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UNIT

Function of Complex Variable


1.1 INTRODUCTION
We start by remarking that complex analysis is sometimes known as the study of the four C's: convergence,
continuity, compactness and connectedness. In real analysis, we have analyzed convergence and continuity.
Complex analysis is one of the classical branches in mathematics with its origins in the 19th century
and some even before. Important names are Euler, Gauss, Riemann, Cauchy, Weierstrass, and other in
the 20th century. Usually, complex analysis is the study of complex valued functions of complex
variables. In modern times, it became very popular by a new advance of complex kinetics and the
pictures of fractals (a geometric pattern that is repeated at every scale and so cannot be represented
by classical geometry) produced by iterating holomorphic (complex valued and complex
differentiable) i.e., analytic functions, the most popular being the Mandelbrot set (A set of complex
numbers that has a highly convoluted fractal boundary when plotted; the set of all points in the
complex plane that are bounded under a certain mathematical iteration). Another important
application of complex analysis today is in string theory (particle physics) a theory that postulates
that subatomic particles are one-dimensional strings) which is a conformally constant quantum
field theory.

1.2 COMPLEX NUMBERS


You must have read in your intermediate classes that the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has its
roots real, equal or imaginary (complex) according as its discriminant b2 4ac is greater, equal or less
than zero. Also we know that the square of any real number is never negative and as such our real
number system fails to give the solution of the equations of the type x2 + 1 = 0 or x2 4x + 7 = 0.
Further your teacher must have asked you to take i2 = 1 and then introduced that x + iy where x and y
are real is called a complex number. Thus complex numbers were introduced to provide solutions of
algebraic equations of the above type
Definition: A complex number is a quantity of the form
z = x + iy

...(i)

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Where the real numbers x and y are called as the real and imaginary parts of z which are denoted
by
Re (z) = x and Im (z) = y
The term
Therefore

x 2 + y 2 taken with positive sign is called the modulus of z and denoted by z

z = x 2 + y2

The conjugate of complex number is denoted by z and defined as

z = x iy

...(ii)

z+z
z+z
Re (z) =
2
2
zz
zz
Result 2 : Subtracting equations (i) and (ii), we get y =
Im ( z) =
2i
2i
Complex numbers are used in engineering, particularly in electronics. Real numbers are used to
denote electrical resistance, imaginary numbers are used to denote reactance, and complex numbers are
used to represent impedance.
Result 1: Adding equations (i) and (ii), we get x =

Geometrical Representation of Complex Number


A complex number can also be viewed as a point or a position
vector on the two dimensional Cartesian coordinate system.
This representation is sometimes named as Argand
diagram. In the figure, we have
z = x + iy = r (cos q + i sin q)
Where r is called the absolute value of z and q is called
the complex argument of z.

Fig. 1.1

1.3 FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLE


A complex function is a function in which the independent variable (say) z and the dependent variable
(say) w are both complex numbers. Therefore, a complex variable w (dependent) is said to be function
of complex variable z (independent) if for each value of z = x + iy in a certain region R, there correspond
one or more definite values of w. The function of complex variable is denoted by
w = (z)
Since w is a complex variable, so it is written as
w = (z) = u + iv
Where u and v both are the functions of x, y respectively.
i.e.,

u = u(x, y) and v = v(x, y)

FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLE

Single-valued and Multi-valued Function


A single-valued function is function that, for each point in the domain, has a unique value in the range.
Therefore, it is one-to-one or many-to-one.
Thus if w takes only one value for each value of z in the region R, then w is said to be singlevalued (uniform) function of z in the region R.
If there correspond two or more values of w for some or all values of z in the region R then w is
said to be a multi-valued function of z.

1.4 CONTINUITY
A function w = (z) is said to be continuous at z = z0 if (z0) exists, lim f ( z) exists and lim (z) = (z0).
z z0

z z0

Further (z) is said to be continuous in any region R of the z-plane, if it is continuous at every point of the
region R.

Remark
It is noteworthy that if (z) is continuous then both u and v are also continuous.
1.5 DIFFERENTIABILITY
A function w = (z) defined in a certain Region R is said to be differentiable at z = z0 if the limit
'(z0) = lim

z 0

= lim

z z0

f ( z0 + z) f (z0 )
z
f ( z) f ( z0 )
z z0

As z = z0 + z

exist. The above limit should be the same along any path from z to z0
derivative of (z) : If w = (z) is differentiable in the region R then the derivative of (z) is defined as

f ( z + z) f ( z)
dw
= f (z) = lim
.
z0
dz
z

1.6 ANALYTIC FUNCTION


A single-valued function w = (z) in a region R is said to be analytic at a point z = a if (z) is
differentiable not only a but at every point of some neighbourhood of a.
If a function (z) is analytic at every point of a certain region R then (z) is said to be analytic in
that region. An analytic function is also known as holomorphic, regular function.

Remark
A function (z) may be differentiable in a region except possibly for a finite number of points. These
points are called singular points or singularities of (z) in the region.

