Whatisitaboutconsumptionthatwouldleadtherationalhumanmindtoposittheexistence
ofavampire?Whatdovampiresandtuberculosisgermshavetodowitheachother?One
possiblelinkmayresideinhowcloselyaccountsofvampireattackscorrespondwiththe
symptomsofconsumption.Victimsofconsumptionsufferedmostatnight.Theyawakened
coughingandinpainsometimestheydescribedaheavyfeeling,asthoughsomeonehad
beensittingontheirchest.Asthediseaseprogressed,ulcersandcavitiesdevelopedinthe
lungsandvictimsbegantocoughupblood,whichlingeredatthecornersoftheirmouthand
stainedtheirbedclothes.Astheyfadedintodeath,othersinthefamilybegantocomplainof
thesamesymptoms.Death,itself,appearedtobecontagious.Inanessayonpulmonary
tuberculosis,writtenin1799,doctorThomasBeddoesdescribedaconsumptivepatientwho
couldbetheverypictureoftheclassicvampiredepictedinhistory,legend,novels,andfilm

(youmightimagineCountOrlockfromthefilmNosferatu,forinstance):Theemaciatedfigure
strikesonewithterrortheforeheadcoveredwithdropsofsweatthecheekspaintedwitha
lividcrimson,theeyessunkthelittlefatthatraisedthemintheirorbitsentirelywastedthe
pulsequickandtremulousthenailslong,bendingovertheendsofthefingersthepalmsof
thehanddryandpainfullyhottothetouchthebreathoffensive,quickandlaborious.Both
consumptivesandvampiresarethelivingdead.Consumptivesarewalkingcorpses,waiting
totaketheirfinallaboredbreath.Paleandwasted,theyembodydiseaseanddeath.
Vampiresprovideacorporealimageforconsumption,givingshapetotheunseenevilthat
slowlydrainsawaylife.
Ifweconcedethattherationalhumanmindcanacceptthepossibilityofacorpsepreyingon
itslivingrelatives,westillmustaskhowthecorpsecouldinfectthemwithconsumption.We
areinmurkyterritoryhere,sincethedocumentingtextsarenot(perhapscannotbe)explicit
concerningthiscrucialquestion.Beneaththeattemptstoexplainhowthevampireprocess
worksusuallyofferedbyoutsidecommentatorswhoappeartobeinterpretingverbaltexts
suppliedbylocalinformantsliesamatteroffactframeofmindcharacteristicofthepractical
Yankee.Thispragmaticismoreconcernedwithendingaplaguethanspeculatingaboutthe
modusoperandiofsupernaturalforcesorcreatures,asexemplifiedinthefollowingtext,
collectedinthelatenineteenthcenturybyfolkloristJohnMcNabCurrier(aVermontnative
andphysician):Ifthelungsofabrotherorsisterwhodiedofconsumptionbeburned,the
asheswillcurethelivingmembersofthefamilyaffectedwiththatdisease.Textsthatdo
addresstheissueofprocesstendtopositsomeshadowy,unseenconnectionbetweenthe
corpseanditsprey:intheAmericanvampiretradition,thelethalvisitationisimmaterialor
spiritualratherthananexplicit,corporealassaultbyamobilecorpse.GeorgeStetson,inhis
1896articleintheAmericanAnthropologist,expressedthefrighteninglyformlessnatureof
thisaffliction:
InNewEnglandthevampiresuperstitionisunknownbyitspropername.Itisbelievedthat
consumptionisnotaphysicalbutaspiritualdisease,obsession,orvisitationthataslongas
thebodyofadeadconsumptiverelativehasbloodinitsheartitisproofthatanoccult
influencestealsfromitfordeathandisatworkdrainingthebloodofthelivingintotheheartof
thedeadandcausinghisrapiddecline.
