Pagei

USATrack&FieldCoachingManual
USATrack&Field
JosephL.Rogers
ProjectCoordinator

Pageii

LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
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Pageiii

AMESSAGETOCOACHESFROMUSATRACK&FIELD
OnbehalfofUSATrack&Field,wehopeyoufindthisUSATrack&FieldCoachingManualausefultool.ThisbookfeaturescontributionsfromUSATF's
Development,CoachingEducation,andSportsScienceCommitteesandhighlightstechniquesanddrillsthatshouldprovehelpfultobeginningandveterancoaches
alike.
ThemissionofUSATFistoprovidevisionandleadershipinathleticsintheUnitedStates,andtopromotethepursuitofexcellencefromyouthtomasters,fromthe
grassrootstotheOlympicGames.TheUSATrack&FieldCoachingManualembodiesthatvisionandleadership,andwearegratefultothemanycoacheswho
havecontributedtheirexpertisetothisproject.Yourongoingcontributionswhetheryoucoachayouthcluboratamajoruniversityareverymuchappreciated.
Wehopethispublicationbecomesavaluableresourceforyou,andwewishyoucontinuedsuccessinyourcoachingcareers.

PatriciaF.Rico
President

CraigA.Masback
ChiefExecutiveOfficer

Pageiv

CONTENTS
Preface

vii

Credits

ix

PartI
CoachingEssentials

Chapter1
OrganizingaSuccessfulProgram
JosephL.Rogers

Chapter2
PredictiveTestingofAthletes
PhilHensonandPaulTurner

19

PartII
RunningEvents

Chapter3
100and200Meters
CurtisFrye

35

Chapter4
400Meters
ClydeHart

51

Chapter5
100and110MeterHurdles
RalphLindemanandJohnMillar

63

Chapter6
400MeterHurdles
GaryWinckler

75

Chapter7
800MeterstoMile
MikePoehlein

93

Chapter8
3000to10,000Meters
LanceHarterandHarryGroves

109

Chapter9
Relays
RobJohnsonandKarenDennis

123

PartIII
JumpingEvents

Chapter10
LongJump
KyleTellezandKathyJames

141

Chapter11
TripleJump
DeanHayes

159

Pagev

Chapter12
HighJump
SueHumphreyandDougNordquist

173

Chapter13
PoleVault
JimBemiller

199

PartIV
ThrowingEvents

Chapter14
ShotPut
BillGodinaandRonBackes

219

Chapter15
Discus
DonBabbitt

235

Chapter16
Javelin
C.HarmonBrown,BillWebb,andBobSing

249

Chapter17
Hammer
KenBantum

265

PartV
RacewalkingandMultipleEvents

Chapter18
Racewalking
JeffSalvage,BohdanBolwicaski,GwenRobertson,lanWhatley,and
GaryWesterfield

281

Chapter19
Heptathlon
CliffRovelto

287

Chapter20
Decathlon
HarryMarra

299

Bibliography

309

AboutUSATrack&Field

312

AbouttheContributors

313

Pagevii

PREFACE
Asthenationalgoverningbodyforthesport,USATrack&Fieldhaspromoted,incurred,andwitnesseditsshareofchangesduringthedecadeplussincepublishinga
previousversionofthisbook.ThenameoftheorganizationhaschangedfromTheAthleticsCongress.Anewdirectorhasbeenselected.Women'sparticipationand
performanceshaverisentonewheights.Continuedrefinementsinconditioningprogramshaveproducedmorepowerfulandfinelyhonedphysicalspecimensthanever
inthesport'shistory.
ThisUSATrack&FieldCoachingManual(2000)reflectstheinnovations,emphases,andimprovementsinoursportsinceTheAthleticsCongress'sTrackand
FieldCoachingManualwaspublishedin1989.Thebookfeaturesanoutstandingcastofcontributors33ofthesport'smostsuccessfulcoachespresentingthe
latestandbestinformationontesting,teaching,training,andcompetingineveryeventforbothmenandwomen.
Thisbookisdividedintofiveparts,allowingyoutoturnstraighttoaneventofinterestforcomprehensivecoverage.PartI,CoachingEssentials,presentsmanyofthe
mostimportantfacetsofmanagingasuccessfulprogramwithusefulinsightsonplanning,promoting,andrecruiting.Aspecialchapteronpredictivetestingofathletes
willhelpyoumoreobjectivelyandaccuratelydeterminethepotentialofdevelopingathletesandprojecttheirperformancesinvarioustrackandfieldevents.
PartII,RunningEvents,containssevenchaptersloadedwithmaterialonpropermechanics,trainingregimens,andcompetitivestrategiesforthesprints,hurdles,
distanceraces,andrelays.
ThenextfourchaptersformPartIIIJumpingEvents.Inthissectionyou'llfindextensiveinformationontechniqueandtrainingforthelongjump,triplejump,high
jump,andpolevault.
ThrowingEvents,PartIV,consistsofchaptersontheshotput,discus,javelin,andhammer.Twokeystosuccessforathletesintheseeventsareefficientmechanical
formandgeneratingmaximumpower.
PartVcoversracewalkingandthemultieventsofheptathlonanddecathlon.Thesechaptersareespeciallyhelpfulwhenyouhaveathleteswhomaynotshineina
singlerunning,jumping,orthrowingevent,butwhohaveagreatworkethic,arehighlyconditioned,andhaveawilltowin.
Thisbookisthemostauthoritativeandcomprehensiveguidetocoachingthesport.Readandrefertoitoftenasyouworktodevelopandimproveyourprogram.
You'llbenefitfromtheexpertiseandexperienceofthemanyexcellentcoacheswhocontributedtothiswork.Yourathleteswillbenefitfromyourbetterinstructionand
training.Bothyouandyourathleteswillseetheresultswhenyoucompeteinforthcomingseasons.

Pageix

CREDITS

FiguresandText
Figures3.3,3.4,5.4,6.1,6.7,6.8,7.1,9.1,9.2,and14.11reprinted,bypermission,fromG.A.Carr,1999,FundamentalsofTrackandField,2ded.
(Champaign,IL:HumanKinetics),4,158,56,67,54,56,75,28,29,and201.
Table3.1reprinted,bypermission,fromUSATrack&Field,Inc.,"USATrack&FieldLevelIICoachingEducationProgram."
Chapter11portionsoftextreprinted,bypermission,fromD.Hayes,1981,PracticalCoachingTechniquesTheTripleJump,(Ames,IA:ChampionshipBooks
&VideoProductions).
Figure11.2reprinted,bypermission,fromJ.Hay,UniversityofIowa,ExerciseScienceDepartment,IowaCity,IA.
Chapter16portionsoftextreprinted,bypermission,fromB.WebbandB.Sing,1989,TheJavelin.InTheAthleticsCongress'sTrackandFieldCoaching
Manual,2ded.,editedbyV.Gambetta(Champaign,IL:LeisurePress),189199.
Figure16.2reprinted,bypermission,fromT.Naclerio,1988,TheTeachingProgressionsintheShotPut,Discus,andJavelin,(Rockaway,NJ:TonyNaclerio),
279.
Figures18.1,18.2,18.3,18.4,18.5,18.6,18.7,and18.8reprinted,bypermission,fromJ.SalvageandG.Westerfield,1996,WalkLikeanAthlete,(Marlton,NJ:
WalkingPromotions).

Photos
Pages249and299:ActiveImages.
Page1:1996RichCruse.
Pages11,19,33,51,and109:BrianMeyer/PhotoRun.
Page113:AnthonyNeste.
Pages75,173,and256:ByTomRoberts.
Pages141,281,296,and302:JoeRogate.
Pages63,136,and217:VictahSailer/PhotoRun.
Page235:SportsChrome.
Pagesiii,3,35,61,93,98,106,123,139,159,199,219,248,265,279,286,287:CourtesyofUSATrack&Field.

Page1

PARTI
COACHINGESSENTIALS

Page3

1
OrganizingaSuccessfulProgram
JosephL.Rogers

Toorganizeasuccessfultrackandfieldprogram,acoachshouldbegin,notbyplacingthesoleemphasisonwinning,butbyfirstlayingthenecessaryfoundationfor
success.Coachesatalllevelsshouldfosterapositiveenvironmentbydevelopingacoachingphilosophythattakestheathletes'bestintereststoheart.Ofequal
importanceisthehiringandtrainingofcoachestomakeitthemostknowledgeablestaffpossible.Asuccessfulprogramonethatstandsthetestoftimedependson
effectivelyorganizingpracticesandputtingtogetherwellrunmeets.Inotherwords,planningiscritical.Tokeeptheprogramatthesamelevelofsuccessyearafter
year,coachesmustalsolearnthebestwaystopromotetheirprogramsandrecruitthemosttalentedathletes.Takethetimetolaythegroundwork,andwinningwillbe
thenaturalbyproductofyourefforts.

Page4

Philosophy
Coaches'philosophiesaredictatedbytheirobjectives.Acoachshouldanswerthequestions,''WhydoIwanttobeacoach,andwhataremyobjectives?"Many
factorsmaymotivateonetobecomeandcontinueasacoach.Often,coacheshavebeenathleteswhowanttocontinuetobeinvolvedwiththesportthattheylove.
Thereisalsomuchsatisfactioninwatchingyoungerathletesdevelopandachieve,andincontributingtothegrowthanddevelopmentofyounglives.Coachesmaylive
vicariouslythroughtheathletestheyhelp.Orcoachesmaybelievethattheyarethemainreasontheirathletessucceedandwanttotakemostofthecreditforthat
success.Someofthereasonsforbeingacoachareveryselfservinganddonothavethebestinterestsoftheathleteinmind.Theguidingprinciplefordevelopinga
coachingphilosophyshouldbeconcernfortheathletes'bestinterests.Acoachhasthepotentialtobecomeaverypositiveforceinthephysicalandpsychological
developmentoftheathlete.Itisoftensaidthatathleticsdevelopcharacter.However,wehaveallseensuccessfulathleteswhodemonstratepoorcharacter.Athletics
doprovideanenvironmentforpositivecharacterdevelopmentwhentheleadershipthatis,thecoachesprovidestherightattitudesandexpectationsforitscharges.
Iftheleadershipdemonstratesunethicalbehavior,awillingnesstobendtherules,orageneraldishonestyinordertopursuesuccess,theathletewillbelievethat
winningatallcostsisthecorrectphilosophyoflife.
Allcoachingdecisionsshouldbeguidedbyconsideringtheeffectsthedecisionswillhaveontheathletesaswellastheirperformance.Thosedecisionsabouttraining,
competition,andathletebehaviormustplacethewellbeingoftheathleteaheadofwinningorsuccess.Thisdoesnotmeanthatachievingsuccessshouldnotbea
priority.Whatitmeansisthatthewellbeingoftheathletemustnotbesacrificedforthegloryofwinning.
CoachingKnowledgeandBackground
Successfulcoachingrequiresabasicunderstandingofseveraldifferentdisciplines.Whilefewcoachescanbeamasterinalloftheareas,themorethatyoucan
absorb,thegreaterwillbeyourabilitytoteachtheneededskillsandtotrainandmotivatetheathletetobesuccessful.
Physiology
Thestudyofthevarioussystemsofthebodyisimportantinunderstandinghowtrainingaffectsthesystemstoimproveperformances.Thefollowingarekeysystemsto
learnabout.
MusculoskeletalsystemStrength/powerdevelopment
NervoussystemSpeed,coordination,skilldevelopment
CardiopulmonarysystemEndurance
VascularsystemEndurance
NutritionFuelforenergyproduction

