Precast Concrete Digest PDF

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PRECAST
digest
A Pioneering Initiative from
The Masterbuilder
V1: Issue: 1
A Special Compilation
of Precast Articles
A Priceless Compilation
of Precast Articles
from The Masterbuilder
Influence of Steel Fibres, Used in Conjunction With Unconfined

Rebar Configurations, on the Structural Performance of
Precast Elements
The Future of Indian Construction - Precast Technology
l
The Indian Precast Industry - Gaining Prominence
l
Analysis of Multi Storey Building with Precast Load Bearing Walls
l
Practical and Economical Design Aspects of Precast Concrete
l
Large Panel Building Structures
l
Hollowcore Manufacturing and Factory Design
l
Precast Concrete Codal Provisions Comparison of Various Codes
l
Accelerated Curing: An Approach for Improving Concrete Production
l
Casting a Concrete Future: Indian Pre-cast concrete Building Industry
l
What you will find in this edition of precast digest

MB's Precast Digest is a special compilation of articles, case studies, communication features on precast contributed by industry experts. This special compilation is
meant to disseminate critical information on a broad range of topics with the objective
of improving quality, safety, and economy in all types of precast and a must read for
anyone working with concrete.
The
Biggest Event in India on

Precast
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2014
Date: November 9 - 13, 2014
Precast Digest is also meant to be a one stop source for those who would like to
gather information on leading precast and scaffolding products that are available in
the country at a simple click of a button.
International Seminar and Exhibition on
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Elematic India Private Limited
3Koll Concrete Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Page No. 49
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Halfen. When Safety Counts.
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Halfen Moment India Private Limited
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things we build well.
Page No. 57, 59, 61
Malar Energy & Infrastructure

Pvt. Ltd.
Page No. 25
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The Best and Fastest Precast

Column Connection Arrived
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Page No. 65
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for the Precast Concrete Industry
RBBR Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd.
Concrete Slab Extruder

Machine and Precast Design
Consultancy Services
Page No. 19
Apollo Inffratech Pvt. Ltd. (Spiroll)

Page No. 49
Teemage Precast In
Page No. Back Inner Cover
Gain the Advantage!

Nordimpianti System SRL
Page No. 45
PPS
Offers Structural Design
Services, Services for
Precast Concrete Structures
Precision Precast Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
Page No. 115
Precast for Real Estate and

Infrastructure
Weckenmann Anlagentechnik GmbH

& Co. KG
Page No. Back Outer Cover
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If you would like to receive more information on the solutions and services offered by the above mentioned precast manufacturers & suppliers in
India please write to us at dicomnett@gmail.com
THE MASTERBUILDER
PRECAST
digest
V1: Issue: 1
A Special Compilation of
Precast Articles
Influence of Steel Fibres, Used in Conjunction With Unconfined
Rebar Configurations, on the Structural Performance of
Precast Elements
l
l
l
l
Practical and Economical Design Aspects of Precast Concrete
l
l
l
l
Accelerated Curing: An Approach for Improving Concrete Production
l
Casting a Concrete Future: Indian Pre-cast concrete Building Industry
l
Content
7
15
21

Bhavani Balakrishna

J.D. Chaitanya Kumar1, Lute Venkat2
1
PG Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering,
GVP College of Engineering (A), Visakhapatnam
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Influence of Steel Fibres, Used in Conjunction With Unconfined Rebar Configurations,

on the Structural Performance of Precast Elements
Gary P. Robinson*, Alessandro Palmeri1 and Simon A. Austin1
*Centre for Innovative and Collaborative Engineering (CICE),
Loughborough University, Sir Frank Gibb Building, Loughborough, UK
1
Dep. Civil and Building Eng., Loughborough University,
Sir Frank Gibb Building, Loughborough, UK
28
Practical and Economical Design Aspects of Precast Concrete Large Panel Building
Structures
Bob van Gils (Director), WBK Engineering Services Pvt. Ltd. and Van Boxsel Engineering Pvt. Ltd.
36
41
53
57
62
68
74
79
83
91

Stephen Carr (C Eng MI Mech E), Spiroll Precast Services Ltd.

Prasad. C.A., M.Tech, M(ASCE), FIE, MSEI, CE(I) Managing Partner, PS Engineering Consultants Secretary,
Pre Engineered Structures Society of India

Snehal Joshi
Accelerated Curing: An approach for Improving Concrete Production

Casting a Concrete Future: Indian Pre-cast Concrete Building Industry
Chaitanya Raj Goyal
Pre-Cast Concrete Elements in Construction - Emerging Scenario in India

P. Surya Prakash, Chief Consultant Satya Vani Projects and Construction, Hyderabad
U.S. Experience with Seismic Design and Construction of Precast Concrete Structures
S.K. Ghosh Associates Inc., Palatine, IL and Aliso Viejo, CA
Zero Energy System for Precast Concrete: An Overview

Sonjoy Deb, B.Tech, 'Civil', Associate Editor
Precast Manufacturing Facility

Amit Kumar P. Patel, P.E., Project Engineer with Blue Ridge Design, Inc. Winchester, VA, USA
Formwork for Precast - An Overview

Mangesh Kumar Hardas, Director, Precision Precast Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
95
Precast Segment Reinforced with Dramix Steel Fiber
99
Precast Concrete Structure: Design Aspects and it's Implementation in India
103 Curing Methods for Precast Concrete Applications and Their Impact
Sonjoy Deb, B.Tech, 'Civil', N.I.T.Silchar, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology
47
108 Precast Concrete for Building Systems

Sonjoy Deb, B.Tech, 'Civil', N.I.T.Silchar, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology
117 An Overview of Construction of Buildings in Precast Concrete

Mangesh Kumar Hardas, Director, Precision Precast Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
121 Making a Mark with Fused Wire Mesh Technology
PRECAST BUILDING: INDUSTRY REPORT
THE INDIAN
PRECAST INDUSTRY
- GAINING PROMINENCE
Bhavani Balakrishna
hile a majority of Indian structures

both residential, commercial and
infrastructure are being built the
cast in place or in-situ mode, there is a growing popularity for precast technology within
the Indian construction community. Precast construction technology is not new in
India. It has been adopted in India from past
many years, but was mostly limited to civil
structures such as tunnels, bridges&
flyovers and underpasses. However, until a
decade back adoption of modern and innovative construction technology and practices by the Indian realty sector was slow
and therefore precast , though widely used
across the globe for its inherent advantages,
did not catch the fancy of the industry.
THE MASTERBUILDER
V1 N1 July 2014
PRECAST
concrete digest
"With current scenario, there is

huge demand in hospitality as well
affordable housing apart from
industrial growth. On top of these
huge development requirement,
timelines are ever tight to complete
the project".
Prakash Shah
Head, Technical Support, Elematic India Pvt.Ltd
Today, with critical housing shortages, rising labour and input costs and an in-creased
emphasis on quality and timely delivery,
more and more developers are opting for
innovative construction practices like precast.
Rising Popularity of Precast
According to industry experts, apart
from certain countries in Asia-Pacific, the
rest of the world is increasingly using precast as their mode of construction in a
majority of projects. The construction industry in India is around USD 500 million and precast has only 2% share vis--vis the traditional method of construction. However, a
gradual shift is occurring and precast building technology is rapidly gaining a foothold in
the Indian market and primary among them
is the need for affordable housing.
The speed of urbanization poses an
unprecedented challenge for the construction industry. The 12th Plan Working Group
on Financing Urban Infrastructure estimated the urban housing shortage in the
country at about 29 million units. The
demand for affordable housing is likely to
rise from 25 million households to more
than 38 million units by 2030, by when the
urban population is likely to surge to 600 million. Poverty, the sheer scale of population
growth and the huge rates of ur-banisation
as people move from the countryside into
the cities will add to the housing shortages.
The application of precast concrete
structural systems have been attaining vast
progress worldwide and is being used in countries like Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia,
Phillipines and countries in Africa which are
also facing similar issues. This is due to the

fact that the precast structural systems possess several advantages compared to conventional cast-in-situ concrete systems,
such as quality control, speedy construction,
and suitable application to regularly modular systems.The best part of the technology
is that it not only speeds up construction
work but also enhances the quality of the
final output. It has also passed rigorous
safety standard around the world for seismic and structural testing as well as fire
safety, and is environmentally sound. The
use of this technology can bring down the
construction cost by 10-15 % and it could be
the answer to India's affordable housing.
The government bodies also seem to be
realizing this as last year, in the Vibrant
Gujarat Summit 2013,global players like
Elematic of Finland and Spiroll Precast Services Ltd of the US signed MoUs for
` 15,000 crore and ` 5,000 crore, respectively in order to provide pre-cast technology
in cost-effective and efficient housing construction within the State. Spirollis working
with Indian partners Apollo Infratech to help
enable investors to meet the expected boom
in demand for mass affordable housing, not
just in Gujarat but across India.
More and more private real estate
developers are also favoring precast because of its advantages compared to other
building techniques. The schedules are
L&T's Pragati in Bhoiwada, Parel, Mumbai
THE MASTERBUILDER
PRECAST
concrete digest
V1 N1 July 2014
"India is facing acute shortage in

skilled labour category over the past
years as per the statistics in the current five year plan. To address the
issue, mechanization in construction
is necessary. Precast technology
uses mechanization to deliver the
projects as per the planned schedule of work. It is being used in many
developed countries of Europe and
Asia from decades and has been
proved in India as well."
K. Senou Krishmoorthy
Head-Precast Initiatives Building & Factories IC,
L&T Construction Ltd.
always tight in the construction business

and precast makes it easier to stick to project timelines and eliminate unexpected
interruptions in work. Precast structures
also do not require finishing, like plastering
or wall putty. Though more expensive than
the conventional method, precast helps put

innovations have transformed the precast
industry so that complex plan layouts and
external treatments can now be accommodated. Curved precast panels with a variety
of highly attractive and durable finishes can
be manufactured to meet the most challenging design requirements. Precast construction is virtually unlimited in its application and is suitable for single and multistorey construction.
The most common error is to take an 'all
precast or no precast approach' to de-sign.
In fact, a key issue for designers is to identify
which construction method, or mix of construction methods and materials is most
appropriate for the specific re-quirements
of the building. The most economical solution might well consist of a mix of cast in situ
and factory assembled units.
World Trade Center Pune, An ongoing project of Precast India Infrastructures
buildings together more quickly. India is

also facing a shortage of skilled labor in the
building industry. Labour and material have
increased by 20 per cent since 2010. And
since precast is less labour-intensive, several contractors and developers have been
embracing this technology.
In general, there are three broad categories of use for precast concrete, namely
components, panels & volumetric. However, currently the residential building market in the India is taking advantage of just the
first of these options. Whilst companies have
studied the potential for panelized or volumetric precast in their designs for houses,
the most popular use for precast concrete,
however, is in components. This includes
walls, beams, floors, columns, panels, &

stairs. The potential to widen the market for
precast into these areas is significant.
There are some perceptions that precast construction is inflexible with respect to
changes and upkeep of the work. Precast
concrete buildings previously had an identifiable appearance. However, with advances
in technology and technique, precast buildings are now indistinguishable from those
constructed using non-precast methods.
Designers no longer work within tight constraints. Increasingly, the situation is that
precasters are able to accommodate
greater variety and complexity, effectively
designing their elements to meet design
requirements. Continuous investment and
The market for precast industry in

India was always present, the only
grievance being that there was
nobody willing to risk to understand,
design, production, supply and
installation of precast elements
instead of conventional casted in
place concrete. It is no secret that
many countries are using precast
concrete for the last four decades.
The fact that huge cities were rebuilt
very fast, for example, after the
World War II etc., were the need factors are drivers of the requirement.
Ajit Bhate
Managing Director,
Precast India Infrastructures Pvt. Ltd.
Petra Hollow-Core Slab Hangers from Peikko Group

THE MASTERBUILDER
10
PRECAST
concrete digest
V1 N1 July 2014
One of the reasons cited for the low popularity of precast is that India's road network
is still not highly developed and trucking precast components over very long distances is
impractical. In such scenarios, site casting
or tilit-up form of precast construction can
be used.
Although precast being costlier, most
tend to overlook the tangible benefits it
offers in terms of time saved and high consistent quality delivered with the finished
Precast construction is slowly gaining acceptance in the market due to

better quality, durabilityand speed of
construction compared to conventional construction. But the hurdles
which prevent the breaking through of
the precast industry into main stream
construction are marginally higher
cost of construction (contributed by
excise duty imposed on precast products, high transportation & equipment
hiring charges) and the project duration & payment schedule being shortened to one third of the time compared to conventional construction.
Malar Infra is actively involved in large scale affordable housing projects as seen in this image
product. Also while the initial capital cost of

opting for precast method for construction
may be high as against conventional way of
constructing a building, in large commercial
buildings, this method can save up to 40 per
cent of the energy costs. The high density of
precast concrete can act as a thermal sink
to provide year-round comfort and reductions in energy use. When insulation is combined into a precast concrete sandwich
panel, the best of both worlds is achieved.
The combination of high thermal mass and
insulation results in significant energysaving benefits in all climates. In the case of
Yes, precast does requires more

investment than in-situ construction
in the beginning but the long term benefits are many. I would liken the current precast industry to the then early
stages of Indian Ready Mix Concrete
industry. RMC in India was perceived
as costly but due to its perceived benefits, one can now see several RMC
plants across the country. Precast
also holds immense potential and will
make inroads in the future.
residential buildings, homebuyers will get a

larger carpetarea,sinceprecastwallsarethinner, compared with conventional brick
walls.
Some in the community believe that precast construction technology demands
highly skilled labour with more machinery
skills and installation of precast elements is
a very difficult task which de-mands
enhanced skills and know how. Lack of
structural engineers and qualified contractors in precast is cited as another reason for
the low number of precast projects across
country.
There are also concerns on performance of precast concrete construction in
highly seismic areas. Indian standards of
construction on precast concrete provide
recommendations for most of the preliminary issues to be considered while designing a precast structure. But there are some
issues in seismic design of precast concrete
structures that still need immediate attention. But with the infrastructure growing like
never before and the demand for faster, innovative and safer construction options, it is
high time that Indian standards look into the
seismic design provisions of precast concrete systems in detail.
Gopaljee
Chairman, Malar Energy & Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd.
Founder & Director
role to play in the proper planning and execution of precast buildings. Involving the
precaster at the early design stage is the
best way to achieve the most economical
building solution. Early involvement also
allows the manufacturer to schedule production so as to maximize cost savings
brought about by the use of standardized
components and early completion. Manufacturers and critical solution providers who
have established their presence in precast
include Peikko, Preca Solutions, Teemage,
Elematic, Halfen Moment India,
"Halfen-Moment provides a range of

Lifting Systems for precast elements
based on their size, shape, weight and
handling method required as per site
conditions"
Market Players
Laxman Wadhwani
Area Sales Manager, (Country Operations)
Peikko India Pvt. Ltd.
Despite being a nascent industry in India,

this segment is witnessing increased activity
and entry by various players. Several players
are entering the market and establish themselves early on as it is expected that precast
will become an inevitable part of the Indian
construction in the future.
Precast manufacturers have a critical
PugalNathan
Managing Director, Halfen Moment India Pvt. Ltd.
THE MASTERBUILDER
V1 N1 July 2014
PRECAST
concrete digest
11

Weckenmann, Spiroll Precast Services,
Malar Infra, Nordimpianti to name a few.
Established players in this sector are now
looking to increase their capacity at their
existing set-ups and then move to establish other plants.
In order to strengthen the position of
precast, companies are also employing
different strategies to address the concerns related to precast. For instance,
Peikko, a well-established precast manufacturer, is carrying out its seismic investigations on joints and connections of precast members in a highly seismic zone in
India. The structural behaviour of a precast concrete system is greatly different
from that of a comparable monolithic
cast-in-place system. The main structural
difference between cast-in-place buildings and precast buildings lies in their
structural continuity. The structural continuity of conventional cast-in-place buildings is inherent while in the precast systems, members should be assembled
and connected to produce a structural system capable of resisting gravity loads as
well as the lateral forces due to wind or
earthquake. Connections are the most
crucial part in precast structures. The
challenge in designing precast systems is
to find an economical and practical method
to connect the members with adequate
strength and ductility for the earthquake
loading. The behaviour of the structure
mostly depends on the behaviour of connections. Peikko plans to release a booklet
soon on the subject of behavior of precast
in highly seismic zones for the benefit of
Based on our market (South Indian

states, Tamil nadu, Karnataka,
Kerala, Andra Pradesh) we see a lot of
positive inquiries for our products. I
think in about 5-10 years, this will be
the specified method for commercial
construction, and about 50% of the
projects in metro cities will be done
using Precast.
Dinesh Kumar
Technical Manager, Teemage Precast In
The main structural difference between cast-in-place buildings and precast buildings lies in their
structural continuity - Commercial project in Karur by Teemage Precast
its clients.
Malar Infra can provide its clients with a
complete mobile precast factory setup. By
setting the production plant at the project
site, it can eliminate the overheads related
to excise duty and transport, thus reducing
overall costs for its clients.
Precast India Infrastructures, Malar
Infra, Tata Realty and Teemage Precast to
name a few are actively involved in large
scale affordable housing projects in different regions of the country. Malar Infra
a Precast Turnkey Solution provider has
identified 15 locations all over South India for
developing townships using precast technology.
Managing Director of Precast India
Infrastructures, Ajit Bhate believes in getting internally a strong foothold on basic constraints of precast technology such as
structural design and analysis, production
methodology, quality controls, good planning and monitoring of products / elements,
technically correcting matters re-garding
testing of elements. In lifting insert positions,
safe installation, developing of internal
resources like automatic production
machinery for various items, mechanisations, handling equip-ments like tower
cranes etc,. The company has completed
and delivered around 3 million sft of RCC prefabricated structural cold shells in the last
two years. It is currently working on projects
such the Cummins India Tech Centre (` 180
crore project with different precast elements), World Trade Centre (around 2.5 million square feet), Ritz Carlton Hotel (around
THE MASTERBUILDER
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concrete digest
V1 N1 July 2014
1.5 lakh squarefeet; it is part precast) and

Cummins India Corporate office (0.7 million
square feet). The company's clientele also
include Schmersal India, Raymond and
Panchshil Realty.
Teemage has completed about 30 projects worth around 10 lakh square feet in the
past 2 years and has around 5-6 projects
worth about 4 lakh square feet in the pipeline. Most of the projects are commercial
while a very few are residential. Since it has
been receiving enquiries from places where
it is too far to transport precast, the company
is contemplating putting up a site precasting
yard in those places. The company regularly
conducts technical sessions about precast
in order to educate architects and engineers. It hires unskilled labour and provides
them with rigorous training specific to precast.
As quality and speed of construction

are becoming more important for
builders the precast large panel
system could prove to be a viable
solution.
Bob Van Gils

Director, WBK Engineering Services Pvt. Ltd. &
Van Boxsel Engineering Pvt. Ltd.
Precast, TRC and Van Boxsel. Halfen provides support systems for precast components.
Developers like Amrapali and Supertech have established their own precast factories at Greater Noida. Amrapali's factory
will manufacture custom designed precast
concrete components like roof slabs,
beams, columns, wall panels which offer
flexibility in shape and size with a variety of
surface finishes and colors.
In Delhi NCR - Ghaziabad, BCC Infrastructures is developing a huge township
where precast concrete elements of wall
panels, lattice girder half slabs, staircases
and balconies will be produced at site factory to erect high rise residential towers.
Phase 1 of the project was built using classic
construction methods with in-situ cast conConnections are the most crucial part in precast structures - Construction of Industrial Building for
A Raymond Fasteners India Pvt. Ltd. at Chakan, Pune by Precast India Infrastructures
Construction conglomerates L&T and

Shapporji Pallonji have dedicated divisions
for precast. Developers Amrapali,
Supertech and Brigade have also established their own precast plants for their projects.
MNCs like Elematic, Weckenmann and
Spiroll have been supplying Indian companies with technology for production of precast concrete components through state of art
machines and systems enabling them to set

up their factories. However, the industry still
has some divided views on the necessity of
such extensive setups in plants when there is
not sufficient scale for efficient operation of
the same.
There are also companies in India which
provide technical services such as engineering design, drafting & consulting specific to precast concrete such as Precision
Cost, lack of expertise, clients' general reluctance to accept precast products, lack of technology transfer, high
investment cost for setting up the
plant and logistical issues are some of
the factors hindering the growth of
precast industry in India.
Prakash
CTO, TRC Engineering (I) Pvt. Ltd.
Multi Level Vehicular Parking Garage (MLVP) developed for Infosys at Chennai by TRC Engineering
crete floors and interior and exterior walls of

brick. Due to increasing pressure on
timeframes and schedules, the company
adopted the precast method as against the
traditional construction methods to carry
out the entire Bharat City real estate major
project.
L&T's Pragati in Bhoiwada, Parel,
Mumbai is a G+23 storeys fully precast residential building project consisting of 6 towers to rehabilitate slum dwellers. Larsen &
Toubro (L&T) took the challenge of using
Precast Technology for the 24 storeyed residential towers using precast large wall
panel system in seismic zone -3 in Mumbai.
Substructure was pile foundation and
ground floors of all towers were cast by conventional construction. Super structure consisted of precast large wall panel system. All
elements were cast in yard and transported
to site by trailers and installed at site by the
THE MASTERBUILDER
V1 N1 July 2014
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concrete digest
13
"The percentage of using precast in

residential arena has been increased
in the last 2-3 years"
K. Mohan Kumar
Managing Director,
Ra-Ni Precast Consulting Services Pvt. Ltd.
use of tower cranes. After placing the elements in position, they were grouted with
non shrink, non metallic grout with necessary rebars in the precast members.
Down south, Brigade and Purvankara
have also introduced precast technology in
their projects. BCV Developers Pvt. Ltd., a
Joint Venture between Brigade Enterprises
Ltd. and Classic Group and Valmark Group,
has introduced pre-cast concrete technology for residential apartments. This technology will be incorporated in commercial
properties as well at a later stage. The tech-
nology will initially be implemented in the

130 acre Brigade Orchards mixed-use
development in Devanahalli, near
Bangalore airport. Brigade Group's precast
plant at Brigade Orchids in Devanahalli has
been setup with equipment imported from
Italy, Germany and Singapore and is
manned by a team of experts who have
extensive experience and have worked in the
precast industry in India and Middle East.
With the present capacity being up to a total
volume of 70-100cubic meter per day, Brigade Group plans to erect the shell for two
apartments on a daily basis.
Purvankara's project Provident Sunworth has also been built with precast technology.
Need for Standardization and R&D
At present, there is no regulatory body
but the Precast Concrete Engineers Society
(PSEI) is mulling over the establishment of a
Self-Regulatory Organization. A regulatory
organization dedicated to expanding the use
of quality precast concrete and providing
members with the technical support, educational opportunities, certification pro-
Weckenmann surface smoothing trowels in action

THE MASTERBUILDER
14
PRECAST
concrete digest
"Precast is suitable for all situations.

Our customer 'Teemage Precast In'
has successfully completed several
difficult projects including factory
building, residential, commercial and
industrial buildings. They have transported precast elements upto 1500
kms"
V1 N1 July 2014
Ans Hariharasudhan
Business Development Consultant
Weckenmann Anlagentechnik GmbH & Co.KG
grams and informational resources should

increase the adoption of precast concrete in
the country. Also, because of the relatively
low magnitude of such construction being
used in India, there has been an absence of
up-dates on standards of precast concrete.
Establishing industry-wide standards of
design and production of precast concrete
will increase confidence among the endusers and contractors.
Universities and educational institutions
should also dedicate a part of their curriculum towards precast concrete. One such initiative is MoU agreement with Manipal University signed by the Faizal and Shabana
Foundation, part of KEF Holdings to invest `
5 Crores towards a research and development facility for precast concrete technology at Manipal Institute of Technology (MIT),
India. The agreement will also introduce a
precast design and engineering course to
the University's curriculum. The Foundation
aims to further precast technology by introducing it to students to advance the field and
create employment opportunities for
them.KEF Holdings recently entered a partnership with Finland-based Elematic, a leading provider for precast technology and
machinery to set up manufacturing plants in
India-and later UAE- involving investments
totaling ` 300 crores.
There is no doubt that the future of the
construction industry lies in the precast segment. There would be no looking back for
the industry once standardization, acceptance and awareness are in place.w
PRECAST BUILDING
Analysis of Multi Storey Building

with Precast Load Bearing Walls
J.D. Chaitanya Kumar1, Lute Venkat2
1
PG Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering,
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Abstract: Pre-cast construction is gaining significance in general

and urban areas in particular. It is gaining more popularity with
the rapid urban infrastructure growth. In this context G+11 storey
residential building with precast reinforced concrete load bearing
walls has been attempted for analysis. The structural system consists of load bearing walls and one-way slabs for gravity and lateral loads have been taken for analysis using ETABS. Various wall
forces, displacements and moments have been worked out for
different load combinations. Data base is presented for the worst
load combination. This work is limited to the analysis of structural
elements only not the connection details.
Now a day, there is an increase in housing requirement with
increased population and urbanization. Building sector has gained
increasing prominence. However, the fact that the suitable lands
for building construction. Precast load bearing walls provide an
economical solution when compared to the conventional column
beam in fill wall system for the advantage of speed of construction and elimination of wet trades. In multi-storey buildings, lateral
loads that arise as a result of winds and earthquakes are often
resisted by a system of shear walls acting as vertical cantilevers.
Such walls are usually perforated by vertical bands of openings
which are required for doors and windows to form a system of
shear walls.
Mazen (2013) has stressed that the small openings in the shear
wall will yield minor effect on the load capacity of shear walls,
cracking pattern and maximum drift. In case of small openings,
the shear walls behave as coupled shear walls. Thakkar (2012) has
concluded that the design of shear wall is a complex procedure,
especially if the cross section of the shear wall is not regular in
shape. The design of shear walls takes horizontal forces into account by shear and bending. The design of shear in the walls can
be managed by computing the shear stress distribution over the
cross section and reinforcing appropriately. Potty (2008) has concluded that the difference in the deflection of shear wall modeled
by beam element and the shell element is only 1.6 mm for the ten
storey building.
Habibullah (2007) has worked on physical object based analysis and design modeling of shear wall system using ETABS. It has
been concluded that grouping of the area objects into piers is a
very powerful mechanism to automatically obtain design moments
and shear across a wall section from a finite element analysis. Dar
(2007) had stressed that the large openings are generally achieved
by use of large transfer beams to collect loading from the upper
shear walls and then distribute them to the widely spaced columns
that support the transfer girders.

Wdowicki and Wdowicki (1993) have stressed calculating stress
and displacements in three-dimensional shear wall structure with
uniform properties throughout the height. The analysis is carried
out on the basis of the continuous connection method. The system
allows for considering lateral and gravity loads, arbitrary located in
the plan and arbitrary distributed along the height.
Benjamin (1968) worked on variability analysis of shear wall
structure where both rigidity and the strength of shear walls are
highly variable. Bozdogan et, al. (2010) carried out vibration analysis of asymmetric shear wall structures using the transfer matrix
method. He concluded that the governing differential equations of
equivalent bending-warping torsion beam are formulated using
the continuum approach. Xiaolei et, al. (2008) worked on numerical
analysis of cyclic loading test of shear walls based on openSEES.
Carpinteri et, al. (2012) carried out lateral load effects on tall shear
wall structures of different heights. The accuracy of the results
is investigated by a comparison with finite elements solutions, in
which the bracings are modeled as three-dimensional structures
by means of shell elements. Biswas et, al. (1977) carried out three
dimensional analysis of shear wall multi storey building. He studied the importance of torsion in multi storey building having asymmetric layout of shear walls. Greeshma et. al., (2011) carried out
the analysis of flanged shear walls using ANSYS concrete model.
He has studied the possibilities of modeling reinforcement detailing of reinforced concrete models in practical use. Fahjan et, al.
(2010) studied nonlinear analysis method for reinforced concrete
buildings with shear walls. The different approaches for linear and
non linear modeling of shear walls in structural analyses of buildings are studied and applied to RCC buildings with shear walls.
In this present study, G+11 storey precast load bearing wall
structure is taken for analysis. The modeling and analysis has been
done in using ETABS. The parametric study has been done to observe the effect of axial compression load, out of plane moments,
tensile force, shear force, storey drift, lateral load and storey shear
on shear walls. Finally data base is prepared for various storey levels. Although the connection details in the precast construction
plays vital role but presently the details of connections not included
in the present paper. Hence the emphasis on the analysis of load
bearing wall structure.
Modeling of Shear Wall Structure
In this present study Ground +11 storey shear wall building is
considered for one acre of site with 350 units. Around 400sqft of
V1 N1 July 2014
15
PRECAST BUILDING
carpet area per unit is taken with 300 units per floor. The constriction Technology is total precast solution with load bearing RCC
shear walls and slabs. The modeling is done in ETABS as follows.
1. The structure is divided into distinct shell element. The shell
element combines membrane and plate bending behavior, as
shown in fig.1. It has six degrees of freedoms in each corner
point. It is a simple quadrilateral shell element which has size
of 24 x 24 stiffness matrix.
2. Grid lines are made for the x, y and z coordinates and the wall
is drawn from scratch.
3. Boundary conditions are assigned to the nodes wherever it is
required. Boundary conditions are assigned at the bottom of
the wall i.e., at ground level where restraints should be against
all movements to imitate the behavior of shear wall.
4. The material properties are defined such as mass, weight,
Fig.2 A Typical Floor plan of structure under consider
Figure 1: Shell element
5.
6.
7.
8.
modulus of elasticity, Poissons ratio, strength characteristics

etc. The material properties used in the models are shown in
Table.1
The geometric properties of the elements are dimensions for
the wall section.
Elements are assigned to element type, as shown in Table.2
Loads are assigned to the joints as they will be applied in the
real structure.
The model should be ready to be analyzed forces, stresses and
displacements.
In ETABS single walls are modeled as a pier/spandrel system,
Material name
Concrete
Type of material
Isotropic
Mass Per Unit

Volume
2.5 kN/m3
Modulus of elasticity
32 kN/mm2
Poissons ratio
0.2
Concrete strength
30 MPa
Section name
Wall
Wall thickness
150 mm
of deformation that a single shell element can experience axial deformation, shear deformation and bending deformation as shown
in Fig.3
Wall pier forces are output at the top and bottom of wall pier
elements and wall spandrel forces are output at the left and right
ends of wall spandrel element, see Fig.4
At the upper level of this model, pier P1 is defined to extend all
the way across the wall above the openings. Pier P2 makes up the
wall pier to the left of the top window. P3 occurs between the win-
a) Axial Deformation
b) Shear Deformation
Fig.3 Deformation of a shell element
c) Bending Deformation
dows. Spandrel labels are assigned to vertical area objects (walls)

in similar fashion to pier labels. The pier and spandrel labels must
be assigned to wall element before performing analysis.
Table 1: Material and element property for wall element
that is, the wall is divided into vertical piers and horizontal spandrels. This is a powerful mechanism to obtain design moments,
shear forces and normal forces across a wall section. Appropriate
meshing and labeling is the key to proper modeling and design.
Loads are only transferred to the wall at the corner points of the
area objects that make up the wall. Generally the membrane or
shell type element should be used to model walls. Here the shell
type is used for modeling the wall element. There are three types
16
V1 N1 July 2014
Fig.4 Pier and Spandrel forces in ETABS
The lateral load analysis that is seismic and wind analysis requires certain parameters to be assigned in ETABS. These parameters are listed in table.2
PRECAST BUILDING
Results and Discussion

Shear wall structure having G+11 storey is analysed for garvity
and latral loads. The effect of axial force, out of plane moments,
lateral loads, shear force, storey drift, storey shear and tensile
force are observed for different stories. The analysis is carried out
using ETABS and data base is prepared for different storey levels
as follows:
1. Effect of axial force on shear wall:
The load bearing wall structure mostly caries axial compression force and transfer on to the foundation. The entire vertical
load of all the stories is carried by ground floor load bearing wall.
In order to design that wall it is quite essential to understand the
variation of axial force in the walls. This force in the shear wall is
from worst load combination of gravity and lateral loads. For the
STOREY
12
11
10
09
08
07
06
05
04
03
02
01
WALL LOCATION
Seismic coefficients
AS PER IS: 1893-2000
Wind Coefficients
AS PER IS: 875-1987
Seismic Zone
Factor
0.1
Wind speed (Vb)
50m/s
Soil Type
III
Terrain Category
Importance
Factor (I)
Structure Class
Response
Reduction (R)
Risk Coefficient k1
factor
Topography k3 factor
Windward
coefficient
0.8
Leeward coefficient
0.5
Table: 2 Seismic and Wind parameters
AXIAL COMPRASSION LOAD (KN)
OUT OF PLANE MOMENTS (KN-M)
Top
15.358
20.010
Bottom
57.277
21.573
Top
91.473
-37.385
Bottom
131.874
34.478
-42.314
Top
170.653
Bottom
209.962
45.532
Top
253.931
-46.156
Bottom
291.969
57.054
Top
340.620
-47.442
Bottom
377.376
68.345
Top
430.030
-46.705
Bottom
465.494
79.316
Top
521.423
-46.841
Bottom
555.598
89.867
Top
614.088
-55.166
Bottom
646.985
100.005
Top
707.363
-63.545
Bottom
739.008
109.844
Top
800.846
-71.943
Bottom
831.300
120.038
Top
894.543
-80.360
Bottom
924.026
132.461
Top
994.804
-89.367
Bottom
1026.764
142.603
Table: 3 Axial force and out of plane moments for different storey levels
STOREY
MAXIMUM TENSILE
FORCE (kN)
MAXIMUM SHEAR
FORCE (kN)
STOREY DRIFT
(mm)
Lateral load
In (kN)
STOREY SHEAR
(kN)
12
-16156.865
-907.77
0.199
736.67
-608.25
11
-35756.738
-2012.3
0.199
734.36
-598.27
10
-51933.454
-2925.14
0.201
730.37
-1337.36
09
-65018.616
-3664.54
0.2
604.65
-1946.62
08
-75343.36
-4248.75
0.197
494.90
-2436.02
07
-83237.752
-4696.04
0.189
387.14
-2855.50
V1 N1 July 2014
17
PRECAST BUILDING
06
-89030.468
-5024.66
0.177
293.35
-3125.17
05
-93048.654
-5252.87
0.16
217.52
-3334.92
04
-95617.871
-5398.93
0.138
151.66
-3504.71
03
-97062.088
-5481.08
0.11
97.78
-3604.59
02
-97703.854
-5517.6
0.077
55.88
-3634.55
01
-97864.264
-5526.73
0.036
25.94
-3674.50
Table: 4 Shear force and displacements for different storey levels
worst load combination, the axial force in the wall is plotted on

y-axis against at each storey level. From Fig.5, it is observed that
maximum axial force in storey one is 1026.764 kN. The difference
in maximum axial force between storey 11 and 12 is 7.26%. It indicates that the variation in maximum axial force with storey level is
linear for worst load combination.
loads depends upon the buildings geographic location, height and

shape. For the worst load combination lateral load in the wall is
plotted against each storey level. From Fig.8, it is observed that
maximum lateral load in storey 12 is 736.67 kN. The difference in
maximum lateral loads between storey 11 and 12 is 0.54%. It is
observed form fig.7 that this is non-linear variation of lateral load.
Fig.5 Axial force on shear wall
2. Effect of out-of-plane moments on shear walls

Load bearing RCC walls are slender compression elements
subjected to in and out-of-plane bending. For the worst load
combination, out-of- plane moments in the wall is plotted on yaxis against at each storey level. it is concluded from Fig.6 that
the maximum out-of- plane moments in walls of storey one is
142.603kN-m. The difference in maximum out of plane moment
between storey 11 and 12 is 9.04% .It indicates that the variation in
maximum out of plane moment with storey level is linear for worst
load combination.
Fig.7 Lateral loads on shear walls
4. Effect of shear force on shear wall:

Shearing forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a
body in one direction, and another part the body in the opposite
direction. For the worst load combination shear force in the wall is
plotted against at each storey level. From the Fig.8, it is observed
that maximum lateral load in storey one is 5526.73 kN. The difference in maximum lateral loads between storey 11 and 12 is
19.98%. It indicates that the variation in maximum shear force with
storey level is non-linear for worst load combination.
3. Effect of storey lateral load on shear wall :
5. Effect of storey drift on shear wall:
Most lateral loads are live loads whose main component is

horizontal force acting on the structure. The intensity of these
One of the major shortcomings high-rise structures is its increasing lateral displacements arising from lateral forces. For the
Fig.6 Out of plane moments on shear walls
Fig.8 Shear force on shear walls
18
V1 N1 July 2014
PRECAST BUILDING
worst load combination storey drift in the wall is plotted on y-axis

against at each storey level. From the Fig.9, it is observed that
maximum storey drift in between storey 12 is 0.199 mm. It indicates that the variation in maximum storey drift with storey level is
non linear for worst load combination.
Fig.11 Tensile forces on shear walls
2. The variation of out-of-plane moment with stories is linear. The

difference in maximum out-of-plane moment storey 11 and 12
is 9.04 %.
3. The variation of lateral loads with stories is non-linear. The difference in maximum lateral loads between storey 11 and 12 is 0.54 %
Fig.9 Storey drifts on shear walls
6. Effect of Storey shear on shear wall :

For the worst load combination storey shear in the wall is
plotted on y-axis against at each storey level. From the Fig.10, it
is observed that maximum storey shear in storey one is 608.25kN.
It indicates that the variation in maximum storey shear with storey
level is non linear for worst load combination.
4. The variation shear force with stories is non-linear. The difference in maximum shear force between storey 11 and 12 is
19.98 %.
5. Variation of storey drift with storey is non-linear. The maximum
storey drift in storey 12 is 0.199 mm.
6. Variation of storey shear with storey is non-linear. The maximum storey shear in storey one is 608.25kN.
7. The variation of tensile force with stories is non-linear and the
difference in maximum tensile force between storey 11 and 12
is 20.02 %
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
Fig. 10 Storey shear on shear walls
7. Effect of tensile force on shear wall :

The tensile force is the maximum stress that a structure can
withstand while being stretched or pulled before failing or breaking. Tensile strength is the opposite of compressive strength and
the values can be quite different. For the worst load combination
tensile force in the wall is plotted against at each storey level. From
the Fig.11, it is observed that maximum tensile force in storey one
is 97864.264 kN. The difference in maximum tensile force between
storey 11 and 12 is 20.02% .It indicates that the variation in maximum tensile force with storey level is non-linear for worst load
combination
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Summary and Conclusion

In this present work ETABS is used to analysis the shear wall
structure of G+11 considering the gravity and lateral loads. The following conclusion is drawn from present work.
1. The variation of axial force with stories is linear. The difference
in maximum axial force between storey 11 and 12 is 7.26 %.
20
5.
6.
V1 N1 July 2014
12.
13.
14.
Wdowicki, J. and Wdowicka, E. (1993) System of programs for analysis of threedimensional shear wall structures The structural design of tall buildings, Vol.2,
pp 295-305.
Benjamin, J.R. (1968) variability analysis of shear wall structures Earthquake
Engineering Research vol2, pp B3-45.
Musmar, M.A. (2013) Analysis of shear wall openings using solid65 element
Jordan journal of civil engineering, vol 7, no.2.
Thakkar, B.K. (2012) Analysis of shear walls under compression and bending
Current trends in technology and science vol: 1, Issue: 2.
Hauksdottir, B. (2007) Analysis of a reinforced shear wall M.Sc Thesis, DTU
Bozdogan, K.B. and Ozturk, D. (2010) Vibration analysis of asymmetric shear
wall structures using the transfer matrix method Iranian journal of science &
technology, transaction, Vol.34, No.B1, PP1-14.
Xiaolei, H., Xuewei, C., Cheang, J., Guiniu,M. and Peifeng, W. (2008) Numerical
analysis of cyclic loading test of shear wall based on openSEES World conference on earthquake engineering.
Carpinteri ,A., Corrado ,M., Lacidogna, G. and Cammarano, S. Lateral load effect on tall shear wall structure of different height Structural engineering and
mechanics, vol. 41, No.3 PP 313-337.
Biswas, J.K. (1974), Three dimensional analysis of shear wall multi storey building Opendissertations and theses.
Greeshma, S., Jaya, K.P and SheejaA, L. (2011) Analysis of flanged shear wall
using ANSYS concrete model International journal of civil and structural engineering vol.2, No.2.
Fahjan, Y.M., Kubin, J. and Tan, M.T., (2010) Nonlinear analysis method for reinforced concrete buildings with shear walls ECEE 14.
Habibullah, A., S.E (2007) Physical object based analysis and design modeling of
shear wall system using ETABS computers & structures
Dar, O.J. (2007) Analysis and design of shear wall-transfer beam structure boring pengeshan status thesis.
Potty, N.S., Thanoon,W.A., Hamzah, H.H. and Hamadelnil, A.M.M. (2008) Practical modeling aspects for analysis of shear wall using finite element method
International conference on construction and exhibition w.
PRECAST BUILDING
Influence of Steel Fibres,

Used in Conjunction With Unconfined
Rebar Configurations, on the Structural
Performance of Precast Elements
Gary P. Robinson*, Alessandro Palmeri1 and Simon A. Austin1
Centre for Innovative and Collaborative Engineering (CICE),
Loughborough University, Sir Frank Gibb Building, Loughborough, UK
1
Dep. Civil and Building Eng., Loughborough University,
Sir Frank Gibb Building, Loughborough, UK
*
joint experimental and computational research program has

been carried out to demonstrate the potential benefits of using Steel Fibre Reinforcement (SFR) within the design and
manufacture of two key structural elements, namely slender walls
and thin lintels with dapped ends, often adopted within the pre-cast
concrete industry. The investigations specifically focus on the advantages of utilising SFR in conjunction with traditional bar reinforcement in an unconfined layout. This configuration allows cost
savings in regards to precast manufacture and enjoys good performance in terms of durability and fire resistance, though its use is
currently limited by the brittle mode of failure. The paper sets out to
prove that the inclusion of SFR within the concrete matrix is capable
of inducing a more ductile response in the structural members under consideration, therefore potentially making it possible to justify
the adoption of such unconfined layouts in the design practice.
Historical testing and research studies [1],[2] [3] have demonstrated that the adoption of single, centrally placed or minimum
reinforcement configurations in RC wall elements, which are subjected to an eccentric axial load, results in a sudden and brittle failure mechanism. In addition, research undertaken to date [1] has
also shown the flexural cracking response of the slender RC wall
elements to be critical in determining the resulting buckling behaviour and ultimate failure load of the panel. This is opposed to the
more conventional assumption that the elements capacity and response can be found by consideration of the components ultimate
flexural capacity. This method however, has been shown to only be
suitable for sections using a double layer of confined longitudinal
reinforcement, where the longitudinal reinforcement ratio of this
section ( = As lt ) is greater than 1% [3], where s A l is the crosssectional area of reinforcement per unit length of the panel and t is
the thickness of the panel. The term flexural cracking is used here
to describe the situation where the concrete section at the critical
location cracks in flexure (and the resulting concentrated loss of
stiffness, combined with the lack of influential tension steel) controls the resulting structural behaviour and ultimate stability of the
panel much more than would occur with doubly reinforced panels,
where =As/ lt 1% [4]. Hence, the axial capacity of the RC wall element becomes dependent on the elements flexural stiffness up to
and post cracking. Consequently, appropriate account now needs
to be taken of the contribution of the concrete acting within both the
tension and compression stress block as part of the design of the

element. Further, this flexural cracking response has been shown
to control the response and capacity of centrally reinforced panel
elements adopting unconfined rebar configurations, up to a steel
ratio of =As/ lt 3%[5].
Thus the controlling failure mechanism of the identified RC wall
elements will, in part, be influenced by the formation and subsequent progression of flexural cracks in the concrete at the panels
critical section. It follows therefore that if, as argued, the initiation
and behaviour of such cracks in the concrete section can be considered to be significant when determining the structural response of
such panels, the incorporation of steel fibre reinforcement should
therefore be seen to substantially influence the resulting behaviour
and ultimate capacity of the panel elements under consideration.
This is because the use of SFR concrete mixes has been shown to
bring about a number of improvements in the mechanical performance of concrete, relating to aspects such as: a delay in microcrack propagation to a macroscopic scale, the hindrance of macroscopic crack development and an improved structural ductility
[6]. Aimed at demonstrating, as well as better understanding and
designing for this predicted influence, the paper summarises the
results of experimental and computational analyses for the relevant panel types and SFR concrete mixes.
From the literature reviewed as part of this investigation, few
resources or research studies appear to currently exist, which aid
in the design of slender panel elements, using a combination of
both SFR and the traditional longitudinal reinforcement configurations proposed. Aimed at improving this current situation, the paper
proposes and evaluates the possible use of a computational procedure, in which lumped plasticity is used to predict the behaviour
and buckling capacity of the resulting structural members. The
method has previously been shown to provide a good correlation
for slender precast panel elements, albeit for test samples adopting only a traditional unconfined reinforcement configuration and a
standard (C40/50 grade) concrete mix design [3]. It is believed however, that if this design method is suitably modified to account for
the SFRC material behaviour, the proposed technique could also
be used to derive a design capacity for the panel elements adopting
the hybrid of reinforcement types considered. The method utilises a
non-linear fibre hinge at the known critical cross section of the pan-
V1 N1 July 2014
21
PRECAST BUILDING
el, in order to simulate the buckling response of the slender walls.