ThefollowingexcerptsfromAmericanvampiretextsreinforceStetsonsassertion:..."victims
ofvampireswhoworkbycharm,drainingthebloodbyslowdraughtsastheylieintheir
graves[11]...hisorhervitals,meaningbythattermthelungs,heart,andliver,became
animatedafterburialandcamebacktoearthininvisibleformtopreyuponthevitalsof
othersinthefamily[12]...insomemysteriouswaythedead,orthediseasesofthedead,
mayfeedupontheliving,...diseaseshavetheirseatinthevitalsofthebody[13][Denison,
Frederic1878WesterlyandItsWitnesses.Providence,RI:J.A.&R.A.Reidp.255(under
theheadingofCremation)]...thevitalorgansofthedeadstillretainacertainflickerof
vitalityandbysomestrangeprocessabsorbthevitalforcesoftheliving."[14]
Theseconnectionsareundeniablyopaque,yetonecandiscerntheinquiringandrational
humanmindinthebackground.ThetextofanexhumationintheConnecticutRiverValleyin
1869seemstoevoketheinvisiblepowersofelectricity,which,followingthepathofnumerous

emergingmodernsciences,becameametaphorforanystrong,somewhatmysticalpower
atthattime:Thereasonassigned[forthecontinuingdeathsinthefamily]wasthattherewas
asortofvitalcurrentexistingbetweenthelivinganddeadthattheseorgansinthedead
bodythatcontainedfreshbloodandappearedtobealive,wouldcontinuetoliveuntilthe
vitalityofthelivingsubjectwasexhausted,unlesssaidorgansweretakenoutandconsumed
byfire.Anaccountfroman1867incidentinGrafton,NewYork,appearstoexplainthethen
generallyacceptedhereditaryaspectsofconsumption:...thedecayingvitalsofthatbody
arecontinuallyemittingtheelementsofthatdisease,whichthesurvivingrelativeswill
receive,andtherebygenerationaftergenerationwillbefollowedbythatdreadfulscourge.A
textthatwaspublishedin1869invokesanintriguingpopulartheorythatlinksdeceasedand
livingfamilymembers:
Duringthelastwinter,ayoungmannamedHenryCole,aresidentofJayHill,Maine,diedof
consumption,beingthesecondoneinthesamefamilytofallavictimtothisgreatscourgeof
NewEngland.Anothermemberofthefamily,Frederick,abrotherofHenry,isnowsupposed
tobeinthelaststagesofconsumption,andinordertostaytheravagesofthediseasethe
bodyofHenryhasbeendisinterredforthepurposeofremovingandburningtheheart,this
beingsupposedtobeasovereignremedy,thepopulartheorybeingthatthereexistsbetween
bloodrelationsasympatheticlinkwhichdeathdoesnotentirelysever,andwhich,unless
interrupted,oftentimesworksinjurytothelivingandsometimesresultsindeath.
ThereferencedsympatheticlinkforeshadowsSirJamesGeorgeFrazerslaterelaboration
ofsympatheticmagicinhisGoldenBough.Bothbranchesofmagic,thehomoeopathicand
thecontagious,hewrotein1890,mayconvenientlybecomprehendedunderthegeneral
nameofSympatheticMagic,sincebothassumethatthingsactoneachotheratadistance
throughasecretsympathy,theimpulsebeingtransmittedfromonetotheotherbymeansof
whatwemayconceiveasakindofinvisibleether,notunlikethatwhichispostulatedby
modernscience...toexplainhowthingscanphysicallyaffecteachotherthroughaspace
whichappearstobeempty.
