12: The Eukaryotes: Fungi, Algae,

Protozoa, and Helminths

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

12-1 List the defining characteristics of

fungi.

Assume you isolated a single-celled organism

that has a cell wall. How would you determine
that it is a fungus and not a bacterium?

12-2 Differentiate asexual from sexual

reproduction, and describe each of these
processes in fungi.

Contrast the mechanism of conidiospore and

ascospore formation.

12-3 List the defining characteristics of

the three phyla of fungi described in this
chapter.

List the asexual and sexual spores made by

Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes, and
Basidiomycetes.

12-4 Identify two beneficial and two

harmful effects of fungi.

Are yeasts beneficial or harmful?

12-5 List the distinguishing

characteristics of lichens, and describe
their nutritional needs.

What is the role of the lichens in nature?

12-6 Describe the roles of the fungus

and the alga in a lichen.

What is the role of the fungus in a lichen?

12-7 List the defining characteristics of

algae.

How do algae differ from bacteria? From

fungi?

12-8 List the outstanding characteristics

of the five phyla of algae discussed in
this chapter.
12-9 Identify two beneficial and two
harmful effects of algae.
12-10 List the defining characteristics of
protozoa.
12-11 Describe the outstanding
characteristics of the seven phyla of
protozoa discussed in this chapter, and

List the cell wall composition and diseases

caused by the following algae: diatoms,
dinoflagellates, oomycotes.
List the cell wall composition and diseases
caused by the following algae: diatoms,
dinoflagellates, oomycotes.
Identify three differences between protozoa
and animals.
Do protozoa have mitochondria?

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give an example of each.

12-12 Differentiate an intermediate host
from a definitive host.

Where does Plasmodium undergo sexual

reproduction?

12-13 Compare and contrast cellular

slime molds and plasmodial slime
molds.

Why are slime molds classified with amoeba

and not fungi?

12-14 List the distinguishing

characteristics of parasitic helminths.

Why are the drugs used to treat parasitic

helminths often toxic to the host?

12-15 Provide a rationale for the

elaborate life cycle of parasitic worms.

Of what value is the complicated life cycle of

parasitic helminths?

12-16 List the characteristics of the two

classes of parasitic platyhelminths, and
give an example of each.

Differentiate Paragonimus and Taenia.

12-17 Describe a parasitic infection in

which humans serve as a definitive host,
as an intermediate host, and as both.

What is the definitive host for Enterobius?

12-18 List the characteristics of parasitic What stage of Dirofilaria immitis is infectious
nematodes, and give an example of
for dogs and cats?
infective eggs and infective larvae.
12-19 Compare and contrast
platyhelminths and nematodes.

You find a parasitic worm in a babys diapers.

How would you know whether its a Taenia or
a Necator?

12-20 Define arthropod vector.

Vectors can be divided into three major types,

according to the roles they play for the
parasite. List the three types of vectors and a
disease transmitted by each.

12-21Differentiate a tick from a

mosquito, and name a disease
transmitted by each.

Assume you see an arthropod on your arm.

How will you determine whether it is a tick or
a flea?

NEW IN THIS EDITION

Discussion of new uses of fungi as pesticides

Expanded discussion of the oomycotes, including the introduction of Phytophthora
into the United States; a new figure illustrating Phytophthoras life cycle
Discussion of heartworm
A new Clinical Focus (MMWR) box highlighting cryptosporidial diarrhea, the most
common pathogen associated with swimming

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CHAPTER SUMMARY
Fungi (pp. 330339)
1.
2.
3.
4.

Mycology is the study of fungi.

The number of serious fungal infections is increasing.
Fungi are aerobic or facultatively anaerobic chemoheterotrophs.
Most fungi are decomposers, and a few are parasites of plants and animals.