The second aspect of the paper considers pre-cast lintels, supported on end projections that have been reduced in height. Such
dapped end or halving joint details are common in precast construction because they beneficially lead to a reduction in the construction depth required. The experimental investigation undertaken therefore aims to increase the understanding of the shear
behaviour and capacity of these resulting discontinuity shear or
D-regions, for situations in which: a centrally placed, unconfined
and welded reinforcement mesh is to be used in conjunction with
varying percentages of additional steel fibre content. Additionally,
the structural testing undertaken will also aid in the development
and verification of an analytical Strut-and-Tie Model (STM), capable
of accounting for the use of such a non-traditional reinforcement
strategy.
2 Current Limitations of Existing Design Methods in Relation to
Unconfined and Steel Fibre Reinforcing Strategies
2.1 Design of Eccentrically Loaded Precast RC Panels
Both the major national codes of structural design practice reviewed (ACI-318 [7], EC2 [8]) currently devote specific sections to the
design and detailing of simply supported RC wall panels, subjected
to an eccentric axial load. Each of the specified design standards allows for the design of such elements through the adoption of one of
two possible design methods. The first of these alternatives involves
the use of simplified design equations that have been empirically
(or semiempirically) derived from a limited amount of experimental
data [9]. These expressions however, allow no account to be taken
in regards to either the quantity or the distribution of longitudinal
reinforcement. Also, the simple design equations do not currently
allow for or enable the modification of the concrete material model,
required in this instance to account for, and potentially take advantage of, the modified concrete behaviour due to the presence of the
steel fibres within the concrete mix. In addition, the existing empirical design equations do not currently allow for design situations in
which the eccentric load application is required to fall beyond the
kern point of the section. That is, the largest off-set at which a load
can be applied to a section without it developing tensile stresses.
One such load case is however, investigated as part of this study in
order to assess the ability of, and therefore the potential for using
the proposed hybrid reinforcement configurations to resist a larger,
non-standard value of load eccentricity.
One potential alternative design method however, currently
available within each of the regulatory guides considered [7-8], is the
consideration of the wall component as a column of an equivalent
structural width. This method, prima facie, appears to potentially
offer a suitable design method, for the hybrid panels under consideration. This is because, it would enable the engineer to account for
the necessary modification to the concrete material model, as well
as being able to include for the longitudinal reinforcement quantity
and its distribution. By using this method, one could also allow for
a load applied at the larger eccentricity. However, the use of this
method requires the buckling failure load of the panel element to
be dependent upon, and thus determined through consideration of,
the flexural capacity of the components cross section [3]. As defined within section 1, this is not true for the minimally and centrally
reinforced panels that are the focus of this study. Therefore, neither
of the existing design procedures currently available, appear suitable for the design of panels reinforced through a combination of
22
V1 N1 July 2014
minimum, centrally placed and unconfined longitudinal re-bar, with

secondary reinforcement also provided by using a quantity of SFR.
2.2 Strut and Tie Design for D-Regions
The strut-and-tie analytical model is an extension of the Ritter-Mrsch truss analogy, with particular application to the shear
design of discontinuity regions (D-Regions) in cracked reinforced
elements [10]. The model assumes that structural loads are carried through a set of compressive stress fields and interconnected
tensile ties. Previous studies ([11],[12]) have demonstrated that the
use of steel fibre reinforcement, in conjunction with traditional longitudinal reinforcement, significantly improves the capacity of the
D-regions considered within the precast structural elements. However, the past investigations do not consider the validity of adopting
an STM in their design. Hence, of particular interest as part of this
study is; how a traditional STM analytical model should be modified or augmented to suitably account for the behaviour and failures
observed, when adopting the hybrid reinforcement proposed, within
the critical structural regions?
Another important consideration in adopting the STM methodology, as part of the development of an acceptable design for the
proposed precast lintel elements, is that due to the lower-bound
nature of the method, a number of potential (or compliant) models
are possible. However, a poorly selected and detailed strut-and-tie
model may potentially result in severe damage and cracking to the
element, even under service loading [13]. Because of this, the experimental investigation and validation of any potential STM analytical model is therefore considered as an essential component in
the development of a design procedure for the precast dapped end
beams.
3 Experimental Investigation
3.1 Test Samples and Experimental Arrangements
Eight 450mm wide, 100mm thick and 3000mm tall panel elements were cast adopting C40/50grade concrete mix (500kg/m3
CEMI, 840kg/m3 Gravel<20mm, 900kg/m3 Sand<4mm, 0.8% Superplasticizer, w/c=0.36, Flow=650-700mm). Four of the samples
were reinforced solely using a single, centrally placed layer of mesh
reinforcement to form the unconfined reinforcement configuration
illustrated in Figure 1(d). The four additional panels tested adopted an
identical reinforcement configuration to that illustrated although, in
these cases, an additional steel fibre content (1% by volume) was
Figure 1: Experimental arrangement (a); Test Rig Elevation (b); Test Rig Section (c); Pin Joint Loading (d); Reinforcement Cross Section
PRECAST BUILDING
also incorporated within the specified mix design. In this way, the
potential for any improved performance through the use of such
a hybrid reinforcing strategy will be quantified, relative to the conventionally reinforced panels. The double hooked end type fibres
used were: 50mm long, 0.75mm in diameter, had an aspect ratio of
67mm and a tensile strength greater than 1100N/mm2.
The eight panel elements were then axially tested, using the
experimental setup illustrated within Figures 1(a) and (b). The testing rig used for the experiments was capable of applying a load of
4000kN, with the loading beam designed in order to ensure the
transmission of a uniformly distributed load across the top of each
panel at eccentricities of 17mm(t /6) and 33mm(t /3) . The smaller of
the adopted eccentricities was chosen to reflect the maximum load
off-set allowed for within the major international design regulations
(t/ 6) investigated [7-8]. This limit on load eccentricity is commonly
referred to as the kern point and has been widely adopted as part of
a number of experimental studies into the axial capacity of one-way
spanning panel elements [2-5]. Additionally, a load case involving a
larger eccentricity (t /3) has also been incorporated as part of this
study, in order to investigate whether the use of SFRC in conjunction with un-confined longitudinal reinforcing steel could potentially
offer an engineer the opportunity to justify the use of such panel
elements for resisting such a demanding loading condition
The top and bottom hinged support conditions were each simulated by placing a 25mm high strength steel rod on a 50mm thick
bearing plate (Figure 1(c)). Displacement transducers were utilised
at the locations illustrated within Figure 1(b) in order to record outof-plane displacements at the centre and top of the panel, as well as
providing a means of determining the rotation at the top of the wall.
Strain readings were also taken utilising a digital portal gauge at the
known critical section (i.e. the mid-span of the RC wall element).
This allowed the strains induced at this section to be recorded as
the axial load was incrementally increased.
As part of the secondary focus of the experimental study, four
precast lintel elements were additionally cast and tested to failure.
The geometry of the specimens tested and the weld mesh reinforcement layout adopted are illustrated within Figure 2. Because
the objective of the experimental program is to study the behaviour
of the D-Region of the precast lintel component, a member length
of 1415mm was adopted so as to ensure that the region controlling
the elements capacity was that under investigation. All reinforcing
bars used in the manufacture of the samples were 16mm in diameter, with a cover of 25mm maintained throughout. The bars were
MIG welded, with all anchorage forces and requirements appropriate to the resulting welds calculated in line with the relevant EC2
provisions [8].
The testing of the beam samples in shear was undertaken using
the experimental setup detailed within Figure 3, with a loading rate
of 1 kN s adopted. Bearing plates with sizes of 100x100x12.5mm
Figure 2: Welded Mesh Reinforcement Configuration
were used at both the support and loading positions in order to

suitably spread the applied load and thus ensure the appropriate
strut propagation within the sample. Digital strain gauges were
used to collect data in regards to the strains at the surface of the
sample continuously during testing. The positioning of the gauges
was designed so as to collect results both for the tensile region at
the re-entrant corner and over the primary compression strut that
will form the dap. The rosette pattern adopted allowed the angle of
principal stress in the half-joint detail to be calculated and recorded
throughout the loading of the specimen. Consequentially this will
allow the collected data, through the application of Mohrs circle,
to be used to validate the geometry of the adopted Strut-and-Tie
model (STM). The digital strain gauges used were 60mm in length,
with Figure 3 identifying the end locations of this instrumentation.
Figure 3: Lintel Testing Schematic and Demec Rosette Detail (box)
3.2 Experimental Findings

Table 1 summarises the experimental failure loads observed
for each of the panel elements tested. In addition Figure 4(d) details the measured relationship between the applied load and the
deflection of the panel at its critical section, up until buckling failure
occurred. It should be noted that the loads have been normalised
(in order to allow an effective comparison of panel performance),
according to the expression:

(1)
Where N is the axial load applied to the panel at the set eccentricity (kN ), c f is the average measured concrete cylinder strength
for the samples (N mm2 ), with L and t the width and thickness of the
concrete wall elements respectively (mm).
As can be seen, the inclusion of the 1% volume fraction of
steel fibre reinforcement in addition to the unconfined reinforcement mesh traditionally adopted, leads to an increase in both axial
load and deformation capacity of the panel. Both effects appear to
be more significant within the panels, to which the load was applied at an increased eccentricity. An average increase of 12% in
normalised buckling capacity was seen for panels loaded at an eccentricity of 33mm (t/3), with the lateral deflection prior to failure increasing from a minimum of 10.5mm in the traditionally reinforced
panel to a maximum of 20.55mm for a panel adopting the hybrid
reinforcement option considered. This increased lateral deflection
could also be clearly observed for the SFRC panel elements, with a
distinct bowing evident prior to the failure of the wall (Figure 4(c)).
For panels loaded at an eccentricity of 17mm (t /6), a lesser average
increase in normalised buckling capacity was recorded (9.8%). Lateral deflections of 17.51mm and 19.61mm were measured for panels SFR1 and SFR2 respectively compared to the minimum value of
11.02mm observed for Panel RC1.
The most significant difference in the behaviour of the two panel
V1 N1 July 2014
23
PRECAST BUILDING
types investigated however, was perhaps associated with the buckling failure typologies observed for the hybrid and traditionally reinforced elements. In the instances where a centrally placed, unconfined reinforcement layout was solely adopted the observed failure
was of a sudden, brittle and explosive nature Figure 4(a). In contrast
for the cases when a 1% volume fraction of the double hooked end
steel fibres was incorporated, a much more acceptable (from a
structural design perspective) ductile failure resulted.
Similarly, Table 2 details the failure capacities recorded for
each of the six dapped-end lintel samples fabricated. For the control samples (RCL1 and RCL2) first cracking was seen to occur at
the re-entrant corner, quickly followed by flexural cracking at the
mid-span. As the loading was increased however, the mid-span
flexural cracking was seen to propagate at a rate greater than that
which was observed at the re-entrant corners. It was then observed
that both the samples exhibited a significant propagation of tensile
cracking along the diagonal compressive strut. This cracking next
propagated upwards towards and subsequently along the beams
top face. The progression of this cracking was then observed to
cause the brittle shear failure captured within Figure 5(a), with the
concrete material forming the dap of the lintel, spalling away post
failure to expose the welded mesh reinforcement. Interestingly, it
was also observed that plastic hinges had formed within the longitudinal steel of the mesh, adjacent to the welded vertical bars. This
perhaps indicates the potential failure mechanism for the sample.
Similar cracking patterns and propagation sequences were
also then observed for the samples cast using a combination of a
welded mesh and an additional content of steel fibre reinforcement
(samples SFRL 1-2). The first crack again occurred at the samples
re-entrant corner and this was again followed by more extensive
flexural cracking at the mid-span. However, a noticeably slower
and less extensive crack propagation was observed for all samples
adopting a percentage content of steel fibres relative those using
the more traditional mix. This provides evidence therefore that the
content of steel fibres within the mix were acting as expected to
provide a means of crack control. In addition to slowing crack formation the fibres also significantly reduced the level of the resulting
spalling observed at failure (Figure 5(b)). Also worthy of note was
that the extent of flexural cracking away from the daps appeared
to significantly multiply as the fibre content in the samples was increased.
Figure 5(c) illustrates the load deflection behaviour recorded for
each of the beam elements tested. Normalisation of loading values
was undertaken in order to enable a comparison between each of
the samples in relation to how efficiently the steel weight incorpo-
Figure 5: Brittle failure of traditional RC lintel (a); SFRC Lintel Failure (b); Experimental load-deflection curves for traditional and hybrid lintel samples (c)
rated is being used within each of the designs considered, as well as

to allow for the variations in concrete strength seen for the samples
cast. The values were corrected according to the expression:

(2)
As would be expected, the plots of load displacement relationship for the beam elements tested (Figure 5(c)) show that all samples had a similar elastic range. However, both samples incorporating the 1% volume of steel fibre content exhibited a much greater
ductility, with the maximum deflection at the point of failure almost
double that of the non-fibre samples. Such a response is indicative
of the successful application of steel fibre reinforcement causing
a more plastic/ductile response under loading and controlling the
cracking, which would have otherwise resulted in failure. An average increase of 32.1% in normalised shear capacity was also measured for the SFRC halving joints.
4 Proposed Design Methods for Precast Elements Adopting Hybrid Steel Fibre and Unconfined Reinforcement Configurations
4.1 Lumped Plasticity
Nu(kN)
Element
Ref
f2 (N/ mm2)
e(mm)
Test
Comp
RCW1
37.28
17
597
531
RCW2
37.28
17
572
531
RCW3
38.48
33
336
302
RCW4
38.48
33
322
302
SFRW1
40.21
17
713
623
SFRW2
40.21
17
689
623
SFRW3
41.11
33
407
345
SFRW4
41.11
33
394
345
Table 1: Panel buckling capacities
Figure 4: Eccentrically loaded panels (a): Brittle failure of traditional RC panels (b);
SFRC panel section failure (c); Increased lateral deflection of SFRC panel prior to
failure (d); Experimental load-deflection curves for panels with varying eccentric
load and use of SFR
24
V1 N1 July 2014
Element Ref
f2 (N/ mm2)
RCL1
Nu(kN)
Test
Comp
61.28
190
194
RCL2
32.96
100
124
SFRL1
42.16
175
158
SFRL2
32.96
140
124
Table 2: Lintel shear capacities
PRECAST BUILDING
Lumped plasticity idealisation is a widely adopted computational

model, particularly utilised in earthquake engineering and robustness assessment, in order to determine the ultimate performance
of a structural system by increasing step by step the load multiplier
until failure (push-over or pushdown analysis). It has been demonstrated within previous studies [1] [3] that it is possible to consider,
as part of a computational assessment, the entire inelasticity of an
RC panel element to be concentrated at the critical section for the
span, with this lumped plasticity modelled through the use of a
non-linear hinge (Figure 6(a)).
Such a computational model is effective for the cases considered as part of this study, because the location of the maximum
moment (and thus the critical section) is known for the simply supported elements. In this representation the components cross section is subdivided into a number of elements or fibres, to which the
appropriate material properties are then assigned (Figure 6(b)). In
this way, the non-linear moment-curvature relationships and limits
of the fibre hinge can then be determined for a range of axial loads
(assuming plane cross sections). As such, the arrangement illustrated can therefore be used in order to provide an effective representation of system non-linearity, and consequentially, of buckling
capacity.
Importantly, because the proposed computational method
allows the designer to modify for the relevant concrete material
model, it can therefore facilitate the incorporation within the analysis of other concrete types, such as the fibre reinforced mix adopted
as part of this study. Therefore the Mander [14] model adopted for
the unconfined concrete material within the traditional RC panels
was replaced by the material model suggested by Al-Taan and Ezzadeen [15] (Figure 6(c)) for fibre reinforced concretes adopting a
1% fibre volume fraction. Additionally however, in order to correctly
quantify the rotational capacity of a concrete member, the length
of the resulting plastic hinge (Lp) that will be formed during loading
and subsequent failure must also be accounted for. Accordingly,
the hinge lengths were computed for both panel types from the expression proposed by Panagiotakos and Fardis [16] for unconfined
RC panels and column elements subjected to monotonic loading:

(3)
where Ls=H/2 is the shear span of the member, db=t/2 (for the
panels considered as part of this study) is the effective depth of the
reinforcement and fy is the yield strength of that reinforcement. As
can be seen from Table 2, the resulting computational predictions
for both the traditionally reinforced panels and those adopting the
hybrid reinforcing strategy show a good correlation with the actual
Figure 6: Lumped plasticity computational panel representation (a); Fibre hinge

at critical panel section (b); Unconfined [14] and SFRC [15] material models (c);
Comparison of theoretical and experimental panel capacities (d)
26
V1 N1 July 2014
experimental capacities seen. This relationship is also illustrated

within Figure 6(d) which shows the least-squares best fit to slope
= 0.833 and 2 = 0.846, for the RC and SFRC hybrid panel types
1
respectively, to be acceptably close to the = /4 ideal. The poorer
correlation seen within the panels where the secondary fibre reinforcement was incorporated is likely due to the fact that a degree of
calibration in relation to the length of fibre hinge is required. However, a greater number of data points would be required in order
to inform how Eq 3 should be modified to account for the use of
SFRC.
4.2 Design Using Strut and Tie
To aid in the development of the proposed analytical strut-andtie model for the beam elements considered, an elastic analysis
was first undertaken in order to analyse the stress flows occurring,
a method strongly advocated within existing literature [10]. A 2D
finite element (FE) analysis was carried out, using shell elements
due to the size of the section (100mm) in relation to the size of the
shells considered. These stress flows were then used in the development of a relevant STM. Additionally the outputs of the FE model
were used to verify the angle of the stresses against those obtained
by experimental measurement, with the angle used for the analytical STM (59o) found to lie between the maximum measured angle
of principal stress (52o) and that predicted through linear computational analysis (66o). The lower bound model developed is illustrated within Figure 7 (a) and compares well to those proposed within
literature [9] for concrete elements with a similar geometry and
reinforcement provision. The precedent cited however, considered
the response of confined concrete without a steel fibre content.
A key assumption made when arriving at the most appropriate
analytical STM, was regarding the width of the critical compressive strut formed. Although the bearing plate was sized to spread
loads across the full width of the beam it was assumed that the
effective width was that confined by the welded mesh configuration (Figure 2). Therefore the width of concrete considered was that
within the centreline of the reinforcement bars, as this was felt to
best represent the pinching or confining point. The design model
was then used to calculate the capacity of the section, with the theoretical predictions summarised as part of Table 2. Because the experimental work conducted identified that crushing of the primary
compressive strut, positioned at the support bearing plate, resulted
in element failure it could therefore be considered to be critical. It
follows then that the size of this strut and thus the capacity of the
section is then dictated by both the angle of the strut formed and
the width of the bearing plate used. The remaining struts were still
subsequently assessed for adequacy however, along with checks
also required to ensure the tensile capacity of the reinforcement
provided would not be exceeded within any of the associated ties.
Interestingly, and as can be seen from Table 2, the proposed
STM overestimates the strength of the two samples adopting the
welded mesh reinforcement without any additional steel fibre content by (2-24%). This is perhaps to be expected given the brittle nature of unconfined concrete and the sudden and explosive failure
observed in the testing of the element. This finding perhaps indicates that unconfined concrete elements should not be designed
using STM models without a further safety factor being applied to
the current strut capacity equation given within EC2 [8]:

(4)
PRECAST BUILDING
where RD,max is the allowable axial stress within the compressive strut, fc is the concrete cylinder strength th and =1-(fc/250)
is a reduction factor applied for cracked compression zones within
the Eurocodes. In contrast however, the STM model for samples
where a 1% content of SFR, by volume was incorporated, tends to
underestimate the capacity of the element by an average of 12%.
This suggests that the use of standard STM design is valid for situations in which un-confined reinforcement configurations are adopted and perhaps even indicates that a beneficial factor of safety
could be applied to the strut capacity expression (Eq 4) for such
design cases. However, a much larger degree of testing would be
required before any such conclusions or design recommendations
could be provided. A potential need for such further investigation
and the establishment of more appropriate correction factors is
well illustrated by the comparison of actual lintel capacities to the
ideal least squares correlation illustrated in Figure 7(b).
5 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work
The paper demonstrates that the incorporation of Steel Fibre
Reinforcement (SFR) has significant effects on the structural performance of both eccentrically loaded panels and shear discontinuity regions for precast elements adopting unconfined configurations for the traditional bar reinforcement. The paper also shows
the effectiveness of design methods that could enable an engineer
to justify the use of such hybrid reinforcing strategies in practice.
As far as the slender wall elements are concerned, the introduction of SFR was seen to increase both axial capacity and structural ductility for load eccentricities of e=t/6 and e=t/3, with a more
significant improvement in the latter case. Moreover, an improved
(and more acceptable) failure mechanism was observed, when
compared to the sudden, brittle failure seen in the control samples.
Lumped plasticity idealisation and fibre-hinge elements were shown
to provide a good correlation with the experimental data relating to
the singly and centrally reinforced panels adopting both traditional
and SFR concrete mix alternatives. However, the computational
method was found to be less effective in presence of steel fibres
as secondary reinforcement, suggesting that further testing is required in order to calibrate the length of the fibre hinge.
As far as the lintels with dapped ends are concerned, it has been
similarly shown that the introduction of SFR leads to increased capacity and ductility. This is believed to be because the fibres act to
control cracking at the re-entrant corner, inducing a greater degree of flexural action prior to failure. The investigations conducted
have also developed and validated a suitable Strut-and-Tie Model
(STM) for the design of halving joint details where an unconfined
steel reinforcement layout is adopted, which however tends to
overestimates the actual capacity. The findings also suggest that

a modification (or safety) factor should be applied to the strut element to account for the brittle nature of the unconfined concrete
without SFR. In contrast however, when a 1% volume of double-end
hook SFR were introduced in the mix, the use of the STM design
method could be justified, with the experimental values also indicating that a beneficial modification factor could be warranted. Also
in this case, further testing would be required in order to adequately
demonstrate and quantify what the value of such a beneficial factor
should be.
References
[1] G.P. Robinson, A. Palmeri and S.A. Austin, Tension Softening Effects on the Buckling Behaviour of Slender Concrete Wall Panels,
Proc. of ISEC-6 Modern Methods and Advances in Structural Engineering and Construction, Zurich (2011)
[2] J.H. Doh, S. Fragomeni, Evaluation of Experimental Work on Concrete Walls in One-Way and Two-Way Action, Aus. J. Struct. Eng,
6(1), 103-115 (2005)
[3] G.P.Robinson, A.Palmeri, S.A.Austin Design Methodologies for
One Way Spanning Eccentrically Loaded Minimally or Centrally
Reinforced Pre-Cast RC Panels, J. of Engineering Structures, Currently Under Review (2011)
[4] K.M. Kripanarayanan, Interesting Aspects of the Empirical Wall
Design Equation, ACI Stuct. J, 204-207 (1977)
[5] S.U. Pillai, C.V. Parthasarathy, Ultimate Strength and Design of
Concrete Walls, J. of Bld. and Env, Vol 12, 25-29 (1977)
[6] H.H. Abrishami, D. Mitchell, Influence of Steel Fibers on Tension
Stiffening, ACI Struct J, 769- 776 (1997)
[7] American Concrete Institute, ACI 318-05 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, Farmington Hills (2005)
[8] Comit Europen de Normalisation, EN 1992-1-1 Eurocode 2 Design of Concrete Structures Part 1-1 General Rules for Building,
Brussels (2004)
[9] J.K. Wight, J.G. MacGregor, Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and
Design, 5th Edition, Pearson Education International, San Jose
(2009)
[10] J. Schlaich, K. Schafer, M. Jennewith, Towards a Consistent Design of Structural Concrete, PCI Journal, 32(2), 74-150 (1987)
[11] D.R. Sahoo, S.H. Chao, Use of Steel Fiber Reinforced Cocncrete
for Enhanced Performance of Deep Beams with Large Openings,
Proc. of ASCE 2010 Structures Congress, 1981-1989, Orlando
(2010)
[12] Z. Fu, Use of Fibres and Headed Bars in Dapped End Beams, Masters Thesis, McGill University, Montreal (2004)
[13] D. Kuchma, S. Yindeesuk, T. Nagle, J. Hart Experimental Validation
of Strut-and-Tie Method for Complex Regions, ACI Structural J.,
105(5), 578-589 (2008)
[14] J.B.Mander, M.J.N Prestly, Park R Theoretical Stress-Strain Model
of Confined Concrete, J. of Structural Engineering, 114(8), 1804-1826
(1988)
[15] S.A. Al-Taan, N.A. Ezzadeen Flexural Analysis of Reinforced Fibrous Concrete Members Using the Finite Element Method, J. of
Computers and Structures, 56(6), 1065-1072 (1995)
Figure 7: Proposed STM for the design of lintel members (a); Comparison of theoretical and experimental lintel capacities (b)
[16] T.B.Panagiotakos, M.N. Fardis, Deformations of Reinforced Concrete Members at Yielding and Ultimate, ACI Struct. J., 98(2), 135-148
(2001) w
V1 N1 July 2014
27
PRECAST BUILDING: DESIGN ASPECTS
Practical and Economical

Design Aspects of Precast Concrete
Bob van Gils (Director)
WBK Engineering Services Pvt. Ltd. and Van Boxsel Engineering Pvt. Ltd.
Abstract: Precast concrete shear walled structures, also called large

panel systems, are a good solution for multistoried residential
and commercial buildings. This paper describes the practical and
economical aspects of designing and constructing these kinds of
structures.
The large panel systems are made of large precast walls and
slabs that are connected to each other in vertical and horizontal direction. The precast wall panels should be load bearing members
and shall be capable of carrying the vertical and lateral loads. The
wall panels can be connected to each other in various ways and together with the floor diaphragm they will form box type structures
(figures 1 to 4). The external precast wall panels shall be a finished
product and no cement plaster shall be required.
The precast concrete structures with load bearing wall panels
have several advantages compared to RCC frame structures.
- No brickwork infill walls are required
- Superior quality and durability of the high grade concrete panels
Figure 2. Large precast panel construction
-
-
-
-
No plastering required on the precast panels

Saves time and manpower
The thin precast wall structure increases the carpet area
Better health and safety standards for laborers during construction
As quality and speed of construction are becoming more important for builders the precast large panel system could prove
to be a viable solution. But in every building project the following
aspects are important.
-
-
-
-
-
Architecture
Structure
MEP Services
Manufacturing
Erection
The importance of these aspects shall be briefly explained in
this paper.
Architectural design aspects
Figure 1. Large precast panel construction
28
V1 N1 July 2014
Full advantage of precast concrete construction can be

achieved when the buildings shall been designed for high construction speed and maximum repetition. The architect should be
considering the following points in his design:
In any kind of precast building the position of lifts, staircases

and shafts are critical and have to be properly planned where they
do not complicate the layout of the load bearing walls and precast
floor slabs.
Architectural features and finishes
Figure 3. Large precast exterior Figure 4. Large precast interior wall

wall panels
panels
- Integration of architecture, services and structure has to be

achieved.
- Prepare design with simple and symmetrical layouts and elevations
- Avoid many offsets and re entrant corners in the building
plans
- Achieve standardization and repetition in the precast elements
- Use modular grids with multiple spacing of 1200mm for standard slabs
- In case of standard precast slab sizes the modular design can
have a big impact on the costing
- Minimize joints and plan location of joints
- In faade minimize horizontal or low sloped elements that can
collect dirt
- Keep precast elements as large as possible
- Design should not be a conversion of cast in-situ structure
- Not everything has to be made in precast
- Explore the unique capabilities that can be achieved with precast concrete
- When using prestressed floor slabs prepare building layouts
with larger floor spans
- Avoid last minute design changes when precast production
has started
Modular design
Modular design is important when the proposed precast system is utilizing standardized precast production methods with less
flexibility. For example when using standard slab sizes the modular design is guided by the standard size of the precast slabs. Positioning and alignment of other precast elements like walls, columns and beams has to be planned as per the modular system. It
may prove cost effective to avoid offsets and align the load bearing
structural elements. Modular design principles can be strictly followed but give less freedom to the architect. In case other production methods are used with more custom components the architect shall have more freedom in his design.
The exterior of the large panel buildings will be formed by

the load bearing precast wall panels. The concrete surface of the
panels will be exposed and can have factory made finishing like
sandblasting, polishing, exposed aggregate finish and form line
finishing. Various color finishes of the precast panels are possible
by changing the type of cement, type of aggregates and by using
pigments in the concrete mixture (figure 7). Precast wall panels
Figure 7. Exposed aggregate finish
Figure 8. False joints in precast panel
can also be provided with false joints to achieve a better architectural design patterns (see figure 8).
Cantilevered balconies can be made by providing cantilevered
brackets on the precast cross walls and resting the balconies on
these brackets. The precast balconies can also be made cantilevered with protruding top reinforcement connecting to the rcc
topping of the floor slab. Cantilevered sunshades are a common
feature in Indian building projects. The precast walls are generally
made on flat steel moulds and it is not possible to make the sunshade as one part with the wall. Sunshades can be prefabricated
and connected in a later stage to the precast walls.
Flexibility in layouts
Flexibility in the layout of precast concrete building projects
can be achieved by creating larger floor spans with larger open
spaces. Especially in office buildings this concept will provide a lot
of advantages to the end user (see figures 9 and 10). The non load
bearing partition walls can be made as light weight blocks, dry
walls or other suitable light weight systems.
Figure 9. Flexibility with large open

spaces
Figure 10. Flexibility with large open

spaces
Structural design aspects
Figure 5. Modular design pos- Figure 6. Mass production of standard

sibilities
slabs
India being an earthquake prone country the seismic resistant requirements are the most important criteria of the
structural design. Looking at the requirements we can draw
the conclusion that the basic earthquake resistant design
rules are suitable for precast concrete buildings. Generally the
following design rules should be followed:
V1 N1 July 2014
29
- Simple and symmetrical building layout

- Uniform distribution of mass and structural stiffness over the
height of the building.
- Avoid torsion
- Achieve ductile behavior of the structure
- Avoid progressive collapse of the structure
Simple, symmetrical and uniform buildings are normally easy
to optimize and very much suitable for precast concrete construction.
Precast floor slab systems
Basically three different floor slab systems can be considered
for multistoried precast buildings.
- Minimum 60mm rcc topping is recommended for diaphragm

action and prevention of progressive for multistoried buildings.
- In case of rcc topping the top surface of the hollow core has to
be roughened.
- It is difficult to place MEP services within the hollow core slabs,
services have to be placed either below or above the slab.
- Connection of the hollow core slabs to the shear walls has to
be properly designed and detailed for transfer of vertical and
lateral loadings.
- Pay attention to fixation of hollow core units in between load
bearing walls. Provide extra top reinforcement at this location.
1. Prestressed precast hollow core slabs

2. Precast half slabs with lattice girder reinforcement
3. Precast solid slabs
Prestressed precast hollow core slabs
These are prestressed floor slabs with longitudinal voids (figure 11). The presence of the voids results in material savings and
weight savings. With hollow core slabs large one way spans can
be achieved and no temporary propping is required. Hollow core
slabs only have longitudinal prestressing reinforcement and no
other reinforcement. Due to manufacturing methods it is not possible to make slabs with anchored tie bars, protruding stirrups or
embedded welded plates. Diaphragm action is achieved through
special joint design. Especially in high seismic zones an rcc topping
has to be added to join the slabs and achieve proper diaphragm
action (figure 12).
Profile
h (mm)
b (mm)
Weight (joints
filled kN/m2
HC-200
200
1196
2,60
7,0
HC-265
265
1196
3,80
10,0
HC-320
320
1196
4,10
12,0
HC-400
400
1196
4,65
17,0
Figure 13. Example of different hollow core slab sizes
Figure 14. Example of 2400mm wide hollow core slab
Figure 15
Figure 11. Hollow core slabs
Figure 12. Hollow core with RCC topping
Structural design aspects for using hollow core floor slabs in

multistoried residential buildings are as follows:
- Standard width of the slabs is 1200mm.
- Some hollow core suppliers are also providing slabs of
2400mm.
- For large scale projects with many repetitions it could be useful to have a combination of 1200mm and 2400mm slabs.
- Floor slab layout has to be designed on a multiple grid of
1200mm and 2400mm.
- Slabs can be cut in longitudinal direction if required to achieve
different size of slab. However longitudinal cutting should be
avoided as much as possible.
- Minimum slab thickness can be 100mm but most manufacturers offer minimum thickness of 120mm or 150mm.
- No propping required to support the hollow core slabs during
the construction phase.
- Camber and deflection should be checked in design and detailing.
30
V1 N1 July 2014
Joint filling
l/m2(*)
Figure 16
Precast half slabs with lattice girder reinforcement

These are composite slabs made of precast concrete planks
of 50mm thick with an rcc topping. The bottom reinforcement
is placed within the precast planks and the top reinforcement is
placed within the rcc topping. Basically the composite slab behaves the same as an rcc one way slab or two way slabs. The precast planks serve as the shuttering and have to be supported during casting and curing of the concrete. It is a very flexible system
where size of planks can be easily adjusted and MEP services can
be placed in the rcc topping.
Figure 17. Precast half slab with Figure 18. Precast half slab with
lattice girders
lattice girders
Structural design aspects of precast planks with lattice girders:

- Standard width is generally 2,4m or 3,0m, but can also be customized to room sizes.
- Flexible system, any type of slab size can be made.
- Bottom reinforcement is placed in the precast plank.
- Top reinforcement is placed inside the rcc topping.
- Minimum thickness is generally 50mm precast plank with
100mm rcc topping.
- Propping of the slabs during casting and curing of concrete is
required.
- MEP services can be placed inside the rcc topping.
Figure 24. Solid slab with welded

plates
Figure 26. Solid slab with protruding

reinforcement
Figure 19. Example of lattice girder reinforcement
Figure 25. Erection of solid slab with

welded plates
Figure 27. Solid slab with stitching

reinforcement
they are heavier than hollow core or precast planks.