Thearchaeologicalrecordshowsthatearlyhumanshadformedongoingbondswiththeir
deceasedcompanions.And,forbetterorworse,allhumanculturescontinuetomaintain
connectionstothedead.AnthropologistSergeiKanproposedthecentralpositionofsymbolic
immortality,whichisacontinuoussymbolicrelationshipbetweenourfiniteindividuallives
andwhathasgonebeforeusandwhatwillcomeafter.Aswehaveseen,vampirecases
incarnateacontinuouslinkthatisdevastatingtothelivingandmustbedestroyedtoreturn
thefamilyandcommunitytotheirproperorder.Endingthisevilrelationshipisaccomplished
byconductinganadditional,orsecondary,mortuaryritual(theburialitselfbeingthefirst,or
primary,ritual).Theprimaryandsecondarydisposaloftheremainsofthedeadtermed
doubleobsequiesbyanthropologistsaffirmsthattheprocessofthecorpsesdecay,the
mourningregulationsimposedonthebereavedandthetransformationofthespiritofthe
deceasedparalleleachother.Oncethecorpsehasfullydeterioratedorhasbeendestroyed
byhumanmeansandthedoubleobsequiescarriedout,mourningcomestoanendandthe
spiritofthedeceasedisfirmlyestablishedinitsnewexistence.Thesecondarymortuary
ritualcarriedoutinNorthAmericawasintendedtoidentifywhichcorpsehadnotfully
deterioratedandthereforewasyettobefirmlyestablishedinitsnewexistence.Burningthe

corpseoritsheartendedtheunnaturalrelationshipbetweendeadandlivingkinand,ina
practicalsense,completedthemourning,thusallowingthelivingtoleaveotherworldly
concernsandreturntotheirmoremundaneconcerns.
Death,ormoreprecisely,thedemarcationbetweenlifeanddeath,isatthecenterofthe
vampiretradition(inanyofitsvariants).Whenfrightenedpeopleexhumedthebodyofa
deceasedrelative,theywerelookingforsignsthatwouldeitherreassurethemthatdeathwas
completeoralertthemthattheyneededtotakefurtherstepstoextinguishwhateverflickerof
vitalityremainedwithintheproblematiccorpse.ReverendJustusForwardmadeitclearinhis
letterthattheremainsofhismotherinlaw,MarthaDicksinson,didnotappeartothose
presentincludingmedicaldoctorstobesuspiciouslyfresh:herfacehadcollapsedandher
lungswereinanadvancedstageofdecomposition.Whentheexhumersproceededto
Forwardsdaughter,MarthaDwight,thefollowingday,Forwardwrotethathewasunableto
speculateonwhetherthestateofhercorpsewasnatural,ashehadnoexperiencewith
viewingcorpsesafterinterment.Inapostscripttohisletter,ForwardimpliedthatDr.Scott
whoopenedthebodyalsohadnoexperiencewithhumancadavers.Dr.Scotts
suppositionabouttheappearanceofMarthaDwightslungsandliverinsuchastateashe
shouldsupposetheywouldinacreaturewhichwasopenedandhunguptillitbeganto
taintreadslikeananalogytodressingwildgameorslaughteringfarmstock.Hisonlydirect
referencetohumanphysiologywaswhenhecomparedthebloodfoundinherlungstoblood
drawnfromapersonsarmthathasstood26hours.Dr.Scottundoubtedlywasintimately
familiarwithdrawinghumanblood,asbloodlettingwasacoremedicalprocedureatthattime.
ItisplaininForwardsaccount,asinmostoftheothervampirenarratives,thatthoseinvolved
intherapeuticexhumationsviewedputrefactionastheconditionthatseparatedlifefrom
death.Acorpsethathadnotsufficientlydecomposedwasviewed,atbest,asambiguousand
thereforeathreattotheliving.Thecrucialtestofwhetherasatisfactorylevelofputrefaction
hadoccurredwastheabsenceofliquidblood(interpretedasfreshblood)inthevitalorgans,
especiallytheheart.AsPaulBarberexplainedinVampires,Burial,andDeath,Presumably
thevampirekillersexpectedthebloodtoremaincoagulated,butwereastonishedtofind
thatitwasfresh.Barberelaboratedthispoint,arguingthattheappearanceofbloodinliquid
formisnocauseforsurprise.Blooddoescoagulateafterdeath,butthen,dependingon
howdeathoccurred,iteitherremainscoagulatedorliquifiesonceagain.Buttheexhumers
whofoundliquidbloodhavingnoaccesstothereassuringsciencereferencedbyBarber
wereastonished.Theyweremakingjudgmentsbasedonanancientandwidespreadfolk
principlethattoldthemliquidproclaimslife,anaxiomthatgoesbackatleasttotheGreek
conceptionoflifeasthegradualdiminishingofliquidinsideaman.