Characteristics of Fungi (pp. 331333)

5. A fungal thallus consists of filaments of cells called hyphae; a mass of hyphae is
called a mycelium.
6. Yeasts are unicellular fungi. To reproduce, fission yeasts divide symmetrically,
whereas budding yeasts divide asymmetrically.
7. Buds that do not separate from the mother cell form pseudohyphae.
8. Pathogenic dimorphic fungi are yeastlike at 37C and moldlike at 25C.
9. Fungi are classified according to rRNA.
10. Sporangiospores and conidiospores are produced asexually.
11. Sexual spores are usually produced in response to special circumstances, often
changes in the environment.
12. Fungi can grow in acidic, low-moisture, aerobic environments.
13. They are able to metabolize complex carbohydrates.
Medically Important Phyla of Fungi (pp. 333335)
14. The Zygomycota have coenocytic hyphae and produce sporangiospores and
zygospores.
15. The Ascomycota have septate hyphae and produce ascospores and frequently
conidiospores.
16. Basidiomycota have septate hyphae and produce basidiospores; some produce
conidiospores.
17. Teleomorphic fungi produce sexual and asexual spores; anamorphic fungi produce
asexual spores only.
Fungal Diseases (pp. 335339)
18. Systemic mycoses are fungal infections deep within the body that affect many tissues
and organs.
19. Subcutaneous mycoses are fungal infections beneath the skin.
20. Cutaneous mycoses affect keratin-containing tissues such as hair, nails, and skin.
21. Superficial mycoses are localized on hair shafts and superficial skin cells.
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22. Opportunistic mycoses are caused by fungi that are not usually pathogenic.
23. Opportunistic mycoses can infect any tissues. However, they are usually systemic.
Economic Effects of Fungi (p. 339)
24. Saccharomyces and Trichoderma are used in the production of foods.
25. Fungi are used for the biological control of pests.
26. Mold spoilage of fruits, grains, and vegetables is more common than bacterial
spoilage of these products.
27. Many fungi cause diseases in plants.
Lichens (pp. 339340)
1. A lichen is a mutualistic combination of an alga (or a cyanobacterium) and a fungus.
2. The alga photosynthesizes, providing carbohydrates for the lichen; the fungus
provides a holdfast.
3. Lichens colonize habitats that are unsuitable for either the alga or the fungus alone.
4. Lichens may be classified on the basis of morphology as crustose, foliose, or
fruticose.
Algae (pp. 340345)
1. Algae are unicellular, filamentous, or multicellular (thallic).
2. Most algae live in aquatic environments.
Characteristics of Algae (pp. 341342)
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Algae are eukaryotic; most are photoautotrophs.

The thallus of multicellular algae usually consists of a stipe, a holdfast, and blades.
Algae reproduce asexually by cell division and fragmentation.
Many algae reproduce sexually.
Photoautotrophic algae produce oxygen.
Algae are classified according to their structures and pigments.

Selected Phyla of Algae (pp. 342344)

9. Brown algae (kelp) may be harvested for algin.
10. Red algae grow deeper in the ocean than other algae.
11. Green algae have cellulose and chlorophyll a and b and store starch.
12. Diatoms are unicellular and have pectin and silica cell walls; some produce a
neurotoxin.

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13. Dinoflagellates produce neurotoxins that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning and
ciguatera.
14. The oomycotes are heterotrophic; they include decomposers and pathogens.
Roles of Algae in Nature (p. 344345)
15. Algae are the primary producers in aquatic food chains.
16. Planktonic algae produce most of the molecular oxygen in the Earths atmosphere.
17. Petroleum is the fossil remains of planktonic algae.
18. Unicellular algae are symbionts in such animals as Tridacna.
Protozoa (pp. 345351)
1. Protozoa are unicellular, eukaryotic chemoheterotrophs.
2. Protozoa are found in soil and water and as normal microbiota in animals.
Characteristics of Protozoa (p. 346)
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The vegetative form is called a trophozoite.