- All reinforcement is placed inside the slab.
- Connection to the precast shear walls can be by protruding reinforcement like u-bars, reinforcement couplers or site welded
steel plate connections.
- In case of proper detailing then rcc topping can be avoided.
- All provisions for MEP can be placed inside the slabs.
Lateral load resisting system
Figure 20. Complicated slab layout Figure 21. Top reinforcement
Figure 22. Various precast slab

shapes
Figure 23. Casting of concrete topping
The structural behavior of precast concrete large panel buildings with shear walls is different than rcc frame structures. The
shear walls are to be considered as cantilevering from the foundation (see figures 28 and 29).
The precast floor units have to be properly joined together to act
as a floor diaphragm that transfers the lateral loads to the shear
walls. The connections between the floor diaphragm and the shear
walls have to be properly detailed. The shear walls will transfer the
lateral loads to the foundation by acting as cantilevered walls.
Precast solid slabs

Precast solid slabs without topping (Figures 24 to 27) can come
in different systems. The slabs are made as traditionally reinforced
solid slabs that are generally supported by load bearing walls at all
sides. If the connections with the walls are properly detailed and
executed then rcc topping can be avoided.
The connections between the solid slabs and the walls can be
made by protruding reinforcement like u-bars or by site welded
steel plates.
The solid slabs can be made on stationary steel tables and
during erection can be supported by props or by erection angles.
All the services can be embedded inside the solid slabs during the
production process.
Design aspects of solid precast slabs:
- Size of the slabs can be customized.
- Flexible system but weight of the slabs has to be checked as
Figure 28. Forces acting on shear wall
Figure 29. Forces acting within shear

wall
Connections
The wall panel connections can be classified into horizontal
joints and vertical joints. The horizontal joints have to transfer vertical loads as well as lateral loads. The vertical joints can be open
and not transferring any loads or they can be connected to transfer
shear loads.
In many countries the horizontal joints between precast wall
panels are made with grouted corrugated ducts. The precast wall
panels are lowered into position over the vertical reinforcement
bars which are protruding from the below element (see figure 30).
V1 N1 July 2014
31
The ducts and the horizontal joint are fully filled with non shrink
high strength grout with at least 10MPa higher strength as the
precast concrete. In the plastic hinge regions the ducts can be provided over the full height of the precast wall and the reinforcement
bars can be lapped inside the duct. Another option is to use the
splice sleeve type 2 connection according to ACI 318 (see figure 31).
It can also be decided to design the bottom stories, where yielding
will occur, in cast in-situ concrete.
Figure 32. Placing wall in mortar
bed
Figure 33. Pumping grout in horizontal

joint
facturing process the protruding reinforcement can be replaced

by coupler bars (see figures 34 and 35). It is advised to use these
connections only for internal shear walls as the vertical joint has to
be finished with plastering at both sides and this requires a lot of
extra work.
Figure 30. Connection through grouted corrugated ducts
Figure 34. Vertical connection detail Figure 35. Vertical connections between
internal walls
MEP Services
In precast concrete building projects it is important that the
MEP services consultants and the MEP vendors are part of the design team. Services like air-conditioning, electrical and plumbing
have to be an integrated part of the precast design. For example
wall panels can be provided with electricity conduits, electricity
boxes and openings for ducts (see figures 36 and 37).
Hollow core slabs can be provided with electricity boxes and
Figure 31. Splice sleeve connections
Filling of joints
Filling of horizontal joints with non shrink high strength cement based mortar or grout can be done in several ways:
1. Placing the precast wall in thixotropic mortar bed (see figure
32)
2. Fill the joint with mortar by hand placement
3. Pump thixotropic grout in the joint (see figure 33)
4. Fill the joint with flowable grout
5. Injection of flowable grout
Because of high temperatures in India and because clean filling has to be achieved it is advised to follow the third method and
fill the joints by pumping thixotropic grout in the joints. Filling of the
corrugated ducts is generally done by pouring flowable grout from
the top or by injection/pumping from the bottom of the duct.
Vertical joints can either be structural joints which have to
transfer shear forces or non-structural joints which dont have
to transfer any forces. In case fully monolithic behavior has to be
achieved the best option is to use a protruding reinforcement connection in combination with drop-in stirrups. To ease the manu-
32
V1 N1 July 2014
Figure 36. Electricity in precast wall panel
block outs. Placing MEP services within the hollow core slabs is
not possible. Services have to be place above or below the floor,
special hangers can be used (see figure 38). Precast planks with
rcc topping can be provided with electricity boxes and block outs.
Furthermore small conduits, ducts and plumbing pipes can be
embedded in the rcc topping (see figures 39 and 40)
Figure 41. Industrialized building system components
in abutments which are heavy concrete foundations.

Some possibilities for precast factory equipment are:
Figure 37. Several openings in precast wall panel
Figure 38. Typical load hangers for hollow core slabs
Figure 39. MEP services in topping of plank floor
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Stationary flat bed moulds

Tilting tables
Battery moulds
Central shifter system with pallets
Side shifter system with pallets
Carrousel system with pallets
Hollow core plant
Other customized solutions
Industrialized precast building systems are consisting of standard prefab elements made in standard moulds with minimum
customization and suitable for mass production (see figure 41).
Customized prefabrication systems are methods where the
precast elements are made according to a standard concept but
with flexibility to customize according to the requirements of the
project. These customized systems require more flexibility in the
shuttering and moulding.
The design and project team has to understand the capabilities and limitations of the precast manufacturing unit and following
aspects have to be considered while designing.
- Type of factory? Conventional, semi automated or fully automated precast plant?
- Ordinary reinforced precast concrete elements and/or prestressed concrete elements?
- Horizontal tables or vertical battery moulds (see figures 42 and
43)
- Wooden side shuttering or steel side shuttering?
- Custom made wooden or steel moulds for special elements
(see figure 44)
- Minimum and maximum size and weight of the precast elements
- Production tolerances
Figure 40. Plumbing pipes in topping of plank floor
Precast manufacturing aspects

Basically there are two different types of precast plants which
are the temporarily site based precast plant (casting yard) and the
permanent precast plant. Furthermore we can differentiate between precast plants with ordinary reinforced precast concrete
elements and plants where prestressed concrete elements are
manufactured. In case prestressed concrete elements have to be
produced the system usually requires long line beds on which the
concrete elements will be formed either with casting machines or
with shuttering systems. The prestressing steel has to be anchored
34
V1 N1 July 2014
Figure 42. Circulating pallet system (flat moulds)
Figure 46. Space for crawler crane

Figure 43. Battery mould (vertical moulds)
Figure 47. Casting rcc topping on precast slabs

Figure 44. Custom made wooden mould
cranes which can be placed at a fixed location like tower cranes or

by mobile cranes which can move around the building (see figure
46). In case of mobile cranes or crawler cranes there should be
enough space to maneuver comfortably around the building. The
speed of the crane often determines the speed of erection, especially in case of high rise structures where it takes more time to lift
the elements. Another important aspect of the erection sequence
is the casting of the rcc topping on hollow core or plank floors and
should be well planned.
Design aspects:
Figure 45. Standard reinforcement couplers
- Standard embedded parts like anchors, lifting eyes, reinforcement etc.

- Minimum variation in embedded parts (see figure 45)
- Avoiding penetrations through the mould
- Stripping methods of the precast elements en consequences
for design
- Shape of block outs and rebates
- Chamfer the edges of wall panels to reduce edge damage and
to mask differences in alignment between panels at the joints.
- Detailing of the reinforcement cages
- Curing and finishing methods
Execution / erection aspects
Erection of the precast structure will be done by building
- Transportation and temporary storage of the precast elements

- Crane position and lifting capacities
- Lifting speed and speed of erection
- Lifting systems and safety aspects
- Space for movement of mobile cranes or crawler cranes (see
figure 29)
- Easy access to connections
- Clean construction process
- Tolerances
- Easy and fast erection
- Erection sequence
- Grouting methods for joints
- Casting of rcc topping (see figure 47)
- Position of props and supporting structures
- Sealing methods for joints w
V1 N1 July 2014
35
COMMUNICATION FEATURE
Hollowcore Manufacturing
and Factory Design
Stephen Carr C Eng MI Mech E

Spiroll Precast Services Ltd.
Abstract:This document is designed to provide guidance and outline the main considerations in the initial planning of a Hollowcore
plant. The information presented is based on 40 years of Spiroll
experience. To summarise the key points: - The Plant should be planned with both the short term and
long term capacity targets for hollowcore manufacture based
on beds numbers and length. The normal bed length can vary
from 60 to 150 metres - 120 metres is the most common as it
provides good flexibility and fits well in to the daily production
cycle.
- The aim of any plant is to achieve maximum efficiency by filling every bed every day. To achieve this, adequate time must
be allowed for curing the concrete, cutting the slabs to length,
lifting the slabs and cleaning and preparing the beds for casting again. Of particular importance is the curing time as the
strength of the concrete must be adequate to hold the bond
when the wires are cut. Before releasing the tension in the free
strand to transfer the strain energy into the concrete, the concrete must have enough strength.
- The factory layout must also take account of finished product
handling and storage, concrete batching and distribution, and
maintenance and service requirements.
- An economic approach to the investment is to have staged investment. The factory layout should then include provision for
immediate and future production levels so that the production
can grow to meet market demand without disrupting the ongoing production.
36
V1 N1 July 2014
- A low cost start-up can also be considered with minimal plant.

This can be achieved with mobile plant, initially handling of the
concrete and the product can be with a five tonne forklift. This
system can be replaced by a gantry cranes, overhead cranes or
travel lifts in the future.
- This system using extruder casting machines with mobile
plant can be extended to a mobile hollowcore production plant.
In this way the plant is sited at the construction project site and
moved when the project is complete.
Hollowcore Slabs
In terms of selling hollowcore slabs into your local market, the
slab is a versatile precast element that can be utilised in a wide
range of applications and thus expand the available markets.
Few building materials available today offer the economy, flexibility and reliability of precast prestressed concrete. The advantages of hollowcore slabs are significant for the following reasons: Durability: Hollowcore slabs provide long-term performance
in extremely harsh conditions that could destroy lesser materials.
It is extremely resilient to deterioration from the weather and the
dense concrete and high cover to the steel allows design for high
fire ratings.
Speed: Factory production of hollowcore allows the producer
to have full control over all the variables, which affect the durability,
strength and appearance of the slab. The high quality and excellent
finishes of the slabs reduce site work to an absolute minimum.
Flexibility: Hollowcore slabs used for floors have good soffits
which allow for direct application of ceiling finishes. They can also
be used for wall panels. Speed and economy make them a good
solution to which can add decorative finishes by using a thin layer
of different aggregates and colours on the soffits and tops of the
slabs.
Economical: Hollowcore slabs themselves are up to 30% lighter than the equivalent in-situ floor. With the prestress and the low
self weight, longer spans can be achieved for the same loads or
greater loads for the same depths. The building foundations can
be lighter as they are required to support less weight. Alternatively
the number of supporting columns and beams can be significantly
reduced. Hollowcore therefore gives the opportunity for longer
spans, greater loads and less foundation costs.
Features of High Freq. Vibration
-
-
-
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-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
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Fire resistance (2-4 hours fire rating) depending on design

High density product
No strand slippage
Low cement content
Greater span/depth characteristics
Consistent camber
Greater span load characteristic
Eliminates costly propping during installation
All weather construction
Immediate working surface
Custom made to length and detail
Excellent sound barrier (due to hollows)
Carpet direct top surface
Speedy erection, reducing interim financing
Maintenance free
Economical long line Production
Unlimited design possibilities, compatible with almost all
building materials
- Flexibility in design and application
In summary there are a variety of uses for hollowcore with applications for floors, roofs and wall panels being the most common. Also some of the more innovative producers have found
use for hollowcore in such projects as parking decks, bridge deck
(permanent forms), basement walls, retaining walls, pedestrian
bridges and parapet walls (air displacement).
Tests and Approvals
Hollowcore slabs have world-wide recognition and acceptance
as a building element. Many tests have been done for different
purposes and in different countries. The design of hollowcore is
covered in the British Standards, the EC by Euro Codes and in the
USA by the Precast Concrete Institute (PCI).
Many tests on hollowcore have been carried out initiated by
some of the early tests, for example
- Report on Structural Test on Spiroll Extruded Hollow Core
Slabs, Report K68-05 Stockholm, Sweden, August 1968.
- Report on Test to Demonstrate the Adequacy of Floor or Roof
Assemblies using Spiroll Panels (By: S.B. Barnes and Associates).
- In addition to the published design codes mentioned above
some more recent publications included.

The Extrusion Process
The most common casting system for casting hollowcore is
the extruder. It was the Worlds first machine for producing hollowcore slabs that did not require a separate driving force to move
the machine along the production bed. The same effort that feeds
the concrete mix through the machine and forms it into the final
precast slab also provides the motivation to drive the extruder
along the bed. This natural process propels the extruder along the
production bed and allows the compacted concrete to reach the
required density.
With high frequency (HF) vibration in the Spiroll machines, the
intense vibration and pressure within the machines, means the
concrete mix is effectively plasticised during the short time that it
is passed through the extruder. This results in dense concrete with
little air retention and moulds the concrete to form the required
section.
The formed slab then reverts to its dry state and reaches a
density high enough to stand on the slab immediately after the
extrusion process. After a period of natural or accelerated curing,
the slabs are then cut to length, stripped from the casting bed and
transported to the storage area. Concrete strength of a minimum
of 35N/mm2 is required to hold the bond between the concrete
and the strands.
The casting beds are prepared by cleaning and the application
of a release agent. The high tensile steel strands are pulled down
the length of the bed and stressed. The extruder hopper is filled
with concrete and the machine moves along the bed, pushed by
the pressure generated by the compacted concrete. The casting
takes one and half to two hours depending on the length of the bed.
The daily routine is established depending on the number of beds
to be cast and the shift operated.
Extruders are by far the simplest hollowcore machine on the
market in terms of their design and ease of use. Once the machine
has been commissioned and set-up to suit the local material, it
simply requires the required mix to be put in the hopper and the
machine to be started. Some adjustment of the mix may be necessary to achieve the desired quality and curing times and once
set, one man is required to operate the machine. Maintenance is
extremely easy. Wear components are designed for extended life.
The simplicity, reliability, low maintenance, low labour costs and
high strength of the finished product make the machine extremely
popular and have stood the test of time with many reputable customers.
Extruders are capable of producing hollow core slabs from depths
of 150mm-470mm with widths from 600mm-1800mm.
Factory Design
Scope of Plant Layout
The layout of a new plant should be considered with a view to
the future requirement for increased numbers of beds. This leads
to reviewing the product handling and the distribution of the concrete. Consideration is required of the maintenance facility, the
drainage, access, wiring of the beds, stressing of the beds and
storage of the finished product.
For a low cost start up, the plant would be designed with a
V1 N1 July 2014
37
production facility with two (2) 120 meters long Production Beds
and 1.2 metres wide. This will provide an approximate output of
65,000m of slabs per annum based on an average of two hundred
fifty (250) working days per year.
Provision would be made for future expansion by the addition
of two (2) to four (4) identical beds in the future. The basic system
would include one (1) extruder; one (1) saw, stressing equipment
and lifting equipment.
By locating the mixer in the middle of the factory the distribution of the concrete and the lifting and handling of the finished
product can be completed with two overhead cranes. This minimizes the travel time for the concrete and allows the second crane
to continue with other activities. If concrete is to be distributed to
more than one bay then a batching plant at the end of the factory is
usually necessary. Concrete distribution can then be aided by using an overhead travelling bucket and transfer crane.
With both systems, overhead cranes are used to strip the product. Also the opportunity exists to extend the crane longitudinal
travel beyond the production buildings. This enables it to be used
for transfer of product to the yard and some for yard functions in
the future.
The batching plant should have the provision for handling of
two (2) or three (3) aggregates and silo storage of cement. Batch
size should match the machine usage of concrete to ensure continuous operation during casting.
Transport of the concrete delivery skip/buckets to the extruder
is accomplished by forklift truck(s), overhead cranes or other suitable methods.
Stressing Abutments and Production Bed foundations are to
be designed as per details provided by your consultant and Soil Investigation Report provided by the customers.
Civil Work
- Foundations for Batch Plant, electrical and mechanical distribution centre and cement silos.
- Roofed, insulated structure to cover production area( Although
this depends on local climate).
- Fully enclosed areas for parts storage and maintenance.
Production Beds
The bed length is dictated by a number of factors. These factors are plant capacity, available space, concrete distribution time,
batch size, bed production time, flexibility of product depth and
strand patterns, bed utilisation and bed end wastage.
Shorter Production Beds give quicker production cycle time.
They are more flexible for scheduling of multiple machine sizes,
but are not so productive. We would normally recommend a bed
length of 120 metres if space is available. In practise bed lengths
vary between 60m to 150m.
Bed construction techniques vary, but generally heavier construction gives more dimensional stability and longer life.
To reduce heat loss insulation should be installed under the
beds. Hot water pipe for heating is installed above the insulation.
The bed can be filled with concrete, before turning onto insulation
to improve bed stability and reduce transmission of vibration.
Abutments
The capacity of the abutment design should take account of
38
V1 N1 July 2014
future requirements for deeper hollowcore slabs as a small additional cost at the installation stage will save significant costs later
(The stressing load for a 500mm deep unit could be as high as 400
tonnes). When preparing the ground works for the abutments provision should be made for future beds to minimise costs.
Fixed Steel Posts
The simplest and cheapest method is to have fixed steel posts
at both ends of the production bed. With this method the strands
are tensioned individually using a hydraulic pump unit and stressing jack.
These posts can be in line with the stressing load or a deflected
strand system can be used with the post below the bed level. This
later system allows strand patterns to be readily changed, facilitates drainage and is a safer system.
If shock-detensioningis employed there is a potential for
cracking and damaging to the slabs. Extra care needs to be taken
when cutting the strand. Preferable is the slow release of tension
using a hydraulic detensioning system.
Hydraulic Detensioning System
To avoid the problems associated with shock detensioning,
Spiroll has developed a simple and cost effective hydraulic detensioning system.
The design of the abutment is based on two posts, which are
cast on site into the concrete at an angle; this allows the highest
point of the assembly to be below the level of the beds. The Stress
is transferred to the posts by a yoke, which fits over the posts and
is locked off, to allow the hydraulic detensioning assembly to be
fitted and removed.
Multi-stressing System
The most effective system for stressing and release of tension
is hydraulic multi-stressing. This method allows all the strands to
be both stressed and detensioning at the same time. Multi-stressing significantly reduces the time it takes to stress and eliminates
the possibility of bond slip or damage to the slabs caused by shock
detensioning. However this is the more expensive option and not
recommended for start ups.
Drainage
Control of the water used during sawing, and maintaining a
uniform level of water on the bed ahead of the casting machine
can be achieved more easily if the beds or the channels between
beds are installed with a fall of approximately 3 to 4mm per metre
of bed run, over the length of the beds.
Production Processes
Batching/Mixing
Concrete usage is approximately 1m3 every 6mins per machine. For concrete distribution to match a batch size of 1m3 is
preferable. To run two machines together the minimum batching
capacity would therefore be 20 to 30m3/h (note: if the pan size is
Method
Benefits
Disadvantages
Forklift
Low initial cost

Readily available
Floor space required
Portal Crane
Low cost, reliable,

flexible, no building
required
Reduced floor space

Danger of Legs
Overhead
Gantry
Crane
Low cost, reliable,

flexible, clear of floor
space, faster than
Portal Crane
Part of building Cost of

structural supports
CDS System
Automation, more
than one bay, speed,
low labour content
High cost of investment,

maintenance. Poor
reliability
reduced then the capacity needs to be increased).

Needs only 20-70 litres of water but must be accurate to 1litre.
Admix needs to be able to mix with water before going into mix.
Concrete Mix Design
The Spiroll system uses an extremely dry concrete mix, typically a water/cement ratio of approximately of 0.30 The mix design
will depend on the availability of local cement and aggregates and
can be easily fined tuned to suit local conditions. To reduce curing times and to allow double casting within a 24-hour period the
cement proportions can be increased. A survey of customers suggests that the proportion of course to fine aggregates does vary
to suit local conditions. Admix is normally not required but can be
added to improve flow and workability with angular aggregates or
assist to reduce curing times.
Material Recommendations
Course Aggregates: 10mm/14mm Aggregates (Max. Size
16mm for mechanical clearance). Irregular shape is recommended. Extremes of very rounded or extremely angular respective are
prone to sagging and lower speeds or are difficult to compact.
Sand: Clean Zone 2 or equivalent.
Cement: Cement can be normal Portland cement or high early
strength cement as they contribute to workability and benefit to
rapid curing.
Water: This could range from 23 to 70 litres per cubic meter of
mix depending on the moisture content and/or degree of absorption of the aggregates.
Admix: Admixtures may be useful for workability or set control,
but are not normally required.
Concrete Distribution
While the Extruder is the heart of the Hollowcore Plant, additional equipment is essential to perform other tasks. Most important is the transportation of the concrete mix from the batching
plant to the Extruder.
Delivery of the concrete must match the requirements of the
Extruder so that it does not run out of mix and slow down production. Several methods of concrete delivery can be used such
as overhead cranes, fork lifts or automated Concrete Distribution
Systems (CDS).
To maintain continuity of supply of concrete to a Spiroll Extruder producing (as an example) a 200mm deep slab would require
1m every 6/7 minutes.
The Extruder can be stopped between loads but it is preferable to maintain the continuity of the casting once the line has been
started. The permissible standing time before the machine has to
be lifted clear of the curing concrete would be established by trials
but would normally be between 5 and 10 minutes.
When delivering concrete the transfer between skips should
be kept to a minimum to avoid segregation. The skip should be
bottom opening with a wide mouth (1m) to avoid trapping and segregation of the stone from the fines.
Using an average extrusion speed of 1.2m/min and a Bed
length of 120 metres, the casting time per bed would be around
100 minutes. Transfer for lifting of the Extruder, setting-up, cleaning time etc. would add approximately 15 minutes.
V1 N1 July 2014
39
Consideration should be given to the systems available to distribute the concrete as follows.
- Forklift Truck Front Loader
Curing
- Stacker Lifters
The curing process is the longest part of the production cycle.

As such it is critical to the overall production cycle time. This means
that all efforts to reduce this process will most affect the whole
length of the production cycle. By having a concrete mix with a low
water content the curing time is greatly reduced. The application
of heat into the cast slabs through pipes under the bed initiates
and accelerates the curing of the concrete. The Production Beds
can be heated by either hot oil steam or hot water. Of these hot
water is the cheapest to install and maintain and is by far the most
popular as it is reliable, cost effective and manageable. Inlet temperatures of 60 80c should be maintained with enough flow to
maintain outlet temperatures at around 25 35c. To ensure good
early strengths, the beds should be hot when casting and the heat
applied during the casting to maintain a concrete temperature of
60 degree centigrade. To trap the moisture and for efficient use of
heat the product should be covered at the earliest opportunity after
casting. Plastic sheet can be used but for efficiency particularly in
colder climates the concrete should be covered with a good quality
insulated sheet.
- Overhead Crane
Cutting The Slabs
- Forklift Truck Side Loader
- Direct onto road trailers

- Low trailer system
- Bogie Trolleys
The production rate will call for movement of: approximately
80 square metres per hour (or approximately 8 to 10 pieces per
hour assuming average lengths 6 to 8 metres).
Preparing the Beds
Once the hollowcore slabs have been cut to length and lifted
away from the production beds, the beds then need to be cleaned
and oiled. The prestressing strands are then pulled the full length
of the bed from the strand dispensers, threaded through the abutments and the anchors fitted prior to stressing.
The stages of preparation are: -
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-
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Clean the Casting Bed

Clean the Bed Rails
Push Debris off the Bed
Spray the Bed Oil/Release Agent
Pull the Prestressing Wires/Strands
Stress the Wires/Strand
The estimated time for a cut is 1 to 2 minutes. With moving

and positioning this gives a cycle time of 4 to 5 minutes per cut. The
blades are diamond tipped and require water during the cutting
process. Water can supplied to the saw using a hose Cable Reeler
or directly with a trailing hose. The later is not an efficient system.
These activities can be done by hand. Equipment is also available to speed up the processes and reduce the labour costs.
Lifting (Stripping) Clamps
Quality Control Equipment
Special Lifting Clamps are utilised to lift the product off the
beds either by crane or forklift. The product can be transferred
from the bed to the Stock Yard by crane, boggie trailers, forklift,
purpose made lifters or directly onto trailer.
Care is required to match the logistics of handling the finished
product with the production cycle to ensure the beds are stripped
at the optimum rate.
Efficient Hollowcore Production requires good quality control

systems to ensure the consistent quality of the aggregates, the
concrete, curing conditions, good bond and dimensional accuracy
of the finished product.
To achieve this, the normal aggregate testing and cube testing
equipment is required. Consistent concrete is achieved with batching calibration procedures. Preparation of the cubes with heavy vibration to match the extruder is necessary and extra cubes should
be made to check the transfer strength of the concrete is required
in addition to the 28 day strengths. Stressing and detensioning
procedures require to be established with correct calibration.
Transporting Slabs
Options for transfer of product are:Method
Benefits
Disadvantages
90 o Cross Cut
Low initial cost Faster

cutting times
Need a secondary
cutting station for
long and angle
cuts
Long Rip Cuts
Cut slabs longitudinally

when still wet, which is
faster
Poorer Finish
Multi Angle
Cuts any angle and long

cuts on the bed
Heavy and more

expensive saw
Secondary
Cutting Station
Frees up production bed

faster. Cheap method of
cutting angles
Two stage cutting
40
V1 N1 July 2014
Conclusion
The manufacture of hollowcore is not difficult. Low cost start
up units can be designed with the potential to increase the capacity
to match future demand.
The degree of automation depends upon the capacity required
and the local cost of labour to ensure good pay back periods.
Start up factories can be run with a low level of automation;
this will reduce the capital expenditure and increase the reliability
of the plant.
A high standard of product can be guaranteed by using the correct procedures and equipment.
High Frequency Vibration Extruders as made by SPIROLL produce the strongest and most consistent product. w
PRECAST CONCRETE BUILDINGS: CODAL PROVISIONS
Precast Concrete Codal Provisions

Comparison of Various Codes
Prasad. C.A.
M.Tech, M(ASCE), FIE, MSEI, CE(I)

Managing Partner, PS Engineering Consultants
Secretary, Pre Engineered Structures Society of India
Design Considerations
The precast structure should be analyzed as a monolithic one
and the joints in them designed to take the forces of an equivalent
discrete system. Resistance to horizontal loading shall be provided
by having appropriate moment and shear resisting joints or placing shear walls (in diaphragm braced frame type of construction)
in two directions at right angles or otherwise. No account is to be
taken of rotational stiffness, if any, of the floor-wall joint in case
of precast bearing wall buildings. The individual components shall
be designed, taking into consideration the appropriate end conditions and loads at various stages of construction. The components
of the structure shall be designed for loads in accordance with Part
6 Structural Design, Section 1 Loads, Forces and Effects. In addition members shall be designed for handling, erection and impact
loads that might be expected during handling and erection
Robustness:
Schematic of the Ronan Point Collaps, Modified After Dragosavie (15)
Skyline Plaza
Ronan Apartments
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-
-
-
Watershed event for progressive collapse

22 story precast panel construction supported by cast in place
concrete structure including parking garage
Gas explosion occurred in 18th story apartment
Wall panel blew out, causing loss of support of panels on 19-22nd flrs
Debris of upper floors caused each floor below to successively
collapse
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-
March 2, 1973
While concrete was being placed on the 24th floor and shoring removel was occurring on the 22nd floor a collapse occurred for the
full height of the tower
Impact of debris also caused horizontal progressive collapse of
entire parking garage under construction adjacent to the tower
14 workers killed, 34 injured
V1 N1 July 2014
41
2.2.2.2 Robustness
Structures should be planned and designed so that they are
not unreasonably susceptible to the effects of accidents.
In particular, situations should be avoided where damage to
small areas of a structure or failure of single elements may lead to
collapse of major parts of the structure.
Provisions in British / Indian Standards
Unreasonable susceptibility to the effects of accidents may
generally be prevented if the following precautions are taken.
a) All buildings are capable of safely resisting the notional horizontal design ultimate load applied at each floor or roof level
simultaneously equal to 1.5 % of the characteristic dead weight
of the structure between mid-height of the storey below and
above or the roof surface at each floor or roof level simultaneously.
Unreasonable susceptibility to the effects of accidents may
generally be prevented if the following precautions are taken.
-
-
-
Tower was reinforced concrete flat plate construction

Study of failure indicated premature removel of 22nd floor slab
shoring lead to punching shear failure of the slab around one or
more columns at the 23rd floor
The weight of debris caused the failure of all the lower floors for
the full height
Codal Provisons
There are, in general, three alternative approaches to designing structures to reduce their susceptibility to disproportionate collapse as adopted by Major International Codes of Practice:
a) All buildings are capable of safely resisting the notional horizontal design ultimate load applied at each floor or roof level
simultaneously equal to 1.5 % of the characteristic dead weight
of the structure between mid-height of the storey below and
above or the roof surface at each floor or roof level simultaneously.
b) All buildings are provided with effective horizontal ties
1) Around the periphery;
- Redundancy or alternate load paths (Bridging Elements etc.,)

- Local resistance (Ductility)
- Interconnection or continuity (Ties etc.,)
British Standards (BS) and New UK Regulations provide explicit rules for Robustness. Hence these are discussed in detail in
this presentation
Provisions for Robustness in British Standards initiated first in
1974
2) Internally;
3) To columns and walls.
c) The layout of building is checked to identify any key elements
the failure of which would cause the collapse of more than a
42
V1 N1 July 2014
limited portion close to the element in question. Where such

elements are identified and the layout cannot be revised to
avoid them, the design should take their importance into account. Recommendations for the design of key elements are
given in 2.6 of BS 8110-2:1985
Provisions in British Standards
d) Buildings are detailed so that any vertical load-bearing element other than a key element can be removed without causing
the collapse of more than a limited portion close to the element in
question. This is generally achieved by the provision of vertical ties
in accordance with 3.12.3 in addition to satisfying a), b) and c) above.
There may, however, be cases where it is inappropriate or impossible to provide effective vertical ties in all or some of the vertical
load-bearing elements. Where this occurs, each such element
should be considered to be removed in turn and elements normally supported by the element in question designed to bridge the
gap in accordance with the provisions of 2.6 of BS 8110-2:1985
3.12.3.7 Vertical ties
Each column and each wall carrying vertical load should be tied
Figure 5.4 Concept of horizontal and vertical ties
Safeguarding against vehicular impact

Where vertical elements are particularly at risk from vehicle
impact, consideration should be given to the provision of additional
protection, such as bollards, earth banks or other devices.
Flow chart of design procedure( cl 3.1.4.6, BS 8110)
Figure 3.1 summarizes the design procedure envisaged by the
code for ensuring robustness.
Flow chart for Design Procedure
continuously from the lowest to the highest level. The tie should be
capable of resisting a tensile force equal to the maximum design
ultimate dead and imposed load received by the column or wall
from any one storey
Figure 3.1 Flow chart of design Procedure
3.1.4.1 General check of structural integrity

A careful check should be made and appropriate action taken
to ensure that there is no inherent weakness of structural layout
and that adequate means exist to transmit the dead, imposed and
wind loads safely from the highest supported level to the foundations.
Provisions in Standards
V1 N1 July 2014
43
Provisions in Standards
Ties Design Requirements
Type of tie
Reinforcement required
Amount
Vertical (only required for buildings

exceeding four storeys high)
Peripheral
Minima provided to comply with requirements for reinforced concrete walls and
columns will suffice.
CP110 only: For plain concrete walls
where p<0.2% and for precast structures see provisions in Clause 5.1.2.4
At each floor and roof level.
In peripheral wall or within 1200 mm of edge of
building.
To resist T = F1kN
At each floor level.

Either spread evenly through slab or grouped at
beams, walls etc.
In walls (Within 500 mm of top or bottom of
floor slab), floor slab or beams.
If (gk +qk)l < 37.5 kN/m, to resist

T = F1kN/m width
If (gk +qk)l > 37.5 kN/m, to resist
T = 0.0267 (gk + qk)l F, kN/m width
Internal
Horizontal (required
in buildings of any
height)
Number of Storeys no
Disposition etc.
To resist the greater of either
At each floor level, to anchor column or wall to

floor structure.
Reinforcement required may be partlyor wholly
provided by extending that used for peripheral
or internal ties.
Corner columns should be tied in both directions to resist forces T specified.
External
column and
wall
values for walls are perme(i)

tre of horizontal lenth
(ii) 0.03 x total ultimate vertical load for
which member has been designed, at
floor level considered.
10 or more
28
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
Tie-force coefficient Ft 24

Ties Anchorage Details
Figure 3.1 Flow chart of design procedure
Key Elements
2.6.2 Key elements
Ties Anchorage Details
2.6.2.1 Design of key elements (where required in buildings of

five or more storeys). Whether incorporated as the only reasonable means available to ensuring a structures integrity in normal
use or capability of surviving accidents, key elements should be
designed, constructed and protected as necessary to prevent removal by accident.
2.6.2.2 Loads on key elements. Appropriate design loads
should be chosen having regard to the importance of the key element and the likely consequences of its failure, but in all cases an
element and its connections should be capable of withstanding a
design ultimate load of 34 kN/m2, to which no partial safety fac-
44
V1 N1 July 2014
tor should be applied, from any direction. A horizontal member,

or part of a horizontal member that provides lateral support vital
to the stability of a vertical key element, should also be considered
a key element. For the purposes of 2.6.2, the area to which these
loads are applied will be the projected area of the member (i.e. the
area of the face presented to the loads).
Key Elements contd.,
2.6.2.3 Key elements supporting attached building components. Key elements supporting attached building components
should also be capable of supporting the reactions from any attached building components also assumed to be subject to a
design ultimate loading of 34 kN/m2. The reaction should be the
maximum that might reasonably be transmitted having regard
to the strength of the attached component and the strength of its
connection.
NBC 2005
A Key element is such that its failure would cause the collapse
of more than a limited area close to it, and the area may taken
as equal to 70 m2 or 15% of the area of the storey whichever is
lesser.
Bridging Elements
2.6.3 Design of bridging elements (where required in buildings
of five or more storeys)
2.6.3.1 General. At each storey in turn, each vertical load-bearing element, other than a key element, is considered lost in turn.
(The design should be such that collapse of a significant part of
the structure does not result.) If catenary action is assumed, allowance should be made for the horizontal reactions necessary for
equilibrium.
2.6.3.2 Walls
2.6.3.2.1 Length considered lost. The length of wall considered
to be a single load-bearing element should be taken as the length
between adjacent lateral supports or between a lateral support
and a free edge (see 2.6.3.2.2).
2.6.3.2.2 Lateral support. For the purposes of this subclause, a
lateral support may be considered to occur at:
a) a stiffened section of the wall (not exceeding 1.0 m in length)
capable of resisting a horizontal force(in kN per metre height
of the wall) of 1.5 Ft; or
b) a partition of mass not less than 100 kg/m2 at right angles to
the wall and so tied to it as to be able to resist a horizontal force
(in kN per metre height of wall) of 0.5 Ft; Where Ft is the lesser
of (20 + 4 n0) or 60, where n0 is the number of storeys in the
structure.
New Regulations in UK
hazards that may reasonably be foreseen, together with any abnormal hazards.
Critical situations for design should be selected that reflect the
conditions that can reasonably be foreseen as possible during the
life of the building. The structural form and concept and any protective measures should then be chosen and the detailed design
of the structure and its elements undertaken in accordance with
the recommendations given in the Codes and Standards give in
paragraph 5.2.
Class 3 Buildings: Risk Assessment Procedure
1. Identify hazards (see Section 6.4) to form the basis of a risk
register. This is an absolute minimum for Class 3 buildings,
to demonstrate that the possible hazards have at least been
thought about by the designer.
2. Determine or estimate the severity of the consequences of
each hazard.
3. Assess the likelihood of each hazard occurring.
4. Estimate the risk of each hazard. The risk is usually expressed
as a function of the severity and the likelihood for each hazard.
5. Evaluate which hazards have unacceptable levels of risk.
6. Propose risk mitigation measures for any unacceptable risks.
The hierarchy of risk control is a) to prevent the hazard from
occuring, b) to reduce the probability of the hazard occurring, and
c) to reduce the severity of the consequences. Further guidance is
provided in Section 6.5.
Class 3 Buildings: Risk Assessment Procedure:
Sources of further guidance
BS 7974: 2001 (19)
This code of practice provides a framework for developing a
rational method for designing buildings using fire safety engineering. However, there are several aspects that could be applied more
generally to Class 3 Buildings, particularly the Qualitative Design
Review (QDR).
ISO 2394:1998 (20)
This International Standard specifies general principles for
the verification of the reliability of structures subjected to known
or foreseeable types of action. Section 8 provides guidance on the
principles of probability-based design and Annex B provides examples of permanent, variable and accidental actions. The information contained within this standard is similar to that contained
in EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design (21).
Class 3 Buildings: Risk Assessment Procedure:
Sources of further guidance
Class 3 Buildings
pr EN 1991-7-7 (5)
All Class 2B Regulations apply; in addition:

For Class 3 buildingd A systematic risk assessment of the
building should be undertaken taking into account all the normal
This document contains a great deal of helpful information

and guidance that can be applied to Class 3 Buildings. Annex B
provides guidance on risk assessment methods, acceptance cri-
46
V1 N1 July 2014
teria and mitigation measures. Section 3 includes guidance on

identifying accidental actions. Sections 4 (Impact) and 5 (Internal
Explosions) provide guidance on the size of loads that accidental
actions might cause. This is likely to be a key source of guidance of
engineers designing Class 3 buildings.
SCI publication P244(18)
This publication provides guidance on the protection of commercial buildings and personnel from the effect of explosions
caused by the detonation of high explosives. It is aimed at engineers and architects who are involved in buildings designs where
this type of protection is required. Particularly useful topics that
Figure 5. Structural integrity requirements for bottom bars of perimeter beams

[7.13.2.2 (b)]
Figure 6. Structural integrity requirements for stirrups in perimeter beams

(7.13.2.3)
are covered are; calculation of blast loads, structural design approach and non-structural enhancements.
American Standards Approaches
ACI 318
RCC:
Specifies Structural Integrity rules such as continuation of reinforcement etc., but mention neither specific Tie force nor check
to limit damage due to removal of single element.
Precast Concrete:
Figure 2. Lack of continuous reinforcement across the beam-to-column

connection can lead to progressive collapse (Reference 4)
Specifies Tie force no check to limit damage due to removal of

single element.
Approaches of other American Standards such as ASCE 7-02,
GSA etc., are too not very explicit.
General Services Administration (GSA) is an independent
agency of US GovtGSAs Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service (PBS)
Provisions in Australian Standards
Flat Slabs as an example
In order to prevent a progressive collapse in flat slabs, the Australian code (AS3600) has mentioned that there should be bottom
steel at the slab column connection. As per observation the top
bars are ineffective during a punching shear failure event. The bottom bars begin to take the force in the form of a catenary
As per NBC 2005
Figure 4. Structural integrity requirements for top bars of perimeter beams

(7.13.2.2(a))
Bearing for Precast Units

Precast units shall have a bearing at least of 100 mm on ma-
V1 N1 July 2014
47
Approaches for design against disproportionate collapse adopted in selected codes and standards
Redundancy
ASCE 7-02
Local Resistance
Inter-connection
ACI 318-02
Threat-dependent
analysis
GSAPBS, 2000
GSAPBS, 2003
GSA PC Guidelines
ASCE: American Society of Civil Engineers | ACI: American Concrete Institute
General Services Administration (GSA) is an independent

agency of US GovtGSAs Facilities Standards for the Public
Buildings Service (PBS)
Would use of these codes and standards in
their design have improved the performance
of Ronan Point, Murrah and WTC ?
Redundancy
ASCE 7-02
ACI 318-02
Threatdependent
analysis
Ronan
Point
Murrah
Building
WTC
1& 2
GSAPBS, 2000
GSAPBS, 2003
GSA PC Guidelines
Provisions in Australian Standards