Page5

MotorLearning
Motorlearningisthestudyofhowhumanslearnskills.Itincludesanunderstandingoftherelationshipofthebraintothenervousproprioception,andofhow
kinestheticfeelingisdevelopedthroughpractice.Thebodycanlearnbyvisualcues(sight),verbaldescription(hearing),andfeeling(kinestheticawareness).An
individualmaylearnbestbyonecueratherthananotherandatadifferentratethananotherindividual.Thematurationoflearnersplaysamajorroleintheirabilityto
learn,sincethebrainandnervoussystemmayormaynotbeadequatelydevelopedtomasteracomplicatedskill.
Psychology
Thestudyofhumanbehavioriscriticalindevelopingacoachathleterelationshipthatallowsathletestohaveconfidenceinyou,thecoach.Motivationisavitalaspect
ofgettingathletestopushthroughthepainbarrierthatbringsthemtoahigherlevelofcapacityandachievement.Thecoachmustbeabletoidentifytheneedsand
desiresofyouthofdifferentages.Whenathletesdesiretouseathleticstoachievetheirneeds,yourjobofgettingtheathletestodedicatethemselvestothetaskis
mucheasier.
Biomechanics
Biomechanicsisthestudyofphysicalmechanicsrelativetomotionandskillperformance.Itinvolvesunderstandingbalance,leverage,angularmotion,linearmotion,
velocity,andacceleration.
FirstAid
Acertifiedtrainerisnotalwaysonsiteatpracticesorcompetitions.Socoachesshouldhaveabasicunderstandingoffirstaidinordertoprovideimmediateprotection
fortheathletesintheircharge.Itisimportanttotreataninjurywithappropriateactionuntilmedicalhelpisavailable.Thecoachshouldusetreatmentmodalitiesthat
protectathleteswhiletheyrecover,andallowformaximumrecoverybeforetheathletesreturntopracticeandcompetition.
Communication
Thecoachneedstounderstandhowtogetacrossthenecessaryinformationforlearningtotakeplace.Coachesalsoneedtounderstandhowtolistentotheathletes
tolearnoftheirneeds.Thiscriticalabilitygivesvitalfeedbacktothecoachinthelearningprocess.Italsoshowsarespectfortheathletes,whichhelpsdevelopgood
coachathletecommunication.Thecoachalsoneedstobeabletocommunicatewithcommunitygroupswhohelpsupporttheprogram.Communicationwithparentsis
alsoaverycriticalskill.
Publicspeakingisanimportantskill,sincecoachesarecommonlyaskedtospeakatvariouscommunityserviceorganizationsandathleticbanquets.Writingskillsare
alsoimportant.Youmaybeaskedtowriteastoryforthelocalpaperabouthowyourteamsucceeded,whichwillensureapositivestoryandhelpbringrecognitionto
yourteam.

Page6

OrganizingPractices
Theabilitytoeffectivelycoachyourathletesandteamwillbedeterminedbyseveralfactors.Somefactors,likethequalityoffacilitiesandequipment,thesizeofthe
coachingstaff,andtheamountofinvestedtimemayliesomewhatoutsideofyourcontrol.Therewillalwaysbefinancialconstraintsdictatedbyyourinstitution.
However,thekeyislearninghowtomakeeffectiveuseofwhattimeandstaffyoudohave.
UsingTimeEfficiently
Akeyelementineffectivecoachingisassigningcoachingdutiestoyourassistantsinamannerthatallowsthemtospendtheirtimewithalltheirresponsibleareasmost
effectively.Youwanttogiveanadequateamountoftimeandefforttoeachevent.Acommonproblemforcoachesistoshyawayfromthoseeventswheretheydon't
feelknowledgeableorcompetent.Often,thatleavesathletestofendforthemselves,whichresultsininjury,poordevelopment,orlossofinterest.Asacoach,itisvery
importanttolearnasmuchaspossibleaboutthoseeventsinwhichyouareweakinbackgroundknowledge.Atleastlearnenoughtoteachgoodfundamentalsand
safeprocedures.Evenifoneofyourassistantsdoesthecoachingforanunfamiliarevent,asheadcoachyoushouldhaveanunderstandingofthefundamentals.After
all,youmayhavetogroomanotherassistantinthenearfuture.
Learningtheproperfundamentalsnowwillsaveyoutimeinthelongrun.Ifyoudon'tstrivetogainasmuchbackgroundknowledgeaspossible,youcouldbeteaching
yourathletesimpropertechnique,andittakesmuchlongertocorrectbadtechniqueonceitbecomesahabit.Takethetimetolearnthefundamentalsupfront.
Howdoyougaininformation?Therearemanyresources.Thelibraryisagoodplacetostart.Booksontrackandfieldaswellasindividualeventsareavailable.If
yourlocallibraryislackinginsuchbooks,seeifinterlibraryloansarepossible.Auniversitylibraryisanexcellentresource,ifthereisonenearyou.Numerous
publicationscontainingtechnicalinformationabouttheeventsarealsoavailable.Talktoothercoachesyouknowwhohavebeensuccessful.Theyprobablyhave
accesstomanygoodresources.Joinyourstatecoachesassociation.Associationsputonmanyclinicsannuallywherealotofinformationcanbegained.Many
universitycoachesinyourareaalsoofferclinicsandcamps.Contactthem.CheckwithyourlocalUSATFassociationforadditionalavailableclinicsandcoaching
educationprograms.
OrganizingYourStaff
Whetheryou'rethesolecoachforyourathletesortheheadofateamofcoaches,thefollowingareeffectivewaystoorganizeallevents.Ateamofsixknowledgeable
coacheswouldbegreat,butofteneconomicallyunfeasible.Keepinmindthatevenifyouhavelittlehelp,youarenotdoomed.Wherethere'sawill,there'saway!
OnePersonCoachingStaff
Insomesmallschools,thelackoffinancialresourcesmayforceyoutoworkwithnohelpatall.Thisisnotascommonasitusedtobe,butitcanstillhappen.Ifyou

Page7

findyourselfinthissituation,trytorecruitsomevolunteerhelpfromcoworkers,friends,orparentsofsomeofyourathletes.Ifyoulackvolunteerhelp,youmaybe
abletorecruitsomegoodmanagersfromthestudentbody.Tryingtocoach15or16eventsbyyourselfwillcertainlychallengeyoureffectiveness,butyoucanstill
haveaprogramthatproducesathleteswholearn,havefun,andexperiencethethrillofcompetition.Youwillneedtodecidehowtodivideyourtimewithallevents
andtrytohavepersonalcontactwitheacheventatleasttwiceaweek.Table1.1showshowthatmightbedonewithinafivedayperiod.
Thescheduleshownintable1.1doesrequirethatathleteswhoarenotcoachedonacertaindaywillhavetopracticeontheirown.Thisrequiresthatyougivethem
activitiesthatyoucanrelyonthemtocarryoutsafelyandeffectively.Keepthemoccupiedwiththingsthatdon'trequirealargeamountofdifficulteffort,anddon't
placethemindangeroussituations.Olderandmoreexperiencedathleteswhoactasteamleaderscanhelpmotivateteammatestoworkindependently.Goodteam
managerscanalsoactasextraeyesandearswhileyouworkwithotherevents.Themostimportantpointhereistobeorganized.Haveplannedtrainingscheduledso
thatallathleteskeepactive.Unsupervisedperiodswiththefreedomtopracticeastheathleteswishoftenleadstohorseplayand/ornoproductivetime.
TwoPersonCoachingStaff
Withatwopersoncoachingstaff,youcanvirtuallydoubletheamountoftimespentperevent.Howyoudivideupresponsibilityforeventsshoulddependuponeach
coach'sknowledgeandinterest.
Example
CoachA:Allrunningevents
CoachB:Allfieldevents
Whilethisdivisionrequiresemphasizingdifferenteventsondifferentdays,itworksverywellfortherunningevents.However,becauseofthetechnicalcomplexityof
thedifferentfieldevents,thefieldeventcoachmaybeonthetrackforseveralhourslongerthantherunningcoachinordertocoverallaspectsoffieldeventtraining.
Sotherunningcoachmaywanttodirectafieldevent.Sincethe
TABLE1.1DIVISIONOFTIMEFORAONEPERSONCOACHINGSTAFF

Monday

Tuesday

Distance
runners

Secondhour

Verticaljumpers Throwers

Thirdhour

Weighttrainingandconditioningbyevents

Distance
runnersand
throwers

Sprinters

Wednesday

Firsthour

Sprintersand
jumpers

Thursday

Friday

Hurdlers

Distance
runners

Hurdlersand
sprinters

Horizontal
jumpers

Throwers

Alljumpers

Sprintersand
jumpers

Throwers

Distance
runnersand
throwers

Page8

sprintersandhurdlersoftenparticipateinajumpingevent,thecoachwhoworkswiththesprintersorhurdlerscouldcoveroneofthoseevents.
ThreePersonCoachingStaff
Forathreepersoncoachingstaff,theoptionsfordividingresponsibilitiesexpandtoamuchmoreeffectiveapproach:
Example1
CoachA:Distanceevents,andonejumpingevent
CoachB:Sprints,hurdles,andtwojumpingevents
CoachC:Throws,weighttrainingforallevents
Example2
CoachA:Distanceevents,hurdles
CoachB:Sprints,relays,andjumpingevents
CoachC:Throws,polevault
Example3
CoachA:Distance,polevault
CoachB:Sprints,hurdles,longjump
CoachC:Throws,highjump
Therearemanyotherpossiblecombinations.Thenumberofjumpingeventsorthrowingeventsvariesfromstatetostate.Somestatesincludethejavelinorhammer,
whileothersmayincludeonlytheshotputanddiscus.Inotherstates,thetraditionallongjump,highjump,andpolevaulteventsarejoinedbythetriplejump.
Thepolevaultisaverycomplexanddifficulteventtomaster,requiringmorecoachingtimetoensureproperinstructionandsafety.Thesamepointcanbemadeabout
thejavelin,discus,andhammer.Whiletheshotputrequiresconcernaboutsafety,itislesscomplexthantheotherthrows,andthelearningtimemaybeless.Allof
thesefactorsshouldbetakenintoconsiderationwhileassigningcoachingresponsibilities.
FourPersonCoachingStaff
Forafourpersoncoachingstaff,theoptionsfordividingresponsibilitiesexpandevenfurther.
Example1
CoachA:Distance,middledistance
CoachB:Jumps
CoachC:Throws
CoachD:Sprints,hurdles,relays
Thishasbecomeoneofthemostcommonapproaches,allowingthecoachingstafftimetoworkwithallgroupsdaily.Butothervariationsarepossible,suchasthe
following:
Example2
CoachA:Distance,middledistance

Page9

CoachB:Hurdles,polevault
CoachC:Sprints,relays
CoachD:Throws,allgroups'weighttraining
Example3
CoachA:Distance,middledistance,highjump
CoachB:Sprints,relays,longjump
CoachC:Hurdles,polevault
CoachD:Throws
FivePersonCoachingStaff
Withafivepersoncoachingstaff,youmightuseoneofthefollowingdivisions:
Example1
CoachA:Distance,middledistance
CoachB:Sprintsandrelays
CoachC:Hurdles
CoachD:Throws
CoachE:Jumps
Example2
CoachA:Distance,middledistance
CoachB:400meters,4400meterrelay,andlongerdistancehurdles
CoachC:Sprints,4100meterrelay,andshorterdistancehurdles
CoachD:Throws
CoachE:Jumps
SixPersonCoachingStaff
Forasixpersoncoachingstaff,youcouldadoptoneofthefollowingdivisions.
Example1
CoachA:Distance,middledistance
CoachB:Sprints,longjump,triplejump
CoachC:Hurdles,relays
CoachD:Throws
CoachE:Highjump
CoachF:Polevault
Example2
CoachA:Distance,highjumpers
CoachB:Sprints,relays
CoachC:Hurdles,longjump,triplejump
CoachD:Polevault
CoachE:Throws
CoachF:Middledistance,longerdistancehurdles

Page10

PromotingYourProgram
Oneofthewaystodevelopasuccessfulprogramistohavelargenumbersfromwhichtodevelopyourathletesintoacompetitiveteam.Togetstudentstocomeout
foryourteam,itisimportanttosellyourprogram.Foranindividualtogetinterestedinbeingonateam,theremustbesomethingtodrawhimorher.Thestatusof
beingontheteamwilldrawsomepeople.Ifyourteamhasbeensuccessful,youhaveabuiltinadvantage,becauselotsofprospectiveathleteswanttobeapartofa
winningteam.Therearemanyotheraspectsofsportthatdrawtheinterestofyoungpeople:havingfun,beingwiththeirfriends,socialinteraction,belongingtoa
group,individualachievement,awards,letterjackets,andothers.Themostimportantmotivatingfactorforalmosteveryoneisindividualrecognition.Themoreways
thatyoucandrawindividualattentiontoyourteammembers,themorelikelyyouwillstimulateinterestinbeingapartofyourprogram.
Waystocreaterecognition:
Announcetheathletes'achievementsontheschoolPAsystem.
Getmeetresultsandtopperformancesintothelocalpapers.
Putupabulletinboardtohighlightteamandindividualachievements.
Createanathleteoftheweekaward.
Holdapostseasonbanquettohonortheteam.
Postschoolrecordsinaprominentlocationintheschoolorgym.
Developalltimeperformanceliststhatgiveathletesgoalstotarget.
Drawattentiontotheoutstandingacademicachievementsofteammembers.
Createtrophycasedisplaysinschooltoshowofftrophiesandawards.
Takeindividualpicturesofyourathletes,andpostthepicturesofthosewhomadethatweek'sbestefforts.
Writeyourownnewslettertopassoutinschoolexpoundingontheachievementsofindividualathletesortheteam.
Puttogetherabrochureofyourteamthathighlightsindividuals,yourschedule,andrecordholders.
Createavideotapeofyourteam'scompetitions,successes,andoftheteamhavingfun.Thiswillbeanexcellentrecruitingtool.
Promoteintramuraltrackmeetstoinvolvethewholeschoolandcreatemoreinterestinthesport.
Createsummerclinicsandorganizeallcomermeetsforcommunityyouth.
Wheneveryourathletescanhearorseeinformationaboutthemselvesthatgivesthemasenseofaccomplishmentamongtheirpeers,theywillbecomemoremotivated.
AgoodwaytoincreaseattendanceathometrackmeetsistoholdthemeetonaFridayeveningoraweekendevening.Getanotherschoolorganizationtohosta
dancefollowingthemeetattheschool.Tohelpincreaseattendanceatthecollegiatelevel,considerinvitingfraternitiesandsororities,ormakethemeetpartofan
alumnicelebration.Especiallyinthespring,therearenotmanycompetingschoolsocialactivities.Manystudentswillcomeouttoseetheteaminactionprior

Page11

tothedance.Manyathleticeventsatalllevelsaretiedtoasocialevent.Doingthishelpstoappealtoawideaudience.

