TEST FOR GASES

Gas

Test

Result

Hydrogen

Ignite the gas

Burns with a squeaky pop

Oxygen

Place a glowing splint in the gas

Splint catches fire

Carbon Dioxide

Pass into limewater

Limewater turns milky

Nitrogen Dioxide

Observe colour from heating G2 or LI Nitrate

Gas is brown

Ammonia NH3

Place damp red litmus paper in gas

Litmus paper turns blue

Chlorine

Place damp litmus paper in gas

Litmus rapidly bleaches

Place damp blue litmus paper in gas

Steamy fumes turn it red

Place cotton wool of ammonia

White smoke of NH4Cl

Place paper w/ potassium dichromate(VI) in gas

Turns from orange to green

Hydrogen Chloride
Sulfur Dioxide

TEST FOR CATIONS

GROUP 1 & 2 CATIONS: FLAME TEST
A clean nichrome test wire is dipped into concentrated hydrochloric acid. Dipped into the solid and
placed in the hottest part of the Bunsen flame.
Li+ Lithium

Ca2+ Calcium

Na+ Sodium

Sr2+ Stronium

K+ Potassium
Ba2+ Barium
Magnesium + Sodium Hydroxide = Magnesium Oxide Mg(OH) 2 insoluble white precipitate
+
NH4 AMMONIUM: MIX WITH AQUEOUS NaOH
Test: Warm unknown solid or solution with
aqueous NaOH
TEST FOR ANIONS
Halogen Ion

Result: Ammonium salt gives off ammonia gas Turns damp red litmus paper blue

Test
Dilute nitric acid + silver nitrate sol

Chlorine

Chloride

Damp litmus paper

Add dilute sulfuric acid
Dilute nitric acid + silver nitrate sol

Bromine

Iodine

Bromide

Iodide

Add Cl water. Bromide oxidized to

Bromine
Add dilute sulfuric acid

White precipitate Ag+ClSoluble in dilute ammonia

Rapidly bleaches litmus
Steamy fumes of HCl
Creamy precipitate Ag+BrSoluble in concentrated ammonia
Solution turns colourless to brown
Steamy fumes (HBr), Brown Gas (Br2)

Dilute nitric acid + silver nitrate sol

Yellow precipitate Ag+IInsoluble in dilute & conc. ammonia

Add Cl or Br water + hexane.

Iodide ions oxidized to iodine

Colour of solution turns red-brown

when iodine present

Add starch

Turns blue-black
Clouds of violet gas (I2), egg smell
(H2S), yellow solid (S)

Add dilute sulfuric acid

TEST FOR ANIONS

Results

Anion

Formul
a

Sulfate
Sulfite

Carbonate

Hydrogencarbonate

Nitrate

Test

Result

SO42-

Add dilute hydrochloric acid to suspected sulfate &

aqueous barium chloride

White precipitate

SO32-

Add dilute sulfuric acid & warm. Sulfite gives off SO2,
test with paper soaked in potassium dichromate (VI)

SO2 turns it from

orange to green

Add dilute sulfuric acid to solid. Carbonate gives off

CO2, test with lime water

CO2 turns
limewater milky

If Li or G2 Carbonate, heat solid to decompose

Gives of CO2

To distinguish between CO32-and HCO31. Add unknown to boiling water, fizzing of CO2
occurs, test CO2 by passing in limewater
2. Add solution of unknown to solution of CaCl
3. pH paper, CO32- has high pH

1.Limewater turns
milky
2. No precipitate
CaHCO3-is soluble.
3. HCO3- is neutral

Add Al powder & NaOH solution & warm.

Nitrate is reduced to ammonia, detect with damp red
litmus paper

Litmus paper turns

blue

23

CO

HCO3-

NO3

TEST ALCOHOLS
Type
Test

Primary

Distillation. Heat with potassium

dichromate [IV] & dilute sulfuric
acid

Result
Aldehyde. Butanol -> Butanal
Test for aldehyde. Add benedicts
solution and boil. Red precipitate
means CHO group present.

Formula
- H2O, + O

Reflux. Heat with potassium

dichromate [IV] & concentrated
sulfuric acid. Then distilled

Carboxylic Acid
Butanol -> Butanoic acid

- H2O, + 2 O

Secondary

Reflux. Heat with potassium

dichromate [IV] & sulfuric acid

Ketone
Butanol -> Butanone

- H2O, + O

Adding
Sodium

Add sodium to the alcohol

Sodium dissolves, bubbles of gas, white

precipitate of Sodium Propoxide

DECOMPOSITION OF CARBONATES AND NITRATES OF G1 and G2

Nitrates
Formula
Products
G1

KNO3 -> KNO2 + O2

Metal nitrate, Oxygen

G1 Lithium
G2

4LiNO3 -> 2Li2O + 4NO2 + O2

2Ca(NO3)2 -> 2CaO + 4NO2 + O2

Metal oxide, Nitrogen dioxide, Oxygen

Carbonates

Formula

Products

G1

Do not decompose

Do not decompose

Lithium
G2

Li2CO3 -> Li2O + CO2

CaCO3 -> Li2O + CO2

Metal oxide, Carbon dioxide

TEST FOR ORGANIC FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

Group

Series

Test

Result

C=C

Alkenes

Add bromine water

Add potassium manganite(VII)

C-OH

Alcohol and
Carboxylic acids

Brown -> Colourless

Purple -> Colourless
HCl turns damp blue litmus
paper red.