Flat Slabs as an example
sonry supports and of 75 mm at least on steel or concrete. Steel

angle shelf bearings shall have a 100 mm horizontal leg to allow
for a 50 mm bearing exclusive of fixing clearance. When deciding
to what extent, if any, the bearing width may be reduced in special
circumstances, factors, such as, loading, span, height of wall and
provision of continuity, shall be taken into consideration
7 Joints
7.2 The following are the requirements of a structural joint:
a) It shall be capable of being designed to transfer the imposed
load and moments with a known margin of safety;
b) It shall occur at logical locations in the structure and at points
which may be most readily analysed and easily reinforced;
c) It shall accept the loads without marked displacement or rotation and avoid high local stresses;
48
Local
InterResistance connection
V1 N1 July 2014
d) It shall accommodate tolerances in elements;

e) It shall require little temporary support, permit adjustment and
demand only a few distinct operation to make;
f) It shall permit effective inspection and rectification;
g) It shall be reliable in service with other parts of the building
h) It shall enable the structure to absorb sufficient energy during
earthquakes so as to avoid sudden failure of the structure.
Precast structures may have continuous or hinged connections subject to providing sufficient rigidity to withstand horizontal
loading. When only compressive forces are to be taken, hinged
joints may be adopted. In case of prefabricated concrete elements,
load is transmitted via the concrete. When both compressive force
and bending moment are to be taken rigid or welded joints may
be adopted; the shearing force is usually small in the column and
can be taken up by the friction resistance of the joint. Here load
transmission is accomplished by steel inserted parts together with
concrete.
When considering thermal shrinkage and heat effects, provision of freedom of movement or introduction of restraint may be
considered Joining techniques/materials normally employed are
Welding of cleats or projecting steel,
Overlapping reinforcement, loops and linking steel grouted by
concrete,
Reinforced concrete ties all round a slab,
Prestressing,
Epoxy grouting, Bolts and nuts connection, or a combination
of the above, and any other method proven by test and any other
method proven by test
8 Tests for Components/structures
8.2 Testing on Individual Components
The component should be loaded for one hour at its full span
with a total load (including its own self weight) of 1.25 times the
sum of the dead and imposed loads used in design. At the end of
this time it should not show any sign of weakness, faulty construction or excessive deflection. Its recovery one hour after the removal
of the test load, should not be less than 75 percent of the maximum deflection recorded during the test. If prestressed, it should
not show any visible cracks up to working load and should have a
recovery of not less than 85 percent in 1 h.
Factory prefabrication is resorted to in a factory for the commercial production for the manufacture of standardized components on a long-term basis. It is a capital intensive production
where work is done throughout the year preferably under a closed
shed to avoid effects of seasonal variations. High level of mechanization can always be introduced in this system where the work can
be organized in a factory-like manner with the help of a constant
team of workmen.
8.3 Load Testing of Structure or Part of Structure
9.1.2.2 Site prefabrication
Loading test on a completed structure should be made if required by the specification or if there is a reasonable doubt as to the
adequacy of the strength of the structure.
8.3.1 In such tests the structure should be subjected to full
dead load of the structures plus an imposed load equal to 1.25
times the specified imposed load used in design, for a period of 24
h and then the imposed load shall be removed. During the tests,
vertical struts equal in strength to take the whole load should be
placed in position leaving a gap under the member.
NOTE Dead load includes self weight of the structural members plus weight of finishes and walls or partitions, if any, as considered in the design.
8.3.1.1 If within 24 h of the removal of the load, a reinforced
concrete structure does not show a recovery of at least 75 percent
of the maximum deflection shown during the 24 h under load, test
loading should be repeated after a lapse of 72 h. If the recovery is
less than 80 percent in second test, the structure shall be deemed
to be unacceptable.
8.3.1.2 If within 24 h of the removal of the load, prestressed
concrete structure does not show a recovery of at least 85 percent
of the maximum deflection shown during the 24 h under load, the
test loading should be repeated. The structure should be considered to have failed, if the recovery after the second test is not at
least 85 percent of the maximum deflection shown during the second test.
8.3.1.3 If the maximum deflection in mm, shown during 24 h
under load is less than 40 l2 /D , where l is the effective span in m;
and D, the overall depth of the section in mm, it is not necessary for
the recovery to be measured and the recovery provisions of 8.3.1.1
and 8.3.1.2 shall not apply.
Prefabricated components produced at site or near the site of

work as possible.
This system is normally adopted for a specific job order for
a limited period. Under this category there are two types that is
semi-mechanized and fully-mechanized.
9 Manufacture, Storage, Transport and Erection of Precast Elements

9.1 Manufacture of Precast Concrete Elements
9.1.1 A judicious location of precasting yard with concreting,
initial curing (required for demoulding), storage facilities, suitable
transporting and erection equipments and availability of raw materials are the crucial factors which should be carefully planned
and provided for effective and economic use of precast concrete
components in constructions.
9.1.2 Manufacture
The manufacture of the components can be done in a factory
for the commercial production established at the focal point based
on the market potential or in a site precasting yard set up at or near
the site of work.
9.1.2.1 Factory prefabrication
50
V1 N1 July 2014
9.1.2.2.1 Semi-mechanized
The work is normally carried out in open space with locally
available labour force. The equipment machinery used may be minor in nature and moulds are of mobile or stationary in nature.
9.1.2.2.2 Fully-mechanized
The work will be carried out under shed with skilled labour.
The equipments used will be similar to one of factory production.
This type of precast yards will be set up for the production of precast components of high quality, high rate of production.
Though there is definite economy with respect to cost of transportation, this system suffers from basic drawback of its nonsuitability to any high degree of mechanization and no elaborate
arrangements for quality control. Normal benefits of continuity of
work is not available in this system of construction.
9.1.5 The various stages of precasting can be classified as in
Table 2 on the basis of the equipments required for the various
stages. This permits mechanization and rationalization of work in
the various stages. In the precasting, stages 6 and 7 given in Table 2
form the main process in the manufacture of precast concrete elements. For these precasting stages there are many technological
processes to suit the concrete product under consideration which
have been proved rational, economical and time saving. The technological line or process is the theoretical solution for the method
of planning the work involved by using machine complexes. Figure
5 illustrates diagramatically the various stages involved in a plant
process.
d) Better working conditions for the people on the job; and
e) To minimize the effect of weather on the manufacturing schedule.
9.2 Preparation and Storage of Materials
Storage of materials is of considerable importance in the precasting industry, as a mistake in planning in this aspect can greatly
influence the economics of production. From experience in construction, it is clear that there will be very high percentages of loss
of materials as well as poor quality due to improper storage and
transport. So, in a precast factory where everything is produced
with special emphasis on quality, proper storage and preservation
of building materials, especially cement, coarse and fine aggre-
gates, is of prime importance. Storage of materials shall be done in

accordance with Part 7 Constructional Practices and Safety
length from the perpendicular by
9.3 Moulds
The shorter side shall not be out of
9.3.1 Moulds for the manufacture of precast elements may be

of steel, timber, concrete and plastic or a combination thereof. For
the design of moulds for the various elements, special importance
should be given to easy demoulding and assembly of the various
parts. At the same time rigidity, strength and water tightness of
the mould, taking into consideration forces due to pouring of green
concrete and vibrating, are also important.
more than 3 mm
square line for more than 5 mm

v)
the tolerance given below from the

plane containing the other three
corners:
5 mm (Up to 600 mm in width and
The moulds have to be designed in such a way to take into consideration the tolerances given as follows:
5 mm
1, 7
5 mm or 0.1 percent whichever is
2, 3, 8
up to 6 m in length)
for any length)
1/1 500 of dimension of 5 mm
straight edge placed in any position
500 mm
5
10 mm
6, 9,10
on a nominal plane surface shall not

exceed
Thickness/Cross-sectional dimensions
3 mm
3 mm or 0.1 percent whichever is
2, 8
greater
2 mm up to 300 mm wide
3 mm greater than 300 mm wide

2 mm
3, 7
4 mm
6, 9, 10
Straightness/Bow
5 mm or 1/750 of length whichever
2, 4, 8
is greater
3 mm
1, 5
2 mm
Flatness
The maximum deviation from 1.5 m
5 mm for length over 500 mm
1 mm
vi)
-10
2 mm for length below and up to
3 mm
of + 5 mm
whichever is less
greater
0.1 percent subject to maximum
2, 8
10 mm (Over 600 mm in width and
Length
iii)
Twist
Any corner shall not be more than
9.3.2 Tolerances
i)
+2
5 mm
2, 8
3 mm
2 mm
1, 7
4 or maximum of 0.1 percent
length
NOTES Key for product reference
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Channel unit
Ribbed slab unit/hollow slab
Waffle unit
Large panel prefabrication
Cellular concrete floor/roof slabs
Prefabricated brick panel
Precast planks
Ribbed/plain wall panel
Column
Step unit
iv) Squareness
9.3.3 Slopes of the Mould Walls
When considering the squareness of the corner, the longer of

two adjacent sides being checked shall be taken as
For easy demoulding of the elements from the mould with fixed
sides, the required slopes have to be maintained. Otherwise there
is a possibility of the elements getting stuck up with the mould at
the time of demoulding.
the base line.

The shorter side shall not vary in
2, 5, 8
length from the perpendicular by

more than 5 mm
The shorter side shall not vary in
1, 7
9.4 Accelerated Hardening

In most of the precasting factories, it is economical to use
faster curing methods or artificial curing methods, which in turn
will allow the elements to be demoulded much earlier permitting
V1 N1 July 2014
51
early re-use of the forms. Any of the following methods may be

adopted:
a) By Heating the Aggregates and Water Before Mixing the Concrete
b) Steam Curing
c) Steam Injection During Mixing of Concrete
d) Heated Air Method
e) Hot Water Method
f) Electrical Method
9.4.1 After the accelerated hardening of the above products by
any of the above accepted methods, the elements shall be cured
further by normal curing methods to attain full final strength.
Design, Section 5 Concrete shall be permissible
9.5 Curing
In the erection of precast elements, all the following items of

work are meant to be included:
9.5.1 The curing of the prefabricated elements can be effected

by the normal methods of curing by sprinkling water and keeping
the elements moist. This can also be done in the case of smaller
elements by immersing them in a specially made water tanks.
9.9 Transport
Transport of precast elements inside the factory and to the site
of erection is of considerable importance not only from the point
of view of economy but also from the point of view of design and
efficient management. Transport of precast elements must be
carried out with extreme care to avoid any jerk and distress in elements and handled as far as possible in the same orientation as it
is to be placed in final position.
9.10 Erection
9.5.2 Steam Curing
a)
b)
c)
d)
9.5.2.1 The steam curing of concrete products shall take place

under tarpaulin in tents, under hoods, under chambers, in tunnels
or in special autoclaves. The steam shall have a uniform quality
throughout the length of the member. The precast elements shall
be so stacked, with sufficient clearance between each other and the
bounding enclosure, so as to allow proper circulation of steam.
e)
f)
g)
h)
9.6 Stacking During Transport and Storage

Every precaution shall be taken against overstress or damage,
by the provision of suitable packings at agreed points of support.
9.6.1 The following points shall be kept in view during stacking:
a) Care should be taken to ensure that the flat elements are
stacked with right side up. For identification, top surfaces
should be clearly marked.
b) Stacking should be done on a hard and suitable ground to avoid
any sinking of support when elements are stacked.
c) In case of horizontal stacking, packing materials shall be at
specified locations and shall be exactly one over the other to
avoid cantilever stress in panels.
d) Components should be packed in a uniform way to avoid any
undue projection of elements in the stack which normally is a
source of accident.
9.7 Handling Arrangements
9.7.1 Lifting and handling positions shall be clearly defined
particularly where these sections are critical. Where necessary
special facilities, such as bolt holes or projecting loops, shall be
provided in the units and full instructions supplied for handling.
For precast prestressed concrete members, the residual prestress at the age of particular operation of handling and erection
shall be considered in conjunction with any stresses caused by
the handling or erection of member. The compressive stress thus
computed shall not exceed 50 percent of the cube strength of the
concrete at the time of handling and erection. Tensile stresses up
to a limit of 50 percent above those specified in Part 6 Structural
52
V1 N1 July 2014
j)
k)
Slinging of the precast element

Tying up of erection ropes connecting to the erection hooks
Cleaning of the elements and the site of erection
Cleaning of the steel inserts before incorporation in the joints,
lifting up of the elements, setting them down into the correct
envisaged position
Adjustment to get the stipulated level, line and plumb
Welding of cleats
Changing of the erection tackles
Putting up and removing of the necessary scaffolding or supports
Welding of the inserts, laying of reinforcements in joints and
grouting the joints
Finishing the joints to bring the whole work to a workmanlike
finished product. w
Authors Bio
Mr. C.A Prasad, is an Engineering graduate (B.Tech,
civil Engineering), from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University Hyderabad in the year 1982, and Post graduate in Engineering Structures (M.Tech) from Regional
Engineering College, Kakatiya University, Warangal in the
year 1989. He has 30 years of experience to his credit in
the various fields of civil engineering, viz., Construction,
Design, Quantity Surveying, and Project management of
works.
He has worked in the Middle East for ten years and
worked in the international firms like Balfour Beatty,
WS Atkins, and Engineers Office. His Design works include the Burj Al Arab tower, the building in the waters of
Ocean, Jumeirah Beach works, Millennium Grand Stand,
Ware Houses and towers in Dubai and Doha, etc.,
He is a well-known personality in the field of precast
works and is encouraging and promoting Precast structures in India, by advising and assisting the developers
in the set-up of Precast factories and delivering precast
consultancy services to them.
PRECAST BUILDINGS: SITE REPORT
The Future of Indian Construction
- Precast Technology
Snehal Joshi
File shot of 14 storeyed residential tower

under construction in Chennai
he scenario of precast construction in

India is slowly gaining foothold.
Sorted construction methodologies,
simplified installation and well managed triple constraints are some of reasons to prefer precast technology over conventional construction methods. In the past few years
emphasis is given on deployment of precast
technology as it gives a workable solution for
the challenges faced in Indian construction
industry.
Precast technology gives meaning to
the agelessness of the concrete, improving
productivity and quality of construction. With
precast, the schedules can be adhered to,
which generally suffer slippage due to many
unavoidable circumstances on the construction site.
Few years ago, the construction of

flyovers and bridges were posing serious
challenges in terms of the quality of the work
as well as safety, today India just cannot do
without precast beams and slabs which are
laid as members of these connecting elements which bind the city together.
Industrial construction is now seeing a
matured phase of precast construction
where the engineers choose some precast
elementsagainstconventionalmethod.
Precast technology is coming of age if residential construction is looked into. With the
demand of affordable housing all over the
country, precast seems to be more viable
option which was not the same, few years
ago. The footprint of this technology has
increased all over India in the residential con-
struction segment and is being appreciated

for its quick, hassle free and affordable ways
of construction.
The Methodology
Integration
In the conventional construction
method, all the constructed elements act in
synergy with each other. On the contrary, the
construction professionals are mostly seen
working on the refining the requirements
with stakeholders and the contractors, subcontractors are busy adhering to the rules
and the guidelines of building performance
and sponsors are worried about whether
the cost and time requirements are fulfilled
or not.
With precast it is all about integrating
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the stakeholders at the early stage of the project in order to enhance the overall building
performance. Precast technology needs a
paradigm shift in the mind-set of professionalsandallthestakeholders to achieve the performance parameters of a building.
"One can implement many measures

to make the building green but this
subject is always a topic to discuss
with the sponsors and the stakeholders at the starting of the project"
Fragmentation
Though there is much to be changed, the
building fragmentation approach among construction professionals is significant which
helps better planning. It is through precast
technology that the professionals need to
work on fragmentation in order to achieve
integration in building elements. By disintegration of the building into different segments, processes like fabrication, casting and
installation can be made really simple. Contractors can work on the stipulated schedule in a hassle free manner.
Creation
Design is the base of creation. And
design is also an output of integration. It is
through fragmentation that professionals
can cast the reinforced precast members in
an organized way. As the involvement of
stakeholders is already ensured in the integration stage, the possibility of design
change is minimal which promises executing a project without time delay and within
budget constraint.
K. Mohan Kumar
Managing Director,
Ra-Ni Precast Consulting Services Pvt. Ltd.
implementing precast technology in

Chennai pouring in all the experience which
he has gathered in his long tenure in the
countries like Singapore and Dubai. Currently, working on the 14 storeyed precast
residential towers, he is playing many roles
while seeing this project in the various completion stages.
Residential Precast
A 14 storeyed residential tower with precast technology is not new to India and
Chennai particularly, there are buildings
which are constructed using precast, and

the percentage of using precast in residential arena has been increased in the last 2-3
years. The growth has been steady as it
involves a lot of persuasion activity in order
to convince the benefits of precast construction he informs.
While speaking on the residential construction scenario in Chennai, he feels that it
is necessary to have space for construction,
suitable for erecting all the machineries for
precast installation, that too in case, casting
of members is carried out only in the factory
or the yard. For this project, particularly,
Mohan Kumar has on-site casting unit
which creates moulds indigenously and
casts the precast member as per design.
On green footprint
On asking about the green footprint of
the building he says that one can implement
many measures to make the building green
but this subject is always a topic to discuss
with the sponsors and the stakeholders at
the starting of the project. He says, introducing greener precast is not a tough task.
Connecting the reinforcement
Being in the industry for such a long,
Mohan's in depth understanding of this sub-
Installation
A well planned installation needs something more than planning. It needs effortless
functioning of machineries and grace of
installation professionals. The course of
work for the machineries needs to be
decided in the initial stages of the project.
Systematic installation of precast elements
warrants safety which is a little ignored
aspect in the conventional construction
methods.
The case study
Advances of precast construction have
reached the metros and Chennai is no
exception to it. There are many companies in
precast technology who are working on
industrial, commercial and residential projects in and around the city.
An Evangelist
Mohan Kumar, Managing Director of
Ra-Ni precast has been in the field of precast from past 25 years. He can be looked up
to as a precast evangelist who had a vision of
Advances of precast construction have reached the metros and Chennai is no exception to it
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The Team
His on time, on budget and on delivery
approach has benefitted this project by completing it within the specified budget and
time limits. Handling three different teams
he feels that precast construction is more
organized and less chaotic than the conventional method as it only needs people who
are trained on the technology. He has a team
of handpicked professionals from precast
industry who have been working on this technology from past several years.
Bridging the gap
After working on many prestigious projects in India and abroad he insists that there
is still a bit of gap between the academics
and the practical implementation. While he
is working on bridging that gap, through
guest lectures and informative sessions in
various institutions, he says it seems difficult
to educate already moulded brains of construction professionals to pursue this novel
technology.
Creating moulds and fabricating
ject helps him choose the best for this project. The process of connecting the reinforcement and using grout for the joints
used for this project is explained as follows.
The interesting aspect of connecting the
structural elements is the usage of splice
sleeve, which works as a connector between
reinforced members.
The first figure shows grouted holes of
splice sleeve, and the second figure shows
the method of grouting and connecting the
reinforcement.
The figure aside shows how the walls
are connected using splice sleeves.
Mohan Kumar says that use of pre-
stressed slab is a norm nowadays as it is a

proven method of achieving economy.
The precision
Speaking about precision, Mohan
Kumar said that they achieve 3 mm precision for moulds and 50 mm precision while
installation.
While this project is completed on time,
he aims at casting building members in the
factory to save more on the time and avoiding the effect of bad weather. He claims that
the work of casting can be executed doubly
fast by introducing work shifts and conducive
working environment.
The road ahead

There is always a first time while implementing any technology, though there
are many players in the Indian market, the
road of precast technology is still less travelled due to lack of awareness. The construction professionals should come together to spread awareness about this
amazing technology which is being used
widely without any hassle internationally.
Mohan Kumar, owner of Ra-Ni precast
feels it's still not too late for India to start
working on precast in full-fledged way as it is
an ever green technology with wide reach.
Grout
Outlet Hole
Grout
Inlet Hole
Bedding Mortar
Grouted Splice Sleeve Holes
Washer
Grouting and connecting

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Beam as a precast element
resistance to new technology is a customary in India unless it gives astounding

results to layman
He feels it is always better to mould the new

and young generation to-wards this upcoming technology in order to have a brighter
future. He also feels that there is a need to
compile a book of standards which would
help practitioners practices this technology
with a reference. The processes are in place
to document every important aspect of precast technology, he informs.
Once the standards are in place professionals and academicians will start working
on it. It is also necessary to educate the consumer about the pros and cons of existing
and upcoming technology. This will not only
reduce the efforts for convincing them to buy
the house but also make them understand
the current trends in the field of civil engineering.
The resistance to new technology is a

customary in India unless it gives astound-ing
results to layman. Like everything else, with
great foundation, Precast Technology is
going to be the future of Indian construction
Industry, by then India will be known as a
developed country, hopefully. w
lished in The Journal of Experimental Biology in June made use

of an ingenious set of methods to uncover the engineering
secrets which confer the rafts with their remarkable physical
and structural properties.
Instead of relying solely on the superficial observation that can
be garnered from recorded footage, Foster and his team froze
ant rafts in the laboratory using liquid nitrogen, and used a
micro-scale computed tomography (CT) scan to analyse the 3D
structure of the rafts in detail.
Floating raft by fire ants:

True works of structural engineering brilliance
Scientists are striving to uncover the ingenious structural engineering secrets
behind the floating rafts formed by panicking fire ants. When confronted by a sudden deluge, fire ants flee from their subterranean nests and clump together in
their hundreds to form floating 'rafts' which are capable of ensuring their collective survival.These floating rafts are comprised of nothing more than the
unadorned bodies of the panic-stricken ants, yet possess unique physical properties which dramatically abet their likelihood of surviving disaster. According to scientists from the Georgia Institute of Technology, while the rafts may appear to the
naked eye to be little more than chaotic balls of frenzied insects, they are true
works of structural engineering brilliance.
They're literally building a new type of material with special properties, because
of the way they connect up, said David Hu, Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology. A study led by Paul Foster and pubTHE MASTERBUILDER
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They discovered that what appears to be a confused jumble of

formic flesh to the naked eye is actually a meticulously structure of self-organising precision and ingenuity. The ants
arrange themselves so that they are perpendicular to each
other in order to maximise their usage of space and to incorporate ants of varying sizes into the structure of the raft. Multiple
scans discovered that the ants attach themselves to each other
via the use of sticky pads on their limbs, with an average of 14
connections made by each ant. No fewer than 99 per cent of the
ants are attached to another ant, ensuring that the responsibility of forging structural connections is equally dispersed.
The resulting structure possesses a sufficient number of air
pockets, created by the spaces formed by its interlocking members, to keep the heaving mass of fleeing ants afloat. It also possesses the additional extraordinary property of adjustable size,
capable of either contracting or expanding in response to external obstacles or disturbances. The scientists believe the engineering accomplishments of the ants could have major safety
implications for human beings, enabling us to design and build
sophisticated robots which come to together to form floating
rafts or bridges in the case of severe flooding disasters.
Precast Concrete Curing
Accelerated Curing:
An approach for Improving

Concrete Production
on Mulligan of Basalite Concrete Products, LLC represents one of a small, yet growing number of precasters using accelerated curing to substantially
lower operating and material costs, as well as increase quality to gain market share. "Low-pressure steam curing - an
increasingly common practice in the precast industry - is a
form of accelerated curing that hastens the hydration process," he explains. "Accordingly, it increases compressive
strength, helps control shrinkage (especially when carbonation is added), and contributes to uniformity of appearance
and performance.
Efficient accelerated curing stands to benefit producers
of precast, prestressed, pipe, block, hardscape units, and
cast stone. Among those with the most to gain is the large
number - reportedly 90 percent - unaware of the energy cost
associated with product curing. Properly managed and
controlled curing of concrete masonry units and precast
concrete pipe and products is essential to achieving economical productivity with excellent finished product quality
and appearance and superior installed performance,"
affirms John Blankenship, Hanson Building Products.
A thorough understanding of concrete curing includes
procedures for the control of both temperature and moisture movement from and into the concrete to promote
cement hydration for the development of such properties as
compressive and flexural strength, durability, density, stability, resistance to corrosion and freeze-thaw cycles, and
color stability. Accelerated curing refines that process by
introducing acceleration of concrete hardening via controlled external means with the goal of reducing the duration
required to obtain desired properties. By definition, accelerated concrete curing allows for significantly earlier product
handling and mobility. Although acceleration of hardening
can be achieved with chemical additives, emphasis here is
placed on use of air heating and circulation, vapor, steam,
and enclosure systems.
Ten Curing Principles
Not subject to alteration by manufacturer claims are
empirical laws that dictate any process aiming to achieve
efficient and, hence, economical concrete product curing.
Ten essential principles can be identified, which provide the
foundation for corresponding practices.
1) Temperature affects concrete strength gain, which is
accelerated by warm temperatures and retarded by cooler
temperatures. Moreover, temperature affects concrete
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color, i.e., warm temperatures cause lighter colors, while

cooler temperatures have a darkening effect. Consequently,
variations greater than in the curing environment should be
reduced or eliminated by proper heat distribution, air circulation, and enclosure insulation.
2) Due to latent heat of vaporization," heating concrete
by means of steam or vapor is 10 times more efficient than
using warm air. Thus, replacing hot air with steam or vapor
as a curing medium will reduce heating costs by 90 percent.
For most precast, prestress, pipe, block and cast stone
products, the resulting additional moisture will promote
better cement hydration on all surfaces exposed to the atmosphere during curing. Architectural precast and paver producers should take preventative steps, including air circulation and insulation, to safeguard against condensation
issues, such as primary efflorescence, staining, hazing, and
spotting.
3) Direct-fired vapor generators are 60 percent more efficient than steam boilers. Average costs using boiler steam
and direct-fired vapor, respectively, to cure a) concrete
block are $0.03 per block versus $0.01 per block; b) prestress concrete: $11.00 per yd. versus $4.00 per yd. and, c)
concrete pipe: $4.50 per ton versus $2.00 per ton.
Replacing boilers with direct-fired vapor generators will
result in annual energy savings between $40,000 and
$200,000, depending upon production capacity. Additional
annual savings of $15,000 to $100,000 can be gained from

insurance, inspection, and maintenance expense reductions.
4) Insulated enclosures reduce energy costs associated
with curing by 50 percent, compared to traditional methods,
while preventing condensation and corrosion. Because the
high humidity levels (+90% rH) needed to ensure proper
cement hydration lead to saturation of conventional block
walls, which act as a conductor (from warm to cool), more
energy is required to heat traditional chambers. Additionally,
condensation forms on interior surfaces. Designing curing
chambers that incorporate nonabsorbent insulation, such as
insulated metal-clad sandwich panels, minimizes radiant
and conductive heat loss to save energy and reduces system size and cost.
We were losing heat and steam with our noninsulated
masonry kilns, notes Chris Cook of New Albany, Ind.-based
L. Thorn C0. "By replacing them with insulated metal panels,
we reduced energy costs, because all heat generated by the
steam system, as well as the heat of hydration, was used for
curing. No leaks, no wasted energy."
Curing chambers with tarp doors are a flexible yet efficient way of providing a variety
of curing atmospheres and scenarios while preventing heat and steam loss.
Proper air circulation provides for consistent products, even strength and
likeness of colors.
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5) Replacement of portland cement with blast furnace

slag, fly ash and other supplemental cementitious materials
(SCM) at levels of 25 percent and greater in combination with
accelerated curing will provide early strength results comparable to using cement only in the mix.
For block, paver, precast, prestress, pipe or cast stone
production, accelerated concrete curing systems can help
achieve notable reduction in carbon-dioxide emissions by
allowing significant SCM substitution for cement. Curing with
heat and moisture is less expensive than overdosing a concrete mix with cement to achieve early strengths.
Stronger compressive strength from enhanced curing
has allowed us to optimize our mix designs for cement usage
and lower our cost," affirms Adam Benefiel of Goria
Enterprises, an Oldcastle company. "The increase in kiln temperatures also allowed us to replace a percentage of cement
with fly ash, again reducing our product cost."
6) If concrete curing takes place in an enclosure at tem-
peratures equal to 120F or above, a system that removes

heat from one enclosure during the exhaust phase at the
end of the curing cycle and adds this heat to another chamber during ramp up at the beginning of a subsequent curing
cycle will provide energy-saving benefits. Accordingly, a reexhaust system can achieve savings of 30 percent of total
energy costs associated with concrete curing. Further, a reexhaust system provides a dry curing chamber at the conclusion of the curing cycle, eliminates staining issues, reduces concrete moisture content, minimizes chipping and
breakage through the cuber, and allows for more even splits.
We were not expecting the addition of exhausting to
make such a difference to our product, asserts L. Thorn's
Chris Cook. With exhausting and the removal of residual
moisture off the block, we realized less breakage and chipping during handling. The block also tested with better compressive strengths."
7) Direct-fired vapor may be controlled automatically for
precise regulation of moisture levels to produce saturated
or partially saturated vapor. Staining of concrete block due
to high moisture content related to boiler steam is thereby
eliminated. Thus, producers are advised to invest in systems that allow control of vapor temperature through addition or removal of water in the steam. Controlling water content also provides savings and resource conservation, as
water consumption is based on product requirements,
rather than system demands.
8) Curing tents, expandable during the production day,
can prevent drafts from reaching freshly cast pipe, thereby
avoiding cracks in components with cages or bending in
those without rebar. To prevent drafts from damaging the
pipe surface, therefore, the curing tent is immediately
moved into place when fresh pipe is cast to effectively
enclose the product. The tent provides convenient enclosure, due to its flexibility, ease of movement, and stowability.
9) Taller curing enclosures require more air exchanges in
a given time period to maintain a constant temperature
throughout the interior, i.e., number of air exchanges per
hour varies proportionately with enclosure height in main-
A re-exhaust and air circulation system (pictured here: Quadrix Single

Atmosphere by Kraft Curing) can provide savings of 30 percent of total concretecuring energy costs.
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taining a less than 5F temperature difference in the curing

environment. A 10-ft.-tall enclosure, for example, requires
five air exchanges per hour, while a 25-ft.-tall enclosure
requires 12 air changes per hour in order to maintain a temperature difference.
10) A longer soak phase and higher curing temperature
(up to 160F) produce higher early strength. Because concrete maintained for a longer period of time at an elevated
temperature (between 100F and 160F) develops a higher
early strength, longer curing duration and/ or higher curing
temperature would suit concrete products that require high
early strengths for secondary processing, shipping or
installation.
Curing System Components
The fundamentals for controlled concrete curing are:
time, temperature, moisture, insulation and circulation,"
emphasizes Ron Scherer, Oldcastle APG. Additionally,
designing and engineering an accelerated concrete curing
system entails consideration of storage and curing capacity, required number of molds or pallets, mix design, and
product specification requirements.
Temperature - For all products, increased temperatures
accelerate the hydration process. The resulting reduction in
curing duration facilitates faster turnaround times. In addition, higher curing temperatures provide higher early
strengths, contributing to less breakage during precast/prestressed unit demoulding and detensioning. Yet,
block and paver producers are advised to note that identifying the ideal temperature depends upon product specs,
secondary processing and color requirements, plus rack or
pallet space. Overall, accurate temperature control pro-
motes product consistency as well as energy savings.

Humidity - Improved cement hydration under humid conditions provides better ultimate strengths. Further, adequate
humidity prevents premature moisture evaporation for
reduced cracking. Harder edges and corners for less breakage during stripping and product handling are also promoted by proper humidity.
Duration - Although longer curing duration provides
greater strengths, inefficient times can waste space and pallet utilization. By contrast, proper times allow sufficient
cement hydration, while ensuring efficient bed and form
usage for precast, prestressed production. Duration determines when secondary processing applications can be performed on block and pavers, and correct timing in the addition of heat and humidity allows products to be handled only
once.
Circulation - Adequate circulation is essential to prevent
condensation issues, e.g., drips on the product, and promote uniform colors and strengths, top to bottom and front to
back in the curing chamber.
Insulation - Benefits of proper insulation include prevention of heat and humidity loss from the chamber, energy cost
reduction by at least 50 percent, and elimination of condensation issues.
Enclosure - Surface cracking in pipe, manholes, and culverts is prevented by enclosure that protects them from
drafts. Moreover, uniform temperatures are preserved to promote consistent strengths. Enclosing precast/prestressed
during curing eliminates evaporation to deter cracking; and,
tarps or other coverings prevent heat loss. Citing numerous
conversations with dry cast concrete producers regarding
chipping, color consistency, dry side breakage and other
Temperature - and Humidity - Trends QUADRIX-II System
Software driven monitoring of concrete curing takes the guessing out of the process.
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Block cured in a boiler-equipped kiln (left) versus units cured in a direct-fired

vapor generator-fed kiln (right)
assorted issues, NCMA Research and Development

Laboratory's Mike Maroney concludes, It always gets back
to two culprits: mix moisture and a lack of understanding the
curing process.
Insulated concrete curing chambers provide accurate temperature and humidity

control for high-quality product.
Reprint from an article on accelerated curing with Kraft

Curing Systems, published in Concreteproducts' in 2009;
www.kraftcuring.com
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Analysis
Casting a Concrete Future:

Indian Pre-cast Concrete Building Industry
Chaitanya Raj Goyal
ver built a model skyscraper or

your dream bungalow using the
LEGO toy blocks, as a kid? If
yes, you will be able to connect seamlessly with this amazing technology, which
in the past few decades, has given rise
to an altogether new industry in India The
Precast Concrete Building Industry!
With the onset of 12th FYP, construction activity is peaking up across
the nation as multi-billion dollar projects are currently being built in the form
of large scale commercial, industrial
and residential developments and infrastructure projects. These projects are
triggering extensive demand for many
raw materials, a major share holder being
cement concrete, which is at the heart
of every building project and is used in
many applications, from decorative to
functional.
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But the adoption of modern methods of building construction is limited

when restricted to a single material and is
often constrained by conventional design
thinking. In this context, Pre-cast concrete systems are steadily replacing
traditional methods as India treads
towards adopting quality assuring, quick
and eco-friendly construction practices.
These buildings deliver surfeit benefits over traditional, in-situ building
construction and are produced by
casting individual concrete elements like solid walls, solid
floors, hollow core slabs, prestressed and precast
beams and rafters, staircases, compound walls, roof tiles, paver blocks,
etc. in a controlled environment, to be
then transported to the construction
site, lifted and fixed into place.
Analysis
Pre-cast Concrete Buildings: Steadily

materializing demand
Real estate industry has been one
of the fastest growing sectors in the
country over the last few decades. With
demands for housing and commercial
property increasing in the same proportion as the rapid population and economic growth, the sector is under high
pressure to cater to this demand at
affordable rates and lower turnaround
time.
The demand for urban and rural
housing has also been rising consistently owing to the abnormally high residential prices which are affordable for
rich investors but not the needy Indian
middle class, which comprises majority of the population. The Indian urban
population is expected to reach 576
million in 2030 (currently, it is around
350 million). India is thus facing a shortage of nearly 25 million affordable houses
for which the Indian Govt. is readily providing various subsidies to builders and
customers.
Another major problem is the
unplanned urban development which
the city municipalities have entertained
over the decades, which has led to
inadequate and inappropriate urban
infrastructure, slum establishments, etc.
following which the governments have
launched slum rehabilitation schemes,
which add to the overall housing demand.
In this scenario precast construction technology is giving encouraging
results like already witnessed in America,
Europe and Middle East. So far this
technology has been used in constructing large projects like bridges,
flyovers, tunnels and metro rails in
India, but it can now be increasingly
witnessed in construction of hotels,
hospitals, residential buildings, showrooms, schools, etc.
PCC hostel building construction at SRM university, Chennai
It's estimated that the industry will grow

10 times in next 5 years from the current
level of around 2500 crore.
The key sectors which are likely to
experience infrastructural growth in
coming times are offices, industrial and
retail, education, residential and medical - though these growth' sectors are
dependent on funding streams from
Government and PFI sources being
maintained.
Some specific products within the
broad categories of precast concrete
production include dense, lightweight
and aerated concrete blocks, precast
concrete tiles, precast cladding and
structural products for residential, commercial and industrial buildings. Products that will fare particularly well in this
market include foundations, walls and
floors.
Growth will also be spurred by the
rising use of architectural products like
decorative faades, door and window
surrounds, and siding. Roofing tiles will
also support demand and will benefit
from their popularity in the rapidly growing residential markets.
Indian construction industry's drive
towards sustainable development
should also benefit this sector, due to the
high levels of recycled materials used,
Market Overview: A rising industry

Though precast building construction industry is still at its nascent stage
in India, it's rapidly coming to the forefront of the construction industry because
long term market prospects, in this
industry, appear highly encouraging.
This sunrise industry may be the answer to India's affordable housing needs
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Analysis
Precast technology offers a variety of architectural products: Infosys Building, Chennai
and precast concrete's high thermal

and acoustic insulation properties.
Substituting 'In-Situ': Advantages are
many
The growth in demand of PCC
buildings is not surprising as precast
concrete components provide a number of benefits as listed below:
Architectural flexibility: The splendor of variety in precast solutions gives
space to breathe, to be creative and
imaginative. These buildings offer
amazing versatility and ability to better
withstand the extreme temperatures in
a region.
Time and Life cycle cost: Element
building method creates a greatly
accelerated construction timetable,
which lowers the cost, because capital
isn't tied up for years in buildings that
are not yet ready. This technology also
improves construction quality and
extends the life cycle of buildings,
meaning any repairs needed later in
the building's life will be straightforward
and much more cost effective.
Green and sustainable: These
structures are way more eco friendly and
sustainable; being fully recyclable and
contributing to lower lighting costs due
to its reflectance qualities. PCC elements
are created from high-strength reinforced
concrete, which requires less concrete.
There is less construction waste, with

further reduces the environmental
impact. Another thing is that these elements can be erected without the wooden
shuttering used for on-site casting.
Structural Safety: Mass of structure is critical in context of seismicity in
India. The mass of structure contributes to the lateral forces and adds up to
the stresses, leading to uneconomical
designs. With implementation of prestressed precast components and slender members like hollow core slab, the
mass of structure is controlled and overall economic design and material savings is achieved. Structural configuration for stability and integrity of PCC
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Key Players: Volume based Business

Usage of total precast in buildings
is new to India and there is a huge
opportunity because of the lack of skilled
manpower, considering the high volume
in demand.
Plant engineering specialists,
Elematic, Betoni Mestarit of Finland and
Precast structures can save a total of 64% man hours needed to construct a Cast in situ building
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structures in seismic regions has been

tested meticulously and it is being used
in high seismic zones across the globe
like West USA, Taiwan, New Zealand,
Korea etc.
Easier to execute: Indian Monsoon
lasts for nearly 3-4 months, creating
additional challenges for the building
project management. Precast elements
can be manufactured in surroundings
where the effects of rain and other
weather conditions can be eliminated.
This technology has also been proven
to be a good solution for work safety.
Like many other countries, India is also
facing a shortage of skilled labor in the
building industry. Precast is less laborintensive. An additional advantage of
precast is that during manufacturing
and installation similar work-routines
are repeated. This helps workers to learn
and become more efficient, project after
project.
Experts have been quick to recognize all these benefits and are thus
working towards getting this technology - its rightful market share in emerging India.
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Analysis
From Left: Fitting the reinforcement manually; Concrete spreader with mobile operating platform
Vollert Anlagenbau of Germany, etc.

are some international majors playing
important role in associating with and
supplying Indian entrepreneurs and
companies with PCC production technology through state of art machines
and systems enabling them to set up
their factories.
Leading companies in this sector
include Hindustan Prefab, Precast India,
Simplex Prefab Infra, Precast Buildcon,
KK India, VME Precast, Janapriya,
Amarapali, Supertech, Sai Preethi precast, etc. All these companies own single or multiple production facilities with
a capacity of 200,000 600,000 m2 per
year.
Established players in this sector
are now looking to increase their
capacity at their existing set-ups and
then move to establish other plants.
Some opine that there is no point in
bringing this business to India unless
one is prepared for significant scale-
up. This may be done by adding more

casting beds and more table moulds to
the existing factory or building a new one.
Services offered: What to expect?
Most of the established players in
the industry offer turnkey solutions
including design, manufacture and
erection of PCC modular buildings
through collaborations with their partners. A customer and investor can
choose the best design solution for his
specific project utilizing a wealth of precast concrete options available.
Established and reputed companies guarantee profit, safety and quality, based on their extensive experience
in economical design, latest manufacturing processes and the use of composite steel and concrete materials
most appropriate to the project.
Technology: Deeper Insight
Hollow Core Slabs stacked at site

THE MASTERBUILDER
66
PRECAST
concrete digest
V1 N1 July 2014
Broadly, precast concrete configu-
ration for buildings are categorized in

two ways, column-beam frame structure or wall-frame structure with prestressed precast slabs. For commercial and industrial structures, requiring
wall free large spaces, column-beam
frame structure is commonly implemented. While for residential buildings,
aesthetic point of view and make use of
available essential walls, wall-frame
structure is commonly deployed.
For buildings, main structural components are precast column, prestressed precast beams, pre-stressed
precast slabs (either hollow core or solid
slabs), and reinforced concrete precast structural walls and non-load bearing partition walls. Of these, hollow core
slab is one of the most impressive innovations which form a part of this technology. It is a pre-stressed concrete slab
with continuous voids provided to reduce
weight and cost and is primarily used
as a floor or roof deck system.
These slabs are formed through a
dry cast, extrusion process where zero
slump concrete is forced through the
machine. The cores are formed with
augers and tubes with the concrete being
compacted around the cores using high
frequency vibrators.
As far as the joints required to fit these
structural elements together are concerned, criteria can vary considerably
depending on the product type, size
and building movements. Typically, joints
in structural products are 1 and architectural products are . However, there
are a number of considerations like
Analysis
Extracting casted wall panel from tilted table
building expansion joints, building isolation joints etc. that will dictate the joint
sizes.
Growing popularity: Increasing application in real estate
The need to increase the pace of
construction has become a dire necessity. With shortage in houses galloping
by the day and the fact that end users'
expect to get possession quickly; this
technology has prompted some major
names in the real estate industry to
embrace it, aiming to increase the pace
of delivery.
Interior Craft, Alstone, Orris Infra-
structure, Amrapali, Supertech, Omkar

builders, L&T, Sweta Estates, Godrej
Properties, Tata housing, Panchsheel
Realty, Marvel Realtors, etc. have adopted
this new building system in some of their
projects which helps in saving up to
64% of the total man hours needed using
conventional methods. The use of PCS
also brings down the construction cost
by 10-15% if it's a mass housing development.
Future: All set for a concrete change
The main concern for PCC industry
is transportation in a country as big and
varied as India. Transportation of large
Transportation of Large Precast elements has been a challenge
precast sections and handling at site

has been posing a problem until recently.
But, now that there is considerable
improvement in the quality of roads (riding surface) and also availability of high
capacity handling equipment in most
metros, this industry is expected to
flourish rapidly.
Also, real estate developers, due to
piling up of extensively high priced,
unsold inventory in metros like Delhi and
Mumbai, are looking for affordable
housing options to augment their business in hard times. Not surprisingly, 'Home,
Sweet Home' rings true also in this part
of the world, and many Indians look forward to home ownership as very high
social and cultural value is attached to
property ownership.
The examples of precast concrete
from other countries show that there is
market potential for the product in housing provided manufacturers promote
sensible options to a well-informed market. There are thus many lessons to be
learned from countries that use a higher
proportion of industrialized housing than
India.
Indeed, take-up of precast may ultimately depend on the balance of construction costs and added value. This
difficult equation may need to be resolved
on an individual project basis, thereby
offering every house building client a
tailored package. For precast concrete
to make inroads in the housing and
commercial market, contractors and
clients need to be made aware of the
speed and quality benefits it offers, while
owners and occupiers need to be made
aware of the performance benefits over
time such as fire resistance, seismic resistivity, acoustic and thermal insulation, etc.
The socio-economic changes in
India have paved the way for precast
technology to flourish and large-scale
building projects have made it even more
lucrative as the high initial investment
costs can be covered in a reasonable
period of time. In the upcoming decade,
it wouldn't be surprising if we witness
almost every Indian construction company's presence in this booming industry.
THE MASTERBUILDER
V1 N1 July 2014
PRECAST
concrete digest
67
Precast Concrete Buildings
Pre-Cast Concrete Elements in

Construction - Emerging Scenario
in India
P. Surya Prakash
Chief Consultant Satya Vani Projects and Consultants, Hyderabad.
re-cast construction is gaining significance in Indian

scenario in general and Urban areas in particular. Precast construction can be broadly classified in to three
categories.
- Project Specific Pre-Cast
- General Pre-Cast for Sector Specific
- Precast for Non Structural Elements
While the first and last categories are very much prevalent
in India for quite some time. The First Category is gaining
more popularity with the rapid urban infrastructure growth in
India. The Non Structure Category is widely present but still
to attract Major organized players. General Pre-Cast which is
Sector Specific Such as Buildings, Power Distribution, Water
Supply etc., is available scattered in India. Again this Category
requires involvement of major players.
Though advantages of Pre-Cast are accepted by every stake
Holder, the application is limited because the industry didnt
attain the scale it should be in. The Note presents case study
pertaining to Building Precast category, by discussing various
elements that can make the total MSB completely pre-cast. Also
provides case study or example plants set up in Hyderabad
city of India.
General
Cast In Place (CIP) VS. Pre Cast
The current practice in India is the CAST IN PLACE (CIP)
Reinforced Concrete Structures. The other construction method
is using structural steel. In general most commercial and
residential buildings are of CIP in nature. Steel structures
are normally restricted to Industrial Building and sparsely
Commercial Buildings. The ratio between Cast In Place
(CIP) and steel structures is approximately 70 : 30. The third
construction is using Precast Concrete which is primarily
limited to Bridges and Railway Sleepers and other non structural
elements.
Problems faced in CIP Structures
a) Safety issues: The biggest problem faced during construction
68
V1 N1 July 2014
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
is failure of scaffolding. More structurally stable scaffoldings

are cost prohibitive for ordinary commercial structures.
(Pic. Of Collapse of Buildings at Khammam, Andhra Pradesh
as published in News Papers is placed below.)
Concrete Placement using conventional systems in
uncontrollable weather conditions.
Reinforcement Placement at higher altitudes.
Quality of finishes highly dependent on working conditions
and form of support structures.
The current structural system used is a rigid frame with
infill masonry walls. This system is very inefficient in the
resistance of lateral loadings like earth quakes etc. Lot of
Redundancy in structures.
Even most advanced techniques like tunnel forms with
9hrs cycle time take 8 months for 19 storied building.
Why Pre-Cast Construction?