Individualrecognitionisakeyfactorinkeepingathletes
motivated.HereMarkCrearisrecognizedbytheentireworld
forhisperformanceinthe1996OlympicGames.

Bypromotingyourprogram,youwillattractmanyathletesmotivationiswhatwillkeepthemthere.Motivationisakeyrequirementforsuccessfulcoaching.
Challengingyourathletesisoneformofmotivation.Givethemchallenginggoals,showthemhowtopursuethosegoals,andhelpthemgetthere.Asmentionedearlier,
goodcommunicationskillsareanecessityforacoach.Youmustshowyourathletesthatyoucareaboutthemaswellaswantthemtosucceedathletically.Youmust
recognizethattheyareeachimportant.Youdothatwhenyouacknowledgethemandshowthemtheyareimportanttoyouwhethertheyarethetopperformersorthe
lowestontheteam.Youmustlearntolistencarefullytoeachathlete.Youneedtobeableto"read"yourathletesrecognizetheirabilitytoworkhardandtopursue
goals,andwhentheyarementallydownandshouldnotbecriticized.Often,wetakeforgrantedthatanathleteismotivatedandneedsnoencouragementbut
everyoneneedsencouragement.Yourabilitytoreadyourathleteswillensurethatyoupushthemintherightdirection.YoudonothavetobesomesortofPollyanna,
butapositive,encouragingpersonalitydoesgoalongwaytoboosttheathletes'motivation.Behonestinyourevaluationsandcriticisms.Letthemknowthatwhen
youcriticizethemitishonestanddonetohelpthemimprove.Besuretheyunderstandyourcriticismisfortheperformanceandnottheperson.Motivationisalmosta
promotionaltechniqueinitself.Seeingahappygroupofathleteswillencourageotherstojoin.
Recruiting
Wheredoyoulookfortalent?Obviously,looktoathleteswhocompeteinothersportsinotherseasons.Football,soccer,basketball,swimming,diving,gymnastics,
andwrestlingallhavestrength,endurance,andskillrequirementsthataresimilartothosefortrackandfield.Also,youmayfindsometrackandfieldtalentinathletes
whoarecutfromotherteams.
Speaktothephysicaleducationteachersinyourschoolsystemandseeiftheyofferaunitoftrackandfieldintheircurriculum.Iftheydonot,offertohelpdevelop
onewiththem.Also,findoutiftheydofitnesstestingforstrength,power,endurance,andagility.Evaluatingthosetestscanrevealtalent.(Seechapter2on

Page12

predictivetesting.)Ifyouareahighschoolcoach,contactphysicaleducationteachersinthejuniorhighormiddleschoolsthatfeedintoyourhighschool.Askifyou
mightcometotheirschoolsandgiveapresentationtotheirclassesaboutyourteamandtheopportunitiesthatareavailabletotheminthefuture.Thisprovidesan
excellentopportunitytopresentthevideotapethatyouproducedshowingyourteamatpractice,atmeets,successfulevents,andyourathleteshavingfun.Seekout
opportunitiestoalsospeaktoparentandcommunitygroupssuchastheParentTeacherOrganization(PTO).Themoreyoucangetthewordoutthatyourprogram
provideschallenges,recognition,andfun,themoreyouincreasethechanceforgreaterparticipation.
OrganizingHomeMeets
Onewayofdevelopingspectatorinterestinyourteamistoputonwellrunmeetswhereyourathletescandisplaytheirtalents.Itiscriticalthatyourmeetdisplays
competitionthatisexcitingandunderstandable.Onethingthatcancausespectatorstoloseinterestduringtrackmeetsisalackofinformation,suchasnotknowingthe
heightofthecrossbarorwhoisleadinginanevent.Havingenoughgoodofficialsiskeytohostingeffectivemeets.Therearethreevitalofficialswhosetasksare
criticaltoawellrunmeet.Firstandforemost,haveaknowledgeableannouncerwhokeepsthespectatorsinformed.Usedisplayboardsateachfieldeventsitetolist
theperformer,theperformance,ortheheightofthecrossbar.Keepthemeetmovingonatighttimeschedule.Meetsthatlastlongerthantwohoursmaynothold
spectatorinterest.Thesecondkeyofficial,whomaintainsthemeetschedule,istheclerkofcourse.Thethirdandequallyimportantofficialistheheadtimer/headfinish
judge.
1.Announcer:Oneofthekeywaystointerestspectatorsistohaveagoodannouncerwhocankeepeveryoneinformedofthewholecompetition.Theannouncer
shouldhavealltheinformationavailableaboutallcompetitorsinallevents.Toprovidecurrentinformation,anofficialwithawalkietalkiemovesaroundtothevarious
fieldevents,informingtheannounceroftheheightofthecrossbars,thebestjumpsorthrows,andhowmanycompetitorsarestillleftinthecompetition.Theannouncer
shouldhaveacompletelistoflaneassignmentsofeveryathletecompetingineachrunningevent.Anassistantannouncerwhocanhelpkeepallofthisinformation
currentwillhelpproduceaveryinterestingmeet.Personalizingtheperformerstothefanscreatesadditionalinterest.
2.ClerkofCourse:Thisisanofficialtowhomallrunnersreportpriortotherace.Theclerkcheckstoseeifallcompetitorsarewearingtheappropriatenumbers.
Heorshetakesthecompetitorstotheassignedstartingpositionsandgivesfinalinstructionsaboutrunninginlanes,breakpoints,andexchangezones,beforeturning
therunnersovertothestarter.Theclerkisthepersonwhokeepsthemeetonscheduleandpreventsdelaysbyathleteswhoprocrastinate.Itisveryimportanttohave
communicationsbetweentheclerkandtheannouncerbywalkietalkie.
3.HeadFinishJudge:Insmallermeets,theheadtimerandheadfinishjudgemaybethesameofficial.However,inmeetswheretherewillbeeightormorefinish
places,itisbettertodividethetasksbetweentwopeople.Theheadfinishjudgeassignstheplacepickerstoeachrace'sfinish,thenrecordstheorderoffinishfrom
thosedecisions.Theheadtimerassignseachtimeraplacetotime,then

Page13

recordstheirresultsanddeterminesallofficialtimes.Theheadfinishjudgethengetsthedatafromtheheadtimertobeplacedontheeventresultformandsendsthe
formtothescorekeeperandannouncer.
Theefficientcompletionofthedutiesoftheabovethreeofficialsdeterminesifameetstaysonschedule.Ifyoudonothaveanyonetoofficiatetheseduties,youshould
trainseveralpeopleuponwhomyoucanrelytoworkyourhomemeets.Manyotherofficialsarecriticaltotherunningofameet.Thefollowingisachecklistofthe
officialsneededforlargeinvitationalsorchampionshipmeets.
ListofOfficialsforChampionshipMeets
__Meetdirector
__Starter(s)
__Referee
__Headfieldjudge
__Clerk(s)ofcourse(twoforsinglegendermeet,threeorfourforbothgendermeets)
__Headfinishjudge
__Headtimer
__Runnerforheadjudgeandheadtimer
__Lapcounter
__Timers(threeonfirstplace,andenoughtotimeallscoringplaces)(Whereverpossible,usetwoorthreetimersperplacetimed.)
__Judges(sameaswithtimers)
__Inspectors(umpires)(6to10areneeded)
__Windgaugeoperator(s)(oneforrunningeventsandoneforhorizontaljumps)
__Weightsandmeasuresjudge
__Phototimeroperator(onerunnerishelpful)
__Filmreader(personwhoevaluatesresultsfromphototimer)
__Scorer
__Startingblockclerk(movestheblockstotherightstartingline)
__Typist(s)
__Scorer'sassistanttopostresults
__Announcer(s)
__Announcer'sassistant
__Hurdlecrew(oneperflightofhurdles)
__Awardsclerk
__Headofficialforeachfieldevent

Page14

__Oneperformanceindicatorboardofficialforeachfieldevent
__Twomeasurerstoassistheadofficialateachthrowingevent
__Oneimplementretrieverforeachthrowingevent
__Twomeasurerstoassistheadofficialathorizontaljumps
__Onepitrakerateachhorizontaljump
__Onecrossbarreplacerateachverticaljump
__Marshal(s)(officialswhokeepallcompetitionareasclearofnoncompetitors,coaches,andspectators)
__Physicianand/orathletictrainers
Inorderforperformancestoberecognizedasrecords,certifiedofficialsareamust.Forhighschoolchampionships,thestateathleticassociationprovidesforthe
testingandcertificationofofficials.Othercertificationisdonebythenationalgoverningbody,USATrack&Field.Eachfieldeventshouldberunbyatleastone
certifiedofficial.Thatofficialcanbeassistedbynoncertifiedpersonnel.Fordualmeets,itisnotalwayspossibletogetasmanycertifiedofficialsasyouneed.For
thosesituations,youshouldhaveofficiatingclinicsforthosepeoplewhowillbehelpingyou.Youmustensurethattheofficialsthatyouputinplaceknowtherulesof
competition,andtheproceduresformeasuring,timing,orcallingtheorderofcompetitors.
Toputonagoodshow,youneedalotofhelp.Youshouldlineitupwellinadvance,inordertobeconfidentthateverythingwillworksmoothly.Otherkeypeople
thatareneededarescorekeepers,typists,andmarshals.Astheheadcoach,youwilloftenfindyourselfintheroleofmeetdirector.Itisvitaltohavethemeet
operationsorganizedaheadoftimeandwellplanned.Oncealltheofficialsandoperationalhelpareinplace,themeetcanalmostrunitself.Ifyouarenotwell
organized,youwillfindyourselfrunningaroundthroughoutthemeet,solvingproblemsandcarryingoutdutiesthatsomeoneelseshouldbedoing.Thiswillleavelittle
timeforyoutocoachorobserveyourteam.
Priortothestartoftheseason,youshouldwritetoallpersonswhopotentiallycanworkasofficialsatyourmeets.Sendthemascheduleofthehomemeetswithdates
andstartandfinishtimes.Askthemtoreturnaformonwhichtheycheckoffthemeetsthattheycanworkandtheofficiatingdutiesthattheyprefertodo.Also,make
suretheygiveyouupdatedaddressandphoneinformation.
Groupsfromwhichtosecureofficiatinghelp:
Statehighschoolassociation(askforalistofcertifiedofficials)
USATrack&FieldAssociation(askfortheirlistofofficials)
Offseasoncoachesfromyourschool
Otherinterestedteachersandschoolstaffmembers
Parentsofyourathletes(useinrolesthatdonotinvolvedecisionmakingorrulesinterpretation)
BoosterClubmembers
Formerathletesandalumni
Physicaleducationmajorsatlocaluniversitiesorcommunitycolleges

Page15

Puttingtogetheralistoftaskstodobefore,during,andafterthemeetwillhelpyoukeeptrackofwhatneedstobedonetopulloffawellrunmeet.Usethefollowing
checklistsortailorthemtofityourneeds.
MeetChecklists
Severaldayspriortomeet:
__Contactbyphoneorinpersonallneededofficials.
__Assignpreandpostmeetdutiestoteammembers.
Noncompetingathletes.
Premeetdutiesforthosecompetinglateinmeet.
Postmeetdutiesforthosecompetingearlyinmeet.
Allteammemberscanassistwithpostmeetcleanup.
__Filloutyourownteamentries.
__Postameettimescheduleforyourteam.
__Checktrackfacilityandequipmentforanyneededrepair.
__Preparemeetoperationalformsonclipboardsforthefollowing:
Headfinishjudge
Headtimer
Clerkofcourse
Announcer'stimeschedule
Windgaugeoperator'sreportform
Individualfieldeventscoresheets
Meetscoresheetsforofficialscorer
__Placebriefsynopsisofrulesforeventonbackofclipboards.
__Checkphotoelectrictimingdeviceforbatterychargeandreadiness.
__Checkfilmforphotoelectrictimingdevice.
Daybeforemeet:
__Lineallsectorsforthrowingfieldevents.
__Ropeoffalllandingareaswelloutsidethesectorlinesforthethrowingevents.Usepennantsorothercolorfulmaterials.
__Turnandlevelsandinjumpingpits.
__Placetrashbarrelsinkeylocations.
__Rollgrasslandingforthethrowsusingheavylawnrollingdeviceandtractor.
__Stackhurdlesneatlyneareachlocationandsetthecrossbarattheproperheightforthefirsthurdlerace.Settheadjustablehurdleweights(whereapplicable)atthe
properlocationpriortothefirstrace.
__Posttheorderofeventsandmeetentriesatkeylocationsaroundthetrack.