Fromdusttodustwasmorethanaproverborpopularreligious/funerealaphorism:it
encapsulatedanentiretheory,afolkmodelaboutthebalanced,neverending,drywetdry
cycleoflife.TheearlyNewEnglandmedicalcommunitycontinuedtoputfaith(anditwas
faithbased)intheancienttheoryofHippocratesthatthefourhumorsofphlegm,choler,
bile,andbloodcontrolledthehumanbody.Apersonbecameillwhenthesefluidsorvapors
wentoutofbalance.Physicianswouldpurgethedigestivetractwithcatharticsandemeticsor
bleedthepatienttorestorebalanceandgoodhealth.Boththescientificandfolkideasystems
regardedbloodastheprincipalhumoritcontainedtheessence,orvitalspirit,ofthecreature

inwhichitflowed.Andifbloodwastheriveroflife,theheartwasitswellspringandreservoir.
MargaretLocksobservationthat,Forseveralcenturies,theheartwasusually...
understoodastheorganthatgovernedhumanlifeandallvitalprinciplesdistinguishesa
necessaryfoundationforNewEnglandsvampirepractice:theheartsblood.Physiciansand
laymenalikebelievedthatthebrightred(thatis,oxygenated)bloodfromaconsumptives
lunghemorrhagescamedirectlyfromtheheart.Whenvampirehuntersencounteredliquid
bloodinthevitalorgansofacorpse,theybelievedthatdeathwasincomplete.Burning
hastenedthenecessaryandirreversibledryingprocess.ThenarrativerecountingRachel
HarrisBurtonsexhumationinWoodstock,Vermont,clearlyshowshowtheselongheldideas
wereinstantiatedthroughapplicationinactualsocialsituations:Ifapersondiedof
consumptionandoneofthefamily...wasattackedsoonafter,people...openedthegrave
atonceandexaminedtheheartifbloodlessanddecaying,thediseasewassupposedtobe
fromsomeothercause,andtheheartwasrestoredtoitsbodybutiftheheartwasfreshand
containedliquidblood,itwasfeedingonthelifeofthesickperson.Inallsuchcases,they
burnedthehearttoashes.
Putrefactionasthedefinitivesignofdeathwassharedbyboththefolkandthebiomedical
culturalsystems,undoubtedlybecauseitwasregardedasapathofnoreturn.Inherbook,
TwiceDead,whichaddressescontemporaryissuesconcerningthedemarcationofdeathin
contextoforgantransplants,MargaretLockassertsthatbiologicaldeathhasalwaysbeen
recognizedonthebasisofchangestothebodythatarejudgedirreversible.Atthebeginning
ofthenineteenthcentury,thebiomedicalcommunitybegantoembracethecardiopulmonary
standard,whichmarksdeathasthepointatwhichtheheartandlungsceasetofunction.
However,asLockobserved,theolderconceptionpersistedintothebeginningofthe
twentiethcenturyaseminentpractitionerscontinuedtohavedoubtsabouttheirabilityto
objectivelyassessdeathandinsistedthatnothingshortofputrefactioncoulddistinguish
deathfromlife.Themedicalestablishmentsdoubtsabouttheirabilitytofixwithcertaintythe
pointofdeathwecanpicturethenervousphysicianholdingafeatherinfrontofthepatients
nosewasreflectedinthefearofprematureburialamongmanyofthegeneralpopulace.
Indeed,prematureburialevenhasbeenofferedasareasonfortheoriginofbeliefin
vampires.Howmanypeople,ifany,actuallywereburiedalivehasbeenhotlydebated.But,
whetherfactuallybasedornot,peopleactedontheirfearfulbeliefs,andanentirecommercial
industrywascreatedtogivepeoplethepeaceofmindthattheycouldsignalfromthegraveto
theliving,Imnotdeadyet!incasethatbecametheirhorriblefate.
ContemporaryAmericansmightlookbacktotheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturieswith
smugnessandseeanenormousgapinknowledgeyet,asLockhasclearlydemonstrated,
thecomplexitiesofunresolvablequestionsaboutthedeterminationofdeathcontinueinto
thepresent,andtheambiguitiesthatplaguedearlyNewEnglandershavereturned.Some
questions,likethevampiresthemselves,willnotresteasy.Themedicalprofessionsfailureto
understandandsuccessfullytreattuberculosispriortothetwentiethcenturynourishedthe
beliefinvampires.Adifferentsortoffailurebythebiomedicalparadigmhasreintroducedthe
ambiguouslivingdead.InLockswords,Thesefundamentalissuesremainunresolved
becausekeyconceptsthatwerecognizeaslife,suchaspersonhood,cannotbemeasured
bymedicaldevices.Theworkofdoctorsintheearlytwentiethcenturytomedicalizedeath
andmakefoolproofitsassessmenthavenotwithstoodthetestoftimeortheinventionofthe

artificialventilator.WhenLockdiscussesthecurrentconceptofbraindeath,wecannothelp
butpicturethedisturbingvampireimage:Thenewdeath,withitsambiguousfigureofthe
livingcadaver,hasrekindleddoubtsabouterrorandprematuredeclarationsofdeath.Her
concludingremarksonlocatingbiologicaldeathechotheancient,oftenanxious,unbroken
sympatheticlinkstothedead:Concernaboutbaddeathsthosethatareunnatural,
accidental,oruntimely,orrepugnantisauniversal,ageoldpreoccupation.Technologically
orchestrateddeathsappearintuitivelytomanypeopletobeunnatural.Weworrythat
individualswhodiebaddeathssufferunduly,and,eventhoughmostofusconsidersuch
thoughtsirrational,evensomehealthcarepractitionersmaybeharrowedbytheideathatthis
sufferingwillcomebacktohaunttheliving.
Inresponsetothecurrentambiguityandcontroversysurroundingtheconceptofbraindeath,
somephysicianshaveadvocatedareturntothetraditionalcardiopulmonarystandard,
arguingthatdeathisabiologicaleventratherthanaprocessrequiringsocialconsensus.
Lockobserves,Thepointatwhichirreversibilitycanbeconfidentlydeclaredhasbeenmoved
earlierandearlierovertheyearsasaresultofsystematizedapplicationofmedical
knowledgeandtechnologies.NeurologistRobertTaylor,quotedinLock,assertsthatthe
properbiologicaldefinitionofdeathistheeventthatseparatestheprocessofdyingfrom
theprocessofdisintegrationandthat,therefore,thepropercriterionofdeathisthe
permanentcessationofthecirculationofbloodaformulationthatseemsimplicitinthe
vampirehunterssearchforliquidbloodintheheart,takenasevidencethatfreshbloodwas
stillflowinganddeathwasthereforeincomplete.
BythetimethatMercyBrownsheartwasremovedfromhercorpseandburned,in1892,
significantculturalchangeshadconvergedtorenderthevampirepracticeobsolete(ifnot
completelyabandoned):EdwardKochhadannouncedhisdiscoveryofthetuberculosis
microbe,andmoreandmorepeoplewereembracingembalmingandintermentbymortuary
professionalsasthepreferredmethodfortreatingdeceasedrelatives.Amongtheelites,there
wasagrowingperceptionthatcivilizationwaspoisedtowinthewaragainstsuperstition
andvampiresdidvirtuallydisappearfromAmericancemeteries.Butambiguouscorpseshave
returnedinacontemporarysetting:livingcadaversattachedtoartificialventilatorsinintensive
careunits.In1788,ReverendJusticeForwardwonderedifthe(un)deadinthecemeteries
werepreyingontheliving.TodaysambiguouscorpseslyingintheICUhavepromptedmany
peopletoquestionifthelivingarepreyingonthe(un)dead.Whatspastisprologueand
deathcontinuestomystify.