Precast concrete offers solution to all of the problems and
setbacks faced by Cast in Place Concrete (CIP).
The following are the main advantages:
a) Rapid Erection: Rapid Speed of Erection & Fast Construction
resulting in earlier occupancy and reduced financing costs.
Eg. 19 Storied Building can be completed in 3 months time.
b) Quality Assurance: Materials, Workmanship and Finishes.
No transit loss in Quality. Greater specialization in trades
leading to higher quality in workmanship.
c) Longer spans are possible with Precasting and Prestressing.
d) Ease of Construction due to total Pre Engineering.
e) Aesthetics: Both Structural and Architectural finishes are
possible. Architectural finishes may be achieved acid
itching, sand blasting or brick veneer or any other finish as
specified by the Customer/Architect.
f) No form working is required at the job site. Limited space
for Construction and minimum number of workers at site
g) The floor height can be reduced by eliminating the beams
and shallow depths of slabs.
h) No prolonged usage of heavy machinery at site.
i) No intensive labour at site for construction. The erection
crew is limited 5 to 6 personnel.

j) Better coordination with other specialized trades during
the planning and fabrication stage.
k) Construction activities are limited to Precasting Erection,
Mechanical & Electrical services and the total coordination
is done at the design and fabrication stage.
l) Precast Systems generally use walls for structural stability.
The structural wall systems are more efficient and
economical than the conventional CIP framed structures.
Pre Cast Elements:
The following Precast Elements may be commonly used as
illustrated in the photographs placed below:
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Columns
Lite wall panels
Structural wall panels
Single Tees, Double Tees & Quad Tees
Inverted Tees
Hollow cores
Spandrels
Rectangular beams
Stairs
Balconies, Architectural elements etc.
Case Study
As Per the request of the Manufactures the Case study is not
published but will be presented in the work shop.
Case A: General Precast factory for Columns, Beams, Solid
Slabs and Hollow core.
Case B: Specific Plant for Residential shear wall Construction.
Pre-Cast Construction
Modern Construction of the Buildings and various other
Structures are done with Reinforced Cement Concrete by
freshly mixed material, which can be molded into any shape.
The relative quantities of Cement, Aggregates and Water
mixed together control the properties in the wet state as
well as in the hardened state, which is poured on the Steel
Reinforced according to the requirements.
The Reinforced Concrete combines concrete and steel bars
by simply putting them together and letting them act together
as they may wish.
Pre-stressed Concrete, on the other hand, combines high
strength concrete with high strength steel in an active manner.
This is achieved by tensioning the steel and holding it against
the Concrete, thus putting the Concrete into compression.
This active combination results in a much better behaviour
of the two materials. Steel is ductile and now is made to act
in high tension by Prestressing. Concrete is a brittle material

with its tensile capacity now improved by being compressed,
while its compressive capacity is not really harmed. Thus
Pre-stressed Concrete is an ideal combination of two modern
high strength materials.
Pre-cast Concrete is a material used to clad the exterior
building envelope where each building design can be a
custom creation, reflecting desired aesthetic expressions
through colours, textures and physical sizing of pre-cast
components. One must think of material, initially fluid in nature,
with the ability to assume any design form from the mould into
which concrete is poured. The subsequent curing, finishing
and site installation ultimately provides a wall assembly which
could be lean and sleak or strong and massive or perhaps
very omate and sculptured emulating detailed stonework
found in architecture in previous centuries. Pre-cast can be
considered as a plastic material in its uncured stage, with
infinite shapes, sizes and panel configurations.
Existing PreCast Technology
Current Precast techniques are limited to specific customized
projects and are usually Precast at the job site. Quality of field
Precast elements cannot be assured because of batching,
placement of concrete, placement of reinforcing, method of
compaction, method of forming and finally quality of prestressing.
Railway sleepers are also precast.
The application of Precast Concrete in Buildings require
special connection details not commonly used in India. This
expertise and skill is a common practice in advanced countries
in Europe and USA.
This expertise can be acquired through collaborative effort
with firms abroad.
Tecnology
It has been envisaged to import the existing Technology and
expertise from USA with modifications to suit Indian conditions.
Almost all commercial and residential CIP buildings currently
built in India can easily be converted into precast, prefabricated
concrete structures.
Process Involved in Production of Pre Cast And Pre Stressed
Concrete Elements:
The following Production Process is recommended to be
followed for obtaining the optimum levels. Proper planning of
Plant layout and Equipment sizing is very important.
Equipment & Site Preparation
The basic equipment and site preparation required to support
Pre-cast & Pre-Stressed Concrete elements production is listed
below.
V1 N1 July 2014
69
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Serviced land of a minimum of 20 acres.

Building or production shed with cover is considered.
Levelled compacted storage yard.
Concrete batching plant capable of producing zero
slump concrete.
A minimum of 1.5 Cum output capacity is recommended.
Overhead cranes or Gantry cranes of 7 to 10 Tons capacity
of two units are recommended over the production area.
Construction of concrete stressing abutments and casting
pallet platform.
Mechanic shop and concrete testing facility.
Curing system with low pressure, high recovery, hot water
boiler with circulating pump and pipes, steel boiler with
feed pipes or electric heating.
Temperature control capability is recommended.
Yard cranes or Gantry cranes and Fork lift Trucks.
Front end loader for Raw Material handling.
Flat bed trailers or buggies to transport finished product
from production area.
f. A hollowcore slab production of the size of 20 Cms x 120

Cms.
g. A batching plant capable of producing Zero slump
concrete.
h. Concrete curing equipment.
i. Boiler and circulating pipes or supply pipes.
j. Clean water and utility services.
k. Electrical supply of 3 phase 440 Volts.
l. Concrete Delivery System or Equipment.
m. Cutting, Stripping, Cleaning and Storage Handling
Equipment.
n. Overhead cranes or Gantry cranes over production area.
o. Yard Material Handling Equipment.
p. Clean and graded raw material supply and storage facility.
q. Concrete and Material Testing Laboratory Facility.
Plan for Transfer of Technology
The transfer of Technology for production of Pre-Cast & PreStressed Concrete Elements, visualised being:-
Production Sequence
a) Transfer of Documents
A typical Hollow core production should follow the recommended

setup procedures and production sequences as listed below:
- Design Drawings
- Process Sheets
- Tooling Documents - Technical Standards
a. Cleaning and release agent application to pallet surface

with Ultra-Span Service vehicle.
b. Pulling pre-stressing cables with Service vehicle and
stressing cables with hydraulic jack.
c. Place extruder on pallet and prepare unit for extrusion.
d. Start-up batching plant, and prepare mix for deliver.
e. Deliver the mix to extruder and start production.
f. After first line is cast, mark product and cover with curing
blankets.
g. When curing is completed, test product for concrete
strength. If concrete strength is at the required level start
distressing operators.
h. Distress the cables and start cutting operations on each
pallet.
i. Lift off product from pallets and transport to storage area.
j. Repeat cycle on a continuous base.
b) Deputation of Engineering Specialists
Equipment and Construction Requirements

The model hollow core production plant and other casting
yard is based on specifications as follows:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
70
Land requirement .
Factory Building of the size
Concrete bases for casting palluts and stressing abutments.
Levelled and compacted storage yard area.
A Production capacity of f hollowcore slabs per year
based on
V1 N1 July 2014
c) Training of Operational Staff in the New Technology Process

Plan for Construction of Project Infrastructure
It is proposed to complete the infrastructure facilities for
setting up of the Plant for the manufacture of Pre-Cast & PreStressed Concrete Elements within a period of 12 months as
detailed below: Plant Machinery & Equipment
It is Proposed to complete the process of selection of the Plant
Machinery & Equipment within 3 months from the date of go
ahead of establishing the Project. Thereafter the process of
Ordering, Procurement, Erection and Installation of the Plant
Machinery & Equipment will be completed within a period of
9 months.
Civil Works
The Construction of the Factory Buildings and the Auxillary
Buildings including Concrete Bases and Storage Yard shall
be planned to be completed within a period of 12 months
from the date of go ahead of the Project.
Plan for Manufacture
It is envisaged that the Pilot Project would commence within
12 months from the date of go ahead of the Project and the
Trial runs will commence thereafter. It is expected that the

Process of Production will stabilize within 24 months from the
date of go ahead of the Project by which time all the facilities
required would be installed and the training of the Personnel
for the Production would be completed.
Market Potential
Ready Mixed Concrete (RMC) is being used by about 80% of
the Potential Users. This conversion process has taken over
15 years. The Potential Users have stated that survey products
increase the convenience at site. The total sales+production
of RMC in Hyderabad are expected to be 1,500,000 cubic
mts./ annum with a growth of 15% year to year. This constitutes
about 8% of cement usage out of total sales of 1.5 million
tons/annum in Hyderabad.
The price and product flexibility for different buildings of
the survey products is the crux of the problem. The larger
contractors, consultants and builders like L&T, MECON,
TCE, TPL and NCC may start suggesting or forcing their subcontractors to use and using these products quickly. Using
it for lower value mass housing projects where standard
products are required will also improve market potential.
There is regular demand for pre-stressed concrete poles by
railways and electricity board and concrete sleepers from
railways. Since it is a regular market and there is severe
competition for this range of products. These are not part of
the survey products.
- There may be different kinds of machinery, which could
not be supplied by one single agency. In such a case, all
the agents shall be engaged.
- Design, Supply, erection, supply of shop drawings, their
approvals shall be in the scope of Agencies.
- However, the Architect shall approve the shop drawings.
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To avoid under utilization of efficiency of machinery

To save energy, fuel and lubricants wherever possible
To have optimum utilization of men, material and machinery
To have risk free operations
To minimize rejections
To have improved quality of out comes.
Batching plant
- Optimum utilization of materials to increase the production,
crushing strengths etc.
- More production in minimum time with technically accepted
out come.
- Minimum operations to have the increased out put
- Conveyance of ingredients and final mix with easy and
minimum operations to required spot in minimum time
either through conveyer belt, buckets or hopper system.
Forming
Forming requires Transfer Of Technology for improving
methodology, equipment and optimization.
- Minimum shuttering to use for required casting
- Reusing the same shuttering for more number of times
- Same shuttering patterns to use for different patterns of
castings
- Minimum operations of shuttering for different patterns of
castings
Fabrication
- Optimum tonnage of steel to obtain required strength to
castings
- Minimizing number of rows of steel bars to get required
stressing
- The ancillary mechanical items required for erection of the

machinery shall be procured by the concerned Agency
only.
- Cutting of bars without wastage
- Necessary Base Plates, Bed Foundations etc. required

for erection of machinery and machinery parts shall be
executed by respective agencies only in collaboration with
the Civil or Other Contractors / Agencies.
Pre-Stressing requires Transfer Of Technology for improving

methodology, equipment and optimization. This is proposed
to be had from R.A.I.
- Synchronization of two or more machines or machine

parts of different companies shall be made in presence
of respective agencies, architect, client and engineer-incharge and they shall be finished to the satisfaction of all
the concerned.
Technology
Technology can be improved in operations of all the Processing
Plants and Tools
Pre-Stressing
- Conservation of energy in obtaining required stressing

Casting
Casting requires Transfer Of Technology for improving
methodology, equipment and optimization. This is proposed
to be had from R.A.I.
- Conveying the mix to casting spots.
- Minimizing the wastage of mix during casting
- To minimize the rejections to maximum extent
V1 N1 July 2014
71
- To minimize the stripping operations to save labor and time.

- New methods of Compaction
- New techniques of Surface and needle vibrations
Curing
Erection, Jointing and Finishing require Transfer Of Technology

for improving methodology, and optimization
The equipment can be indigenous.
Curing requires Transfer of Technology for improving

Effective and accelerated curing with minimum time period of
not more than 9 (nine) hours
- Minimum quantity of steam, degree and intensity of supersaturation of steam (if steam is used)
- Optimum time requirement for quick and accepted setting
with acceptable results of strengths
- To minimize the types of chemicals used, if chemicals are
used
Stripping
- New methods to strip the castings without causing damage
- To minimize the labor and time
- To strip more number of castings at a time
Handling
Handling requires Transfer of Technology for improving
- Easy handling and conveying the material and castings to
required spot with minimum labor, time and energy.
- Risk free handling during loading and unloading
- Usage of hardware like Wire ropes, slings, hooks, Dshackles, clamps, different types of knots to tie the blocks
etc.
Stacking
- To stack more quantity of material and castings in minimum
place without forming a heap of abnormal size.
- Stacking to have easy loading and unloading
- Stacking to have easy movement of vehicles
- Stacking materials in order of their movement and priority
of use.
Loading & Shipping
- The equipment can be of indigenous.
- Loading into trucks with maximum castings to the full
capacity of the truck
- To cause trouble free and effective operations
- To minimize the loading and shipping time
- To have shipping formalities in minimum time inorder not
to consume much time of trucks.
72
Erection, Jointing and Finishing
V1 N1 July 2014
- Minimum labor and time to erect as per the drawings and

requirements
- Risk and trouble free operations
- Causing no damage to the castings
- Firm and Effective jointing to with stand and absorb all
types of loads and eddy effects
- Smooth finish and good look
Safety certification
Safety Certification requires Transfer Of Technology for
improving methodology. Process of inspection
- Conduction of tests
- Safety measures
- Certification methods
Engineering
- Engineering can be improved through Softwares.
- Different kinds of packages of various makes can be studied.
- New systems and packages can be improved though the
existing resources.
- The information can be had through Foreign and Inland
Companies.
- Tie-ups can be had with Foreign Companies for supply of
new technology and engineering.
- Techniques can be improved in Engineering.
- Preparation and study of Drawings like Construction
Drawings, Structural Drawings, Architectural Drawings,
Shop Drawings and As-built Drawings.
- Drawings of all kinds like Civil, Electrical, Mechanical,
Plumbing etc.
- Detailing the drawings
- Arriving quantities from drawings with ease and
systematically.
- Optimum number of engineering personals to be engaged
to commensurate the workload.
- Planing the process of works, procurement of materials
and monitoring the achievements by conducting review
meetings and emphasizing the need of achieving targets
fixed.
- Estimating, Rate Analysis, Tendering, Documentation shall
also be improved through Transfer of Technology.
Management
- Managerial skills shall be updated and improved for
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effective running of the Plant.

Demand, Supply and penetration of new product into
the market shall be studied with respect to other similar
category of products of other companies.
Necessary promotional activities and strategies shall be
implemented to promote the product in the market.
Customers who have accustomed to use conventional
products shall be tuned to new product.
Administration shall learn the techniques of extracting
more out turn with minimum core staff.
Shifting, transferring, removing and recruiting new staff
frequently may effect the production.
Finance wing shall update their knowledge in Finance
Management.
Methods to minimize or avoid transfer of funds from one
head to other shall be improved.
Technical staff shall also be trained in principles of finance
management to avoid wrong bookings / under wrong
heads.
Sales tax, income tax, excise duty etc.are to be maintained
duly updating the knowledge for not to be answerable to
respective Govt. Departments.
Training
- Training is an effective mode of transfer of technology.
- It can be of practical and theoretical.
- Training can be had either at the Factories of concerned
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companies or at the plant site.

Training shall be given to the staff and workers in various
fields in rotation system.
It shall be given for every year to update the techniques.
Training in erecting, commissioning and running the
machinery, their maintenance and attending the repairs
that occurs generally.
Smooth and effective running of machinery and plant shall
be the main motto of the training.
Training to all categories of staff and workers shall be
given in their respective fields.
Staff and workers deal with handling, erection, jointing,
loading etc. laborious jobs shall be trained not to face
unpleasant situations.
Engineering Personal, Production Managers, Production
workers, Marketing, Finance and Administration staff and
Managers shall also be sent for trainings in their respective
fields.
Technical staff and workers shall be trained in reading
the gauges, measures and meters for measuring various
parameters and variables
They shall be trained in using various instruments used for
different purposes and at different places.
Publishers Note: This paper was presented at the Proceedings of the One
Day National Workshop on Precast Concrete Buildings in India Practices,
Possibilities & Prospects Held in ICSR Auditorium, IIT Madras, Chennai.
The Masterbuilder was the official Media Partner for the above event.
V1 N1 July 2014
73
Precast Concrete Buildings Seismic Design
U.S. Experience with Seismic Design

and Construction of Precast
Concrete Structures
S. K. Ghosh Associates Inc.

Palatine, IL and Aliso Viejo, CA
This paper discusses the seismic force-resisting structural systems that are recognized by U.S. codes and standards and that are
in common use. Innovative structural systems that are newly recognized by U.S. codes and standards and their application are also
discussed. The precast building market in the United States is dominated by parking structures and office buildings. This is very
different from the situation in Europe. And this provides context to much of the discussion in this paper. The structural systems
discussed are mainly geared towards the parking structure and the office building.
The other piece of information needed for context is that some degree of seismic design of structures is required in most of the
United States. Thus seismic force-resisting systems are the focus of much of the discussion that follows.
U.S. Codes and Standards
State and Local Codes, Model Codes
The building code development and adoption process in the
United States is quite complex. State and local building codes,
which are the legal codes that must be followed for design and
construction, are typically based on a model code. There have
been three model codes in the recent past, the best known of
which was the Uniform Building Code (UBC). These have now
largely been replaced by the International Building Code (IBC).
While much of the country has adopted the IBC, isolated big
cities such as Chicago continue to use the older regional codes,
now called the legacy codes.
Standards
The model code organizations do not have resources to develop
code provisions on every aspect of design and construction
covered by the building code. Thus, it is common for the
model codes to adopt standards. The ASCE 7 Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and OtherStructures and the ACI 318
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concreteare two
important standards that are adopted by all model codes
for design loads on structures and for concrete design and
74
V1 N1 July 2014
construction provisions, respectively. The latter document

is a standard and not a code, even though the word Code
appears in its title. The various standards published by the
ASTM International are also widely adopted by all the model
codes as well as by many other standards such as ACI 318.
Seismic Design Criteria
Seismic Zones
Until relatively recently, seismic design criteria in building
codes depended solely upon the seismic zone in which a
structure was located. Zones were regions in which seismic
ground motion on rock, corresponding to a certain probability
of occurrence, was within certain ranges. Under the UBC,
which had significant worldwide influence, the U.S. was
divided into Seismic Zones 0 through 4, with 0 indicating
the weakest earthquake ground motion. The level of seismic
detailing (including the amount of reinforcement) for concrete
structures was then indexed to the Seismic Zone. Also
indexed to the seismic zone were height limits on structural
systems, minimum requirements concerning the analytical
procedure that must form the basis of seismic design, and
other restrictions/limitations/ requirements.
Seismic Design Categories

The most recent development in the mechanism for triggering
seismic design requirements and restrictions is the establishment
of Seismic Design Categories (SDCs). It was recognized that
building performance during a seismic event depends not
only on the severity of sub-surface rock motion, but also on
the type of soil upon which a structure is founded, and that
building design requirements should depend not only on the
building configuration, but also on its intended occupancy. As
a result, the SDC is a function of location, building occupancy,
and soil type.
Table 1 shows correspondence (not equivalency) between
Seismic Zones and SDCs. Seismic design criteria that were
applicable in the UBC to structures located in Seismic Zone
3 or 4 are now typically applicable in the IBC to structures
assigned to SDC D, E, or F.
1997 UBC Seismic Zone
0, 1
2A, 2B
3, 4
1997 UBC Seismic Zone
A,B
D, E, F
Table 1: Correspondence between UBC Seismic Zones and IBC Seismic

Design Categories
Table 2 shows the sections and subsections of Chapter 21 of

ACI 318-11 that are applicable to a structure, depending on its
SDC. The detailing required as a minimum for SDC A and B
(Columns 2 and 3 of Table 2) is termed ordinary detailing. The
detailing required as a minimum for SDC C (Column 4 of Table
2) is termed intermediate detailing. The detailing required as a
minimum for SDC D, E, or F is (Column 5 of Table 2) is called
special detailing. It should be noted that while intermediate
or special detailing is fully allowed for a structure assigned to
SDC B, neither ordinary nor intermediate detailing is allowed
for a structure assigned to SDC D, E, or F; special detailing is
the minimum requirement.
Seismic force-resisting systems of concrete consist of
Component resisting earthquake effect, unless otherwise noted
frames or shear walls or combinations thereof. The different

categories of frames and shear walls of cast-in-place and
precast concrete that are recognized by ACI 318-11, ASCE
7-10, and the 2012 IBC are shown in Table 3.
Note that there is no intermediate precast concrete moment
frame and that there is no intermediate cast-in-place concrete
shear wall. Note also that ASCE 7-10 makes a distinction
between ordinary reinforced concrete and ordinary precast
concrete shear walls.
The elements shown in Table 3 make up the various seismic
force-resisting systems of cast-in-place and precast concrete,
as described below.
Seismic Force-Resisting Systems
The basic structural systems that may be used to resist
earthquake forces are listed in ASCE 7-05 Table 12.2-1. A
general description of each of the seismic force-resisting
systems is given below.
For concrete structural members within a building assigned
to SDC D, E, or F that are not proportioned to resist forces
induced by earthquake motions, the deformation compatibility
requirements of ACI 318-11 Section 21.13 must be satisfied
(ASCE 7-10 Section 12.12.4). In short, every structural
component not included in the seismic force-resisting system
in the direction under consideration must be designed to be
adequate for vertical load-carrying capacity and the induced
bending moments and shear forces resulting from the design
story drift .
Moment-Resisting Frame Systems
This is a structural system with an essentially complete space
frame providing support for gravity loads. Lateral forces are
resisted primarily by flexural action of the frame members. The
Seismic Design Category
B (21.1.1.4)
C (21.1.1.5)
D,E,F (21.1.1.6)
Analysis and design requirements
A (None)
21.1.2
21.1.2
21.1.2, 21.1.3
Materials
None
None
21.1.4-21.1.7
Frame members
21.2
21.3
21.5, 6, 7, 8
Structural walls and coupling beams
None
None
21.9
Precast structural walls
None
21.4
21.4+, 21.10
Structural diaphragms and trusses
None
None
None
21.11
Foundations
None
None
21.12
Frame members not proportioned to resist forces induced by earthquake motions
None
None
21.13
Anchors
None
21.1.8
21.1.8
*In addition to requirements of Chapter 1 through 19, except as modified by Chapter 21. Section 22.10 also applies in SDC D, E, and F.
+As permitted by the legally adopted general building code of which ACI 318-08 forms a part.
Table 2: ACI 318-11 Detailing Requirements for Different Seismic Design Categories*
V1 N1 July 2014
75
entire space frame or selected portions of the space frame

may be designated as the seismic force-resisting system.
Moment Frames
Shear Walls
Ordinary RC moment frames

(cast-in-place or precast)
Ordinary RC shear walls

Intermediate RC moment frames

(cast-in-place only)
Intermediate precast shear walls

(precast only)
Special RC moment frames

Special RC shear walls

forces is provided by shear walls. No interaction between the

shear walls and the frames is considered in the lateral force
analysis; all of the lateral forces are allocated to the walls.
Table 3: Different Categories of Moment Frames and Shear Walls Recognized

by U.S. Codes and standards
As in the case of dual systems, the concept of the building

frame system loses its appeal for structures assigned to SDC
B, since there is little to be gained from assigning the entire
lateral resistance to the shear walls in the absence of any
special detailing requirements for the frames. As noted above,
a shear wall-frame interactive system, where there is no 100%
shear wall requirement, is more practical and economical in
such cases.
Bearing Wall Systems
Undefined Structural Systems
This is a structural system without an essentially complete

space frame that provides support for the gravity loads.
Bearing walls provide support for all or most of the gravity
loads. Resistance to lateral forces is provided by the same
bearing walls acting as shear walls.
Undefined structural systems are any systems not listed in

ASCE 7-10 Table 12.2-1. The seismic design coefficients are
to be substantiated based on approved cyclic test data and
analysis.
Dual Systems
A dual system is a structural system with the following essential
features:
1. Resistance to lateral forces is provided by moment-resisting
frames capable of resisting at least 25 percent of the design
base shear and by shear walls.
2. The two subsystems (moment-resisting frames and shear
walls) are designed to resist the design base shear in
proportion to their relative rigidities.
The 2012 IBC and ASCE 7-10 recognize dual systems in
which the moment-resisting frame consists of special moment
frames and dual systems in which the moment-resisting frame
consists of intermediate moment frames.
The concept of the dual system loses its validity in buildings
assigned to SDC B, since it is questionable whether the
moment frames, which are required to have only ordinary
detailing, can act as a back-up to the ordinary shear walls (the
inelastic deformability of both systems are comparable). In
areas of low seismicity, utilizing a shear wall-frame interactive
system is more logical. In this system, the shear walls and
frames resist the lateral forces in proportion to their rigidities,
considering interaction between the two subsystems at all
levels. There are additional requirements imposed by ASCE
7-05 Section 12.2.5.10. It is important to note that a shear wallframe interactive system is not allowed in structures assigned
to an SDC higher than B.
Building Frame Systems
This a structural system with an essentially complete space
frame that supports the gravity loads. Resistance to lateral
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Special Moment Frames, Intermediate and Special Shear

Walls of Precast Concrete
Explicit provisions for precast concrete structural elements
with intermediate or special detailing were first introduced
in ACI 318-02. Until then, precast concrete structures could
be built in areas of moderate or high seismicity only under
an enabling provision of ACI 318, which became part of all
the model codes adopting ACI 318. The provision allows
precast concrete construction in a highly seismic area if it is
demonstrated by experimental evidence and analysis that the
proposed system will have a strength and toughness equal
to or exceeding those provided by a comparable monolithic
reinforced concrete structure. The enforcement of this
vague, qualitative requirement was, for obvious reasons,
non-uniform. The need for specific enforceable design
requirements for precast structures in regions of moderate
and high seismicity existed for a long time. The provisions
introduced in ACI 318-02 have evolved some through the
2005, the 2008, and the 2011 editions of ACI 318.
ACI 318 presents two alternatives for the design of precast
lateral-force-resisting systems. One choice is emulation
of monolithic reinforced concrete construction. The other
alternative is the use of the unique properties of precast
concrete elements interconnected predominantly by dry
connections (jointed precast). A wet connection uses any of
the splicing methods of ACI 318 to connect precast or precast
and cast-in-place members, and uses cast-in-place concrete
or grout to fill the splicing closure. A dry connection is a
connection between precast or precast and cast-in-place
members that does not qualify as a wet connection.
Figure 1 illustrates the scope of the design provisions for
precast concrete structures assigned to intermediate or high
seismic design categories (C, D, E, or F).
Special Moment Frames (ACI 318-11 Section 21.8)

Emulative Design (Sections 21.8.2, 21.8.3) - Precast frame
systems composed of concrete elements with ductile
connections (Section 21.8.2) are expected to experience
flexural yielding in connection regions. Precast concrete
frame systems composed of elements joined using strong
connections (Section 21.8.3) are intended to experience
flexural yielding outside the connections. Strong connections
include the length of the coupler hardware. Capacity design
techniques are used to ensure that the strong connection
remains elastic following the formation of plastic hinges in the
connected members. Additional requirements are provided to
avoid hinging and strength deterioration of column-to-column
connections.
Figure 1: Seismic design requirements for precast/prestressed concrete

structures
Non-Emulative Design (Section 21.8.4) - Special moment

frames constructed using precast concrete and not satisfying
the requirements of Sections 21.8.2 and 21.8.3 are permitted,
provided they satisfy the requirements of ACI 374.1-05,
Acceptance Criteriafor Moment Frames Based on Structural
Testing. The design procedure used for the structure must
not deviate from that used to design the test specimens,
and acceptance values must not exceed values that were
demonstrated by tests to be acceptable.
Intermediate Precast Structural Walls (ACI 318 Section
21.4)
Connections between precast wall panels or between wall
panels and the foundation are required to resist forces
induced by earthquake motions and to provide for yielding
(of steel elements or reinforcement only) in the vicinity of the
connections. Elements of connections that are designed not
to yield must develop at least 1.5 times the specified yield
strength of the reinforcement.
Special Structural Walls (ACI 318 Section 21.10)
Emulative Design (Section 21.10.2) - Special structural walls
constructed using precast concrete must satisfy all ACI 318

requirements for cast-in-place special structural walls (Section
21.9), and must also satisfy the connection requirements
imposed on Intermediate Precast Structural Walls (Section
21.4).
Non-Emulative Design (Section 21.10.3) Special structural
walls constructed using precast concrete and unbonded posttensioning tendons and satisfying the requirements of Section
21.10.2 are permitted provided they satisfy the requirements
of ACI ITG-5.1.
The non-emulative or jointed systems are of particular interest
in U.S. practice. The Precast Seismic Structural Systems
(PRESSS) research program played an important role in the
development of non-emulative systems. The program had two
primary objectives: to develop comprehensive and rational
design recommendations needed for a broader acceptance
of precast concrete construction; and to develop new materials,
concepts, and technologies for precast concrete construction
in regions of different seismic hazards. As the key element
to the final phase of the PRESSS research program, a 6/10scale five-story precast concrete building was constructed
and tested under simulated seismic loading at the University
of California, San Diego (UCSD). The structure combined
five different seismic force-resisting systems in regions of
varying seismic hazard. Of these, the hybrid frame (utilizing
post-tensioning strands as well as mild reinforcement in
the beams and through the beam-column joints)and the
precast post-tensioned shear wall system are highly suitable
as components of the seismic force-resisting systems in
structures assigned to SDC D, E, or F. Much effort has gone
into their codification in recent times. The hybrid system in
particular has seen important applications.
Applications of Presss Systems
Several commercial structurescompleted in the field have
demonstrated the viability of the jointed precast concrete
special moment frame system. The most prominent building
using this system is the 39-story Paramount apartment
building in San Francisco.
A recent application of the hybrid moment frame in a parking
structure is shown in Figure 3.
An application of both the hybrid frame and the unbonded
post-tensioned shear wall was found in Santiago, Chile by a
PCI team sent to investigate damage from the February 2010
earthquake. The precast manufacturer Preansa constructed
a five-story structure at their convention/exhibition site that
usedunbonded post-tensioned walls and frames following the
research of the PCI PRESSS program. The structure is braced
in the short direction by post-tensioned shear walls placed
at the ends of the building. The post-tensioning strands are
V1 N1 July 2014
77
Figure 4: Building Framed with Unbonded Post-tensioned Walls and Frames

Figure 2: 39-story precast prestressed
concrete Paramount Tower in San
Francisco
Figure 3: Parking Structure

under Construction at University of
California, Davis Medical Center
(Courtesy: Ray Bligh, Watry Design
Group, Redwood City, CA)
located near the center of the walls. In the other direction,

there are three bays framed with unbonded post-tensioned
moment-resisting frames. A view of the structure is shown in
Figure 4. Although the erection of the structure was complete,
the building was unfinished at the time of the earthquake.
The first floor was in operation as a kitchen for the convention
center. The upper floors remained to be completed. The
structure experienced no damage from the earthquake.
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V1 N1 July 2014
Concluding
The application of precast structural systems in parking structures,
office buildings, and other construction is increasingly
successful throughout the United States including its regions
of moderate and high seismicity and is being increasingly
recognized in U.S. codes and standards.
This includes innovative structural systems that do not emulate
cast-in-place reinforced concrete construction.
This Paper was Presented at FIB - Days 2012 International
Conference held at Chennai.
Precast
Zero Energy System for Precast

Concrete: An Overview
Sonjoy Deb, B.Tech, Civil
Associate Editor
s the name implies, the premise of zero energy system

is to eliminate the need to input mechanical or thermal
energy into the process of consolidating and curing
precast concrete elements. The Zero Energy System involves
the use of self-compacting concrete to eliminate all external
energy required for placing and consolidating concrete and
no external energy for heat curing of concrete. The heat
generated by hydration of cement is used for accelerating the
strength development in concrete. Heat loss is minimized by
insulating the forms and covering the concrete after placing
with insulating mats. The concept of a Zero Energy System
(ZES) was first introduced to the precast industry in Italy in
September 2001. This is achieved by the use of innovative
chemical admixtures and a proper mixture design. The ZES
has a number of distinct advantages overthe conventional
precast manufacturing process, which include economic,
quality and safety considerations.
Underlying Concept of ZES

The Zero Energy System takes into consideration all the aspects
of the manufacturing process of precast elements. Apart from
eliminating vibrations, reducing energy consumption and labour,
the durability of the concrete itself is also enhanced. Energy
in the sense of the Zero Energy System comprises more than
the direct costs of electricity and oil needed for the operation
of a precast plant. It comprises all of the energy resources
that must be mobilized in precast production; not only fossil
fuels and electricity must be considered as forms of energy,
but also aspectsof direct labour, material consumptions and
productivity.
Major Constituents of ZES
There are two major constituents of ZES, (a) High Early
Strength High Range Water Reducer, (b) Self-Consolidating
Concrete.
V1 N1 July 2014
79
Precast
- High Early Strength High Range Water Reducer (HESHRWR)A key component to the ZES is a HES HRWR. This
admixture is based on anext-generation polycarboxylate
ether (PCE), which provides excellent dispersion via
asteric mechanism and improved hydration kinetics.
This generation of PCE is believed to cover less of the
surface of the cement grain, thereby actually providing
accelerated hydration as compared to a non-admixture
treated reference. This also contributes to the early age
compressive strength development than other PCEs. Even
further improvements to the early strength development
and workability retention properties of the HES HRWR
have recently been made.
- Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC) Mixture Design with a
Viscosity Modifying Admixture (VMA) Another important
component of the ZES is the use of a SCC mixture design.
These mixtures are highly fluid and typically have slump
flow values of greater than 550 mm.Therefore, these
mixtures must be designed to exhibit adequate dynamic
and staticstability. This includes suspension of the coarse
aggregate and control of bleeding.The HES HRWR will
typically impart improved stability over earlier generation
PCEs,but is not always adequate for some applications.
Early generation concrete mixtures relied upon a higher
fines content to achieve the required stability. This approach
ofteninvoked concerns on the long-term creep and
shrinkage characteristics of such concretes. It also made it
impossible for precast manufacturers who were interested
in high coarse aggregate contents for architectural
finishes to use SCC. An improved approach isto use a
more conventional mixture design and to incorporate a
VMA. Use of the appropriate type and amount of VMA for
the application will adjust the rheology of the concrete to
provide the desired stability.
Commonly Available Commercial Products
Glenium ACE by BASF is high early strength high range water
reducer and is most commonly used for ZES system. The two
key elements of the Zero Energy System are Rheodynamic concrete
and Glenium ACE, a hyperperforming superplasticizer for
Rheodynamic technology. Rheodynamic concrete, an optimized
self-compactingconcrete, provides a concrete mix with
exceptional placing characteristics, accelerated cement
hydration forearly strength development and high-quality
concrete.
About Glenium Ace: An essential component of the Zero
Energy System is Glenium ACE, a superplasticizerof the latest
generation of polycarboxylateether (PCE) polymers, especially
developed for precast applications.Glenium ACE molecules
are rapidly adsorbed on the surface of the cement grains and
act through electrostatic and steric repulsion to powerfully
disperse the individual particles of cement. The molecular
80
V1 N1 July 2014
structure of polycarboxylate etherpolymers is essential for

the early developmentof strength. With conventional PCE
superplasticizers,the molecules cover the entire surface of
the cement grain and build a barrier against contact with
water. Therefore, the hydration process takes place slowly.
The unique, proprietary molecular structure ofGlenium ACE
exposes increased surface of thecement grains to react with
water. As a result ofthis effect, it is possible to obtain earlier
development of the heat of hydration, faster development
of the hydration products and, as a consequence, higher
strengths at very early age. This advantage can even be
utilized at low temperatures. Refer Figure 1for Glenium Ace
molecular structures.
Figure 1: Glenium Ace molecule (Source: BASF Construction Chemicals)
Benefits of the Zero Energy System