Page16

__Checkpolevaultandhighjumpstandardstoseeiftheyarefunctioningproperly.
__Lubricateanyequipmentwhosemovingpartsmaybefrozenorsticking.
Ifyourtrackisnotallweather,withpermanentmarkingsforallstart,finish,orexchangezonelines:
__Dragandrollcinderstrack.
__Linealllanes.
__Markthefollowing:
Finishlines
Startlines
Staggeredstartlinesforracesinlanes
Exchangezonesandflyzonemarks
Curvedstartlineforracesover800meters
Hurdlepositionmarks
__Setupcheckinareaforathletestoreporttotheclerks.
__Setupawardsarea.
__Setupasecureareawherecompetingathletescanleavetheirwarmupclothingduringtheirevents.
__Setupthestandforfinishjudgesinproperarea.
Thedayofthemeet:
__Setoutcrossbars,standards,startingblockcart,rakes,shovels,andbrooms.
__Setupperformanceindicatorboards.
__Setupallelectronicequipmentandneededextensioncords.
Photoelectrictimer
Windgauges
Fieldeventtimingdevices
__Placefilmforphototimer.
__Setoutandcheckstopwatches.
__Placelapcounterandindicatornearfinishline.
__SetupandcheckPAsystem.
__Setuptapeplayerfornationalanthem.
__Checkoutwalkietalkiesandmakesuretheyfunction.
__Checkdistanceindicatingmarkersforthrowingevents.

Page17

__Setoutwhistlesforstarterandheadfinishjudge.
__Setoutbatons.
__Setoutscorecardforofficialscorer.
__Setouttypewriter,paper,stapler,adhesivetapeforproducingofficialresults.
__Setoutcopymachine.
__Setupfordistributionofawardsandrecordingofdistribution.
__Setupanofficials'checkinareawhereyouwilldistributethefollowing:
Fieldeventclipboards
Tapemeasures
Pencilsforrecordingdata
Basketsinwhichclipboards,tapemeasures,andpencilscanbeplaced.Oneforeachevent.
Allotherformsforofficialsmentionedearlier
Redandwhiteflagsforinspectors(umpires)
Rulebooks
__Setupimplementweighinareawithmeasuringandweighingdevices.
Afterthemeet:
__Distributemeetresultstoallvisitingcoaches.
__Distributemeetresultstoallmediapresent.
__Supervisesitecleanup.
__Callinorfaxresultstolocalpaperifreportersarenotpresent.
__Callinorfaxresultstolocalradiostation.
__Postmeetresults,individualscoringtotals,competitionsplits,fieldeventperformanceseries,meetorschoolrecords,personalbests.
__Writeabriefcritiqueofyourteam'sperformance.
Summary
Implementingthestepsoutlinedinthischaptermayseemlikeadauntingtask.However,takingthetimeinthebeginningtoplan,promote,organize,andrecruitwill
makeyourjobduringeachseasonmucheasier.Itwillalsocreateasolidfoundationonwhichtobuildawinningteam.

Page19

2
PredictiveTestingofAthletes
PhilHenson
PaulTurner

TheUnitedStateshasneverhadanorganizedsystemofidentifyingandselectingpotentialOlympicathletesatayoungage.Duetothevastsizeanddiversityofthe
UnitedStatesandthelackofdirectcontroloveryoungathletes,thistypeofprogramhasbeenviewedbytheUnitedStatesOlympicCommittee(USOC)as
unfeasible.Also,aslongastheUnitedStateswaswinningthebulkofOlympicmedalssimplyby''showingup,"mostpeopleconsideredtalentselectionunnecessary.
Times,however,havechanged.NolongerisitpossibletodominateOlympicandWorldChampionshipcompetitionsbysimply"showingup"andbringingthosewho
havefilteredtothetopofaneventontheirown.Othernationshaveimprovedtheirselectionandtrainingprogramstothepointthattheyaremuchmorecompetitive.

Page20

TheUnitedStatesisnolongerthedominantpowerthatitoncewas.Canada,GreatBritain,andseveralCaribbeanandWestAfricannationsnowprovidereal
challengesinthesprints,onceaU.S.monopoly.Germany,therepublicsoftheformerSovietUnion,andseveralemergingnationsremainstronginthefieldevents.The
mostdramaticpowershift,ofcourse,isinthedistanceevents,whereKenya,Ethiopia,andMoroccohavenearlyeliminatedtheUnitedStatesfromcontentionin
majorinternationalmeetings.
Inthe1970sand1980s,itwasobviousthattheSovietUnionandEastGermanybecameveryefficientinutilizingtheircountries'talent,particularlyintheexplosive
events.Duringthesetwodecades,thetwocountriesdominatedthethrowingandjumpingevents,especiallyinthewomen'scompetition.Didtheyhavebettertalent
thantheUnitedStates,ordidtheysimplydoabetterjobofidentifyingtheathleteswithtalentandinvolvingtheminsportatyoungerages?Itisobviousthatthetalent
pooloftheUnitedStateswasgreaterthanthatofEastGermany,andthatthetalentlevelsintheUnitedStatesprobablywerehigherduetoitshigherstandardofliving,
whencomparedwiththatintheSovietUnionortheGermanDemocraticRepublic.Therefore,wecanassumethatonekeyareawheretheUnitedStatesfalteredwas
inidentifyingtalentedathletesanddirectingthem.
OneofthegreathistoricalstrengthsofU.S.trackandfieldhasbeenitscloseconnectionswiththeeducationsystem.Mostyoungstersbecomeinvolvedduringtheir
juniorhighschoolorseniorhighschooldaysandthencontinueonthroughcollegeoruniversityandontothenationalteams.
AlthoughtheU.S.educationsystemhasservedthesportoftrackandfieldwellduringthiscenturybyprovidingcompetitiveopportunities,facilities,professional
coaching,andevencollegescholarships,thesecontributionsalsocanbeasourceofweaknessforthesport,forthefollowingreasons:
Highschoolorevenjuniorhighschoolmaybetoolateinsomesportsoreventstoinitiateinvolvement.Wherewouldgymnasticsorswimmingbeifathletes'first
competitiveopportunitycameatthehighschoollevel?
TheschoolcalendarusuallyendsinMayorearlyJune,whichoftenresultsinshortcompetitiveseasons.Whathappensduringtheremainderoftheyear?
Whathappenswhenathletesfinishtheireducationorcompletetheireligibility?Unlesstheyhaveachievedaworldclasslevelofperformancealready,theyprobably
faceanearlyendtotheircompetitivecareers.
Mostimportantly,whathappenstothoseyoungpeoplewhodonotmigratenaturallytowardtrackandfield?Howmanyyoungpeoplebecomeinvolvedindrugs,
gangs,orevenmenialparttimejobsinplaceofathletics?
The15yearoldboywhois6feet,8inches(about203cm)tallwillprobablybedirectedintobasketballinmostschools.Likewise,theyoungmanwhois6feet,2
inches(about188cm)tallandweighs240pounds(about109kg)willprobablybeencouragedtoplayfootballbycoachesandpeers.However,whataboutthe
averagesizedboysandgirlswalkingthehallsofU.S.elementaryandsecondaryschools?Withoutdailyphysicaleducation,mostyoungsterswithexceptionalphysical
talentsimplygounnoticedintheschoolsystems.Thereisanalarmingtrendtoabolishphysicaleducationatthislevel.Unlessyoungpeopleortheirparentsinitiate
involvementintheschool'strackandfieldteam,mostcoacheshavenowayofidentifyingthetalentattheirdisposal.TheproblemintheUnited

Page21

Stateshasbeenmagnifiedinrecentyearsbyanincreasingrelianceuponparttimecoaches.Juniorhighandseniorhighschoolcoacheswhodonotteachinthesame
buildingoreveninthesamesystemastheircoachingassignmentareatadistinctdisadvantagewhenitcomestorecognizingandrecruitingyoungstudentathletes.This
situationisfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheUnitedStates,unlikemanyEuropeancountries,doesnothaveastrongsystemofsportsclubstoaugmenttheroleof
theeducationsysteminprovidingtrackandfieldopportunities.
TalentEvaluationProgram
WhattheUnitedStatesneedsisanorganized,broadbasedsystemofidentifyingyoungpeoplewithexceptionaltalentatanearlyage.Obviously,someareassuchas
enduranceandstaticstrengthcanbedevelopedthroughtrainingandhardwork.However,otherareassuchasspeedandexplosivepowerarelargelyinnateandmay
becloselyrelatedtomusclefibertypecannotbereadilychangedthroughtraining.Musclefibertypemaybeadeterminingfactorineventsrequiringspeedand
explosiveability.Performancepotentialcanbeidentifiedthrough11fairlysimplemeasurementsandfieldtests.(Seepage22.)
TheUnitedStateshasseveralwidespreadtestingprogramsthatencouragephysicalfitness.TheAmericanAssociationofHealth,PhysicalEducation,Recreationand
Dance(AAHPERD)testandthePresident'sTestforPhysicalFitnessarethemostcommon.Thesetests,however,arenotdesignedtodetectexplosivestrength,the
mainingredientinmosttrackandfieldeventsandtheonemostcloselyassociatedwithmusclefibertype.
Theproposedtalentevaluationprogramwouldbeadministeredmuchlikeaphysicalfitnesstestandwoulduseexistingsportsclubs,parksandrecreationprograms,
sportscamps,andschoolphysicaleducationclassesastestingvenues.Thetestresultswouldbecompiledandstandardsestablishedforgenderandageineachtest
category.Youngboysandgirlswhoscoredwellonthefieldtestwouldbeencouragedtobecomeinvolvedintrackandfield.Thetestresultsalsowouldbeusedto
recommendtheeventareainwhichanindividualshouldconcentrate.Thesetestshavebeenshowntopredictactualperformancelevels,onceyoungstershavelearned
basictechnique.Thisphasehasbeenparticularlyusefulinmotivatingyoungathletestostrivetoachievetheirtheoreticalpotential.
RecentstudiesconductedatIndianaUniversitywiththehelpofaUSATrack&Fieldgrantrevealedthatitispossibletoaccuratelypredictperformanceinselected
trackandfieldeventsusingrelativelysimplefieldtests.Theresultsaremostaccuratewhentheathletealreadyhassomeexperienceinthecompetitioneventthatheor
sheisexpectedtoperform.Furtherstudiesusingthesamefieldtestsshouldhelpidentifywhatadditionaleventswouldbebestfortheathlete.
PerformanceTests
Thetestsusedinthefollowingtalentevaluationprocedureswereselectedbothfortheirabilitytoeffectivelyhelppredictfuturetrackandfieldperformance(s)andfor
theireaseofapplication.Thesetestsgenerallyarewellknownandcanbereadilyexecutedusingaminimumofequipmentandevaluators.Thisenhancestheuseofthis
testbatteryinthefield.