Note:IaddressedvariantsoftheseideasinVampiresandDeathinNewEngland,1784to
1892inBecomingDead:TheEntangledAgenciesoftheDearlyDeparted,aspecialedition
ofAnthropologyandHumanism31(2006),pp.124140,editedbyBilindaS.Straightandin
AmericanVampires:TheOngoingAmbiguityofDeath,anunpublishedpaperdeliveredat
theconference,Vampires:MythsofthePastandtheFuture,November2,2011,atThe
InstituteofGermanic&RomanceStudies,UniversityofLondon.Amoredetailed
interpretationoftheAmericanvampiretraditioncanbefoundinmybookFoodfortheDead:
OntheTrailofNewEnglandsVampires(WesleyanUniversityPress,2011).

Volume10,March2013,ISSN15525112
Notes
.ACuriousOldLetter,GreenfieldGazette&Courier,10September1877,1.
.JohnS.Pettibone,TheEarlyHistoryofManchester,ProceedingsoftheVermontHistorical
Society1(1930):158.
.CumberlandTownCouncilRecords,TownCouncilMeetingof8February1796
(Cumberland,RhodeIsland,1796).
.RockwellStephens,TheyBurnedtheVampiresHearttoAshes,VermontLife21,no.1
(1966):47.
.HenryS.Nourse,HistoryoftheTownofHarvardMassachusetts,17311893(Harvard,MA:
PrintedforWarrenHapgood,1894),1045.
.AlanC.Swedlund,ShadowsintheValley:ACulturalHistoryofIllness,Death,andLossin
NewEngland,18401916(Amherst&Boston:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,
2010),19799.
.VampiresandBacteria,ChicagoDailyTribune,5June1892,28.
.ReneDubosandJeanDubos,TheWhitePlague:Tuberculosis,ManandSociety(Boston:
Little,BrownandCompany,1952),118,Brown(Sci)RC310D82.
.JohnMcNabCurrier,ContributionstoNewEnglandFolkLore,JournalofAmerican
Folklore4,no.14(1891):253.
.GeorgeR.Stetson,TheAnimisticVampireinNewEngland,AmericanAnthropologist9,
no.1(1896):3.
.CharlesM.Skinner,MythsandLegendsofOurOwnLand(Philadelphia:J.B.Lippincott
Co.,1896),7677.
.AdalineM.Tirrell,LegendsofHampshireHillsOldNahumHadHisJokes,Springfield
Republican,25August1929,4E.
.FredericDenison,WesterlyandItsWitnesses(Providence,RI:J.A.&R.A.Reid,
1878),255.
.J.R.Cole,TheHistoryofTollandCounty,Connecticut(NewYork:W.W.Preston&Co.,
1888),499.
.SingularSuperstitioninWesternMassachusetts,GreenvilleArgus,1October1869,1.
.HorribleSuperstition,AdamsSentinel,29January1867,1.

.CincinnatiDailyGazette,20September1869,3.
.JamesGeorgeFrazer,TheGoldenBough:AStudyinMagicandReligion,3ded.(London:
Macmillan,191115),vol.3,p.12.
.SergeiKan,SymbolicImmortality:TheTlingitPotlatchoftheNineteenthCentury
(WashingtonD.C.:SmithsonianInstitutionPress,1989),15.
.Kan,p.13.
.ACuriousOldLetter,GreenfieldGazette&Courier,10September1877,1.
.PaulBarber,Vampires,Burial,andDeath:FolkloreandReality(NewHaven:YaleUniversity
Press,1988),114.
.AlanDundes,WetandDry,theEvilEye:AnEssayinIndoEuropeanandSemitic
Worldview,inInterpretingFolklore,ed.AlanDundes(Bloomington,Indiana:Indiana
UniversityPress,1980),102.
.MargaretLock,TwiceDead:OrganTransplantsandtheReinventionofDeath(Berkeley:
UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2002),74.
.JeremiahCurtin,EuropeanFolkLoreintheUnitedStates,JournalofAmericanFolklore2,
no.4(1889):5859.
.Lock,p.41.
.Lock,p.66.
.Lock,p.74.
.Lock,p.75.
.Lock,p.75.
.Lock,p.41.
.Lock,p.59.
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