Increased Productivity
Productivity in the precast industry dependsdirectly on
the speed at which concrete cures, regardless of which
manufacturing processis used. The unique principle of High
Early Strength High Range Water Reducer acting on the
cement molecules, significantly increases hydration kinetics
without disturbing hydrate morphology. The natural exothermic
heat produced in the first few hours is capable of speeding
up the crystallization processes, developing faster material
strength. The substantial improvement in performance
incomparison with traditional superplasticizerstherefore
optimizes the efficiency of the mix and reduces the production
cycle, potentially doubling output Increased.
Early Strength Development
The strength development of ZES PCE and that of Traditional
PCE is shown in Figure 2 below. It clearly shows in case
of ZES PCE (in this case it is Glenium ACE 30 of BASF
Chemicals)there is a significant strength gain between 6 to 12
hours than that of Traditional PCE which achieves the same in
20 hours. This again adding to the productivity increase.
Minimized Heat Curing
The energy required for heat curing is oneof the key
parameters when calculating thecost of precast concrete
elements. It is therefore an important economic factor. One
Precast
of the objectives of the Zero Energy System is to optimize the

amount of energy required in the production cycle to achieve
specification requirements.The action of the unique Glenium
ACE polymer combined with the control of manufacturing and
placing parameters allows optimum use of natural energy for
hydration, making it happen sooner! External energy supplies
can therefore be reduced or eliminated, removing the need
for heat curing.This feature of the Zero Energy System not
only has economic benefits; it alsoimpacts on the durability of
concrete by limiting any microcracks that may result from heat
curing (thermal shock, temperature gradient, desiccation, etc.).
Figure 4: No Vibration Required (Source: BASF Construction Chemicals)
concrete requires trained and skilled labor. With the use of SCC
as part of the ZES, the concrete easily flows into the formwork
and is generally self-leveling. As a result, only minimal labor is
required toget the concrete into its intended location. When
compared to conventional concrete, areduction is labor costs
is generally possible.
Improve concrete quality and intricacy of shapes
Figure 2: Compressive Strength Comparison (Source: BASF Construction
Chemicals)
Figure 3: Curing Cycle (Source: BASF Construction Chemicals)
Elimination of Vibration
The use of the ZES can improve both the engineering

properties and aesthetic properties of the finished element.
It has been reported steam curing can compromise the later
age compressive strength development. The engineering
properties, such as bond to reinforcement, top-bar effect,
creep, and diffusivity are all comparable or better than the
properties of similar conventional mixtures. Drying shrinkage
is generally better in SCC mixtures, especially when a VMA
is used. The surface appearance of the finished elements is
generally improved when compared to conventional concrete.
There is little or no need to surface repairs, grinding or reworking
as a result of the excellent self consolidation of these mixtures.
This is true also for thin, complex elements as shown in Figure 4.
The energy required to place concrete is a further key factor in

calculating the costs of precast elements. However, vibration
is also a recognized nuisance factor: noise for workers and
near by residents plus the physical stress for people involved
in placing concrete. One of the objectives of the Zero Energy
System is its ability to eliminate the energy required to place
precast concrete.The flow and water reduction action of
High Early Strength High Range Water Reducer, combined
with aviscosity-modifying agent (VMA), enables the robust
and direct formulation of self-compacting concretes, which
can be placed without vibrations when combined with a
compatible manufacturing process.The Zero Energy System
therefore reduces the related costs whilst improving working
conditions in the precast concrete plant. Refer Figure 4 for
flowing concrete mix.
Reduce labor requirements
The placement, consolidation and finishing of conventional
Figure 5: A thin, intricate precast element that was formed using the ZES. Note
the fine details andgood surface appearance.
V1 N1 July 2014
81
Precast
Application Areas
Reference
The flexibility of the Zero Energy System is suitable for a

diverserange of markets: components for buildings, civil
engineering,drains, artstone, agriculture, roads and highways,
railways, telecommunications, etc.The Zero Energy System
can be used in the casting of girders, prestressed floor support
slabs, floor slabs, panels, segments, pipes, blocks, vaults,
cross-beams, faade units, paving and copings.The Zero
Energy System is an innovative and upcoming concept for
the precast industry.
1. Corradi, M., Khurana, R., Magarotto, R., and Torresan, I., Zero
Energy System: AnInnovative Approach for Rationalized Precast
Concrete Production, Proceedings of the17th Intl. Congress of
Precast Industry, Istanbul, Turkey, May 1-4, 2002, 8 pp.
2. Parker, D., A Mixed Blessing: A Dramatic Improvement in
Precast ConcreteProduction Efficiency , New Civil Engineer
(UK), November 15, 2001, pp. 6-8.3. Daczko, J. A., Kurtz, M. A.,
Bury, M. A., and Attiogbe, E. K., Zero Energy System forPrecast
Concrete Production, Concrete International, Vol. 25, No. 4, April
2003, pp.103-107.
4. Khurana, R., Magaratto, R., and Torresan, I., New Generation
of PolycarboxylateSuperplasticizier to Eliminate Steam Curing of
Concrete, Proceedings InternationalCongress on Challenges
in Concrete Construction, Dundee, Scotland, September 511,2002, pp. 213-224.
5. Bury, M. A. and Christensen, B. J., The Role of Innovative
Chemical Admixtures inProducing Self-Consolidating Concrete,
Proceedings of the First North AmericanConference on the
Design and Use of Self-Consolidating Concrete, Center
forAdvanced Cement-Based Materials, Northwestern University,
Evanston, IL, November12-13, 2002, pp. 141.
6. Christensen, B. J. and Bury, J. R., Evaluation of a New Generation
Synthetic HRWRin Precast SCC Mixtures, to be published at
Second International Conference on theDesign and Use of SCC,
Chicago, Ill, October 2005.
7. Daczko, J. A. and Kurtz, M. A., Development of High-Volume
Coarse AggregateSelf-Compacting Concrete, Proceedings of
the 2nd International Conference onSelf-Compacting Concrete,
Tokyo, Japan, October 23-25, 2001.
8. Zero Energy System for Precast Concrete, Dr. Bruce J.
ChristensenDegussa Construction Chemicals Asia Pacific.
9. BASF, The Chemical Company.
Conclusion
The use of the Zero Energy System (ZES) has a number of
economic benefits for the precast manufacturer. Depending
on the specific interests of the producer, these can include
possible reductions in energy and material costs, reductions in
equipment repairs and maintenance, reductions in worker health
claims or increased productivity. Additionally, the use of the ZES
results in a finished precast element with improved aesthetics
and engineering properties from that made with conventional
concrete. Also the flexibility of the Zero Energy System ensures
the optimum utilization of energy required to the precasting
of concrete elements. For some manufacturing processes,
depending on the cycletime, the ambient temperatures and
the composition of themix, the full benefits of the Zero Energy
System can be compounded by combining the effectiveness
of ZES PCE with the technology of self-compacting concrete.
Concrete can be placed without vibration, achieving the
required performance without the need of heat curing.
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Precast Manufacturing Facility

Amit Kumar P. Patel, P.E.
Project Engineer with Blue Ridge Design, Inc.
Winchester, VA, USA
he traditional method for construction of buildings has

been cast-in-place construction. This paper describes
a typical precast and prestressed concrete plant facility
and its operations which can provide products such as
double tees, hollow core slabs, flat slabs, beams, spandrels,
columns, wall panels and stair flights for structures which have
modular construction. Residential buildings, office buildings,
multistorey parking structures, industrial warehouses, data
centers, stadiums, justice facilities, and bridges which are
designed and detailed for precast construction can be
constructed economically and in shorter amount of time using
precast and prestressed concrete manufacturing facility.
Plant Manufacturing Facility
Precast and prestressed plant manufacturing facility typically
has following departments:
I. Quality Control
II. Mold Shop
III. Steel Shop
IV. Structural Plant/ Casting Area
V. Product Storage
VI. Applied Finishes Area
VII. Architectural Plant
I. Quality Control
Quality Control tests enable precast plant to assure uniformity
and accuracy in the manufacturing of precast pieces, as well
as structural reliability in the finished products. Plant should
adhere to strict industry standards governing both the quality
of products and the specifics of manufacturing and erection
process.
Pre-Pour Inspection: The total setup process is inspected
before concrete is ordered. The size and shape of the forms
are measured, including haunches, block-outs, recesses, and
special forming conditions. The reinforcing and hardware are
checked for size, shape, finish, and location. Quality Control
calculates strand elongations and stresses the prestress
strand in the product. After the product is inspected and

approved by Production and Quality Control, the concrete is
ordered.
Quality Control is involved in a project from job planning
through building erection. Prior to the placing of concrete
into the forms, Quality Control inspectors perform specific
tests to ensure that the concrete used in the fabrication of
Plants precast components is of the highest quality, and of
the proper mix and strength to meet individual component
specifications.
Material Testing: Aggregate gradation is done from random
portions of stock pile. Cement is sampled weekly and
tested for normal consistency, early stiffening, fineness and
strength.
Concrete Testing: Concrete Tests for Slump/Flow, air content,
temperature, initial set, compressive are performed by quality
control.
Post Pour Inspection: The precast concrete piece is visually
inspected for cracks, chips or honeycomb. If any of these visual
flaws exist, the cause is determined and repairs are performed.
The piece is also inspected for air voids, blemishes, and color.
Once the piece has been approved for storage, it receives a
tag, stamp, or paint mark signifying that it has received approval
from Quality Control.
Self Consolidating Concrete: Self Consolidating Concrete
QC Performing slump Test
V1 N1 July 2014
83
The forms are typically built within tolerances of plus 0

to minus 1/8. Due to the weight of the concrete when it is
poured, it is common for the molds to expand slightly after the
concrete has been poured. By keeping the tolerances within a
strict range, the amount of expansion is restricted. Too much
expansion could cause the finished precast concrete piece to
be larger than original designed, resulting in potential erection
problems at the piece joints.
Architectural forms receive a fiberglass finish; however,
structural molds receive a special resin designed for the
precast industry. A wide range of steel shapes are also
employed in building the forms. Cardboard tubes or PVC pipe
are occasionally used for small holes in the piece.
Sure cure and compressive strength Testing
(SCC) is a recent innovation in precast/prestressed concrete

technology. Also, known as self-compacting concrete, SCC is
a high performance concrete with the ability to flow easily into
restricted spaces within formwork without segregating, and
without vibration. Introduced to the precast industry in 1989,
SCC is ideal for structural and architectural concrete pieces
requiring smooth surfaces, and offers the benefits of faster
placement, improved consolidation, improved uniformity,
reduced labor costs, elimination of vibrators, and improved
finish.
II. Mold Shop
Applying resin finish to structural mold pieces
The primary function of Plants Mold shop is to construct a

form of the piece to be cast. Many of the structural forms are
comprised of steel, and the Mold Shop is responsible for
building the blockouts, bulkheads, or other accessories which
make a piece unique. Architectural molds are constructed on
large, flat casting beds and require that a more complete
package be supplied.
Form Finishes: The type of finish specified is dependent upon

the role the completed piece has in the finished structure. The
following is a breakdown of the form finishes commonly used
by Plant.
Commercial Grade (CG): This finish should be specified only
when the product will not be visible in the completed structure,
or when the function of the building does not require a finished
surface.
Standard Grade (SG): The finish may be used where products
are exposed to view but the function of the building does not
require a special finish. The surface will be suitable for an
applied stucco type finish, but will not be suitable for painting
(e.g., stems of inverted tee beams and double tees in parking
structure).
Finish Grade (FC): This finish is to be used on bottom-in-form,
visually exposed, structural members (e.g., bottom and face
of ledges on inverted-tee-beams and spandrels; bottom of
double-tee flange).
Finish Grade B (FB): This surface is suitable for painting
(especially with at textured or sand paint); however, some
surface blemishes will be visible.
Mold Shop
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Finish Grade A (FA): This finish is suitable for painting with any
type of paint.
Architectural Finish (AF): This finish is suitable as a frame
around a Veneer Finish.
The finished fiberglass form is used by the plant for
approximately 20 castings. At the end of its pour series,
the form is inspected by the mold shop, and much of the
framework returned to the mold shop to be refurbished and
utilized on another form.
support group for production. A production schedule is given

to the Steel Shop, and from this schedule the Steel Shop
crew runs a bed schedule to determine what steel materials
are required for each pour. The steel is first sheared by the
cut and bend crew on the automated shear line, and then
bent, before being set to the steel tiers where the mats will be
tied. Once the mats are tied, the material handlers deliver the
finished pieces to the appropriate beds in the plant.
Another important function of the Mold Shop is to interpret

drawings and create a form plan. The form plan is distributed
to other departments to maintain consistency in visualization
of the form. Constructing the form plan typically involves
visualizing the three-dimensional piece from a flat drawing,
but also envisioning the negative of the piece. Laps, drafts,
and stripping joints are added to the form so that the finished
concrete piece will easily strip out of the mold, and so the
formwork will not become locked into the piece.
III. Material Handlers and Steel Shop
Material Operations: The steel Shop is responsible for
construction of the steel cages and mesh mats used to
reinforce precast pieces. Production of the steel reinforcement
cages or mesh mats begins with scheduling and material
handling. Advanced order materials specified by Engineering
are compared with the information contained on the shop
cards, to make certain all of the steel required for a piece has
been noted. Schedules and pour cards are then generated
for each bed in the plant. This system eliminates the need
for the Steel Shop to hunt and gather required materials,
which in turn contributes to a smoother and more efficient
production process.
Galvanized corbel plate is delivered to production
The Steel Shop operates on a 3-day lead time. On the first day,
the steel needed for a pour is cut and bent. On the second
day, the steel is tied into a cage and prepared for production.
On the third day, the cage is delivered to the bed to be cast
into the concrete. The steel shop produces 15-25 mesh mats
per day, depending upon the complexity of the mats and
productions needs. All the plates and inserts that are used for
connections have to be galvanized when they are exposed.
When they are not exposed they can be primed.
Steel Shop: Like Material Operations, the Steel Shop acts as a
Plants steel shop is critical to the speed, efficiency, and

productivity of precast manufacturing process. Having an
onsite dedicated Steel Shop enables the plant to cast the
beds every day
Steel Shop Material Conveyance cart
Cages ready for delivery to production
V1 N1 July 2014
85
Pour Activities:
a. Delivery of concrete: Concrete is transported to plant from
central RediMix plant by trucks.
b. QC of Concrete: Quality control inspectors perform the
required tests.
c. Placement of Concrete
d. Vibration of Concrete: Vibrating screed ensures thorough
consolidation of the concrete.
e. Finish Concrete: After vibration and concrete bleed water
has come to the surface, the required finish is applied.
Cages tied with stirrups are delivered to production
IV. The Structural Plant

Structural elements differ from architectural components in
that they comprise most of the frame and floor system of a
building and are usually gray concrete.
Double Tee production: In a mid-size plant, five lines of double
tee forms, each measuring 450 long are used. Three lines
will be used for casting daily. Pour rate is typically six to eight
pieces depending on the length of each piece. The average
length of double tees is 60 and the standard depths vary from
24 to 34. Standard widths are 8, 9, 10, 11-4, 12. There
are some plants which go upto 13- 4 and 15 wide. Flange
thickness can be 2, 4, and 4 5/8. 4 5/8 thickness is used
for 2-hour fire ratings. Strand pattern in Double tees can be
depressed or non-depressed as per the design requirement.
For a mid-size plant, approximately 275 cubic yards of double
tees for three lines of 450 can be poured.
Placing concrete into Double Tee stem
Vibration screed for consolidation

of concrete
Below is the list of Wet Finishes applied to precast pieces:

Magnesium Float (MF): Roof double tees, flat slabs, floor
double tees where sub-floor is to be applied, flat slabs or
double tee where the surface will be covered.
Smooth Magnesium Float (SMF): Hotel room floors, and roof
double tees.
Wet Trowel (WT): Columns if exposed but not architectural.
Interior surfaces where a finish slightly better than SMF is
desired. Finish is not suitable for exposed surfaces.
Hard Trowel (HT): Exposed surface of Columns; and surface
that has to be painted.
Light Broom (LB): Interior surfaces of exposed wall panel and
spandrel beams.
Standard Untopped Finish (SUF): Top finish for untopped
parking deck double-tees and inverted-tee beams that match
the double tees.
Hydraulic ram for

prestressing strands
Steel strands in the pretensioning process
Casting Double Tee
Finished Double Tees in yard
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f. Curing Process: Two critical items that affect the initial cure
cycle are moisture and heat retention. To retain moisture,
covers that hold moisture are used. Additionally, moisture
Applying Light broom finish to Double Tee
Double Tee with a light broom

finish
may be added in a mist form to replenish surface moisture.

As an alternative, curing compounds can be used to retain
moisture.
Concrete produces heat of hydration during the initial strength
development phase. The retention of this heat can be used
disadvantageously to provide heat for accelerated curing.
Accelerated curing is the use of added heat to increase the
rate of hydration reactions. The accelerated curing cycle is
generally 12-16 hours. Once the accelerated curing cycle is
complete, the product is removed from the form. In this way,
forms are re-used on a daily basis. Plants have used hot
oil radiant heat, propane gas heaters, natural gas heaters,
and radiant air heaters for the curing process. Plain tarps
and insulated tarps are used on beds. Enclosing forms with
insulation can enhance the retention of heat for accelerated
curing process.
V. Product Storage Area
Product Dry Finish: The precast product is removed from the
casting bed with an overhead crane, and placed on flat or
stretch trailers depending upon the type of product. Tractors
or yard mules lift the trailer and move it to the dry finish area
or applied finish area. At the dry finish area, fins are removed,
chips and spalls are repaired, edges are ground, strand is cut
and patched, rust is removed, and surface bug holes are filled
(according to tolerances), etc. Once the product is completed,
it is moved to the storage area were the travel lift unloads and
places it in storage until the piece is shipped for erection. The
storage areas sub-grade should be stabilized to avoid soft
spots where one end of the product may settle. Settling can
create twisting or tensile stresses which can result in cracking
and damage to the product.
Product Handling and Shipping: From the time a precast
unit is stripped out of the molds to the moment it is unloaded
at the jobsite, a number of handling steps are involved. For
each of these steps, it is imperative that systematic and
well thought out procedures are implemented. In general,
the number of times a unit is lifted and handled should be
kept to a minimum. There are five basic handling steps that
a precast unit undergoes between casting and erection:
stripping plant-to-yard hauling, yard roll-up (when applicable),
yard storage, and shipping. In all cases, it is crucial to ensure
that the proper equipment including rigging, chains and
related devices is used.To facilitate this process, engineering
prepares handling tags that describe through diagrams the
methods and procedures for handling the precast units. These
handling tags are affixed to each precast unit in a way that
prevents them from being easily removed. The handling tags
serve as a general guide only, by showing dunnage locations,
pick points, or whether a panel is to be stored flat or on edge.
However, the handling instructions will not indicate what types
of racks, trailers, chains, or rigging must be used.
The following sections describe the general procedures that

should be followed during each of the handling phases.
a. Stripping: After ensuring that that minimum concrete
strength is achieved prior to stripping, piece is either
stripped flat or rolled out of the form. The handling
instructions indicate which of these two methods are to
be used. Strip the piece using the lifting devices at the
location shown on the piece details.
Lifting Loops in Beams
Lifting loops with rebar cage
b. Plant to Yard Hauling: Piece is hauled on trailer lifts

from the plant to the yard either flat or in an inclined or
upright position. Load pieces according to the handling
instructions and loading diagrams with dunnage or rocker
frames located at the correct location. Secure all loads
to the trailer using the appropriate quantity of chains or
straps.
Travel Lift used for moving pieces
Erection burkes for rolling the panel
c. Yard Roll-Up: Roll piece onto their edge as per the handling
tags using loops or lifting devices. Precast piece should
be rolled on edge as quickly as possible, to help minimize
the potential for warping, bowing or cracking.
d. Yard Storage: Store the piece at the dunnage locations
as noted on the handling tags. If piece is stored on a yard
rack, ensure the capacity of the rack is not exceeded.
Pieces that are treated with an architectural finish should
not be stacked in the flat position. For other pieces stored
Ramp Walls with corbels are stacked
V1 N1 July 2014
Spandrel beams stored in

a yard
87
flat, do not stack more than three-four pieces high. When

stacking, always make sure dunnage points are aligned
from top to bottom.
removed from the surface using abrasive material, partially

exposing a portion of the coarse aggregate, per approved
sample.
e. Shipping: Pieces are loaded on trailers according to the

handling instructions and load diagrams with dunnage
located at the correct position. Secure all loads to the
trailer using the appropriate quantity of chains. If it is
necessary to ship a load with only one precast unit on a
set of frames, offset toward the left side of the trailer as
viewed from behind. The amount of offset will depend
upon the size, weight, and configuration of the panel and
will be shown on the load diagram. Single piece loads will
always be loaded on the curbside of the trailer.
Sandblasting an architectural wall panel
Precast stair in storage yard
L-Beam is loaded on the trailer for shipping
Heavy Sand Blast (HSB): More of the sand and cement is

removed from the surface using abrasive material, so that the
coarse aggregate are the major surface feature.
b.Acid Wash: Acid etching dissolves the surface cement
paste to reveal the sand with only a small percentage of
coarse aggregate being visible.
Column is loaded on the trailer for

shipping
Aisle of Plant Storage
Product Locator System: Plants utilize a locator system to

track the storage location of each piece of product in storage
yard. The storage yard is divided into aisles, and each aisle
is numbered. Yard personnel log the information into the
computer each day and it is used by loading crews to locate
pieces for shipment. This information is also included on
the Control of Erection Sequence. It is utilized by project
managers to help them locate product for architect, owners,
and owner representatives to view.
Acid Etch (A): Acid is brushed or sprayed onto the panel.

c. Retarded: Retardation involves the application of a
specialized chemical to the concrete surface (normally the
mold surface). Retarders are extremely sensitive to changes in
the rate of hydration, so their effectiveness will vary dependent
upon different temperatures, humidity, or water content of the
face mix.
VI. Applied Finishes Area
Retarder Wash (RW): Aggregate is exposed by retarder and

water washing to achieve desired results. The amount and
type of retarder used depends on depth of matrix, size of
aggregate, room temperature, mix temperature, and how
long the panel will be left in the form.
Three types of applied finishes are provided: Sandblast, Acid

wash and Retarded
Retarder Blast (RB): Aggregate is exposed by retarder and

sandblasting to achieve desired results.
a. Sandblasting: Sandblasting of surfaces offers three degrees

of exposure: light sandblasting, medium sandblasting, and
heavy sandblasting. This process is suitable for exposure of
either large or small aggregates.
Thin Brick
Light Sand Blast (LSB): Entire surface skin of cement and

sand is removed using abrasive material, but the coarse
aggregate is not exposed.
Brick snaps is brick-inlay system that enables precast

plants to quickly produce brick-embedded concrete walls.
Brick liner system offer precast plants unlimited options for
producing creative brick facades by accommodating any
brick size, shape, pattern, and point devised. Advantages of
brickembedded concrete over conventional masonry are:
Medium Sand Blast (MSB): More of the sand and cement is
Structural and aesthetic value; Simplified engineering; No
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V1 N1 July 2014
flashing, lintels, or weep activities; No efflorescence; Reduced

construction time; Recommended in seismic zones; No sand,
mortars, or mixers on site.
stone (granite, limestone, or marble), brick ceramic, or quarry

tile. The use of natural cut stone usually requires the use of a
bond breaker, per approved sample.
Form Liner (FL): A liner is placed within the form to achieve
a desired effect on the face of a panel. A release agent is
usually applied so the liner will not stick to the panel. Special
attention is given to the liner joints to prevent reading these
lines in the panel face.
VII. Architectural Plant
Thin brick (approximately thick) is packaged face down into individual

plastic holders that snap together on the pour surface
Architectural precast concrete can be cast in almost any
Concrete is poured on the back of the brick assembly and finished in the
normal manner
Architectural form being built
The brick embedded concrete panel is removed from the form and snap holders are removed from the face. The panel is washed with hot high-pressure
water
The result is a hard concrete panel with cast-in-brick that is

beautiful, economical and manufactured at faster pace.
Architectural form ready to be cast
Wall with architectural finish

stored inclined
Parking structure with brick faade on wall

panels and spandrels beams
Brick Liner System

A brick patterned elastomeric form liner is made to
specifications. Thin bricks are placed into the liner pockets
and concrete is poured over the back of the bricks. This
integrally casts the brick tiles into the concrete.
Other Finishes
Veneer Facing (VF): Includes materials such as natural cut
Casting of Architectural wall panels
V1 N1 July 2014
89
Architectural Sample Area

The sample area provides owners, architects, and others a
place to see a variety of colors, finishes, and textures from
previous projects. Previous work of a similar nature can serve
as a useful visual standard and highlight potential problems.
12x12 sample for Architects review and approval
Specific project samples can be made for each job sold. The
architect approves the 12x12 sample for color and finish.
A larger mock-up piece can then be fabricated using regular
production techniques. The architect approves the mockup for color and finish, enabling production to begin. This
reinforces the the architect that we can duplicate the 12x12
sample color and finish for the project.
Conclusion
- Precast concrete plants can produce precast components
in short amount of time even before the site is ready. The
components can be stored in a yard and transported as
per the construction sequence.
Full-size sample can be fabricated
color, form, or texture. This is achieved by varying aggregate

and matrix color, size of aggregates, finishing processes and
depth of exposure. Combining color with texture accentuates
the natural beauty of aggregates. Color can be achieved
through the natural color of the aggregates, color of the
cement, or through the addition of pigments. Aggregates
range in color from white to red, black and green. Natural
gravel provides a wide range of warm earth colors and
various shades of gray. Cement may be gray, white, buff, or a
mixture of colors. Pigments are also available in a wide rage
of colors (red, ivory, cream or buff, yellow, brown, gray, black,
green, olive, turquoise, blue, and white). White cement is used
with pigments to maintain uniformity of color throughout the
panels. The amount of pigment utilized directly influences the
shade and intensity of color. Several colors can be poured in
the same panel, and several pigments can be used to achieve
a desired color.
Typically 1 and 1 architectural face mix with a structural
gray backup mix is used. The use of separate face and
backup mixes dpedends upon economics, the type of finish
required, and the configuration of the product. Product can
be structural in nature as well as architectural. An example of
this would be a column, It would require one uniform concrete
mix throughout. In addition to color reveals, recesses reliefs,
and liners can all be used to achieve architectural effects.
A full size sample is produced, including the proper matrix
and finish in accordance with planned production techniques.
Producing a sample helps to avoid problems with color and
materials prior to production. Batch plant should maintain
consistency of the architectural mixes.
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V1 N1 July 2014
- The quality control department in precast concrete plants

can ensure that the concrete products will exhibit high
standards of quality and uniformity.
- Architectural precast components with reveals, copings,
brick facade and wall panels that serve primarily as the
exterior facade of a structure can be produced with range
of choices for colors, designs, and textures.
- Because precast concrete products are manufactured in
a controlled environment project time is not lost waiting for
ideal weather conditions.
- Precast Plants can provide organized construction industry
where engineers, technicians and laborers can be stationed
at one place and products can be delivered around 200
mile radius from where the plant is located.
- Small scale manufacturers who can provide the necessary
inserts, plates, etc. can support these plants.
- To increase the infrastructure in a developing country
like India in the next decade, there should be at least 35 plants in each state which can help build the required
infrastructure. However, there is a need to provide adequate
training to students, engineers, architects, detailers, and
construction crews to promote precast and prestressed
concrete construction. Erection crew should be aware of
erection sequence; welding and bolting process to keep
the structure stable when it is in the erection phase.
Publishers Note: This paper was presented at the Proceedings of the One
Day National Workshop on Precast Concrete Buildings in India Practices,
Possibilities & Prospects Held in ICSR Auditorium, IIT Madras, Chennai.
The Masterbuilder was the official Media Partner for the above event.
Formwork for Precast - An Overview
Mangesh Kumar Hardas

Director, Precision Precast Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
The principles for formwork for precast concrete remain mostly the same as that for conventional in situ construction. However there
are a few nuances arising due to the fact that concrete is cast away from the location where the element is supposed to be for its
service life. The forms used for precast are of better quality in dimensions and straightness as no one expects to do any plastering
(and thus hide the inconsistencies in formwork) at site. Beautiful shapes and architectural finishes can be achieved which otherwise
are very difficult or even impossible to achieve in a conventional in situ construction. Formwork for precast can be used multiple
times and at the same time the quality of concrete achieved is much better. This paper touches at the requirements of formwork for
precast and overviews the systems generally used as in building construction.
recast concrete buildings are structures made up of

numerous small individual elements of concrete cast
at an off-site location. These precast elements such as
beams, columns, slabs and walls are transported to the site
for assemblage and erection. Wind and earthquake loads
are resisted by coupling of beams to columns for moment
frame resistance, and coupling of wall elements together for
composite shear wall resistance. Thus generally in precast
concrete buildings the individual element on its own plays
no role in gravity and lateral resistance. It is the assembly of
all these elements by proper connections which gives the
building its stability against vertical and lateral resistance.
Precast concrete usually is either ordinary reinforced concrete
or prestressed reinforced concrete. Prestressing gives
advantages of reduced cross-sections and steel requirements
(reduced weights). However prestressing needs additional
equipments, abutments etc.
road conditions. Setting up of long line prestressed beds is

difficult on site and may not be economical, hence most of the
site-cast precast is non-prestressed.
Wet concrete is poured in forms (moulds) and stripped out
when it attains certain minimum strength. It is stored in a
storage area and later transported to the site for erection.
Forms are basically either stationary steel plate forms or
Tilting tables or battery moulds or moving Carrousel systems
with production pallets. Selection of a system depends upon
the volume of production of a particular element and flexibility
desired in production. There are various patented systems for
forms systems available in India.
Prestressed systems are usually long line systems wherein
large number of elements are produced in a single bed.
Typical elements produced in such a system are Hollowcore
Precast Concrete is either a factory-cast (off-site) precast

or site-cast (on-site) depending on the volume of work and
logistics. Factory cast is typically more popular. Factory cast
precast gives more control to the producer and the designer
with better options for prestressing, architectural finishes and
grade of concrete. A better quality can be obtained as workers
and supervisors are well trained and experienced. Work does
not hamper due to bad weather.
Site-cast precast is adopted when the project volume is so
large that setting up a plant at site is economical. It is also
adopted when the transport of precast products becomes
very expensive or difficult due to large distances and adverse
V1 N1 July 2014
91
planks, Double Tee floor elements, Spandrels and Inverted

Tee girders. A prestressed bed needs stressing abutments at
the ends and a long form is in between. Generally the forms
for prestressing elements are either self stressing forms which
take the hydrostatic forces of concrete and compressive forces
from prestressing, or non-self-stressing or free forms which
take only hydrostatic forces leaving the compressive forces
coming from prestressing to the abutments. End abutments
for stressing is a good solution but sometimes one needs
setup for small quantity of elements where self stressing beds
can be used. Sometimes post tensioning is also done within
the factory for small number of elements.
finishes such as brick, stone, ribbed finish sand blasted or acid

itched exposed aggregates.
The forms must be designed properly so that they do not

deform during any of the operations of production - pouring
concrete, vibrating, stressing, distressing and stripping the
element out of form. The end product must comply with the
specified tolerances as specified in the BIS codes.
Typically forms should be made for standard cross sections

of columns, beams etc. The Architect should try to use these
standard sizes as much as possible so that new forms are not
required to be made.
Material for Precast forms

The forms for precast concrete are also called as Moulds
(US: Molds). These moulds can be made up of Wood, Steel,
Aluminium, Fiberglass, Plastic, Concrete or even EPS (Expanded
Polystyrene) as long as it retains it shape against the hydrostatic
pressure of concrete, provides product tolerances, and is
able to withstand the vibrations, the impacts of placing the
rebars and the forces of stripping. Generally good quality
fiberglass and wood forms can be reused about 50 times.
Steel forms have a very large reuse capacity. For complex
shapes of elements as used in architectural precast, forms
made with wood fiberglass or concrete are used. EPS forms
have limited reuse and mostly used in Architectural precast
where the shapes are complex. EPS is also used as sacrificial
formwork.
Steam curing and heating of the bed is possible in precast

formwork which increases the rate of strength gain of concrete.
Design Considerations
Maximum reuse of formwork is the key to economy. The
Architect must keep the number of different shapes to a
minimum and design shapes which can be stripped easily,
preferably cast in single pour. Even so, it should achieve the
desired edges, surfaces and textures.
The form side(s) of the precast are usually on exterior of the

building. When a panel is cast horizontal, the bottom side may
be exposed aggregate, rubber form lined (to give desired
texture) or just plain surface. The upper surface of the concrete
in the mould which is not as smooth is on the interior of the
building.
In case of forms with fixed sides, the vertical faces should have
draft (slope) of about 1:5 to 1:12 depending upon the width of
the section - this would make it easy to remove.
The interior edges of the form should be radiused or chamfered
at least 10mm to avoid edge damage during stripping. This
can be done using chamfer strips made up of wood or steel.
Comparison with Conventional Formwork

Unlike cast in situ formwork, precast formwork can be vibrated
in place using vibrating tables thereby giving excellent quality.
Cast in situ formwork needs extensive shoring/ propping
which precast formwork does not.
In case of precast formwork it is very important to maintain
shapes and dimensional accuracies (tolerances) or else the
product may not fit at its place at the time of erection.
Precast formwork presents unlimited possibilities of architectural
Figure 1 - A long moving Prestressed bed showing blockouts
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V1 N1 July 2014
In long line - prestressed method of casting during detensioning

of strands concrete shortens, and so the inside forms need to
be removed before detensioning. The design should be such
that these inside forms can be removed without disturbing the
strands.
The form surface against which concrete is cast should be
smooth. These are cleaned by wirebrush, scrapping, scrubbing
and even chipping. The form sheet should be thick and strong
enough to maintain its smooth surface. The plywood used is
raisin coated.
If steel bed is chosen, which normally is the case, magnetic
systems can be used to fix side forms. Side forms are needed
for not only defining the boundaries of the panel but also for
door and window openings.
Long forms usually have slopes and drainage should be

provided.
Formwork for precast wall panels
Wall panels are cast individually or on a long bed when
prestresssed. Generally the bottom platform is a steel plate
of at least 5mm thick mounted on a concrete. The side forms
are usually are fixed rail/channel or wooden. The blockouts
are also wooden.
In a long line method, there is a long form of about 50 to 100m
with side fixed rail on one side which makes the common side
for all the panels. The second rail is usually movable and is
kept such that it is on the largest width in the pack. Others
in between are wooden. Sometimes the bed is capable of
vibrating.
Formwork construction techniques vary, but generally heavier

construction gives more dimensional stability and helps reduce
transmission of vibration and results in longer life. Fabrication
tolerances are typically half the product tolerances. The surface
roughness of the steel used is about 0.15 micron. The steel
forms have thickness of plates of about 5mm to 8mm and
have gussets at every 200mm to 500mm depending upon
the forces. Sometimes the Steel plates are made of Chrome
Molybdenum Steel.
Sometimes accelerated curing is achieved by heating. To do
so, elobrate piping is done under the form bed and hot water
or steam is passed through it. To reduce heat loss, insulation
should be installed under the beds. The pipe for heating is
above the insulation.
Figure 3 - Battery Mould
Tilting tables are used to cast wall panels. These tables are
equipped with heating and vibrating bed as well. Tilting tables
are hydraulically operated and are horizontal at the time
of casting. At the time of striping, tilting tables tilt to almost
vertical thus need lifting inserts only on the edges. They also
reduce the steel required or can be stripped quickly.
Battery moulds are designed for the vertical fabrication wall
panels. Each layer can have a variable area and reinforcement.
They consist of bulkheads between which 5 to 10 panels can
be simultaneously formed. Vibrators facilitate the effective
compacting of concrete. Battery moulds offer to produce
architectural wall panels with both inside and outside surfaces
as smooth.
Figure 2 - Tilting Table
Another system is based on production pallets (a steel

table) which pass through various workstations manually
over a set off protruding wheels before concrete products
are complete. Various transport systems (such as central
shifter, side shifters, and rollers) transport the pallets from
workstation to workstation. Each workstation has a role
preparing, concreting, curing and stripping. This system
offers the flexibility of horizontal casting and economizes on
tilting table.
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93
Strong magnetic systems are available which help in fixing the

side forms. The force is more that 500kgs and th
A fully automated system called carrousel system is also
available. It is computer controlled and gives a very rate of
production. Lattice Girder Slabs can be made with such a
system.
Double wall formwork is essentially the same but it additionally
needs a system to rotate one half of the already cast and
set slab all around and keep it on the one which is recently
concreted.
Formwork for Columns and beams
Usually precasters keep standard width and height forms.
Column forms are usually non prestressed and can be made
up of steel or wood. These can also be made in specially
Figure 6 Steel Formwork for Rectangular Column
fabricated battery moulds. Rectangular beams can be cast

in similar way but special forms are needed for Inverted Tee
beams. The sides of these forms can be detached. Long
line prestressed forms have arrangements for prestressing
steel. They need permanent abutments and hence are fixed
in place.
Formwork for Hollowcore slabs
Formwork for Hollowcore beds need steel plates firmly
mounted on a foundation and abutments at both ends to take
prestressing force. Manufacture of hollowcore is a propriety
system and a hollowcore machine manufacturer normally
provides the beds as well. No side forms are required as
hollowcore production needs a very dry mix concrete and
remains their on its own. Some machine manufacturers
recommend concrete beds to cast the hollowcores on.
Figure 4 - Formwork for IT beams
Conclusions
Formwork or precast is needed more in the plant and less
at the construction site. The principles of structural design
of formwork remain the same. Tolerances required for the
finished product and the forces coming on it govern the
design of formwork. Precast concrete products do not need
any finishing (such as plastering) on site. By using coloured
aggregates and formliners beautiful patters can be achieved.
Companies can fabricate their own formwork or choose from
the various systems available in the market based on the
production needs.
Figure 5 - Steel Formwork for Round Column
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V1 N1 July 2014
Publishers Note: This paper was presented at the Proceedings of the One Day
Seminar on Modern Formwork Systems for Building Construction Held in IIT
Madras, Chennai. The Masterbuilder was the official Media Partner for the above
event.
Project STEP
Precast Segment Reinforced with

Dramix Steel Fiber
Basic Project Description
The Abu Dhabi Strategic Tunnel Enhancement Programme (STEP)
is intended to provide a major improvement in the capacity of Abu
Dhabi's waste water management system.
Although the country has built a deep-level sewage interceptor tunnel, following the model used in Singapore this was the first time
tunneling method has been used. The programme includes a new
deep gravity sewer tunnel which takes the main sewer flows from
Abu Dhabi to a new treatment works outside the city and a series of
link sewers connecting into the deep tunnel.
5+1 segments (3 standard segments, 2 counter keys and 1 key).