Page22

Elevencriteriaareevaluatedduringthetesting.
1.Height
2.Weight
3.Bodycomposition
4.Standinglongjump
5.Verticaljump
6.Fiveboundsfordistance
7.Sixtymeterdashfromastandingstart
8.Thirtymeterdashfromastandingstart
9.Thirtymeterdashfromamovingstart
10.Stridefrequencyduring30meterdashfromamovingstart
11.Stridelengthduring30meterdashfromamovingstart
Equipment
Toperformthetrackandfieldpredictiontests,thefollowingequipmentisneeded:
Clipboards
Pencils
Datarecordingforms
Measuringtapesforimperialandmetricsystems
Fourstopwatches
Skinfoldcalipers
Verticaljumpboard
Scales
TestingProcedures
Performancetestsaregiveninthesameorderforallathletestoeliminateanypossibleordereffect.Exceptfortheanthropometricmeasures(height,weight,%body
fat),alltestsaregiventwiceandthebesttrialisusedinthecalculation.Thefollowingoutlinestheproperproceduresforperformingeachtest.
Height
Measureheightinincheswiththeathletestandingflushagainstaverticalsurface.
Weight
Measureeachathlete'sweightinpounds.Theirshoesshouldbetakenoffpriortothetest.
BodyComposition
Eachathlete'sbodyfatpercentagewillbedeterminedbyskinfoldmeasurementsusingcalipers.Forfemaleathletes,measurementsaremadeattheiliaccrestandatthe
tricep.Formales,themeasurementsareonthequadricepandsubscapular.Thefollowingarethespecificproceduresforthistest:
1.Placethethumbandforefingerofthelefthandfarenoughapartthatafoldofskincanbepinchedupfirmlyandclearlyfromtheunderlyingtissue.

Page23

2.Firmlyholdthefoldbetweenthefingerswhilethemeasurementisbeingmadewiththecalipers.
3.Applythecaliperstothefoldbelowthefingerssothatthepressureatthepointisexertedbythecaliperfaces,notthefingers.Readingstothenearesthalfmillimeter
areadequate.
Bodyfatcanbedeterminedbythefollowingformula:

Sincethesecalculationsareratherlong,atableofbodyfatpercentageshasbeenderivedfromtheaboveequations.(Seepages2932.)
StandingLongJump
Thesubjectbeginsfromastationarypositionwithbothfeetsquareagainstapredeterminedstartingline.Measurement(ininches)ismadefromthestartingpointtothe
landingpointclosesttothestartingpoint(e.g.,wheretheheelofthefootlanded).Twotrialsareperformed,andthebestperformanceisusedinthecalculations.
Equipmentneededisalongjumppitandatapemeasure.
VerticalJump
Usingajumpboard,theathlete'sstandingreachisascertained.Then,fromastationaryposition,theathletejumpsandtouchesashighaspossibleonthejumpboard.
Twotrialsaregiven,andtheathlete'sverticaljumpisdeterminedbysubtractingthestandingheightfromthehighestjumpingheight.Allmeasurementsshouldbe
recordedininches.Equipmentneededisawallatleast11feethighandatapemeasure.Commercialadjustableverticaljumpstandsarehelpful,butnotnecessary.
FiveBoundsforDistance
Fromastationarypositionwithbothfeetsquareagainstapredeterminedstartingline,thesubjectexecutesfivebounds(actuallyfourboundsandajump)endingina
longjumppit.Therefore,thepatternwouldbeRLRLjump,orviceversa.Twotrialsaregiven,andthebestdistanceisused.Measurementismadefromstarting
pointtolandingpointclosesttothestartingpoint.Recordthisnumberininches.Thisisalsoanexcellentpredictoroftriplejumpability,andthedistancewillbesimilar.
Equipmentneededisalongjumppitandatapemeasure.

Page24

SixtyMeterDash
Fromastandingposition,theathletestartsatwillandtwotimersarepositionedat60meters.Thefastestofthetwotimesisused,andisrecordedto.1second.
Equipmentneededisstopwatches.
Standing30MeterDash
Duringthe60meterdash(above),twotimersarepositionedat30meters.Thefastestofthetwotimesisused.
Flying30MeterDash
Thismeasurementistaken"onthefly,"orfromamovingstart.Thetimefromtheabove30meterdashissubtractedfromthefinal60metertimeandisrecordedto.1
second.
StrideFrequency
Thenumberoftimesastepistakenwithaparticularlegbetween30metersand60metersisascertained,usingtwocounters(onecounterperleg).Addnumberof
stepstakenforeachleganddividetotalbyflying30meterdashtime.
Forexample,8withrightleg+7withleftleg=15strides.
15stridesdividedby5.0secondsbetween30and60meters=3.00stridespersecond.
CaseStudy
Tobetterunderstandthetestingprotocol,ahypotheticalsituationwillbepresented.JohnDoeof
StateUniversityisbeingtestedbythecoachingstafftoevaluatehispotential.Thefollowingare
theresultsofhistesting:
Height:6feet,3inches=75inches
Weight:200pounds
BodyComposition:subscapular:12millimeters,quadricep:9millimeters.Estimatedbodyfat
fromtables=10.2%
StandingLongJump:Trial1:9feet=108inches,Trial2:9feet,1inch=109inches(use109
inches)
VerticalJump:Trial1:28inches,Trial2:30inches(use30inches)
FiveBoundsforDistance:Trial1:50feet,1inch=601inches,Trial2:49feet,10inches=
598inches(use601inches)
SixtyMeterDash:Trial1:7.5seconds,Trial2:7.4seconds(use7.4seconds)
Standing30MeterDash:Trial1:4.0seconds,Trial2:3.9seconds(use3.9seconds)
Flying30MeterDash:7.4seconds3.9seconds=3.5seconds
StrideFrequency:15stridesdividedby3.5seconds=4.29stridespersecond
StrideLength:30metersdividedby15strides=2.00meters=78.75inches

Page25

StrideLength
Thestridelengthistakenfromtheflying30meterdash.Itisthenumberofstridesfrom30metersto60metersdividedinto30.
Forexample,8withrightleg+7withleftleg=15strides.
30metersdividedby15strides=2.00meters=78.75inchstridelength.
Calculations
Thefollowingformulaswillhelpdeterminepotentialintrackandfieldeventsformalesandfemales.
Males
Thebasicformulaformalesfollows:

FortheJohnDoeinthecasestudythecalculationswouldbe:

Onceapointtotalisgenerated,multieventtablesareusedtoestimateperformanceintheselectedevent.Thesetablesareusedforscoringthedecathlon,heptathlon,
andothercommontrackandfieldevents.IfJohnDoeisalongjumper,thatpointtotalwouldequatetoapredictedperformanceof7.42meters.Yousimplygotothe
decathlontables(orheptathlontablesforwomen)andlookuptheeventforwhichtheathleteisbeingevaluated.(Seetable2.1.)Inthiscase,thecoachwouldlookat
thelongjumpcategoryandfindJohnDoe'stestscoreof915points.Theperformancenexttothatscoreisthepredictedperformancefortheathlete7.42meters.
Statistically,onecanbeconfidentthatthetruepotentialis110pointsand90%confidentthatJohnDoe'spotentiallieswithin141points.Inotherwords,onecanbe
90%confidentthatDoecanjumpbetween6.83metersand7.98meters.
Theformulajustexplainedobviouslyisunwieldy.Amoreefficientbutlessaccurateequationformaleathletesisthefollowing:

Thisequationyieldsa68%confidencelevelof118pointsanda90%levelof151points.

Page26
TABLE2.1SAMPLEDECATHLONTABLE
Men
LongJump
Meters

Points

Meters

Points

Meters

Points

Meters

Points

Meters

Points

8.99

1323

8.49

1188

7.99

1058

7.49

932

6.99

811

8.98

1320

8.48

1186

7.98

1056

7.48

930

6.98

809

8.97

1317

8.47

1183

7.97

1053

7.47

927

6.97

807

8.96

1314

8.46

1180

7.96

1050

7.46

925

6.96

804

8.95

1312

8.45

1178

7.95

1048

7.45

922

6.95

802

8.94

1309

8.44

1175

7.94

1045

7.44

920

6.94

799

8.93

1306

8.43

1172

7.93

1043

7.43

918

6.93

797

8.92

1304

8.42

1170

7.92

1040

7.42

915

6.92

795

8.91

1301

8.41

1167

7.91

1038

7.41

913

6.91

792

8.90

1298

8.40

1164

7.90

1035

7.40

910

6.90

790

8.89

1295

8.39

1162

7.89

1033

7.39

908

6.89

788

8.88

1293

8.38

1159

7.88

1030

7.38

905

6.88

785

8.87

1290

8.37

1157

7.87

1027

7.37

903

6.87

783

8.86

1287

8.36

1154

7.86

1025

7.36

900

6.86

781

8.85

1285

8.35

1151

7.85

1022

7.35

898

6.85

778

8.84

1282

8.34

1149

7.84

1020

7.34

896

6.84

776

8.83

1279

8.33

1146

7.83

1017

7.33

893

6.83

774

8.82

1276

8.32

1143

7.82

1015

7.32

891

6.82

771

8.81

1274

8.31

1141

7.81

1012

7.31

888

6.81

769

8.80

1271

8.30

1138

7.80

1010

7.30

886

6.80

767

8.79

1268

8.29

1136

7.79

1007

7.29

883

6.79

764

8.78

1266

8.28

1133

7.78

1005

7.28

881

6.78

762

8.77

1263

8.27

1130

7.77

1002

7.27

878

6.77

760

8.76

1260

8.26

1128

7.76

1000

7.26

876

6.76

757

8.75

1258

8.25

1125

7.75

997

7.25

874

6.75

755

8.74

1255

8.24

1123

7.74

995

7.24

871

6.74

753

8.73

1252

8.23

1120

7.73

992

7.23

869

6.73

750

8.72

1250

8.22

1117

7.72

990

7.22

866

6.72

748

8.71

1247

8.21

1115

7.71

987

7.21

864

6.71

746

8.70

1244

8.20

1112

7.70

985

7.20

862

6.70

743

8.69

1241

8.19

1110

7.69

982

7.19

859

6.69

741

8.68

1239

8.18

1107

7.68

980

7.18

857

6.68

739

8.67

1236

8.17

1104

7.67

977

7.17

854

6.67

736

8.66

1233

8.16

1102

7.66

975

7.16

852

6.66

734

8.65

1231

8.15

1099

7.65

972

7.15

850

6.65

732

8.64

1228

8.14

1097

7.64

970

7.14

847

6.64

729

8.63

1225

8.13

1094

7.63

967

7.13

845

6.63

727

8.62

1223

8.12

1092

7.62

965

7.12

842

6.62

725

8.61

1220

8.11

1089

7.61

962

7.11

840

6.61

723

8.60

1217

8.10

1086

7.60

960

7.10

838

6.60

720

8.59

1215

8.09

1084

7.59

957

7.09

835

6.59

718

8.58

1212

8.08

1081

7.58

955

7.08

833

6.58

716

8.57

1209

8.07

1079

7.57

952

7.07

830

6.57

713

8.56

1207

8.06

1076

7.56

950

7.06

828

6.56

711

8.55

1204

8.05

1073

7.55

947

7.05

826

6.55

709

8.54

1201

8.04

1071

7.54

945

7.04

823

6.54

707

8.53

1199

8.03

1068

7.53

942

7.03

821

6.53

704

8.52

1196

8.02

1066

7.52

940

7.02

818

6.52

702

8.51

1194

8.01

1063

7.51

937

7.01

816

6.51

700

8.50

1191

8.00

1061

7.50

935

7.00

814

6.50

697

Page27

Females
Forfemaleathletes,themostefficaciousformulaisthefollowing:

The68%confidencelevelforthisequationis113points,andthe90%levelis145points.AthleteJaneDoehasachievedthefollowingtestperformances:135
poundsinWeight,96inchesintheStandingLongJump,aStrideLengthof75inches,andaStrideFrequencyofthreestridespersecond.Theresultswouldbe673
points.IfJaneDoeisalongjumper,herpredictedperformancewouldbe5.40meters,or17feet,8.5inches.Her68%rangewouldbefrom5.00metersto5.79
meters,andher90%rangewouldbefrom4.88metersto5.89meters.
ExplosiveEventPerformance
Regardingtheformulae,itisapparentthatthemosteffectivewaytoimproveperformanceinexplosiveeventsisbyincreaseddynamiclegpower(dynamicpower
beingtheabilitytogeneratelargeamountsofmuscularforcewhilemoving).Thisisevidentbythefactthatstridelength,stridefrequency,andfiveboundsfordistance
factorintotheequationssignificantly.Likewise,researchinthedevelopmentoftheseformulaesuggeststhatimprovementsinspeedresultprimarilyfromincreasesin
stridelengthratherthanfromimprovementsinstridefrequency.Sinceincreasesinspeedat30metersand60meterswerefoundtobeaccompaniedbyimprovements
inverticaljump,standinglongjump,andfive
TABLE2.2EXPLOSIVEPERFORMANCESUMMARY

Males
1314yrs.