Asexual reproduction is by fission, budding, or schizogony.
Sexual reproduction is by conjugation.
During ciliate conjugation, two haploid nuclei fuse to produce a zygote.
Some protozoa can produce a cyst that provides protection during adverse
environmental conditions.
8. Protozoa have complex cells with a pellicle, a cytostome, and an anal pore.
Medically Important Phyla of Protozoa (pp. 346351)
9. Archaezoa lack mitochondria and have flagella; they include Trichomonas and
Giardia.
10. Microsporidia lack mitochondria and microtubules; microsporans cause diarrhea in
AIDS patients.
11. Amoebozoa are amoeba; they include Entamoeba and Acanthamoeba.
12. Apicomplexa have apical organelles for penetrating host tissue; they include
Plasmodium and Cryptosporidium.
13. Ciliophora move by means of cilia; Balantidium coli is the human parasitic ciliate.
14. Euglenozoa move by means of flagella and lack sexual reproduction; they include
Trypanosoma.
Slime Molds (pp. 351352)
1. Cellular slime molds resemble amoebas and ingest bacteria by phagocytosis.
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2. Plasmodial slime molds consist of a multinucleated mass of protoplasm that engulfs

organic debris and bacteria as it moves.
Helminths (pp. 352361)
1. Parasitic flatworms belong to the Phylum Platyhelminthes.
2. Parasitic roundworms belong to the Phylum Nematoda.
Characteristics of Helminths (pp. 353355)
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Helminths are multicellular animals; a few are parasites of humans.

The anatomy and life cycle of parasitic helminths are modified for parasitism.
The adult stage of a parasitic helminth is found in the definitive host.
Each larval stage of a parasitic helminth requires an intermediate host.
Helminths can be monoecious or dioecious.

Platyhelminths (pp. 356358)

8. Flatworms are dorsoventrally flattened animals; parasitic flatworms may lack a
digestive system.
9. Adult trematodes, or flukes, have an oral and ventral sucker with which they attach to
host tissue.
10. Eggs of trematodes hatch into free-swimming miracidia that enter the first
intermediate host; two generations of rediae develop; the rediae become cercariae that
bore out of the first intermediate host and penetrate the second intermediate host;
cercariae encyst as metacercariae; the metacercariae develop into adults in the
definitive host.
11. A cestode, or tapeworm, consists of a scolex (head) and proglottids.
12. Humans serve as the definitive host for the beef tapeworm, and cattle are the
intermediate host.
13. Humans serve as the definitive host and can be an intermediate host for the pork
tapeworm.
14. Humans serve as the intermediate host for Echinococcus granulosus; the definitive
hosts are dogs, wolves, and foxes.
Nematodes (pp. 358361)
15. Roundworms have a complete digestive system.
16. The nematodes that infect humans with their eggs include (pinworm) Ascaris.
17. The nematodes that infect humans with their larvae include hookworm and
Trichinella.

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Arthropods as Vectors (pp. 361363)

1. Jointed-legged animals, including ticks and insects, belong to the Phylum Arthropoda.
2. Arthropods that carry diseases are called vectors.
3. Vectorborne diseases are most effectively eliminated by controlling or eradicating the
vectors.

THE LOOP
This chapter is divided so that you can select the units that meet the needs of your class.
Fungi (pp. 330339)
Algae (pp. 340345)
Lichens (pp. 339340)
Protozoa (pp. 345351, 355)
Slime molds (pp. 351352)
Helminths (pp. 352361)
1
Arthropods (pp. 361363)

Study Questions
Review 1, 2, 4; Clinical 2
Review 3
Review 3
Review 5, 6; Critical Thinking 3; Clinical 3
Review 4; Critical Thinking 1
Review 7, 8, 9; Critical Thinking 2; Clinical
Review 15