The tunnel inner radius is 2.75m.
The adopted geometry of the ring is the tapered ring with a maximum taper of 60mm; it has been designed to withstand the minimum in-plane radius of 200m.
2. Geotechnical Parameters
The STEP tunnel is excavated in a mixture of the strata Dolomitic
Mudstone/Claystone (just called Mudstone in the report) and
Gypsum.
The new deep gravity sewer tunnel is 45 kilometers in length. It varies in diameter from 5 meters to 6-8 meters along its length. The tunnel is being constructed with seven earth pressure balance (EPB)
tunnel boring machines (TBMs) which are launched and operated
from seven deep shafts. The Project is located in an environment
with high concentrations of chlorides and sulphates present in soil.
The characteristic Geotechnical parameters for each Geotechnical

unit have been estimated from the Geo-technical interpretative
report and the Design Criteria. These documents should also be
supplied in order to completely validate the Geotechnical parameters input data. According to the Geotechnical longitudinal profile,
the tunnel invert is approximately 36 to 62m below the ground level
and the 34 to 46m below the water table level.
T-02 includes 15 kilometres of deep, bored tunnel, six deep shafts that
vary from 50 metres to 60 metres in depth and all ancillary works.
For the structural analysis of the whole ring, 3 critical cross sections
have been chosen:
T-03 includes 10 kilometers of deep, bored tunnel, four deep shafts

that vary from 60 meters to 80 meters in depth and all ancillary works.
This most extreme environmental exposure, combined with the

required service life of 80 years, structural detailing, material composition, waterproofing, construction, operation and maintenance
and sets some very demanding requirements to the design and
construction.
The segmental tunnel lining have constructed using Dramix steelfibre reinforced concrete (SFRC). This is a modern development in
lining design that makes the tunnel lining less susceptible to chloride induced corrosion and less likely to be damaged during construction.
The bored tunnel will be lined with a corrosion protection lining
formed with a HPDE membrane and a secondary concrete lining.
Construction Process
As is usual in tunneling projects, the first section of excavation had
teething problems. Before the machines could get up to speed,
issues with the grouting process, which holds the tunnel ring segments in place before a full ring is completed, led to some movement of the segments and localized cracking.
The shallowest section at CH 1+007 to evaluate the maximum

bending effects since the axial forces are reduced .
The deepest at CH 16+529, where the stresses induced by the
ground and water loading are the biggest.
An intermediate cross section at CH 6+600 mainly in the softer
mudstone unit. In this section the ovalisation effects are emphasized.
3. Structural Check
3.1. Extraction from the Moulds, Storage and Erection
Extraction from Moulds
This verification has been done considering a reduced strength of
the concrete (fck = 10MPa). The adopted static scheme consist of a
curved beams with the face downwards bearing on 2 supports and
loaded with 3 concentred force representing the vacuum lifting
device.
The calculation has been done only considering the concrete dead
weight and it leads to a computed safety factor of Yg = 14.92.
Further to the self-weight, the following forces should also be taken
into account:
"This was due to a combination of factors concerning the grouting

system," says Richard Graham, project manager for Impregilo. "It
was a case of ensuring the correct procedures were being followed and
defining the correct parameters for pressure and volume according
to the advance rates we were trying to achieve. We consider it part
of the commissioning process; you never start at high speed."
Progress on all three tunnel boring machines employed on the
sewer project has been excellent.
Dramix Steel-fibre Reinforced Concrete Tunnel Lining Solution
1. Ring Description
The precast segmental tunnel lining is 28cm thick and consists of a
Picture 1: mould
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The humidity deriving from not completely hardened concrete

and steam.
The adherence of the moulding during the extraction.
Increasing of the weight due to dynamic vibrations effects.
These additional loads can be considered as a percentage increment of the concrete dead weight (15 to 20%). However, this verification is in general not critical from the structural point of view but it
is helpful for the minimum strength value that concrete has to be
before the lifting out of the mould.
A maximum loading increment of 20% does not sensitive reduce the
estimate safety factor.
Pre-storage and Bulk Storage
The pre-storage on the factory has been verified considering a
curved beam (curved face upwards) on 2 bearing supports and
loaded by the weight of 2 segments. As for the lifting out from mould
verification, a reduced concrete strength of concrete (fck = 10MPa)
has been used.
3.3. Loading by the Push Rams

The rams thrusting is the most sensitive process in ring assembly
because the joint between rings is subject to relevant concentrated
forces. The effects induced in the segments due to the TBM
advancement have been modelled with the following assumptions,
specified by the TBM manu-facturer and the TBM supplier:
-
2 cylinder per ram shoe

The Ram shoe is 700mm long and 260mm wide
The gap between the ram shoes is 435mm
The nominal force on each shoe is Fnom = 2661kN (SLS)
The eccentricity to be taken is 5mm
The thrusting jacks force has been modelled as a uniform surface

load, distributed on a reduced wide of 190mm, representing the
surface of contact between 2 segments of 2 neighbour rings, as
shown in the figure below.
The final storage configuration has been calculated according to

the same static scheme of the pre-storage operations. The
assumptions that maximum 12 segments per stack are allowed (2
rings) and a reduced concrete strength of 20MPa have been taken.
In both verifications, a tolerance of the support timbers e = 5cm for
the load transfer is applied.
As for the case of lifting out from mould, in the pre-storage verification, the applied 2 segments weight load have to be increased due
to dynamic vibration effects (a value greater than 50% with respect
to that used for the extraction from mould should be adopted). This
verification is not relevant for the structural design but is oriented to
the verifications that with a strength value imposed for the removal
from the container, any damages occur.
Both for pre-storage and bulk-storage, we suggest to adopt a shift
with respect to the bearing points on the outside and on inside of e
= 10cm rather than 5cm, in order to take into consideration a certain degree of imprecision in locating the support timbers when storing the segments. A sketch of the proposal static scheme with the
eccentricity has been proposed.
Picture 4: radial joint detail
3.4. Permanent Loading

The whole ring behavior has been modeled using the software
PLAXIS 2D.
Two models have been done:
-
The ring considered as continuous (elastic analysis) without

joints between segments; The results have been used for the
segments design.
The ring modeled as discontinuous (plastic analysis) and the
joints effect is taken into account with the corresponding calculated no-linear rotation/bending moment capacity. Furthermore,
3 different ring positions have been chosen to maximize the ring
deformation and the joints opening.
3.2. Segment Erection
In the segment erection verification, the shear capacity of the vacuum cone has been verified with the hypothesis that the erector is
able to apply a maximum sealing compression force on the gaskets
of 50kN/m. For sake of safety, the worst case in which the erector
pin also has to carry the full weight of the segment is considered
(segment is vertical).
The interaction M-N diagram has been calculated with the classic
assumption defined in the Eurocode 2.
The segments are lifted by a vacuum lifting device. The vacuum

lifter has got 3 vacuum pads wherefore the segment can be gently
handled. This system is recommended with SFRC.
The tensile bearing capacity of the SFRC has been simplified with a
rectangular stress block, according to the 4.6 of German recommendations. Since Model Code 2010 have been edited by fib and
could be used.
Radial joints have also been verified. Splitting force and steel reinforcement have been calculated according to the point 9.8.4 of Eurocode 2.
1250 mm
540 mm
900 mm
390 mm
Picture 2: Stacking
Segment
Picture 3: vacuum system
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540 mm
390 mm
Picture 5: light reinforcement for busting
Project STEP
The calculation shows that a splitting reinforcement of 2060.8 mm2

is necessary.
This calculation is quite conservative since the required steel has
been calculated neglecting the contribute tensile strength assured
by SFRC.
The segment has been also verified against punching induced by
the connectors.
3.5. Steel Fibre Specifications
- i = 2: CMOD = 1.5 mm or deflection 1.32 mm

l = the span between the supports (nominal distance 500 mm)
b = the width of the concrete sample (nominal value 150 mm)
h = the residual height of the concrete sample (nominal value
125 mm)
Value fR1 (CMOD = 0.5mm) is used for the service limit state.
Value fR3 (CMOD = 2.5mm) is used for the ultimate limit state.
"The steel fibres shall be formed from cold drawn steel wire with a
minimum characteristic strength of 1,000 N/mm, they shall have
hooked ends and be in compliance with EN 14889-1."
Main additional point to indicate:
- Fibres with CE marking, system 1 (Fibres for structural use).
- Fibres out of drawn wire, with a tensile strength of the steel wire
2
1000 N/mm mini or more according to the concrete compressive strength.
- Concrete class C50/60 1500 N/mm2 mini recommended).
- Dimensional tolerances according to EN 14889-1.
- Fibre length: 60 mm.
- if Galvanised min. 30 g/m2.
- l/D ratio 80 recommended, l/D > 65 mini.
- Glued fibres to ensure a good distribution and homogeneity in
the concrete. It is prohibited to use loose fibres that cause balls
during mixing.
- Steel fibres have to be added by an automatic dosing system.
3.6. Performance Requirement
Picture 6: Load-CMOD curve according to EN 14 651 (ref 4)
With the previous assumptions, FRC toughness can be classified by

using a couple of parameters: the first one is a number representing the
fR1 class while the second one is a letter representing the ratio fR3/fR1.
The steel fibre reinforced concrete for the tunnel lining is classified
as a C50/60 F1,6/0,6 according to DBV. We recommend to refer for
type of application to Model Cod 2010 edited by fi b (ref 3).
The strength interval for fR1k is defined by two subsequent numbers
in the series:
In accordance with section 5.6 of Model Code 2010 and in the

absence of an alternative procedure whose operation has been validated, the beam tests according to standard EN 14651 published in
November 2005 "Test method for metallic fibered concrete: measuring the flexural tensile strength (limit of proportionality LOP, residual) will be used for the characterization of FRC.
The fR3k/fR1k ratio can be represented with letters a, b, c, d, e, corresponding to the ranges:
The behaviour in tension of fibre reinforced concrete is evaluated in

terms of residual flexural tensile strength values, which are determined based on the load-crack opening curve or the load deflection
curve, obtained by applying a centre point load on a simply supported notched prism.
f ctf, L =
3
1
FL
bh 2
2
The test results which need to be expressed are the limit of proportionality (LOP) and the residual flexural strength (see Figure).
The limit of proportionality f ct, Lf is calculated as:
f R ,i =
3
1
FR ,i
2
bh 2
Where FL is the maximum load between CMOD 0 and 0.05 mm or

deflection 0 and 0.08 mm
The residual flexural strength fR,x needs to be evaluated at four different displacements.
Where FR,i is the residual load at:
1.0; 1.5; 2.0; 2.5; 3.0; 4.0; 5.0; 6.0; 7.0; 8.0 [Mpa]
- "a" if 0.5
- "b" if 0.7
- "c" if 0.9
- "d" if 1.1
- "e" if 1.3
fR3k/fR1k
fR3k/fR1k
fR3k/fR1k
fR3k/fR1k
fR3k/fR1k
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3
Typical example of FRC classification.

By using the proposed classification, we usually proposed for this
type of project a material the following classification
FRC C50/60 - 5.0 c means:
-
Compression fck = 50MPa

Residual flexural strength at CMOD = 0.5 mm fR1k 5 N/mm2
Residual flexural strength at COD = 2.5 mm fR3k 5 N/mm2
Leading Edge Durability Design

COWI is carrying out the detailed design of two of the major contracts - T-02 and T-03 - for Impregilo S.p.A.
COWI's tasks include the design of all the permanent works which
includes a vortex drop structure in one of the shafts.
COWI is also carrying out the design of the temporary works that
includes deep diaphragm walls for the shafts and the design of the
sprayed concrete lining (SCL) caverns for the launch and recovery
of the TBMs.
The chloride levels in the ground and groundwater are considerably
higher than in seawater. In order to deal with this severe environment, COWI's leading edge durability design solutions have been
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Initiation
Propagation
Age
Accept limit
Service Life
Deterioration
Picture 7: Service life of concrete structures. A two-phase modelling of deterioration
used with the concrete mixes being designed to meet the 80-year
lifetime required of the structures.
The superior durability properties of steel fibres have motivated the

designer to build a 16.5 km long sewage tunnel in Abu Dhabi as
SFRC bored tunnel lining. The project is located in an environment
with extreme high concentrations of chlorides and sulfates in the
soil and groundwater. Corrosion of steel fibres can be safely
excluded for the entire cross section of SFRC lining, even if exposed
to the worst chloride concentration of 9%. Hence, the durability
design of the sewage tunnel is determined by the risk of sulfate
attack of the concrete itself and the corrosion risk of additional splitting rebar reinforcement. This carbon steel reinforcement might be
necessary along the longitudinal joints due to the combination of
high hoop forces in this deep tunnel and the ovalisation due to the
relatively soft surrounding rock. It should be noted that all internal
concrete surfaces are protected by an HDPE membrane to prevent
microbiologically induced corrosion due to the aerobic bacterial
activity (sulfuric acid).
In principle, two different design strategies (A & B) for concrete

structures can be followed:
-
Concrete Mix Technical Requirements

Description
Avoid the degradation threatening the structure due to the type

and aggressivity of the environment.
select an optimal specified period of use, the degradation
threatening the structure.
Requirement
Concrete Reference
C50/60
Intended Working Life
80 (years)
The use of steel-fibre reinforced concrete is another design option

following the 'Avoidance of Deterioration' approach.
Minimum Binder Content

(kg/m3 )
360
Hereunder the consultant's view on service life (ref 2)
Maximum Free Water/

Cement Ratio
0.40
"Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) is a concrete material modified,

typically by adding steel or synthetic fibre reinforcement. The fibre
reinforcement reduces the inherent brittleness of concrete and
results in an improved and potentially high performance material
suitable for civil infrastructure applications. FRC can be utilised
together with or without conventional reinforcing bars (rebars).
For many applications, FRC is a very suitable solution for structural
members. Besides advantages in terms of construction and cost,
FRC provides structural benefits and superior durability properties
compared to steel bar reinforced, conventional concrete (RC).
The capacity of the fibres to reduce crack width and deflection is
often more important than the increase in tensile strength of the concrete. Furthermore, the addition of fibres enables significant load
carrying capacities after cracking and allows for stress redistribution, which makes the other-wise quasi-brittle behaviour of the concrete more ductile and the whole structure more robust.
For bored tunnels, the use of steel-fibres instead of the conventional
steel bar reinforcement of the segments is already a common picture nowadays.
Several research investigations have shown that the durability of
steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) under chloride exposure is
superior to the one of steel bar reinforced concrete (RC). Among
others, it has been demonstrated that the chloride threshold of
fibres in SFRC is 5-10 times higher than the one of rebars in RC.
Under practical conditions, corrosion in SFRC is generally limited to
fibres protruding from the surface or to the surface layer that may be
affected by leaching or carbonation; rust stains on the surface may
occur, but chloride-induced corrosion within a SFRC member is
highly unlikely. Furthermore, even in the highly unlikely event of corrosion of internal fibres, spalling and cracking due to the formation
of voluminous corrosion products (a common durability issue for
RC) cannot take place for SFRC, because the individual crosssections of the fibres are limited.
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Maximum Nominal
Aggregate Size
20
Cement Type Note 2
TBA
Fibre reinforcement
40 kg/m3 Dramix
Steel Fibres
Picture 8: Concrete mix technical requirement
In conclusion, this means that corrosion of fibres is foremost an aesthetic problem, but it neither interferes with the durability nor with the
structural performance of an uncracked SFRC member".
Conclusion
The design of the SFRC segmental tunnel lining for the STEP T-02
and T-03 project in Abu Dhabi has required a special consideration
due to the material characteristics of the concrete with Dramix steel
fiber reinforcement (40kg/m3) and only traditional rebar at the radial
joints. About 170 000 m3 of concrete has been used for this project.
In order to deal with this severe environment, COWI's leading edge durability design solutions have been used to meet the 80-year lifetime
required of the structures.Dramix steel fibre was chosen as the relevant
solution to meet this challenging structural and design life requirement.
This successful project and positive return of experience sets the
standard for durability requirement.
References:
-
Meed Businees News April 2012

The Consultant's View on Service Life Design / Cowi / Carola
Edvardsen (1)
Model Code 2010 edited by fib
EN 14 651 "Test method for metallic fibered concrete: measuring
the flexural tensile strength (limit of proportionality LOP, residual)
Brite Euram Project final report task 5.1 Durability
Precast Buildings
Precast Concrete Structure: Design Aspects

And It's Implementation in India
Precast Concrete System and Design Aspects
A precast concrete structure is an assemblage of precast elements which, when suitably connected together,
form a 3D framework capable of resisting gravitation and lateral loads (wind and seismic).Precast concrete offers an
almost endless variety of products and design options for all
types of construction. It is individual, adaptable and affordable, and perfectly fit for all societies and for most demanding construction conditions. From single family house to
large public buildings, precast ensures faster construction
times, higher profitability and better quality.
Precast enables practical, beautiful and safe solutions.
Factory made elements ensure quality and productivity
remains high. Faster on-site constructions mean better control, lower costs and shorter tying up of financial capital.
Fewer workers on site and more secure material handling
solutions improve the working environment. Modern technologies allow more structural and surface design flexibility.
With locally available raw material, less need for cement and
steel, and more recycling possibilities, precasting leaves a
smaller CO2 footprint than in-situ construction.
for a project. Precast concrete also resists most substances.

While no material is completely immune to attack from
aggressive chemical agents, precast products can often be
designed to resist corrosion in specific applications.
Precast concrete products manufactured in a qualitycontrolled environment and used with high-quality sealants
offer a superior solution to watertightness requirements.
Standard watertight sealants are specially formulated to
adhere to precast concrete, making watertight multipleseam precast concrete structures possible.
Precast concrete products are both functional and decorative. They can be shaped and moulded into an endless array of
sizes and configurations. Precast concrete can also be produced in virtually any colour and a wide variety of finishes
(acid-etched, sandblasted, smooth-as-cast, exposed-aggregate) to achieve the desired appearance for building and site
applications. You are limited only by your imagination!
Implementation in India
The strength of precast concrete gradually increases

over time. Other materials can deteriorate, experience creep
and stress relaxation, lose strength and deflect over time.
The load-carrying capacity of precast concrete is derived
from its own structural qualities and does not rely on the
strength or quality of the surrounding backfill materials.
Precast's superior strength means that installation is often
easier, quicker and less costly. It also requires less ongoing
maintenance and a reduced likelihood of future problems.
That means a lower total cost over the life cycle of a project.
Studies have shown that precast concrete products can
provide a service life in excess of 100 years. For severe service conditions, additional design options are available
which can extend the life of the precast concrete product.
This is extremely important when calculating life-cycle costs
There are several reasons for why precast building technology is rapidly gaining a foothold in the Indian market. First
of all, socio-economic development means that the demand
for housing is increasing rapidly. The precast industry is currently concentrating on the Affordable homes concept. The
Indian government is planning to provide subsidies for builders to meet the shortage of 25 million affordable apartment
buildings. Precast is increasingly popular also for commercial projects.
Secondly, government regulations are changing in such
a way that they favor precast because of its advantages compared to other building techniques; it is affordable, fast, and
safe. The schedules are always tight in the construction business and precast makes it easier to stick to project timelines
and eliminate unexpected interruptions in work.
India's geographical position poses some challenges to
the construction industry. Seismic activity is the most worrying natural threat the building industry has to take into careful
consideration. The precast industry offers solutions that
have been widely tested in real conditions. Precast is a safer
and more durable option for building technology than some
of the traditional methods which are still widely used.
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Precast Buildings
Structural System in Precast

Engineering precast requires unique design considerations not required for most other building materials. The
designer needs to consider manufacturing, handling, transportation and erection of the product in addition to analysis
and design for in-place loads. It is not uncommon for these
items to be the controlling factors in the design. Building design
can be optimized by following general design principles:
-
The rainy season lasts for almost four months, creating

additional challenges for the building project management.
Precast parts can be manufactured in surroundings where
the effects of rain and other weather conditions can be eliminated.
Precast technology has been proven to be a good solution for work safety. Like many other countries, India is also
facing a shortage of skilled labour in the building industry.
Precast is less labour-intensive. An additional advantage of
precast is that during manufacturing and installation similar
work-routines are repeated. This helps workers to learn and
become more efficient, project after project.
Developers are now adopting precast concrete and engineering homes technology in their projects after encouraging results of these technologies in Europe and the Middle
East. The use of such technology helps in saving up to 64%
of the total man hours needed using conventional methods.
That is, if a building takes one year to raise using brick and
mortar method, it can be completed in four months with precast and engineering homes method. Precast concrete technology has proved its worth by saving a lot of construction
time. The best part of the technology is that it not only
speeds up construction work but also enhances the quality
of the final output. The use of this technology can bring down
the construction cost by 10-15 % and it could be the trigger
to India's affordable housing storey.
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Maximize repetitive and modular dimensions for plan layout and member dimensions.
Use simple spans wherever possible.
Standardize size and location of openings in products.
Minimize the number of different member types and
sizes.
Minimize the number of different types of connections.
Consider the size and weight of products to avoid premium cost associated with producing, shipping and
erecting oversize and overweight pieces.
Utilize prestressing in precast members when spans are
long, when the member depth must be minimized, or
when the greatest degree of crack control is desired.
Make use of exterior wall panels as loadbearing members and/or shear walls whenever possible.
The design of precast/pre-stressed structures involves

the integration of many considerations. Precast/prestressed
structural structures are the integration of the structural system as a whole, the connections and individual components.
Each aspect of design must consider the others as well as
the functional requirements imposed by the building use. In
addition to resisting gravity loads, a principal consideration
in building design is the lateral force resisting system.
Methods used to resist later forces include:
-
Cantilevered Columns or Wall Panels (Out of Plane):

This is usually only feasible in low-risebuildings. Base fixity can be attained through a moment couple between the
footing and groundfloor slab, or by fixing the wall or the
column to the footing.
Precast Buildings
Shear Walls: These can be precast concrete, cast-inplace concrete, or masonry. When architectural or structural precast members are used for the exterior cladding,
they can often be used as shear walls. Precast concrete
box elements have been used effectively in low-rise to
high-rise structures. The boxes are created as one complete unit, such as in a precast cell module, or can be created of individual precast walls connected together to
create a box unit. Such box units have a much larger
moment of inertia than individual walls and therefore can
be important members in a lateral force resisting system.
Steel or Concrete X-bracing: This system has been
used effectively in low and medium rise buildings. A
related resistance system usually occurs naturally in parking structures with sloped ramps in the direction of traffic
flow. The load path should be verified before the ramp of
a parking structure is assumed as the stiffening element.
Moment-Resisting Frames: Building function may dictate the use of moment resisting frames. It is sometimes
feasible to provide a moment connection at only one end
of a member, or a connection that will resist moments
with lateral forces in one direction but not in the other, in
order to reduce the buildup of volume change restraint
forces. To reduce the number of moment frames
required, a combined shear wall-moment frame system
may be used.
All of the above systems depend on distribution of lateral

loads through diaphragm action of the roof and floor systems.
The balance in system design is achieved not only by providing the strength, ductility and toughness to resist lateral
forces. It is also important to consider the effects of concrete
creep, shrinkage and temperature change. These effects
are collectively known as volume changes. Details that result
in over-restraint of volume changes can be as damaging as
any externally applied force. Most buildings will never experience the design event that is represented by the requirements for wind or earthquakes, but they will experience the
climatic temperature cycle every year.
In precast concrete structures, individual elements are
connected at their joints with a variety of methods. These
connections may include embedded steel shapes such as
plates and angles, with headed stud or reinforcing bar
anchorage; the steel embedments are field bolted or
welded. These applications are dry connections. A wet connection consists of reinforcing bars protruding from the precast members, with the bars mechanically coupled or spliced.
Cast-in-place concrete or grout at the joint completes this
connection. Either dry or wet connections are used in both
moment-resisting frame and shear wall systems.
Seismic resistance of precast structural system
In general, lateral force resisting systems built incorporating precast or precast/prestressed concrete elements are
either moment resisting frames or structural walls. Dual systems, in which these two systems are combined to provide
lateral force resistance in the same direction, are also possible. It is common practice, particularly in regions of low and
moderate seismicity, to combine moment resisting frames or
structural walls in parallel with precast gravity loading
frames.
Moment resisting frames are often chosen in design
because of their inherent space flexibility. Frames have
advantages over wall systems that energy dissipation takes
place in many regions and that they are highly redundant.
The main challenge when using moment resisting frames as
the lateral force resisting system is to size the beam and column elements to provide an effective control to earthquake
induced inter-storey lateral displacements. This control is
particularly important when the building incorporates parts
not specifically designed to undergo large inter-storey lateral
displacements.
Structural walls have long been recognised as a very efficient lateral force resisting system in low and high-rise buildings. The large lateral stiffness of structural walls and their
deformed shape when subject to lateral forces make them
highly desirable for controlling earthquake induced interstorey lateral displacement demands, and hence, minimizing non-structural damage, in building structures.
Structural walls are often used for construction of low-rise
commercial and industrial buildings to provide, in addition to
lateral force resistance, an aesthetically pleasant faade, a
fire barrier and a support for climatic insulation. Structural
walls have common use in parking structures where functional and gravity support requirements provide opportunities to integrate walls into the structural system. Structural
walls are the preferred choice in some parts of the world for
the construction of the building envelope in low-rise commercial and industrial buildings where security is a major
design consideration.
Moment Resisting Frame System

Beam, column and beam-column cruciform units can
easily be precast and connected in site by several means. In
the majority of cases, beam units are connected through
cast-in-place joints either at the beam-column joint region or
at the beam mid-span. Beam and column shell units are
employed when the crane capacity limits the use of other precast concrete alternatives. Precast concrete columns can be
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connected at the column ends or at mid-height through

grouted steel sleeves or non-contact bar splices into
grouted corrugated ducts.
Moment-resisting frames are arranged to provide lateral
force resistance in one- or two-ways. Moment-resisting
frames can be designed with mild steel and/or prestressing
to provide lateral force resistance by responding elastically,
thus, requiring only reinforcing details for nominal ductility.
It is usually agreed that the design level of lateral forces
should be related to the overall system lateral deformation
Limitations in crane capacity often require structural walls

to be partitioned. Walls are usually partitioned horizontally,
vertically or in both directions. The general aim when partitioning walls is to ensure that the horizontal connection
between the wall segments does not influence the overall
wall response by adding flexibility and/or by reducing the
capacity. That is, horizontal connections are deliberately
made strong with good details to ensure that relative movement between the wall panels is minimized. Vertical connections, on the other hand, can be designed to provide flexibility and to dissipate energy. In some cases vertical connections are deliberately made over-strong to ensure monolithic
behaviour.
About Dutt Design India Pvt. Ltd.
capacity and energy dissipation characteristics. Relatively

large lateral forces, of the same order of those required to
ensure linear-elastic response, are chosen for moment
resisting frames whose overall nonlinearlateral deformation
capacity is low. In contrast, lateral forces that are much
smaller than those required for linear-elastic response can
be used for the design of frames that possess large nonlinear lateral deformation capacity through a kinematically
admissible mechanism.
Wall FrameSystem
In practice, precast concrete walls have been used for
seismic load resistance by designing them to emulate castin-place shear walls. This is typically accomplished using
ductile vertical reinforcing coupled with splice sleeves or
other devices to create continuity across horizontal wall
joints because some codes prohibit the use of prestressing
across joints to resist seismic load.
THE MASTERBUILDER
102
PRECAST
concrete digest
V1 N1 July 2014
Dutt Design India Pvt. Ltd. (DDIPL) is knowledge base

organisation, operating from India. DDIPL provides complete technology support from concept design, precast concrete configuration and precast element requirements, precast plant requirement and commissioning of plant, training
of staff for plant operations and execution of buildings. We
provide complete engineering solutions for residential, commercial and industrial buildings, having team of experts in
precast concrete technology.
We have team of experts in precast concrete structure
design having more than decade experience in the field. We
have worked on various project in USA, Europe and Middle
East and having knowledge of international design and
codes. In India, we have implemented precast concrete technology for residential buildings (2 Basement + 10 storey),
process industry (15,000 sq.m.), hostel buildings (25,000
sq.m.) etc. Part of these precast structures are been constructed in NCR, seismic zone IV of India.
References:
-
PCI Design Handbook

Fib bulletin 27 Seismic design of precast concrete building structures
Precast concrete structures by Kim S Elliott
National precast concrete association (NPCA manuals)
ElematicManuals
Focus Precast Concrete
Curing Methods for Precast Concrete

Applications and Their Impact
Sonjoy Deb
B.Tech.Civil. N.I.T.Silchar, Research Scholar,
Indian Institute of Technology
s building development throughout the world

continues, the desire to construct cheaper
structures on sites that are more difficult to
build on, in shorter periods of time, all while providing
improved performance will always be desirable in order
to maximize both product economy and quality. As
such, the construction industry is constantly searching
for ways to improve their product. One means to this
end is, rather than relying on improving construction
implementation mechanisms such as scheduling,
installation techniques, and quality control, is focusing
on the industrys improved knowledge and development
of materials and
their behaviour. One result of such motivation by the

construction and engineering industry was the advent
of prestressed concrete. This product was developed
in order to take advantage of the desirable properties
of concrete and steel, chiefly compressive and tensile
strength, respectively, in order to achieve structural
solutions that were not previously possible. For many
projects, the best way to achieve this is through the use
of precast concrete elements. Precasting prestressed
concrete members eliminates many of the environmental
and logistical problems associated with cast-in-place
prestressed concrete, while taking advantage of the
efficiency of factory-like operations and maintaining
V1 N1 July 2014
103
very strict quality control in order to produce a superior

finished product. One of the most important characteristics
of concrete that enables the use of precast members to
be economically feasible is its ability, when under the right
conditions, to gain strength extremely rapidly.
Need for Precast Concrete
Precast concrete is advantageous for several reasons:
shrinkage and creep can be reduced, dead-load deflections
can be controlled, quality control is improved, material
availability can be improved and erection methods are
similar to that for steel and thus total construction time is
significantly reduced. One of the key properties of concrete
that makes precasting economically feasible is its ability,
under the proper conditions, to gain compressive strength
extremely rapidly. The focus of this paper is a description
of the various methods currently available for accelerating
the curing of concrete, particularly for precast concrete
applications.
Typical physical processes used to accelerate the curing

process are generally combinations of the following:
increase in curing temperature, introduction of moisture to
curing environment. Numerous methods exist, including
conductive/convective heating, electrical resistance
heating, and steam curing (low and high pressure).
The use of admixtures in order to accelerate the curing
process can be further subdivided into the use of mineral
and chemical admixtures. Calcium Chloride has proven
to be an extremely effective accelerator; however, due to
corrosion concerns, its use in concrete with embedded
metal is not recommended. The most common mineral
admixture used as an accelerator is microsilica, or silica
fume. While fly ash is frequently used in order to improve
other properties of concrete, it has a retarding effect on the
initial set and early strength gain of concrete, and should not
be used for accelerated curing purposes. Some chemical
admixtures, such as high-range water reducers (HRWR), or
superplasticizers, have been used as indirect accelerators,
primarily due to their ability to reduce the water demand for
a given mix.
Focus of This Paper
The focus of this paper is the analysis of the various
methods employed in the precast industry for the purpose
of accelerating the curing process of concrete, and their
effects on the short and long term compressive strength
of concrete. These various methods of accelerated curing
can be divided into three main categories: physical
processes, mineral admixtures, and chemical admixtures.
First, research and development of various accelerated
curing methods will be presented, followed by a brief
discussion of current methods predominantly employed
by commercial precast manufacturers.
Reported Research Works in This Area
Processes and Methods of Accelerated Curing

Two distinct methods for accelerating the curing process
exist:
- the use of physical processes, and
- the use of admixtures to act as catalysts for the
hydration process, resulting in the achievement of high
compressive strengths in relatively short periods of
time.
104
V1 N1 July 2014
The relationship between the rate of compressive strength

gain in concrete and curing temperature has been long
established. To an extent, an increased curing temperature
will result in an increased rate of strength gain. Beyond a
certain point, increases in temperature not only prove to
be less efficient, but can actually be detrimental to the
properties of the concrete. A typical maximum curing
temperature used in commercial precast plants is 160oF
(Corcoran, 2004). Various methods of increasing the
curing temperature of concrete have been employed
in order to achieve high early strength. These methods
include simple convection through the circulation of hot
water or oil through formwork, or even through pipes inside
the concrete members in the case of hollow elements,
electric resistance heating, and both low and high pressure
steam curing. One of the drawbacks to an increased
curing temperature is the increased rate of humidity loss
to the surrounding environment, which can result in severe

shrinkage and cracking. Another problem is the rapid
change of temperature within concrete members, resulting in
potentially large thermal stresses. In order to alleviate these
problems, any method of increasing the curing temperature
must also involve the provision of adequate humidity in order
to prevent excessive moisture loss, as well as careful cyclic
implementation of temperature increase and decrease,
in order to prevent the development of thermal stresses
(Heritage, 2000). Three main factors are to be considered
when using elevated temperatures in order to increase the
curing rate of concrete: rate of temperature rise, maximum
curing temperature, and heating time. Traditionally, it has
been thought that early strength gains are offset by lower
28-day strength. As such, specifications often restrict
maximum curing temperatures to between 140 and 160oF.
However, a study by Pfeifer and Landgren (1982) showed
that the use of a maximum curing temperature of 180oF
resulted in no significant decrease in 28-day strength when
compared to concrete cured at maximum temperatures
of 110 or 145oF. While this does not dispute the general
relation of increased early strength gain to decreased longterm strength, it may indicate that current restrictions on
maximum curing temperatures are too low. A more recent
study has reinforced the relation between increased early
strength and decreased long-term strength. This report
showed that increased curing temperatures resulting
from direct electrical curing techniques, increase the 1day compressive strength, but reduce 28-day strength,
(Heritage, 2000). Regardless of the actual technique used
to elevate concrete curing temperatures, and thus increase
the rate of strength gain, two precautionary steps to prevent
negative impacts of the process should be taken. First,
before any induced temperature increase is started, the
time to the commencement of the initial set is required to
allow the hardening phase to sufficiently resist thermally
induced stresses, (Heritage et. Al, 2000). This delayed
increase in temperature allows a minimum development
of strength necessary to prevent cracking resulting
from the formation of thermal stresses. In addition, the
supplementation of heat prior to the initial set has been
shown to be relatively ineffective in increasing the rate of
strength gain (Pfeifer and Landgren, 1982). At this point, the
rate of hydration is extremely slow, and is affected little by
increased temperature. An increased curing temperature
also results in an increased rate of humidity loss to the
environment. As such, all efforts must be made to stop
the evaporation of water from the surface of the sample by
the use of a suitable covering, (Heritage et. Al, 2000). If the
effect of humidity lost to the environment is not controlled
during the accelerated curing process, the impact on longterm compressive strength can be detrimental (Mehta and
Monteiro, 2001).
Conduction/Convection Used for Accelerated Curing

One of the most fundamental methods for rapidly
increasing the curing temperature of concrete is through the
employment of simple conduction/convection techniques.
The temperature of the forms may be increased either
electrically or by pumping hot oil or hot water through them
(Gerwick, 1993). The direct contact between the concrete
and the forms with an elevated temperature results in
conductive heat transfer. By utilizing convection as well,
in the form of flowing hot oil or water, the rate of thermal
energy transfer is increased, thereby increasing the rate of
curing temperature increase. As with all accelerated curing
methods involving elevated temperatures, precautions
should be taken to provide sufficient humidity to prevent
drying of the concrete, and proper insulation of the
formwork will result in a more energy efficient increase in
curing temperature.
Types of Accelerated Curing Used for Precast Concrete
Members
A. Electrical Resistance Curing
Two primary types of accelerated curing processes
involving elevated temperatures resulting from the
dissipation of heat through electrical resistance have
been attempted. One type of process involves the use
of additional elements, such as special coils of wire, or
even the reinforcement itself, as a means to generate heat
through electric resistance (Heritage, 2000). By imposing
an electrical current through reinforcing steel, or through
additional wires, heat is generated inside the concrete as
a result of the provided electrical resistance, resulting in
an increased curing temperature. When steel forms are
used, this method may also be used by applying electrical
currents directly to the formwork, or by attaching electrical
resistance elements to the forms.
More recently, an additional method of electrical resistance
curing has been employed. Direct electrical curing, is
based on the fact that fresh concrete has an electrical
resistivity of approximately 100 ohms-meter and, as such,
can be heated ohmically when an alternating electric
current is passed through it, (Heritage, 2000). With direct
electrical curing, the electrical resistance of concrete itself
is taken advantage of and additional wires for the purpose
of electric resistance curing are unnecessary. In addition,
a more even distribution of heat generation occurs when
compared to the use of either reinforcement or additional
wires as resistors.
B. Low-Pressure Steam Curing
Steam curing is a process in which elevated curing
V1 N1 July 2014
105
temperatures and the addition of moisture during the

curing process are both used in order to accelerate the
rate of strength gain. These methods can be applied
simultaneously, with an increase in temperature as a direct
result of steam injection, or individually, in which case an
initial temperature elevation is achieved through some
alternate means and is followed by an increase in humidity
through steam injection. Low-pressure steam curing is
frequently used in very dry climates and in applications
when the controlling the loss of moisture is imperative
(Gerwick, 1993). The basic method of steam curing at
atmospheric pressure, for the most part, follows the same
stages present in any accelerated curing process involving
elevated curing temperatures. First, an initial delay period,
usually of three to four hours, is necessary for the concrete
to attain its initial set. Next, a heating period, with a
temperature rise of 40 to 60oF per hour, is employed in order
to reach a maximum curing temperature, generally between
140 and 160oF. This is followed by a steaming period,
typically lasting six hours while maintaining the maximum
curing temperature. Next, a cooling period is employed,
during which time it is sometimes necessary release the
boundary constraints of the forms, prestressing tendons,
etc., in order to prevent damage from the development of
thermal stresses. In general, the concrete elements are
still covered with the steam hoods, or with tarps, during
this process. Finally, a stage unique to steam curing, an
exposure period, is necessary. At this time, the steam
hoods or tarps are removed, and the concrete surface is
exposed to the natural environmental conditions (Gerwick,
1993). The combined use of high curing temperatures and
moist curing conditions results in the attainment of very
high early strength.
curing, also known as autoclaving, has been successfully

employed in the production of prestressed precast
concrete elements in Japan and Germany (Gerwick, 1993).
During this process, the increase of curing temperature
and humidity are combined with an increase in pressure;
as such, elements in this manner must be cured in some
type of enclosed vessel. This restriction limits the use
of the technique to relatively small elements for typical
applications. One of the benefits of this technique is
that extremely low water-cement ratios can be utilized
in the initial mix design. In the case of concrete blocks,
the elements are produced through extrusion machines,
without the use of formwork, using no-slump concrete. By
utilizing high-pressure steam curing, sufficient moisture
necessary to complete the hydration process is introduced
to the concrete elements (Polisner and Snell, 1985).
Figure 1 (French et al., 1998)
Mineral Admixtures for Accelerating Curing

A. Microsilica
Microsilica, or silica fume, is an extremely reactive,
pozzolanic material. In one study it was used as a cement
replacement for the primary purpose of increasing overall
concrete compressive strength (French et. Al, 1998). Not
only did the results show an increase in long term strength,
but they indicated an increase in concrete strength at all
ages. Figure 1 demonstrates the relationship between
compressive strength and time for the concrete with the
addiction of microsilica compared to concrete without
microsilica.
B. Fly Ash
Pressure vessels used for High-pressure steam curing
C. High-Pressure Steam Curing (Autoclaving)

Although generally reserved for the production of concrete
masonry units in the United States, high-pressure steam
106
V1 N1 July 2014
Like microsilica, fly ash can be used as a cement replacement

material. Fly ash is one of the byproducts formed by
modern power plants; it is a coal-combustion byproduct,
and is collected by electrostatic precipitators used to filter
combustion gases. Unlike mircrosilica, however, fly ash
does not result in improved early strength of concrete. In
fact, the results of the same study mentioned previously in
which microsilica was shown to increase concrete strength
show that the replacement of cement by fly ash resulted in
decreased early strengths (French et al., 1998).
1978). When compared with standard concrete mixes,

the inclusion of HRWR admixtures has showed a marked
increase in early strength gain when exposed to a variety
of curing temperatures.
Conclusion
Fly ash particles (which look like bubbles) bind with other components in
concrete to create a stronger, more durable concrete
Chemical Admixtures for Accelerating Curing

A. Calcium Chloride
The use of 1% of calcium chloride relative to the weight of
cement in a mix has resulted in an increase of strength after
24 hours of 300% (Levitt, 1982). But inclusion of calcium
chloride in reinforced and prestressed concrete can be
extremely detrimental, as the chloride can contribute
greatly to corrosion of the reinforcing steel.
Void system produced by early types of high range water reducers
B. High-Range Water Reducers (Super Plasticizers)

Although not technically characterized as accelerators,
high-range water reducing (HRWR) admixtures contribute
to, large increases in early concrete strengths under
both normal and accelerated curing conditions, (Hester,
The implementation of elevated curing temperatures

is a relatively straight forward process, and can be
achieved without the need for a great deal of research
and development. As a result, this is the primary method
currently employed by commercial precast manufacturers.
With recent advances in material technology, a number
of admixtures (mineral and chemical) can be used, both
directly and indirectly, as accelerating agents. However,
compared with increased curing temperatures, the use
of admixtures as accelerators can introduce numerous
potential problems and difficulties. Until some significant
incentive or motivation is provided, such as significant
increases in energy costs and decreases in admixture
costs, currently employed curing methods involving
elevated curing temperatures will likely continue to prevail.
Reference
-
Corcoran, James, (2004). Concrete Technology Corporation,

1123 Port of Tacoma Road, Tacoma, WA 98421. Telephone
interview on 3/15/04.
French, Catherine, Alireza Mokhtarzadeh, Tess Ahlborn,

Roberto Leon, (1998). High-Strength Concrete Applications
to Prestressed Bridge Girders, Construction and Building
Materials, Vol. 12, Elsevier Science Ltd., Great Britain, pp.
105-113.
Gerwick, Ben C. Jr., (1993). Construction of Prestressed

Concrete Structures, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY, pp. 19-23, 91-94.
Heritage, Ian, Fouad M. Khalaf, and John G. Wilson, (2000).