Add PCl5. Steamy fumes of HCl

C-Halo

Halogenoalkanes

Define between Alcohol and

Carboxylic: add sodium carbonate
Warm in NaOH.
Add nitric acid & silver nitrate

Carboxylic acid fizzes CO2

Alcohol does not react
Same results as halogen tests

ORGANIC TECHNIQUES

Heating
under
reflux

Distillation

Used to speed up slow reactions with heat and prevent organic reactant/product
from boiling off with a reflux condenser. The cold water cools down any vapour so it
returns back into the flask.
Used for
Primary alcohol to carboxylic acid (2nd)
Secondary alcohol to ketone
Convert halogenoalkane to alcohol
Convert alcohol to bromoalkane
Used to separate volatile organic substances from non-volatile inorganic species
(acids and alkalis). There must be a large enough difference in boiling temperatures
of organic substances present to separate them.
Calculate boiling temperature: Vapour comes over +2C of the boiling temperature
of the particular substance that is being condensed and collected.

Safety

Both must be carried out in a fume cupboard if vapour is harmful

There must be some outlet to the air, otherwise pressure will build up
Gloves must be warn with corrosive substances i.e. concentrated acids and
alkalis
Never heat with a Bunsen flame because organic substances are flammable

UNITS OF MEASURE
Units

Units

Molar Mass

g mol-1

Concentration

mol dm-3 OR g dm-3

mol dm-3 x MM = g dm-3

Volume

cm3 OR dm3

cm3 / 1000 = dm3

Enthalpy

kJ mol-1

Heat produced energy

J OR kJ

Energy Density

gm cm-3

Convert

J / 1000 = kJ

ENTHALPY CALCULATIONS
Temperature rises
-> exothermic reaction
-> negative enthalpy change
Temperature lowers
-> endothermic reaction -> positive enthalpy change
ENTHALPY OF COMBUSTION copper calorimeter

Experiment

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Weigh spirit burner containing ethanol

Known volume of water added to copper calorimeter
Measure temperature of water in calorimeter ever minute for four minutes
Light the burner after 4.5 minutes
Measure temp of water every minutes till it has reached 20C over room temp.
Extinguish burner and reweigh
Stop reading temperature 5 minutes after reaching maximum temperature

Calculation

(kJ) Heat produced: Mass of water x s.h.c x change in temp

(mol) Moles of Ethanol burned: Mass of ethanol / molar mass
(jK mol-1) Enthalpy of combustion of ethanol: Heat produced / Number of moles

Errors

Some heat released when burning heats air and not water
Incomplete combustion of ethanol

Improve

A screen placed around calorimeter to maximize transfer of heat

Stir water continuously for even temperature
Burner and contents of burner should be weighed immediately after

ENTHALPY OF REACTION solid and cup

Experiment

1. Measure volume of solution of known concentration and pipette into a

polystyrene cup in a glass beaker
2. Weigh solid in powder so it is in excess
3. Measure temperature of solution every 30 seconds for 2 minutes.
4. Pour in solid at 2.5 minutes and stir solution
5. Measure temperature every 30 seconds until maximum temperature is reached

Calculation

(kJ) Heat produced: Mass of solution x s.h.c x change in temp

(mol) Moles of Solution: Concentration x volume
(jK mol-1) Enthalpy of reaction: Heat produced / Number of moles

Errors

Reaction is slow and loses heat to surroundings

Improve

Use powder instead of lumps to speed up reactions so less time for cooling
Stir continuously
Place lid on cup to prevent heat loss trough evaporation

ENTHALPY OF NEUTRALISATION acid and cup

Experiment

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Calculation

(kJ) Heat produced: Mass of both solution x s.h.c x change in temp

(mol) Moles of Solute (limiting reagent): Concentration x volume
(jK mol-1) Enthalpy of neutralisation: Heat produced / Number of moles

Errors

Improve
CALCULATIONS

Measure known volume and concentrate of acid solution into polystyrene cup
Measure temperature of acid
Measure temperature of alkali (slight excess)
Calculate mean of both temperatures
Measure out alkali and add to acid in cup
Stir mixture and measure maximum temperature reached

Heat absorbed by polystyrene cup or thermometer (all three exp.)

Stir immediately upon mixing the two solutions
Weigh polystyrene cup before and after adding acid (all three exp.)
Make sure one of reactants is in excess

Moles

Solutions

Gases

Mass = moles x molar mass

Moles = mass / molar mass
Molar mass = mass / moles

Moles = concentration x volume

Concentration = moles / volume
Volume = moles / concentration

Volume = moles x molar volume

Moles = volume / molar volume
Molar volume = volume / moles

PERCENTAGE YIELD
% Yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) x 100
(actual = amount in question, theoretical = what you calculate)
1.
2.
3.
4.