1.7 CAUCHY-RIEMANN (C-R) EQUATIONS (CARTESIAN COORDINATES)


The Cauchy-Riemann equations, named after Augustin Cauchy and Bernhard Riemann, consist of a
system of two partial differential equations that provides a necessary and sufficient condition for a
function (z) to be analytic.

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Theorem 1: Necessary conditions for (z) to be analytic: The necessary condition for w = (z) = u
+ iv to be analytic at any point z = x + iy is that the four partial derivatives

v
u u v
, ,
and
should
y
x y x

exist and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations

u
v
=
x
y

and

u
v
=
y
x

Proof: Let (z) be analytic at any point z in a region R then by differentiability, we have

f (z + z) f ( z)
z 0
z
(z) = u + iv

f (z) = lim
We know that
\

...(i)

(z +dz) = u + du + i(v + dv)

From equation (i), we get

[u + u + i(v + v)] (u + iv)


z0
z

f (z) = lim

u + iv
z0
z

= lim
or

u
v
f (z) = lim + i lim
z 0 z
z 0 z
Since '(z) exists, the limit value along two paths must be equal.

Path I: Along x-axis (real


Since
but on
x-axis,
\

...(ii)

axis)
z = x + iy
y= 0
z = x or dz dx,

From equation (ii), we get

or

u
v
f (z) = lim + i lim
x 0 x
x 0 x
u
v
+i
f (z) =
x
x
Path II: Along y-axis (imaginary axis)

on y-axis
\

x= 0
z = iy

and

dz dy

dz = idy
Again from equation (ii), we get

u iv
u v
= lim i +
+
f (z) = lim
y 0 iy
iy y 0 y y

...(iii)

FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLE

u
v
f (z) = i lim + lim
y 0 y y 0 y
u v
f (z) = i +
y y

or
or

...(iv)

From equations (iii) and (iv), we obtain

u v
u
v
= i +
+i
y y
x
x
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have
u v
u
v
= and
=
x y
y
x
or
u x = v y and uy = v x
These are Cauchy-Riemann equations.
Theorem 2: Sufficient condition for (z) to be analytic
The function w = (z) is analytic in a region R if
u v u
v
= ,
=
(i)
x y y
x
(ii) The partial derivatives

f (z) = u( x, y) + iv( x, y)

Proof: Let
\

v
u u v
, ,
and
are all continuous in R.
y
x y x

f ( z + z) = u( x + x, y + y) + iv( x + x, y + y)

Expand by Taylors* theorem and neglecting the higher power in terms of dx and dy, we get

u
v
u
v
f ( z + z) = u( x, y) + x + y + i v( x, y) + x + y
y
y
x
x

u v
u v
= [u( x, y) + iv ( x, y)] + + i x + + i y
x
y
x
y
u v
u v
f ( z + z) = f ( z ) + + i x + + i y
x
y
x
y

or
We are given

* f ( x + h, y + k ) = f ( x , y) +

u
v u
v
= ,
=
x
y y
x

1 f

f 1 f
f
h + k + h + k + K
y
y
1 x
2 x

...(i)

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Using these values in equation (i), we get


v
u
u
v
f ( z + z) = f ( z ) + + i x + + i y

x
x
x
x

v
v
u
u
= f ( z ) + + i x + + i iy

x
x
x
x

v
u
= f ( z ) + + i (x + iy)

x
x

v
u
f ( z + z) = f ( z ) + + i z
x
x

or

f (z + z) f ( z)
u
v
=
+i
z
x
x
f ( z + z) f ( z)
v
u
lim
=
+i
z 0
z
x
x
u
v
+i
f (z) =

x
x
u v
But we are given
are continues i.e. they exist
,
x x
Therefore '(z) in equation (ii) also exist.

or

...(ii)

i.e. (z) is differentiable.


Hence the function (z) is analytic.
Note : Although C-R equations are satisfied but it is not compulsory that the function (z) is analytic until the
partial derivatives continuous.

1.8 CAUCHY-RIEMANN (C-R) EQUATIONS IN POLAR COORDINATES


Let

w = (z)

or

w = (x + iy)

As z = x + iy

or

w = (r cos q + ir sin q)

or

w = (r (cos q + i sin q))

x = r cos
y = r sin

or

w = (reiq)

u + iv = (reiq)

As cos + i sin = ei
...(i)

Differentiating equation (i) partially w.r.t. r, we get

u
v
= f (rei )ei
+i
r
r

...(ii)

FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLE

Again differentiating equation (i) partially w.r.t. q, we get

u
v
+i
= f (rei )rei i

...(iii)

Using equation (ii) in equation (iii), we get


u
v
v
u
u
v
r
= ri + i = ir
+i
r
r
r

r
Equating real and imaginary part, we get

As i 2 = 1

1 u
v
u
v

=
= r
r
r

r
u 1 v
v
u

=
=r
and
r r

r
Thus, the C-R equations in polar coordinates are
1 u
u 1 v
v
and
=
=
r
r r
r

1.9 HARMONIC FUNCTION

(U.P.T.U., (Sem III) 2002)

Any function of x and y say u(x, y), having continuous partial derivatives of first and second order and
also satisfying Laplaces equation is called a Harmonic function.
The Laplace equation is

2u
x 2

2u
y 2

= 0.