Thermal Acceleration of Portland Cement Concretes Using
Direct Electronic Curing, ACI Materials Journal, JanuaryFebruary, 2000, pp. 37-40.
Hester, Weston T., (1978). High-Range Water-Reducing

Admixtures in Precast Concrete Operations, PCI Journal,
July-August, 1978, pp. 68-85.
Levitt, M., (1982). Precast Concrete, Materials, Manufacture,

Properties and Usage, Applied Science Publishers, INC.,
Englewood, NJ, pp. 33-38, 53-73.
Mehta, P. Kumar and Paulo J.M. Monteiro, (2001). Concrete,

Microstructure, Properties and Materials.
Pfeifer, Donald W., (1982). Development of the Concrete

Technology for a Precast Prestressed Concrete Segmental
Bridge, PCI Journal, September-October 1982, pp. 78-99.
Pfeifer, Donald W., and Robert Landren, (1982). EnergyEfficient Accelerated Curing of Concrete for Plant-Produced
Prestressed Concrete, PCI Journal, March-April, 1982, pp.
94-107.
www.fhwa.dot.gov, www.4.uwm.edu, www.reflect.ifl.ac.uk
V1 N1 July 2014
107
Precast Concrete for

Building Systems
Sonjoy Deb
B.Tech.Civil. N.I.T.Silchar, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology
he concept of precast (also known as prefabricated)

construction includes those buildings where the
majority of structural components are standardized
and produced in plants in a location away from the building,
and then transported to the site for assembly. These
components are manufactured by industrial methods
based on mass production in order to build a large number
of buildings in a short time at low cost. The main features of
this construction process are as follows:
- The division and specialization of the human workforce

- The use of tools, machinery, and other equipment,
usually automated, in the production of standard,
interchangeable parts and products
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V1 N1 July 2014
This type of construction requires a restructuring of the entire

conventional construction process to enable interaction
between the design phase and production planning in order
to improve and speed up the construction. One of the key
premises for achieving that objective is to design buildings
with a regular configuration in plan and elevation.
Urban residential buildings of this type are usually five to
ten stories high (see Figure 1). Many countries used various
precast building systems during the second half of the 20th
century to provide low-income housing for the growing
urban population. They were very popular after the Second
World War, especially in Eastern European countries and
former Soviet Union republics. In the former Soviet Union,
different precast buildings systems are denoted as Seria,

whereas in Romania they are called Sectiunea.
Depending on the wall layout, there are three basic

configurations of large-panel buildings
In general, precast building systems are more economical

when compared to conventional multifamily residential
construction (apartment buildings) in many countries. The
reader is referred to the UNIDO report for detailed coverage
on precast systems and their earthquake resistance.
- Cross-wall system. The main walls that resist gravity

and lateral loads are placed in the short direction of the
building.
- Longitudinal-wall system. The walls resisting gravity and
lateral loads are placed in the longitudinal direction;
usually, there is only one longitudinal wall, except for
the system with two longitudinal walls developed in
Kazakhstan (WHE Report 32).
- Two-way system. The walls are placed in both directions
(Romania, WHE Report 83).
Figure 1: A typical precast slab-column building (WHE Report 68, Serbia and
Montenegro)
Thickness of wall panels ranges from 120 mm for interior

walls (Kyrgyzstan, WHE report 38) to 300 mm for exterior
walls (Kazakhstan, WHE Report 32). Floor panel thickness
is 60 mm (Kyrgyzstan). Wall panel length is equal to the
room length, typically on the order of 2.7 m to 3.6 m. In
some cases, there are no exterior wall panels and the
faade walls are made of lightweight concrete (Romania,
WHE Report 83). A typical interior wall panel is shown in
Figure 3.
Categories of Precast Building Systems

Precast buildings constitute a significant fraction of the
building stock in the republics of the former Soviet Union
and Eastern European countries. These systems have
been described in the following eight WHE reports: 32
(Kazakhstan); 33, 38, and 39 (Kyrgyzstan); 55 (Russian
Federation); 66 (Uzbekistan); 68 (Serbia and Montenegro);
and 83 (Romania). Depending on the load-bearing
structure, precast systems described in the WHE can be
divided into the following categories:
-
-
-
-
Large-panel systems
Frame systems
Slab-column systems with walls
Mixed systems
Large-Panel Systems
The designation large-panel system refers to multistory
structures composed of large wall and floor concrete
panels connected in the vertical and horizontal directions
so that the wall panels enclose appropriate spaces for
the rooms within a building. These panels form a box-like
structure (see Figure 2a, 2b). Both vertical and horizontal
panels resist gravity load. Wall panels are usually one
story high. Horizontal floor and roof panels span either as
one-way or two-way slabs. When properly joined together,
these horizontal elements act as diaphragms that transfer
the lateral loads to the walls.
Figure 2a: A large-panel concrete building under construction (WHE Report 55,
Russian Federation)
Lateral stability of a large-panel building system typical for

Romania is provided by the columns tied to the wall panels
(WHE Report 83). Boundary elements (called bulbs in
Romania) are used instead of the columns as stiffening
elements at the exterior. The unity of wall panels is
V1 N1 July 2014
109
joints accomplished in this way are hinged. However, rigid

beam-column connections are used in some cases, when
the continuity of longitudinal reinforcement through the
beam-column joint needs to be ensured. The components
of a precast reinforced concrete frame are shown in
Figure 5.
Figure 2b: Cross Wall construction
Figure 4: Plan of a large-panel building showing vertical connection details

(WHE Report 32, Kazakhstan)
Figure 3: Precast interior wall panel with steel dowels and grooves
(WHE Report 38, Kyrgyzstan)
achieved by means of splice bars welded to the transverse

reinforcement of adjacent panels in the vertical joints.
Longitudinal dowel bars placed in vertical and horizontal
joints provide an increase in bearing area for the transfer of
tension across the connections. Wall-to-floor connection is
similar to that shown in Figure 4.
Frame Systems
Precast frames can be constructed using either linear
elements or spatial beam-column subassemblages. Precast
beam-column subassemblages have the advantage that
the connecting faces between the subassemblages can
be placed away from the critical frame regions; however,
linear elements are generally preferred because of the
difficulties associated with forming, handling, and erecting
spatial elements. The use of linear elements generally
means placing the connecting faces at the beam-column
junctions. The beams can be seated on corbels at the
columns, for ease of construction and to aid the shear
transfer from the beam to the column. The beam-column
110
V1 N1 July 2014
Figure 5: Components of a precast reinforced concrete frame system of Seria

IIS-04 (WHE Report 66, Uzbekistan)
Slab-Column Systems with Shear Walls

These systems rely on shear walls to sustain lateral load
effects, whereas the slab-column
structure resists mainly gravity loads. There are two main
systems in this category:
- Lift-slab system with walls

- Prestressed slab-column system
Lift-slab systems were introduced in the last decade
of the Soviet Union (period 1980-1989) in some of the
Soviet Republics, including Kyrgyzstan, Tadjikistan, and
theCaucasian region of Russia, etc. This type of precast
construction is known as Seria KUB.
The load-bearing structure consists of precast reinforced
concrete columns and slabs, as shown in Figure 6.
Precast columns are usually two stories high. All precast
structural elements are assembled by means of special
joints. Reinforced concrete slabs are poured on the ground
in forms, one on top of the other, as shown in Figure 7.
Precast concrete floor slabs are lifted from the ground up
to the final height by lifting cranes. The slab panels are lifted
to the top of the column and then moved downwards to
the final position. Temporary supports are used to keep the
slabs in the position until the connection with the columns
has been achieved.
Figure 6: A lift-slab building of Seria KUB under construction (WHE Report

39, Kyrgyzstan)
Earthquake Performance
There is a general concern among the earthquake
engineering community regarding the seismic performance
of precast construction. Based on experience in past
earthquakes in Eastern European and in Central Asian
countries where these systems have been widely used,

it can be concluded that their seismic performance
has been fairly satisfactory. However, when it comes to
earthquake performance, the fact is that bad news is
more widely publicized than good news. For example,
the poor performance of precast frame systems of Seria
111 in the 1988 Spitak (Armenia) (M7.5) earthquake is well
known (see Figure 8). However, few engineers are aware
of the good seismic performance (no damage) of several
large-panel buildings under construction at the same
site, remained undamaged in the 1988 Spitak (Armenia)
earthquake (far back), whereas the precast frame buildings
suffered extensive damage (foreground)3 (WHE Report 32,
Kazakhstan); these large-panel buildings were of a similar
seria as the large-panel buildings described in the WHE
Report 55 from the Russian Federation (Seria 464). The
buildings of Seria 111 were similar to the precast concrete
frame system of Seria IIS, described in the WHE report 66
(Uzbekistan). The precast prestressed slab-column system
(IMS Building System) described in WHE Report 68 (Serbia
and Montenegro) has undergone extensive laboratory
testing that predicted excellent resistance under simulated
seismic loading. These building have been subjected
to several moderate earthquakes without experiencing
significant damage.
Figure 7: Plan of a typical lift-slab building (WHE Report 39, Seria KUB,
Kyrgyzstan)
Due to their large wall density and box-like structure, largepanel buildings are very stiff and are characterized with a
rather small fundamental period. For example, a 9-story
building in Kazakhstan has a fundamental period of 0.35 to
0.4 sec (WHE Report 32). In general, large-panel buildings
performed very well in the past earthquakes in the former
V1 N1 July 2014
111
Soviet Union, including the 1988 Armenia earthquake

and the1976 Gazly earthquakes (Uzbekistan). It should
be noted, however, that large-panel buildings in the area
affected by the 1976 Gazly earthquakes were not designed
with seismic provisions. Most such buildings performed
well in the first earthquake (M 7.0), but more damage was
observed in the second earthquake that occurred the
same year (M 7.3), as some buildings had been already
weakened by the first earthquake (Russian Federation,
WHE Report 55). Large-panel buildings performed well
in the 1977 Vrancea (Romania) earthquake (M 7.2) and
in subsequent earthquakes in 1986 and 1990 (Romania,
WHE Report 83).
Figure 9: Seismic strengthening of precast columns with steel straps

(WHE Report 66, Uzbekistan)
Benefits of Using
Construction
Precast
elements
in
Building
(A) Hotels
Precast Structures uses a system of precast elements
which link together to form a cross-wall format.
Figure 8: Building collapse in the 1988 Spitak (Armenia) earthquake

(WHE Report 66, Uzbekistan)
Seismic-Strengthening Technologies
According to WHE reports, no major efforts have been
reported regarding seismic strengthening of precast
concrete buildings. However, seismic strengthening of
precast frame buildings was done in Uzbekistan (WHE
Report 66). The techniques used include the installation
of steel straps at the column locations (see Figure 9) and
reinforcing the joints with steel plates to provide additional
lateral confinement of the columns.
112
V1 N1 July 2014
Panels can be formed in solid or twin wall styles to suit the

design requirements of the structure. Whichever solution
is selected the selections are produced in high quality
finish which is suitable for direct decoration, with minimal
preparatory work, obviating the need for plaster finishes,
leading to cost and programme savings.
The philosophy of PCS is to produce a design which will
provide the most cost effective solution, utilising the most
appropriate materials for the project. This can include such
items as hot rolled steel sections and cold rolled steel infill
panels as appropriate.
Benefits of Using Precast Concrete Structures Include
- High quality concrete designed for direct decoration or
exposure.
- Architectural and structural quality components.
- Large volume supply capacity.

- Dedicated experience project management.
- In house Erection by trained and qualified erection
personnel.
- Solid room size slabs
- Prefinished for direct ceiling decoration.
- Suitable for direct carpet application.
- Reduced structural zones free from downstands.
- Erection of stair and lift cores as erection progresses
allowing safe access for subsequent trades.
- Pre-fitted windows option.
on the most economical means of manufacturing the

components and sequencing the erection to the maximum
benefit of the client. These benefits include:
- Fast-build programme within term-time constraints.
- Direct decoration to walls and ceilings, with only minor
pre-decoration treatment.
- Pre-installation of windows.
- Early dry-box working for subsequent trades.
- A variety of elevational treatments using non-loadbearing cladding systems (loads are transferred via
the cross-walls and do not rely upon external walls for
support).
- Reduced structural zone without downstands.
Figure 10: Use of precast concrete in hotel construction
Precast Concrete Structures Ltd specialise in the fast

efficient delivery of the building structure, where minimal
wet trades and high quality finish are essential to follow on
trades. PCS strive to be market leaders in quality of finished
product and offer an innovative and non-contractual
approach to building structures. Some typical hotels made
of precast concrete shown in Figure 10.
(B) Student Accommodation
Cross-Wall Construction
The use of cross-wall construction in student accommodation
(See Figure 11) gives significant benefits for short-term
build projects where a deadline for opening is critical.
Precast concrete construction offers extremely durable

accommodation, capable of sustaining even the toughest
conditions of student living.
By the use of direct finishing techniques to the walls and
ceiling, together with solid room-sized slabs, and the preinstallation of bathroom pods, cross-wall construction
offers speed of construction together with economy.
Key requirements for economical construction in student
accommodation include:
- Repetition of room layout.
- Consistency of vertical alignment to division walls.
- Repetition of elevational treament.
By adhering to these basic principles, Precast Concrete
Structures Ltd will provide advice and innovative solutions
Figure 11: Use of precast concrete in hostel construction
(C) Apartments
Apartment construction has become increasingly popular
as a modular build (Refer Figure 12) alternative to traditional
steel and insitu concrete frame methods. The system
adopted uses cross-wall construction in a similar method
to the hotel construction system, but differs in that the
variability of room layouts and external elevations require
differing techniques and innovative thinking to produce
fast-build economical solutions.
The options for apartments are both extensive and flexible
providing key criteria in design are met. Precast Structures
Ltd has broad experience in developing solutions for
alternative construction, particularly suited to the Design &
Build market.
Benefits include
- Direct decorative finish to walls with only minor predecoration treatment, negating the requirements for
wet plaster.
- Optional methods of floor construction, allowing
flexibility for individual client requirements, including:
V1 N1 July 2014
113
- Traditional hollow-core.
- Wide slab composite flooring.
- Pre-finished solid slabs.
Buildings are considered on an individual basis and

assessed for integration of structural components to
reduce programme and to ultimately drive down costs.
- Direct soffit finishing in replacement of suspended

ceilings, significantly reducing construction build costs
- Reduced structural zone without downstands.
- Construction of common stairs and lift cores as the
erection progresses, permitting early access for
subsequent trades.
- Pre-fitted windows.
- External pre-finished cladding panels, grey concrete
inner leaf only, or curtain-walling / metal stud permitting
total flexibility in elevational treatment.
Figure 13: Precast concrete in making special architectural look
PP5 shown to the right is a flagship example of the benefits

of incorporating Architectural Cladding into the structure.
Originally concepted as an insitu frame, with independent
cladding, the revised PCS proposal produced cost saving
and significant overall programme reduction.
Progressive Collapse
Concrete building structures whether, insitu or precast, are
required to perform in the event of accidental damage or
explosion by meeting the design criteria set out in BS8110
for progressive collapse.
Within the building structure, ties are incorporated to
resist calculated forces determined by a variety of factors,
including:
Figure 12: Use of Precast concrete technology in apartment construction
Apartment construction is usually designed with traditional

building solutions which are subsequently modified during
the design process to obtain a competitive edge in Design
& Build solutions. The benefits of early consultation with
Precast Structures will result in significant savings in both
cost and time, resulting from economical manufacture
solutions and reduced erection periods.
(D)Architectural Concrete
Precast Concrete Structures has extensive use in
manufacture and erection of architectural and structural
building components (Refer Figure 13).
Sections are bespoke and can be manufactured within the
programme for our standard materials with a wide range of
finishes and colours including:
- Brick.
- Wet cast reconstituted stone cladding and dressings.
- Composite Architectural / Structural insulated
columns.
- Exposed structural elements.
114
V1 N1 July 2014
- number of stories
- centres of walls / size of spans
- total loads carried
These are achieved by the use of the following ties
incorporated into the precast cross-wall design:
-
-
-
-
vertical ties
horizontal ties
peripheral ties
internal ties
Joints between panels are tied together using preshuttered insitu-fill to create a robust joint with minimal
finishing required. The joints use wire ties designed to meet
the specific tie-force criteria, but also to allow flexibility in
assembly tolerances during erection.
Peripheral and internal ties use high strength steel strand
within the nominal insitu joints at cross-wall locations and
around the perimeter of the building to create a continuous
tie arrangement.
Building design is analysed for structural stability by Precast
Structures consultants who have extensive knowledge in
the design stability of cross-wall building structures.
Examples of Projects with Precast Concrete Technology

- MOD Barrack Blocks
As part of the MODs wider Project MoDEL works at RAF
Northolt, Precast Concrete Structures Ltd have successfully
completed the erection of 2 x junior ranks, barrack blocks
for Norwest Holst Ltd. The project, completed to programme
and budget, provides single living accommodation for
some 182 airmen and airwomen at this prestigious West
London unit.
- Federation Headquarters in Precast
The Police Federation of England and Wales which
represents 140,000 police officers, Sergeants, Inspectors
and Chief Inspectors commissioned a new Headquarters
building in Leatherhead, Surrey.
- Carvers Warehouse
The listed Carvers Warehouse is the oldest surviving and
only stone built warehouse remaining in Manchester City
centre having been completed in 1804 and in recent times
had been the home of a bathroom showroom.
- Project Hal, Broxbourne
News International, publishers of The Times, The Sunday
Times, The Sun and News of the World, undertook a
redevelopment of its printing facilities on 3 sites, Broxbourne,
Liverpool and Glasgow. The largest of these sites was a
new 27,250 square metre development at Broxbourne near
the M25.
- 1400 Student Rooms, Brunel University
With growing student numbers Brunel University in Uxbridge
decided to expand its en-suite student accommodation on
its West London Central campus by 1,400 units.
- 290 Apartments, Budenberg
Pioneering developer Urban Splash teamed up with one of
the UKs leading Architects, Foster and Partners to develop
an environmentally sustainable, residential scheme on the
banks of Bridgewater Canal in Altrincham, incorporating a
number of innovative features.
- The Hub, 5 Piccadilly Place
The Hub is a 10 storey U shaped development, wrapped
around a hard landscaped plaza, of 167 new apartments
in the heart of a Manchester mixed use development area,
by Argent Group in Manchester City centre.
- Ramada Encore Hotel
116
The new 8m Ramada Encore Warrington, located on

Birchwood Business Park, is a new hotel with a simple
concept of being fresh, stylish vibrant and upbeat whilst
offering comfortable contemporary accommodation.
This hotel located near Warrington town centre provides
103 ensuite bedrooms, and 2 meeting rooms over 4
stories, with all public areas and bedrooms being fully airconditioned.
Conclusion
By producing precast concrete in a controlled environment
(typically referred to as a precast plant), the precast
concrete is afforded the opportunity to properly cure
and be closely monitored by plant employees. Utilizing a
Precast Concrete system offers many potential advantages
over site casting of concrete. The production process for
Precast Concrete is performed on ground level, which
helps with safety throughout a project. There is a greater
control of the quality of materials and workmanship in a
precast plant rather than on a construction site. Financially,
the forms used in a precast plant may be reused hundreds
to thousands of times before they have to be replaced,
which allows cost of formwork per unit to be lower than
for site-cast production. The use of precast concrete in
Indian construction industry will definitely enhance the
efficiency of the contractor interms of quality, safety and
time of project completion. In developing country like India,
adoption of this technology for building construction will
boost the Governments development plans, as this gives
really faster way of construction and also quality of work
far more better than onsite casting concrete which is really
value for money.
Reference
[1] Definition of Mass Production in Industrial Engineering and
Production Management Britannica Macropaedia, The New
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th Edition, Vol. 21, p. 204, 1989.
[2] UNIDO, 1983. Design and Construction of Prefabricated
Reinforced Concrete Frame and Shear-Wall Buildings.
Building Construction Under Seismic Conditions in the Balkan
Region. Volume 2. UNDP/UNIDO Project RER/79/015, Vienna,
Austria.
[3] EERI (1989). Armenia Earthquake Reconnaissance Report.
Special Supplement to Earthquake Spectra, El Cerrito,
California.
[4] http://www.precaststructures.com
[5] Precast Concrete Construction, Svetlana Brzev, British
Columbia Institute of Technology, Canada, Teresa GuevaraPerez, Architect, Venezuela
Photo Courtesy
www.constructionpictures.info
V1 N1 July 2014
An Overview of Construction of
Buildings in Precast Concrete
Mangesh Kumar Hardas
Director, Precision Precast Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
India is developing at a very rapid rate with a result that demand is far more than the current pace of construction. With growing
standards of living and the presence of multinationals in India, the expectations on quality have also increased. This has led
to adaption of innovative methodologies in construction which reduce the requirement of manpower and material and increase
efficiencies, quality and pace of construction. Precast concrete construction fulfills most of the requirements. And therefore, though
not new to India, precast concrete construction is only now gaining acceptance in an unprecedented manner. The principles for
structural design for precast concrete mostly remain the same as that for conventional in situ construction. However there are a few
nuances arising due to the fact that concrete is cast away from the location where the element is supposed to be for its service life.
Beautiful shapes and architectural finishes can be achieved which otherwise are very difficult or even impossible to achieve in a
conventional in situ construction.
ike the game of Lego, Precast concrete buildings

are structures made up of numerous small individual
elements of concrete cast at an off-site location. These
precast elements such as beams, columns, slabs and walls
are transported to the site for assemblage and erection.
Wind and earthquake loads are resisted by moment
carrying connections of beams to columns for moment
frame resistance, and coupling of wall elements together for
composite shear wall resistance. Thus, generally in precast
concrete buildings, the individual element on its own plays
no role in gravity and lateral resistance. It is the assembly of
all these elements by proper connections which gives the
building its stability against vertical and lateral resistance.
Precast concrete usually is either ordinary reinforced
concrete or prestressed reinforced concrete. Prestressing
gives advantages of reduced cross-sections and steel
requirements (reduced weights). However, prestressing
needs additional equipments, abutments etc.
Precast Concrete is either a factory-cast (off-site) precast
or site-cast (on-site) depending on the volume of work and
logistics. Factory cast is typically more popular. Factory
cast precast gives more control to the producer and the
designer with better options for prestressing, architectural
finishes and grade of concrete. A better quality can be
obtained as workers and supervisors are well trained and

experienced. Work does not hamper due to bad weather.
Site-cast precast is adopted when the project volume is so
large that setting up a plant at site is economical. It is also
adopted when the transport of precast products becomes
very expensive or difficult due to large distances and
adverse road conditions. Setting up of long line prestressed
beds is difficult on site and may not be economical, hence
most of the site-cast precast is non-prestressed.
Wet concrete is poured in forms (moulds) and stripped out
when it attains certain minimum strength. It is stored in a
storage area and later transported to the site for erection.
Forms are basically either stationary steel plate forms or
Tilting tables or battery moulds or moving carrousel systems
with production pallets. Selection of a system depends
upon the volume of production of a particular element and
flexibility desired in production. There are various patented
systems for forms systems available in India.
When compared to conventional construction, precast
formwork can be vibrated in place using vibrating tables
thereby giving excellent quality. In case of precast formwork
it is very important to maintain shapes and dimensional
accuracies (tolerances) or else the product may not fit at
V1 N1 July 2014
117
its place at the time of erection. Steam curing and heating

of the bed is possible in precast formwork which increases
the rate of strength gain of concrete.
transporting of maximum number of elements in a single

trip. The sizes of elements considered while planning
should not overlook this aspect.
Precast formwork presents unlimited possibilities of

architectural finishes such as brick, stone, ribbed finish
sand blasted or acid itched exposed aggregates.
Erection is done with the help of cranes. These cranes

are huge with capacities depending upon the weight
of precast element to be erected at the farthest distance
from the crane. There are various cranes namely crawler
or mobile cranes, tower cranes and tower cranes on the
rails. Erection sequence is a specialized job and one has to
take care of stresses generated during erection. Temporary
shoring may be needed to handle such stresses.
Cost of precast concrete structures comes down with

repetitions. Sound Architectural and Structural Planning
is a must. With precast just starting up in India, a regular
precast concrete building may seem to be expensive at
the estimation stage when compared to conventional one.
However when completed, the cost of structure in Precast
would come out to be lesser as the construction period
is significantly less, thus substantially reducing the effect
of spiraling costs of building materials. Time saved would
bring in additional benefits.
Procedure of Precast Concrete Construction
Construction procedure of precast concrete buildings
starts with architectural planning. Architect should be fully
aware that the building would be made using precast
components. Converting an existing plan designed for
conventional reinforced concrete into precast would
result in expensive and difficult propositions. There are
some inherent advantages of precast concrete and some
drawbacks which must be considered at the planning stage
only. The architect should be aware of precast options
available to him. Early involvement of precast specialty
structural engineer and precast manufacturers is always
advantageous. 3D models made using software result in
accurate and speedy construction.
Selection of a particular element in the building depends
on the availability of the technology with the local precast
manufacturer or in case setting up of the plant by the
contractor the economics of the formwork and cost of
setting up of plant. For example whether to use Hollowcore
or half slab or solid slab for slabs will depend on the spans
intended, loads, volume of work, speed of work desired
and availability of any nearby manufacturer. A 2.4m wide
hollowcore slab spanning say 10m or more will be very fast
to erect, thus reducing the erection time and maybe costs.
However if there are a lot of non-structural partition walls,
the cost of these should be also considered. There are
many light weight low cost options available now.
Once the production is done, the elements are usually
stacked in a yard preferably close to the construction site.
In project planning phase, the availability and cost hiring
of such land for limited period should be considered.
The maximum weight and size is governed by local
transportation limitations. It makes sense to consider
118
V1 N1 July 2014
Type of Elements and Production Methods

Precast buildings are made up of structural and nonstructural elements, which may be prestressed or non
prestressed based on the use.
Prestressed systems are usually long line systems wherein
large numbers of elements are produced in a single bed.
Typical elements produced in such a system are Hollowcore
planks, Double Tee floor elements, Spandrels and Inverted
Tee girders. A prestressed bed needs stressing abutments
at the ends and a long form in-between. Generally, the
forms for prestressing elements are either self stressing
forms which take the hydrostatic forces of concrete
and compressive forces from prestressing, or non-selfstressing or free forms which take only hydrostatic forces
leaving the compressive forces coming from prestressing
to the abutments. End abutments for stressing is a good
solution but sometimes one needs setup for small quantity
of elements where self stressing beds can be used.
Sometimes post tensioning is also done within the factory
for small number of elements.
The forms must be designed properly so that they do not
deform during any of the operations of production - pouring
concrete, vibrating, stressing, distressing and stripping the
element out of form. The end product must comply with the
specified tolerances as specified in the BIS codes.
Maximum reuse of formwork is the key to economy. The
Architect must keep the number of different shapes to a
minimum and design shapes which can be stripped easily,
preferably cast in single pour. Even so, it should achieve
the desired edges, surfaces and textures.
Typically forms should be made for standard cross sections
of columns, beams etc. The Architect should try to use
these standard sizes as much as possible so that new
forms are not required to be made.
The form side(s) of the precast are usually on exterior of
the building. When a panel is cast horizontal, the bottom
side may be exposed aggregate, rubber form lined (to give
desired texture) or just plain surface. The upper surface of

the concrete in the mould which is not as smooth is on the
interior of the building.
The interior edges of the form should be radiused or
chamfered at least 10mm to avoid edge damage during
stripping. This can be done using chamfer strips made up
of wood or steel.
In long line - prestressed method of casting during
detensioning of strands concrete shortens, and so the
inside forms need to be removed before detensioning.
The design should be such that these inside forms can be
removed without disturbing the strands.
The form surface against which concrete is cast should
be smooth. These are cleaned by wirebrush, scrapping,
scrubbing and even chipping. The form sheet should be
thick and strong enough to maintain its smooth surface.
The plywood used is raisin coated.
If steel bed is chosen, which normally is the case, magnetic
systems can be used to fix side forms. Side forms are
needed for not only defining the boundaries of the panel
but also for door and window openings.
Figure 1 - A long moving Prestressed bed showing blockouts
Heavier construction of formwork as a rule, gives more

dimensional stability and helps reduce transmission of
vibration and results in longer life. Fabrication tolerances
are typically half the product tolerances. The steel forms
have thickness of plates of about 5mm to 8mm and have
gussets at every 200mm to 500mm depending upon the
forces. The smoother the steel surface, the better is the finish.
Sometimes accelerated curing is achieved by heating. To
do so, elobrate piping is done under the form bed and hot
water or steam is passed through it. To reduce heat loss,
insulation is installed under the beds. The pipe for heating
is placed above the insulation.
Vertical Elements
In a long line method, there is a long form of about 50m
to 100m with side fixed rail on one side which makes the
common side for all the panels. The second rail is usually
movable and is kept such that it is on the largest width in
the pack. Others in-between are wooden. Sometimes the
bed is capable of vibrating and heating.
Tilting tables are used to cast wall panels. These tables
are equipped with heating and vibrating bed as well. Tilting
tables are hydraulically operated and are horizontal at the
time of casting. At the time of striping, tilting tables tilt to
almost vertical thus need lifting inserts only on the edges.
They also reduce the steel required or can be stripped
quickly.
Figure 2 - Tilting Table
Battery moulds are designed for the vertical fabrication

wall panels. Each layer can have a variable area and
reinforcement. They consist of bulkheads between which
5 to 10 panels can be simultaneously formed. Vibrators
facilitate the effective compacting of concrete. Battery
moulds offer to produce architectural wall panels with both
inside and outside surfaces as smooth.
Another system is based on production pallets (a steel
table) which pass through various workstations manually
over a set off protruding wheels before concrete products
are complete. Various transport systems (such as central
V1 N1 July 2014
119
shifter, side shifters, and rollers) transport the pallets from

workstation to workstation. Each workstation has a role
preparing, concreting, curing and stripping. This system
offers the flexibility of horizontal casting and economizes
2.4m. These are typically 150mm, 200mm, 250mm or

thicker. These have hollows in them saving concrete and
reducing the weight. The spans of hollowcore slabs vary
from few meters to usually a maximum of 15m though it
could be more based on use and thickness. Manufacture of
hollowcore is a propriety system and a hollowcore machine
manufacturer normally provides the equipment and beds.
No side forms are required as hollowcore production needs
a very dry mix concrete and remains there on its own.
For larger spans such as 20m, Double Tees are used.
These are prestressed elements with very high strength to
weight ratio. Parking garages, podiums and IT buildings
can be made using these. Triple Tees and Single Tees have
also being used.
Figure 3 - Battery Mould
on tilting table.
Strong magnetic systems are available which help in
fixing the side forms. The force is more than 500kgs for a
magnetic clamp of 5kgs.
A fully automated system called carrousel system is also
available. It is computer controlled and gives a very high
rate of production. Lattice Girder Slabs can be made with
such a system.
Double wall formwork is essentially the same but it
additionally needs a system to rotate one half of the already
cast and set slab all around and keep it on the one which
is recently concreted.
Other types of slabs used in precast construction are

Solid Slabs, Half Slabs, Lattice Girder Slabs, etc. These
can be prestressed or non prestressed with or without
voids. Prestressed slabs can span longer and be more
economical with reinforcement however one time setup
cost is more.
Formwork for IT beams
Steel Formwork for Rectangular Column
Columns and Beams

Usually precasters keep standard width and height forms.
Column forms are usually non prestressed and can be
made up of steel or wood. The sides of these forms can be
detached. Long line prestressed forms have arrangements
for prestressing steel. They need permanent abutments
and hence are fixed to a particular place.
Figure 7 Lattice Girder Slab
Conclusions
Figure 6 Double Tee as a roof under construction and its typical section
Slabs
Worldwide, approximately half of the floors used in
commercial and domestic buildings are of precast
concrete. It offers both design and cost advantages over
conventional methods.
Hollowcore slabs are available in the widths of 1.2m or
120
V1 N1 July 2014
Precast project needs a lot of thinking to go into the process

in the planning phase of the project. All related activities
such as casting, curing, stacking, transport and erection
are required to be planned and finalized on paper at the
start as per project timelines. There are various systems
available for manufacture of precast elements. There are
various ways to configure a building. The most economical
method depends on the building type. Regular buildings
can be most economical with precast concrete.
FUSED MESH
164
The Masterbuilder | August 2014 | www.masterbuilder.co.in
Making a Mark with Fused Wire

Mesh Technology
everal new technologies have made their entry and

changing the very face of the Indian construction industry. Welded Wire Fabric (WWF) is one such technology that comes with a host of advantages. NBC Weldmesh is
considered a pioneer in this field in the country. The company began as a professional manufacturer of welded wire
mesh in 1995 to provide specialized solutions in the fields of
construction, storage solutions, cooling towers, etc, and has
made rapid inroads into the Indian market.
Reinforced concrete construction which is the backbone
to any infrastructural project depends for its performance on
two its prime elements- concrete and reinforcement. Just
as mechanization of concrete production namely mix design,
auto batching plants, ready mix technology, and automated
casting techniques have raised the standards and strengths
of concrete to remarkable levels, the same is essential for
reinforcement.
The process of tying up individual bars is an obsolete
technique. Instead usage of welded wire fabric (WWF) is the
easy and correct solution for achieving the requirements of
quality, reliability, speed and efficiency. WWF is a prefabricated reinforcement consisting of a series of parallel longitudinal wires and bars accurately FUSED to cross wires at
the required spacing.
NBC Weldmesh has its state-of-the-art manufacturing
FUSED MESH
Weldmesh for Storage Racks
25mm x 16mm Weldmesh
facility located in Chennai. The companys product range

is unique and customized. Baffle plates, Diaphragms, Wall
Separators, Concrete for Plinths and Big Shapes are few of
the many unique products of the company.
Application areas of the products include
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Aluminium Formwork
Precast Elements
Walls
Slabs
Industrial Flooring
Airports
Pavements
Other applications include such as in bridge deck slabs,
piers, manhole chambers, columns, parking lots, swimming pool, culverts, canal lining and tunnels.
Manufacturing as per international standards

The various advantages offered by the use of NBC Weldmeshs range of products include
1. Better bonding behavior: The bonding behavior of weldmesh is much higher as against the peripheral area
which is responsible for bonding to concrete in the case
of individual bars; the rigid mechanical interconnections
of fused wires are primarily responsible for stress transfer from concrete to steel and vice-versa of welded mesh.
2. Economic, better crack resistance with thinner wire/
closing space: The anchorage of each fusion at each intersection imparts immense deal of homogeneity to the
R.C.C section as a whole; The 2 dimensional uniform distribution of welded mesh with concrete achieves better
plate behavior in slabs. Welded mesh with thinner wire
and closer spacing minimizes the crack widths and preserves structural integrity of slab.
3. Saving of time, labor and binding wire: Welded mesh
consumption saves about 2% to 5% of the binding wire
used for reinforcement. Besides, the added advantage of
dangling ends of binding wire which is a major cause of
corrosion in reinforcement. Time and labor taken is 10%
against conventional in direct mesh placement.
4. Saving on cutting, bending and placement: Weldmesh is
supplied in cut to size lengths and widths as per drawings. This ensures no wastage of end bits or removal of
the end bits to appropriate area, thereby also saving on
extra manpower. The mesh has to be just placed and
concrete poured.
In a nutshell the essence of Weldmesh is
Saving: Steel +Labour+Time. With its manifold advantages
this technologys popularity in the construction industry is
rising by the day. w
For further details:
Weldmesh Arch
165
Weldmesh Walls
NBC Weldmesh Pvt. Ltd.

2/31 Thatchur Koot Road, Panjeti, Ponneri Taluk 601 204.
Ph: + 91 94440 48880 / + 91 94440 59990
E-mail: nbcweldmesh@gmail.com
Web: www.nbcweldmesh.co.in
The Masterbuilder | August 2014 | www.masterbuilder.co.in
Weldmesh with Aluminium Form Work
A strong quality focus has been NBC Weldmeshs hallmark. The company believes in investing in quality and maintains a fully equipped laboratory and implements a quality
system based on the standards of International Standard ISO
9001:2000. Manufacturing as per international standards has
been one of the key reasons behind the companys remarkable growth story.

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Influence of Steel Fibres, Used in Conjunction With Unconfined

What you will find in this edition of precast digest

Biggest Event in India on

Date: November 9 - 13, 2014

International Seminar and Exhibition on

Recent Developments in Design and Construction

Precast Concrete Technology

For more detail write to us at:

Leading Precast Equipment Manufacturers & Service Providers in India

Build Faster, Stronger,

Curtain Wall Panels, Columns

Precast Solutions Built for

Bianchi Casseforme S.r.l.

Elematic India Private Limited

3Koll Concrete Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Halfen. When Safety Counts.

Faster Stronger Vapor

Halfen Moment India Private Limited

Kraft Curing Systems GmbH

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Page No. 57, 59, 61

Malar Energy & Infrastructure

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The Best and Fastest Precast

Turn Key Solutions for

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Preca Solutions India Pvt. Ltd.

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Precast for Real Estate and

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The Indian Precast Industry - Gaining Prominence

Analysis of Multi Storey Building with Precast Load Bearing Walls

Influence of Steel Fibres, Used in Conjunction With Unconfined Rebar Configurations,

Hollowcore Manufacturing and Factory Design

Precast Concrete Codal Provisions Comparison of Various Codes

The Future of Indian Construction - Precast Technology

Accelerated Curing: An approach for Improving Concrete Production

Pre-Cast Concrete Elements in Construction - Emerging Scenario in India

Zero Energy System for Precast Concrete: An Overview

Precast Manufacturing Facility

Formwork for Precast - An Overview

Precast Segment Reinforced with Dramix Steel Fiber

Precast Concrete Structure: Design Aspects and it's Implementation in India

108 Precast Concrete for Building Systems

117 An Overview of Construction of Buildings in Precast Concrete

121 Making a Mark with Fused Wire Mesh Technology

PRECAST BUILDING: INDUSTRY REPORT

hile a majority of Indian structures

PRECAST BUILDING: INDUSTRY REPORT

"With current scenario, there is

also facing similar issues. This is due to the

L&T's Pragati in Bhoiwada, Parel, Mumbai