Calculate moles of known reactant (mass / molar mass)

Stoichiometry of reactant to product
Calculate mass of product (moles x molar mass)
Amount in question / amount in step 3 x 100 = percentage yield

Reasons for yield less than 100%: Competing reactions, handling losses during purification, side
reactions
CALCULATING ERROR
(Error value x number of times error occurs / change in reaction) x 100 = Error %
E.g. Whats the percentage error in the temperature change is there is uncertainty of 0.1C each
reading.
[ (0.1 x 2 times used) / 5.5 temperature change x 100] = 3.36%
INITIAL RATE OF REACTION
Volume / Time = Initial rate of reaction
DRYING AGENTS
Drying agents remove water from organic compounds
E.g. Calcium chloride, potassium chloride, or magnesium sulfate.
These are all types of salts (ionic compounds where metals are bonded to non-metals.)
HESS LAW

Hr = H(products) H(reactants)
TITRATIONS

Preparation of Standard Solution

1. Calculate mass of solid needed to make solution and weigh in a weighing beaker
2. Pour solid into a beaker and fill with 50cm 3 distilled water. Stir until dissolved
3. Pour the solution into a standard 250cm3 volumetric flask. Make sure all of it has gone in.
4. Fill the flask until the bottom of the meniscus is level with the mark on the flask
5. Put a stopped in the flask and shake to mix thoroughly
Preform a Titration
Sol A unknown concentration
Sol B known concentration/standard solution
1. Draw some of solution A into pipette with pipette filler to rinse. Discard the rinsings
2. Fill pipette with solution A to the bottom of the meniscus and discharge into conical flask
3. Rinse burette with solution B. Discard the rinsings.
4. Close tap of burette and fill with solution B up to the meniscus. Open tap to remove air
5. Record the initial volume in the burette
6. Run the liquid from the burette into the conical flask, continually swirling the solutions
7. Add the last bits of solution B drop by drop, stop when the indicator is at end point colour
8. Read the burette to 0.05cm3
9. Repeat until 3 concordant titres have been obtained within 0.2cm 3 of one another.
Indicator

Use for

Acid

Alkali

End point

Methyl Orange

Most titrations

Red

Yellow

Orange

Phenolphthalein

Weak acids e.g. ethanoic acid

Colourless

Purple

Pale Pink

Titration Calculations
1. Calculate number of moles in standard solution (volume x concentration)
2. Stoichiometry to calculate moles of second selection
3. Calculate concentration of second solution (moles / volume)
Minimizing errors
Due to apparatus
Pipettes and burettes measure to a certain
degree of accuracy
Titrations are planned to give titres between 20
30cm3 to minimize apparatus error
Smaller titre have a higher percentage of
possible error.

Due to poor technique

Not rinsing out the burette or pipette with correct
solutions
Not removing air bubbles in the burette
Running solution from burette too quickly and
overshooting the end point
Not shaking thoroughly
SYMBOLS

Sulfuric Acid

Potassium Dichromate (VI)

H2SO4
HNO3
HCl
K2Cr2O7

G2 Sulfate

G1 Sulfate

Nitric Acid
Hydrochloric Acid

G2 Nitrate
G2 Hydroxide

G2SO4
G2(NO3)2
G2(OH)2

G1 Nitrate
G1 Hydroxide
APPARATUS

G12SO4
G1NO3
G1OH

ENTHALPY EXPERIMENTS

Why solid is not included in the calculation for heat for reaction: Its heat capacity is negligible
Why record temperature after adding solid in reaction: to allow cooling
Why record temperature before adding solid in reaction: to ensure constant temperature
How to know there is no more acid in separating tunnel: No more CO 2 or bubbles
Calcium hydroxide and water forms limewater
Ammonia Red paper to Blue
Hydrogen Chloride Blue paper to Red or Ammonia on cotton -> white smoke
SulFATE SO42- HCl acid and aqeous BaCl -> white precipitate of barium sulfate
SulFITE SO32- H2SO4 gives of SO2 -> turns C2K2O7 orange to green

Carbonate CO32- H2SO4 -> Gives of CO2 -> CO2 turns limewater milky

Hydrogencarbonate Fizzes CO2 in boiling water. OR Add to CaCl, forms soluble CaHCO 3
Nitrate -> Add Al powder and NaOH -> reduced to ammonia
Ammonium + Sodium Hydroxide -> Ammonia gas -> ammonia gas turns red paper blue
Halogenoalkanes are more soluble in ethanol
Carboxylic acid and sodium carbonate fizzes CO2
Sodium carbonate is used to neutralize acid
Add solution mass together when working heat energy from neutralisation
G2 Sulfate
G2 Nitrate
G2 Hydroxide

G2SO4
G2(NO3)2
G2(OH)2

G1 Sulfate
G1 Nitrate
G1 Hydroxide

G12SO4
G1NO3
G1OH