Note: u is called conjugate harmonic function of v and v is called conjugate-harmonic function of u.

Theorem: The real and imaginary parts u and v of an analytic function of (z) are harmonic.
Proof: We are given that (z) is an analytic function.

u
v
u
v
and
=
=
x
y
y
x

By C-R equations

2u

x 2

...(i)

2v
2v
2u
and 2 =
yx
xy
y

On adding, we get

2u
x 2

Again from equation (i)

2u
y 2

=0

2u
2v
2u
2v
= 2 and
= 2
xy
xy
y
x

...(ii)

A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICSIII

On adding, we get

2v
x 2

2v
y 2

=0

...(iii)

Hence from equations (ii) and (iii) both u and v are harmonic functions.

1.10 CONSTRUCTION OF ANALYTIC FUNCTION


Let (z) = u + iv be an analytic function where both u and v are conjugate functions. If one of these is
given then to find other. There are two methods to determine the function u or v.
Method I:
Let

(z) = u + iv

...(i)

Suppose u is given and v is to find.


Since

v = v (x, y)

\ By total differentiation, we have


dv =

v
v
dx + dy
y
x

dv =

or

u
u
dx + dy
y
x

As
...(i)

u v
= , C - R equation
x y
v
u
=
x
y

The R.H.S. of equation (i) is of the form Mdx + Ndy,

M =

where

u
u
,N =
y
x

M
2 u N 2 u
= 2,
=
y
y x x 2

...(ii)

But u is harmonic function so that

2u
x 2

2u
y 2

=0

\ from equation (ii), we get

2u
x 2

2u
y 2

2u
M
= 2
y
y

and

N
2u
= 2
x
y

M
N
=
y
x
which is the condition of any differential equation of the Mdx + Ndy = 0, to be exact. So equation (i)
can be integrated and v can be found.
Hence both u and v are known and as such (z) = u + iv can be determined.

FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLE

Method II: Milne-Thompson Method


(i) Let u is given and v is to be find
we know that
z = x + iy

z = x iy

and
\

x =

Now

z+z
zz
, y=
2
2i

w = (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y)

...(i)

z+z zz
z+z zz
f (z) = u
,
,

+ iv
2
2
2i
i

2
This relation is an identify* in two independent variables z and z .

...(ii)

Putting z = z in equation (ii), we get


(z) = u(z, 0) + iv (z, 0)
\ from equations (i) and (iii), we get x = z and y = 0.

...(iii)

Now
or
Here we choose,

f (z) =

u
v
+i
x
x

f (z) =

u u
i
x
y

...(iv)
...(v)

u
= 1 ( x, y) = 1 ( z, 0)
dx
u
= 2 ( x, y) = 2 ( z, 0)
dy

As

u
v
= (C - R equation)
y
x

As x = z, y = 0

Putting these values in equation (v), we get

f (z) = 1 (z, 0) i 2 ( z, 0)
On integrating, we get

f ( z) =

{1 (z, 0) i2 (z, 0)}dz + C

Above gives the construction of function (z) when u is given.


(ii) Similarly if v(x, y) is given and u is to be found then.
Putting

u v
in equation (iv), we get
=
x y
f (z) =

v
v
+i
y
x

*An identity is a relation which satisfies for every value of the variable.
Ex. sin2 q + cos2 q = 1, is an identity which satisfies for every value of q.

...(vi)

10

A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICSIII

v
= 1 ( x, y) = 1 ( z, 0)
y
v
= 2 ( x, y) = 2 (z, 0)
and
x
From equation (vi), we get
Now choose

f (z) = 1 (z, 0) + i 2 ( z, 0)
On integrating, we get

f ( z) = [1 (z, 0) + i 2 ( z, 0)] dz + C

Working Rules
(i) If u is given find

u
u
= 2 ( x, y) .
= 1 ( x, y) and
y
x

(ii) Putting x = z and y = 0 in above, get the value of f1 (z, 0) and f2 (z, 0).
(iii) Use the value of f1 (z, 0) and f2 (z, 0) in the formula
f (z) =

[1 (z, 0) i2 (z, 0)] dz + C

which gives the required analytic function.


Similar working rule if v is given
(i) Find

v
v
= 1 ( x, y) and
= 2 ( x, y)
y
x

(ii) Putting x = z and y = 0, get the value of y1 (z, 0) and y2 (z, 0).
(iii) Use the value of y1 (z, 0) and y2 (z, 0) in the formula

f (z) = [1 (z, 0) + i 2 (z, 0)] dz + c


which gives the required analytic function.

Entire Function
If w = (z) is analytic at every value of z in a region is called entire function.

1.11 PROPERTIES OF ANALYTIC FUNCTION


1. If (z) and g(z) are analytic then g, . g and /g are also analytic provided that g(z) 0.
2. If (z) is analytic, then it is continuous.
3. Analytic function of an analytic function is analytic function again.
4. An entire function of an entire function is again entire function.

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