Females
1516yrs.

1314yrs.

1516yrs.

Percentbodyfat

7.08.5

7.08.0

14.016.0

14.015.5

Standinglongjump

2.402.55m

2.502.65m

2.092.21m

2.112.22m

Verticaljump

.56.61m

.61.69m

.43.50m

.46.52m

Fivebounds

11.3011.80m

12.2012.70m

9.8010.40m

10.2010.80m

60m

8.07.6sec.

7.87.4sec.

8.78.3sec.

8.58.1sec.

Standing30m

4.54.3sec.

4.44.2sec.

4.74.5sec.

4.64.4sec.

Flying30m

3.53.3sec.

3.43.2sec.

4.03.8sec.

3.93.7sec.

Stridefrequency

4.34.7strides/sec.

4.34.7strides/sec.

4.04.4strides/sec.

4.14.5strides/sec.

Stridelength

2.092.15m

2.132.20m

1.901.95m

2.052.13m

Page28

bounds,itwouldappearthatincreasedexplosivestrengthandthesubsequentincreaseinstridelengtharethebestmeanstogreaterrunningspeed.Asanexample,if
JaneDoeimprovedherstridefrequencyfrom3.0to3.5stridespersecond,herpredictedlongjumpperformancewouldimproveapproximatelysixinches(about15
cm).
Table2.2indicatesexceptionalperformanceintheexplosivetestsforages1316(seepage27).Athletesachievingthesemarksshouldrankinthetop10percentfor
theseagegroups.Thistypeofrankingwouldindicateastrongpossibilityforfuturesuccessintrackandfieldeventsrequiringspeedandexplosiveness.
Summary
RegardlessofthesizeanddiversityoftheUnitedStates,itispossibletocreatethekindofpredictivetestingprogramsthathavemadeothercountriesmuchmore
competitive.Theprogramoutlinedinthischapterwascreatedinanefforttostopyoungsterswithexceptionalphysicaltalentfromgoingunnoticed.Itenablescoaches
torecognizepotentialOlympicathletesatayoungageandpredicttheirperformanceintrackandfieldevents.Timehasshownthatsuchaprogramisessentialto
remainingcompetitive.

Page29
APPENDIXBODYFATESTIMATIONTABLES
FEMALE
Iliac

Tricep

crest

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

12.1

12.4

12.7

13.0

13.4

13.7

14.0

14.4

14.7

15.0

15.3

15.7

16.0

12.4

12.7

13.0

13.4

13.7

14.0

14.3

14.7

15.0

15.3

15.6

16.0

16.3

12.7

13.0

13.3

13.6

14.0

14.3

14.6

14.9

15.3

15.6

15.9

16.3

16.6

13.0

13.3

13.6

13.9

14.3

14.6

14.9

15.3

15.6

15.9

16.3

16.6

16.9

13.3

13.6

13.9

14.2

14.6

14.9

15.2

15.6

15.9

16.2

16.6

16.9

17.2

10

13.6

13.9

14.2

14.6

14.9

15.2

16.1

15.9

16.2

16.5

16.9

17.2

17.5

11

13.9

14.2

14.5

14.9

15.2

15.5

15.8

16.2

16.5

16.8

17.1

17.5

17.8

12

14.2

14.5

14.8

15.2

15.5

15.8

16.1

16.5

16.8

17.1

17.5

17.8

18.1

13

14.5

14.8

15.1

15.5

15.8

16.1

16.5

16.8

17.1

17.4

17.8

18.1

18.4

14

14.8

15.1

15.4

15.8

16.1

16.4

16.8

17.1

17.4

17.7

18.1

18.4

18.8

15

15.1

15.4

15.7

16.1

16.4

16.7

17.1

17.4

17.7

18.1

18.4

18.7

19.1

16

15.4

15.7

16.0

16.4

16.7

17.0

17.4

17.7

18.0

18.4

18.7

19.0

19.4

17

15.7

16.0

16.3

16.7

17.0

17.4

17.7

18.0

18.3

18.7

19.0

19.3

19.7

18

16.0

16.3

16.7

17.0

17.3

17.6

18.0

18.3

18.6

19.0

19.3

19.7

20.0

19

16.3

16.6

17.0

17.3

17.6

18.0

18.3

18.6

19.0

19.3

19.6

20.0

20.3

20

16.6

16.9

17.3

17.6

17.9

18.2

18.6

18.9

19.3

19.6

19.9

20.3

20.6

21

16.9

17.2

17.6

17.9

18.2

18.6

18.9

19.2

19.6

19.9

20.3

20.6

20.9

22

17.2

17.5

17.9

18.2

18.5

18.9

19.2

19.6

19.9

20.2

20.5

20.9

21.2

23

17.5

17.8

18.2

18.5

18.9

19.2

19.5

19.9

20.2

20.5

20.9

21.2

21.6

24

17.8

18.2

18.5

18.8

19.2

19.5

19.8

20.2

20.5

20.8

21.2

21.5

21.9

25

18.1

18.5

18.8

19.1

19.5

19.8

20.1

20.5

20.8

21.2

21.5

21.8

22.2

26

18.4

18.8

19.1

19.4

19.8

20.1

20.5

20.8

21.1

21.5

21.8

22.2

22.5

27

18.7

19.1

19.4

19.8

20.1

20.4

20.8

21.1

21.4

21.8

22.2

22.5

22.8

28

19.1

19.4

19.7

20.1

20.4

20.7

21.1

21.4

21.8

22.1

22.4

22.8

23.1

29

19.4

19.7

20.0

20.4

20.7

21.1

21.4

21.7

22.1

22.4

22.8

23.1

23.4

30

19.7

20.0

20.3

20.7

21.0

21.4

21.7

22.0

22.4

22.7

23.1

23.4

23.8

(continued)

Page30

APPENDIXBODYFATESTIMATIONTABLES(continued)
FEMALE
lliac

Tricep

crest

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

16.3

16.7

17.0

17.3

17.7

18.0

18.3

18.7

19.0

19.3

19.7

20.0

20.3

16.6

17.0

17.3

17.6

18.0

18.3

18.6

19.0

19.3

19.6

20.0

20.3

20.7

16.9

17.3

17.6

17.9

18.3

18.6

18.9

19.3

19.6

19.9

20.2

20.6

21.0

17.2

17.6

17.9

18.2

18.6

18.9

19.3

19.6

19.9

20.3

20.6

20.9

21.3

17.6

17.9

18.2

18.6

18.9

19.2

19.6

19.9

20.2

20.6

20.9

21.3

21.6

10

17.9

18.2

18.5

18.9

19.2

19.5

19.8

20.2

20.5

20.9

21.2

21.6

21.9

11

18.2

18.5

18.8

19.2

19.5

19.8

20.2

20.5

20.9

21.2

21.5

21.9

22.2

12

18.5

18.8

19.1

19.5

19.8

20.1

20.5

20.8

21.2

21.5

21.8

22.2

22.5

13

18.8

19.1

19.5

19.8

20.1

20.5

20.8

21.2

21.5

21.9

22.2

22.5

22.8

14

19.1

19.4

19.8

20.1

20.4

20.8

21.1

21.5

21.8

22.1

22.5

22.8

23.8

15

19.4

19.7

20.1

20.4

20.8

21.1

21.4

21.8

22.1

22.5

22.8

23.1

23.5

16

19.7

20.0

20.4

20.7

21.1

21.4

21.7

22.1

22.4

22.8

23.1

23.5

23.8

17

20.0

20.4

20.7

21.0

21.4

21.7

22.1

22.4

22.8

23.1

23.4

23.8

24.1

18

20.3

20.7

21.0

21.3

21.6

22.0

22.4

22.7

23.1

23.4

23.7

24.1

24.4

19

20.6

21.0

21.3

21.7

22.0

22.3

22.7

23.0

23.4

23.7

24.1

24.4

24.7

20

21.0

21.3

21.6

22.0

22.3

22.7

23.0

23.4

23.7

24.0

24.4

24.7

25.1

21

21.3

21.6

21.9

22.3

22.6

23.0

23.3

23.7

24.0

24.3

24.7

25.0

25.4

22

21.6

21.9

22.3

22.6

22.9

23.3

23.6

24.0

24.3

24.7

25.0

25.4

25.7

23

21.9

22.2

22.6

22.9

23.3

23.6

23.9

24.3

24.6

25.0

25.3

25.7

26.0

24

22.2

22.5

22.9

23.2

23.6

23.9

24.3

24.6

25.0

25.3

25.6

26.0

26.3

25

22.5

22.9

23.2

23.5

23.9

24.2

24.6

24.9

25.3

25.6

26.0

26.3

26.7

26

22.8

23.2

23.5

23.9

24.2

24.6

24.9

25.2

25.6

25.9

26.3

26.6

27.0

27

23.2

23.5

23.8

24.2

24.5

24.9

25.2

25.6

25.9

26.3

26.6

27.0

27.3

28

23.5

23.8

24.2

24.5

24.8

25.2

25.5

25.9

26.2

26.6

26.9

27.3

27.6

29

23.8

24.1

24.5

24.8

25.2

25.5

25.9

26.2

26.6

26.9

27.3

27.6

28.0

30

24.1

24.4

24.8

25.1

25.5

25.8

26.2

26.5

26.9

27.2

27.6

27.9

28.3

Page31
APPENDIXBODYFATESTIMATIONTABLES
MALE
Thigh

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

3.6

4.1

4.6

5.1

5.6

6.1

6.7

7.2

7.7

8.2

8.7

9.2

9.7

4.1

4.6

5.1

5.6

6.1

6.7

7.2

7.7

8.2

8.7

9.2

9.7

10.2

4.6

5.1

5.6

6.1

6.7

7.2

7.7

8.2

8.7

9.2

9.7

10.2

10.8

5.1

5.6

6.1

6.7

7.2

7.7

8.2

8.7

9.2

9.7

10.3

10.8

11.3

5.6

6.1

6.7

7.2

7.7

8.2

8.7

9.2

9.7

10.2

10.8

11.3

11.8

6.1

6.6

7.2

7.7

8.2

8.7

9.2

9.7

10.2

10.7

11.3

11.8

12.4

10

6.6

7.2

7.7

8.2

8.7

9.2

9.7

10.3

10.8

11.3

11.8

12.4

12.9

11

7.2

7.7

8.2

8.7

9.2

9.7

10.3

10.8

11.3

11.8

12.4

12.9

13.4

12

7.7

8.2

8.7

9.2

9.8

10.3

10.8

11.3

11.8

12.4

12.9

13.4

14.0

13

8.2

8.7

9.2

9.8

10.3

10.8

11.3

11.8

12.4

12.9

13.4

14.0

14.5

14

8.8

9.3

9.8

10.3

10.8

11.3

11.8

12.4

12.9

13.4

14.0

14.5

15.0

15

9.3

9.8

10.3

10.8

11.3

11.8

12.4

12.9

13.4

13.9

14.5

15.0

15.5

16

9.8

10.3

10.8

11.3

11.8

12.4

12.9

13.4

13.9

14.5

15.0

15.5

16.1

17

10.3

10.8

11.3

11.8

12.4

12.9

13.4

13.9

14.5

15.0

15.5

16.1

16.6

18

10.8

11.3

11.8

12.4

12.9

13.4

13.9

14.5

15.0

15.5

16.1

16.6

17.2

19

11.3

11.8

12.4

12.9

13.4

13.9

14.5

15.0

15.5

16.1

16.6

17.2

17.7

20

11.9

12.4

12.9

13.4

13.9

14.5

15.0

15.6

16.1

16.6

17.2

17.7

18.2

21

12.4

12.9

13.4

13.9

14.5

15.0

15.6

16.1

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

18.8

22

12.9

13.4

13.9

14.5

15.0

15.6

16.1

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

18.8

19.3

23

13.4

13.9

14.5

15.0

15.6

16.1

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

18.8

19.3

20.0

24

14.0

14.5

15.1

15.6

16.1

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

18.8

19.3

20.0

20.4

25

14.5

15.1

15.6

16.1

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

18.8

19.3

19.9

20.4

20.9

26

15.1

15.6

16.1

16.6

17.2

17.7

18.3

18.8

19.3

19.9

20.4

21.0

21.5

27

15.6

16.1

16.6

17.2

17.7

18.3

18.8

19.3

19.9

20.4

21.0

21.5

22.1

28

16.1

16.6

17.2

17.7

18.3

18.8

19.3

19.9

20.4

21.0

21.5

22.1

22.6

29

16.6

17.2

17.7

18.3

18.8

19.3

19.9

20.4

21.0

21.5

22.1

22.6

23.1

30

17.2

17.7

18.3

18.8

19.4

19.9

20.4

21.0

21.5

22.1

22.6

23.1

23.7

(continued)