Detailed discussions of diseases caused by fungi, protozoa, and helminths appear in Part
Four. If this chapter does not fit into the lecture portion of your course, you might assign
it as self-study in conjunction with Part Four or laboratory exercises. Students might
complete the Study Questions prior to the laboratory periods. The chapter test could be
used as a posttest after students complete the laboratory exercises.
ANSWERS
Review
1. a. Systemic
c. Cutaneous
e. Systemic
b. Subcutaneous
d. Superficial
2. a. E. coli
b. P. chrysogenum
3. As the first colonizers on newly exposed rock or soil, lichens are responsible for the
chemical weathering of large inorganic particles and the consequent accumulation of
soil.
4. Cellular slime molds exist as individual amoeboid cells. Plasmodial slime molds are
multinucleate masses of protoplasm. Both survive adverse environmental conditions
by forming spores.
5. a. Flagella
e. Pseudopods
i. Cilia
b. Giardia
f. Entamoeba
j. Balantidium
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c. None
g. None
k. Flagella
d. Nosema
h. Plasmodium
l. Trypanosoma
6. Trichomonas cannot survive for long outside a host because it does not form a
protective cyst. Trichomonas must be transferred from host to host quickly.
7. Ingestion.
8. Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Trematode

9. The male reproductive organs are in one individual, and the female reproductive
organs in another. Nematodes belong to the Phylum Aschelminthes.
Critical Thinking
1. Plasmodial slime molds have an internal transport system, called protoplasmic
streaming, to ensure circulation.
2. Fish (larva) < Ingestion of fish >
Mammal (adult)
Ingestion of eggs
Mammals (e.g., bears) are a more likely part of the freshwater ecosystem, so parasites
would evolve to use mammalian hosts.
3. Phylum: Protozoa
Class: Mastigophora
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Host: Human
Vector: Tsetse fly
Clinical Applications
1. Taenia solium; ingestion of tapeworm eggs excreted by a household member.
Prevention: handwashing to break the fecaloral cycle.
2. Coccidioides immitis; inhalation of arthrospores. Prevention: avoid working in
contaminated soils.
3. Malaria; transmitted by bite of Anopheles mosquito.
CASE STUDY: THE UNFORTUNATE ALASKAN FISHING TRIP
Background
The Alaska Department of Public Health was notified that foodborne illness had occurred
in fishermen aboard a fishing boat off the Alaska peninsula. The fishermen had eaten
baked fish, steamed clams and mussels, boiled rice, boiled potatoes, and green salad. No
alcohol was consumed.
Data
Case Symptoms

Onset (hr)

Foods Eaten

Clams Mussels Salmon Halibut Rice

Potatoes
1None
2

Vomiting; numbness around

mouth; lower back pain

x
2.5

3None
4

Numbness of tongue and

jaw; tingling of fingers

Numbness and tingling of

face and hands; dizziness

1.5

6None
7None
8None

45

1 raw
1
1 raw

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Numbness and tingling

around mouth, face, and
fingers; cardiopulmonary
arrest. Died.

0.5

2530

10

Vomiting; numbness of lips

and fingers; lower back pain

45

11

Vomiting; numbness of
throat, toes, and fingers;
perioral numbness

12

12

Lower back pain

67

13

Nausea

0.5

14

Numbness of face; paralysis

of legs

2025

15

Vomiting; numbness and

tingling of jaws and arms;
loss of consciousness

16

None

17

None

18

Vomiting; numbness of
mouth; tingling of fingers
and toes

34

19

Vomiting; tingling of mouth,

face, and fingers

67

20

Numbness of face and

hands; dizziness

1.5

10

21

Paralysis of right arm; lower

back pain

1.5

1520

x
x

x
x

x
x

1824

x
x

Identify the etiologic agent of this outbreak of food poisoning.

Was it food infection or intoxication?
How did the food get contaminated, and what item was contaminated?
Briefly explain how you arrived at your conclusion.
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Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.

Hints
1. Make a summary table of the persons not ill.
2. Make a table of the onset of symptoms following eating.
The Solution
1. Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) caused by Alexandrium toxin.
2. Intoxication.
3. Mollusks can become toxic when toxin-producing dinoflagellates create massive
algal blooms known as red tides.
4. The diagnosis of PSP is based on patient exposure history and clinical manifestations.

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