Subscapula

Page32

APPENDIXBODYFATESTIMATIONTABLES(continued)
MALE
Thigh

Subscapula

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

10.2

10.8

11.3

11.8

12.3

12.8

13.4

13.9

14.4

15.0

15.5

16.0

10.8

11.3

11.8

12.4

12.8

13.4

13.9

14.4

15.0

15.5

16.0

16.6

11.3

11.8

12.4

12.9

13.4

13.9

14.4

15.0

15.5

16.0

16.6

17.1

11.8

12.4

12.9

13.4

13.9

14.4

15.0

15.5

16.0

16.6

17.1

17.7

12.4

12.9

13.4

13.9

14.4

15.0

15.5

16.0

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

12.9

13.4

13.9

14.4

15.0

15.5

16.0

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

18.8

10

13.4

13.9

14.4

15.0

15.5

16.0

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

18.8

19.3

11

14.0

14.4

15.0

15.5

16.0

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

18.8

19.3

19.9

12

14.5

15.0

15.5

16.0

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

18.8

19.3

19.9

20.5

13

15.0

15.5

16.1

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

18.8

19.3

19.9

20.5

21.0

14

15.5

16.1

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

18.8

19.3

19.9

20.5

21.0

21.6

15

16.1

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

18.8

19.3

19.9

20.5

21.0

21.6

22.1

16

16.6

17.1

17.7

18.2

18.8

19.3

19.9

20.5

21.0

21.6

22.1

22.7

17

17.2

17.7

18.2

18.7

19.3

19.9

20.5

21.0

21.6

22.1

22.7

23.2

18

17.7

18.2

18.7

19.3

19.9

20.4

20.9

21.6

22.1

22.7

23.2

23.8

19

18.2

18.7

19.3

19.9

20.4

20.9

21.5

22.0

22.7

23.2

23.8

24.3

20

18.7

19.3

19.9

20.4

20.9

21.5

22.1

22.7

23.2

23.8

24.3

24.9

21

19.3

19.9

20.4

20.9

21.5

22.0

22.6

23.2

23.8

24.3

24.9

25.4

22

20.0

20.4

20.9

21.5

22.0

22.6

23.2

23.8

24.3

24.9

25.4

26.0

23

20.4

20.9

21.5

22.0

22.6

23.1

23.8

24.3

24.9

25.4

26.0

26.5

24

20.9

21.5

22.0

22.6

23.1

23.7

24.3

24.9

25.4

26.0

26.5

27.1

25

21.5

22.0

22.6

23.1

23.7

24.3

24.9

25.4

26.0

26.5

27.1

27.6

26

22.1

22.7

23.2

23.8

24.3

24.9

25.4

26.0

26.5

27.1

27.6

28.2

27

22.7

23.2

23.8

24.3

24.9

25.4

26.0

26.5

27.1

27.6

28.2

29.3

28

23.2

23.8

24.3

24.9

25.4

26.0

26.5

27.1

27.6

28.2

28.7

29.3

29

23.8

24.3

24.9

25.4

26.0

26.5

27.1

27.6

28.2

28.7

29.3

29.8

30

24.3

24.9

25.4

26.0

26.5

27.1

27.6

28.2

28.7

29.3

29.8

30.4

Page33

PARTII
RUNNINGEVENTS

Page35

3
100and200Meters
CurtisFrye

Tomaketheswitchfrommerelyrunningtorunningfasttimesinthe100and200meters,bothcoachesandathletesmustunderstandtheobjectivestheyareshooting
for.Theprimarygoalforallsprintersshouldbetoimprovetheircapacitytohandletheincreasingmusculardemandsoffasterrunning.Thischapterholdsthat
conditioningandmechanicsareimportantbutthatbothfactorsaresecondarytospeeddevelopment.Allathleteshavespeedpotentialsomemorethanothersbased
upontheirgeneticmakeupbutnoathleteusesallofhisorherpotential.Coachescannolongerjustprepareworkouts.Toactualizetheirathletes'potentialand
improvetheirperformance,coachesmustnowoverseeeveryaspectoftheirathletes'training.

Page36

SprintingMechanics
Understandingpropersprintingmechanics,however,willhelpcontributetospeeddevelopment.Mechanicshastodowiththeeffectsofenergyandforcesonthe
body.Forsprinters,musclepower,neurologicalinnervation,andlengthoflimbsarethemostimportantfactorstoconsider.Thesefactorsinfluencethetwomain
componentsthataffectspeed:stridelengthandstridefrequency.
Stridelengthisgovernedbythepowerthesprinterputsintothestride,orthegroundcontacttime.Stridelengthalsohasaneffectontheangleoftheforcetothe
ground.Whenathletesoverstride,orplacethelandingfoottoofarforwardoftheircenterofmass,theycreatebrakingforcesthatslowthemdown.Whiletryingto
lengthentheirstride,byoverstridingathletesmayactuallycausetheirstridetoshorten.Thebestwaytoimprovestrideisnotbychangingtechniquebutratherby
improvingtheabilitytoproducepower(i.e.,speedandstrength).Naturalincreasesinstridelengthoccurwhengreaterpowerisappliedtothegrounddueto
improvementsinstridefrequency.
Stridefrequencyislimitedbythephysiologicalmakeupofeachathlete.Itisgovernedbythefiringabilityofthenervesstimulatingthemuscles,thefibertypethe
musclesaremadeupof,andthelengthofthelimbs.Themorefasttwitchfibersonehas,thegreaterstridefrequencyonecanattain.Shorterlimbsrotatewithgreater
frequency.Longerlimbshavealowerstridefrequency.Shortsprintersthereforetypicallyrunwithaverypowerfulstrideandonaverageruntheshortraces(60to
100meters)faster.Tallsprintersrunfasterinthelongersprintracesinwhichbothspeedandenduranceareneeded.
Technique
Anathlete'smechanicalpotentialismeasuredbytheabilitytoplaceeachbodysegmentincertainrequiredpositionstoreducegroundtime,improvestridefrequency
andstridelength,andreducetheairtimeofeachstride.Allofthis,inturn,willcontributetofasterspeeds.Coachesmustdevelopatechnicalmodelforeachoftheir
athletesthatdisplaystheirstridepattern.Coachesmustthenwork

Figure3.1
Sprintstridingtechnique.

Page37

onmodifyingeachathlete'smovementpatternstohelptheathletesimprovetheirsprintingtechnique(thusimprovingtheirtechnicalmodel).
SprintStridingPhase
Analysisofanathlete'stechnicalmodelwillrevealaspectsofthestridethatshowgoodtechniqueorthatneedimprovement.Herearesomegoodstridingtechniques
tolookfor:
1.Afootthatismovingbackwardunderthebodyuponlanding(sometimesreferredtoasactivefootplantornegativefootspeed).Seefigure3.1a.
2.Highheelrecoveryasthedrivefootleavestheground(figure3.1a).
3.Asupportfootlandingthattouchesdownascloseaspossibletoapointunderthecenterofmass(figure3.1b).
4.Theankleoftheforwardswinginglegshouldcrossthesupportlegabovetheknee(figure3.1c).
5.Averytallposturewithaslightforwardleanfromtheground,notfromthewaist(leanwillbedirectlyproportionaltoaccelerationthegreatertheaccelerationthe
greaterthelean,sooncetopspeedisachievedforwardleanshouldnotbeverynoticeable).
6.Armsthatswingbackwardasifreachingforthehippocket(figure3.1c).
7.Armsbentattheelbows(bentlessthan90degreesontheupswingbutgreaterthan90degreesonthedownswing).(Seefigure3.1d).
8.Relaxedhands(somecoachesadvocateextendedfingerstocreatealongerleverofthemovingforearm.Thislongerlevercreatesalargermomentofinertiaofthe
movingforearmthathelpstoputmoreforceintothegroundastheathletedrivesoff.Besurenottocreatetension,however.)
9.Armsthatswingforwardtoachinhighpositionintothemidlineofthetorsobutdonotcrossthemidline(figure3.1d).
10.Relaxedshoulders,neck,jaw,andface.
11.Adorsallyflexedanklejoint(toeup)justpriortothefootlanding(figure3.1e).

Figure3.1(continued)

Page38

12.Headiserectandeyesarefocusedonthefinishline(figure3.1f,page37).
13.Sprinterrunsinastraightlinethroughouttheracewithverysmallamountoflateralmovement.
AccelerationPhase
Thetechnicalmodelduringtheaccelerationphaseofthesprint,includingthestart,shouldhavethefollowingcharacteristics:
1.Accelerationisachievedbydrivingorpushingwiththedriveleg.Thisrequiresagoodforwardleanfromthegroundup,notthewaist.Rememberthattheamount
ofleananathleteexhibitswillbedirectlyproportionaltoacceleration.Alsorememberthataccelerationdoesnotmeanspeedbuttherateofincreasingspeed.Ifaline
isdrawnfromthefootofthedrivelegthroughthecenterofmass,thatlinealsoshouldextendthroughtheshoulderjointandhead(figure3.2a).Thatlineshouldbeat
approximatelya45degreeanglefromtheground.
2.Thefreelegwilldrivelowandfasttoplacethefootdownunderthebodyandmayevenfallbehindthecenterofmassdependingonhowquicklytheathlete
accelerates.Withoutproperaccelerationtheathleteswillstumblesincetheyareleaningsofarforward.
3.Theheelrecoveryofthedrivelegwillbeverylowcomingoutoftheblocksinordertogetthefootdownfastinordertodriveagainandovercomeinertia.
4.Witheachsucceedingdrivestep,theathletes'speedgrowsuntiltheyreachtheirtopspeed.Asspeedincreasesaccelerationdecreases,soyoushouldobservea
continuouslesseningofbodylean.(Seefigure3.2b.)Uponreachingtopspeed,postureshouldbeveryerect.
5.Alongwiththestridebystridedecreaseinacceleration,youshouldobservetheathletes'heelsrisehigherastheygetintotheirnormalsprintstride.
6.Thearmactionduringtheaccelerationphaseissimilartothesprintstridingphase.However,intheearlyphasesofthestartthehandswillbedrivenveryhighand
forwardrelativetotheathlete'storso.Thearmsplayaveryimportantroleinmaintainingbalance,rhythm,andrelaxation,soyoushouldhavetheathleteconsciously
workthemvigorously.

Figure3.2
Accelerationmechanics:thegreatertheacceleration,thegreaterthelean.

Page39

7.Astheathletemovesfromtheaccelerationphaseintothenormalstride,youwillwanttofocusuponthetechnicalmodelforthesprintstridingphasediscussed
above.
FinishPhase
Thepropertechniqueforasprintfinishrequiresconcentrationandtiming.Amistimedlungeatthefinishlineislikelytocausetheathletetoloseacloserace.Hereare
examplesofproperfinishingtechnique:

Figure3.3
Theleanatthefinish.

1.Theathletemaintainsgoodsprintpostureandanormalstrideactionthroughthefinishline.
2.Theathletemaintainsthesamesprintstrideasinthemiddleoftherace(it'scommonforsprinterstobreakdownandstartoverstridingatthefinishofaracewhen
fatiguecausesthemtolosetheabilitytomaintaingoodstridefrequencyifathletesoverstride,theywillcreatebrakingforcesthatwillcausethemtoslowdown).
3.Goodankledorsalflexionismaintained.
4.Thelandingfootismovedbackwardunderthecenterofmass.
5.Theathleteskeeptheirstridesquick,notlong.Speedenduranceallowstheathletestobeabletomaintainthebeststridefrequencytheyhave.Wheneverasprinter
haslowspeedendurance,stridefrequencyisdiminishedasfatiguesetsinregardlessoflimblength.
6.Theathletecontinuestovigorouslydrivethearms.
7.Astheathletereachesthefinishline,heorshelungesforwardinordertoleanatthetape.Thisisaneffectivetechnique,butitmustbedonejustastheathletetakes
hisorherlaststridethroughthefinishline.Therearetwotypesofleaningmodels:
Theathletestepsontothefinishlinewiththeheadloweredandbotharmsthrustbackwardtocreateaforwardfallingaction.(Seefigure3.3.)
Theathletedrivestheforwardmovingarmthroughthelineanddrivestheoppositearmbackandaroundtorotatethetrunk.Thistechniqueturnstheshoulder
forwardfast,helpingtheathletetoaccelerateforward.
DevelopingStrength,Power,andSpeed
Conditioningiswhatstrengthenssprinters,andpoweristhemostimportantcomponentofsprinterstrength.Togetthemostoutofconditioning,workduringthe
seasonmustproceedfromlowvolumetohighvolumeandfromlowintensitytohighintensitybeforefinallyreturningtolowvolumeandlowintensitybeforemajor
competitions.
Youngathletesrequiremoreoverallbodyconditioningthandotheiradultcounterparts.Theirbodiesmustgetaccustomedtolowerintensitiesandvolumesoftraining
beforetheyarephysiologicallypreparedtotrainharderanddomore.Bringingyoungathletesalongslowlyallowsthemtofullyandproperlydevelop.Youshould
thereforeemphasizeoverallphysicaldevelopmentratherthanspecificsprinttraining.Astheyoungathletematuresandherorhissprintingability

Page40

becomesmoreapparent,youandtheathletewillthenbeabletodecidewhicheventstheathleteisbestsuitedforshortsprintslikethe100and200metersor
endurancesprintslikethe400meters.Butkeepinmindthatwhentrainingyoungathletes,thelessspecializationthebetter.Waituntiltheyarephysicallyandmentally
readytodomorespecializedwork.Onlythenshouldtheyspendthebulkoftheirtrainingtimespecificallyonspeedcomponents.
Generalconditioningentailsimprovingstrengthandflexibilityinallmusclegroupsandimprovinglungandheartcapacities.Examplesofstrengthtraininginclude
boundingweighttraining,towing,hillrunning,andresistancerunning.Respiratoryandcardiovascularcapacitiesareincreasedusingrunsoflongerdistanceswithlow
intensity.Morespecificconditioninginvolvesdevelopingstrengthandpowerinthemusclegroupsprimarilyusedinsprinting:gluteals,hamstrings,quadriceps,
gastrocnemiusandsoleus(Achillescomplex),dorsiflexorsorankles,flexorsortoes,andshoulderjointdevelopmentforarmaction.Advancedconditioningalso
involvesacclimatingthebodytothespecificenergyrequirementssprintersneed.Theyareasfollows:
100meter95%anaerobic
200meter90%anaerobic,10%aerobic
Table3.1listsvarioustypesoftrainingexercisesbasedontheenergydemandsofsprinters.Itcanbeusedasaguidewhenpreparingworkoutsforeachpartofthe
season.Columnoneliststhetypeoftraining.Columntwogivesthelengthoftherun(inmeters)toachievethattypeoftraining.Thethirdcolumndefinestheenergy
systemthatischallengedbythetypeoftraining.Columnfourgivestheamountofintensityneededtoachievethedesiredeffectforthetrainingtype.Theintensityis
giveninpercentageofmaximumspeed.Thefifthcolumngivestheamountofrestrecoveryneededbeforeattemptinganotherrepeatinordertoaccomplishthetraining
objectivesofthattypeoftraining.Columnsixgivesthetotalamountofdistancetoberuninaworkoutofthestatedtype.Thetotalvolumeofdistanceiscalculatedby
addingupallthedistancesoftherepeatsrun.Thisistherecommendedvolumeoftrainingforthe100metersprinter.Columnsevenprovidesthesameinformationas
columnsixbutforthe200metersprinter.
WeightTraining
Itiscrucialthatastrengthbasebeinplacepriortospeedworkandplyometrictraining.Thisisespeciallyimportantforyoungerathletes.Theworkintheweightroom
tendstobemoregeneral,yethassomespecificcarryover.Properequipmentisimportantinweighttraining,includingbarbells,dumbbells,squatrack,Olympic
platforms,andfreeweightapparatusequipment.Typesofliftsthatsprintersshoulddoincludepowercleans,snatches,squats,singlelegsquats,stepuplunges,lunges
withweights,hangcleans,andbenchpress(athletesshouldbeabletosquatoneandahalftotwotimestheirbodyweightpriortohighintensitytraining).Itisalso
importanttodotherightamountoftheseexerciseswiththerightintensityattherighttimeoftheyear.
Fortheearlypartoftheyear,itisimportanttoworkonendurance,startingwithlightweightsatthreesetsof10to15repetitionsandovertimeincreasingtheweight
andreducingthenumberofrepetitions.Thisallowsthemusclestoworkatahigherrate,thusdevelopingalargerworkcapacitythroughouttheseason.
Muscleenduranceshouldalsobedevelopedastheyeargoeson.Agoodformoftrainingtoimprovemuscleenduranceiscircuittraining.Thisinvolvesworking

Page41
TABLE3.1CATEGORIESOFTRAININGRUNSANDHOWTHEYADDRESSTHEENERGY
SYSTEMS
Typeof
training

Lengthof
run
(multiple
reps)

Energy
system
trained

Percentof
max.speed

Recovery

Total
distancefor
100m
sprinters

Total
distancefor
200m
sprinters

Extensive
tempo

>100m

Aerobic

6970%

3090sec.

1400
3000m

1800
3000m

Extensive
tempo

>200m

Aerobic

7079%

30sec.2
min.

1400
2000m

1800
2500m

Intensivetempo >80m

Aerobicand 8090%
anaerobic
mixed

30sec.5
min.

800
1800m

800
2000m

Speed

2080m

Anaerobic

9095%

35min.

300800m

300800m

Speed

2080m

Alactic

95100%

35min.

300500m

300600m

Speed
endurance

3080m

Anaerobic

9095%

12min.

300800m

300800m

Speed
endurance

3080m

Alactic

95100%

23min.

300800m

300800m

Speed
endurance

80150m

Anaerobic

9095%

56min.

300900m

6001200m

Speed
endurance

80150m

Glycolytic

95100%

610min.

300600m

400800m

Special
enduranceI

150300m

Anaerobic

9095%

1012min.

600900m

6001200m

Special
enduranceI

150300m

Glycolytic

95100%

1215min.

300900m

3001000m

Special
enduranceII

300600m

Lacticacid
tolerance

9095%

1520min.

600900m

6001200m

themuscleswhentheyareinoxygendebt.Itcanbedonewithweights,medicineballexercises,orwithisometricexercises,whichinvolveplacingmaximumforce
againstimmovableresistance.Applyeffortforfourtoeightsecondsduring5to10exercises.Restfortwotothreeminutesinbetweensets.
Dynamicstrengthisdevelopedpredominantlythroughballistic/explosiveweighttraining,soitshouldlikewisebeincorporatedintotheathlete'strainingregimen
throughouttheseason.Thisformoftrainingenhancesexplosivestrength,theabilitytomobilizemuscularforceveryquickly.Explosiveliftingisdonewithalower
volumebutatahigherspeed.Itisimportanttocontinueexplosivelifting

Page42
TABLE3.2SAMPLEWEIGHTTRAININGPLAN
Phase

Day1

Day2

Day3

Preseason

Dothreesetsof1015
reps.Addweightifyou
candomorethan15reps.
Lightenweightifyou
cannotexecuteatleast10
reps.

Squats
Stepups
Benchpress
Dumbbellarmswings

Lunges
Singlelegsquats
Militarypress
Powercleans

Squats
Stepups
Benchpress
Snatch

Earlysason

Ondays1and2,dothree
setsof810repsof
cleansandsnatches.Do
threesetsof35repsfor
everythingelse.Don't
overloadbettertogotoo
lightthantooheavy.

Powercleans
Benchpress
Stepups
Dumbbellarmswings
Abdominalexercises

Snatch
Militarypress
Singlelegsquats
Dumbbellarmswings
Lungeswithdumbbells

Squats(twosetsof
3repsat70%ofmax.)

Lateseason

Ondays1and2,dothree
setsof36repswitha
heavierloadthaninearly
season.Thelasttwo
weekspriortopeak
meets,dotwosetsof25
repsat80%ofmax.Lift
onlytwotimesduringthe
week.

Powercleans
Benchpress
Stepups
Dumbbellarmswings
Abdominalexercises

Snatch
Militarypress
Singlelegsquats
Dumbbellarmswings
Lungeswithdumbbells

Rest

Benchpress(threesets
of5repsat80%of
max.)

throughouttheentireseason,butathletesshouldreducesuchtraining(onetotwoweeksrecovery,dependingonindividualdifferences)beforedesiredpeak
performance.Themainemphasisinthepeakingperiodistomaximizerestandrecoverywithoutlosingstrengthdevelopment.Reduceloadbycuttingthenumberof
setsand/orreducingthepercentageofmaximumweight.
Table3.2presentsasampleweighttrainingplanforsprinters.
Plyometrics
Dynamicandexplosivestrengthisalsodevelopedthroughplyometrics.Plyometricexercisesinvolvehavinganathleterepeataseriesofjumpsofvaryingheightsand
distances,onandoffboxes,upanddowninclines,withsingleanddoublelegactions.Thisenhancestheathlete'sneuromuscularstretchreflex.Eccentricloading
occurswhilethemuscleislengthening,andconcentricloadingoccurswhile

Page43

themuscleshortens.Jumpsshouldbedonewithboxesrangingfrom6to36inches(about15to91cm)inheight.Youcanvarytheheightsoftheboxesandtheir
distancesapartandthenhavetheathletejumpon,off,and/oroverthem.Boundingexercisesincludesingleanddoublelegjumpsforwardandbackward.
Resistancerunningandassistedrunningareotherformsofplyometrictraining.Theycanbedonebyrunningorjumpingwithaweightedvestorbyhavingtheathlete
toworpullaperson(preferablyacoach)30to60meterswithrubbersurgicaltubing.Neverstretchthetubingmorethandoubleitslength.
Aswithothermethodsoftraining,itisimportanttoknowwhentouseplyometricsandhowmuchtodo.Jumpingshouldstartearlyintraining.Specifically,inthe
secondweekofpracticegroundboundsneedtostart.(Seefigure3.4.)Forexample,onTuesdaysandFridays,havetheathletedothefollowingfivejumpsfivetimes
each:doublelegforward,doublelegforheight,singlelegstandingforwardfordistance(fivetimeseachleg),andalternatelegbounds(10totaltakeoffs).Increasethe
weight,time,ordistanceofthejumpsastheathletematures.However,increaseonlyoneparameterweight,time,ordistanceatatime.
Thistypeofworkshouldfollowtheintensityandvolumeprotocolusedintheathlete'sweighttrainingprogram.Changetrainingloadsthroughouttheseasontoshock
thesystem.Thebodyneedschangeeveryfewweeks,andincreasesorreductionsofloadwillhelptheathleteavoidbecomingstaleandunabletoimprovetheirspeed
development.Italsoimprovestheathlete'sabilitytoadapttodifferenttypes,volumes,andintensitiesoftraining.Thesameroutinemustberehearsedatleastsixto
eightpracticesessionsinordertoallowthebodytoremembertheaction.Forexample,aftertwoweeksofhavingtheathletetrainatareducedload,youshouldhave
himorherreturntoanincreasedload.Thus,youmightdosixweeksat90%,twoweeksat75%,andthenthreeweeksat98%.Reducethetrainingloadasthe
athletenearsdesiredpeakperformance.

Figure3.4
Groundbounds.

SpeedTraining
Oneofthemostmisunderstoodconceptsintrainingforsprintersisspeedendurance.Itreferstotheabilityofanathletetomoveattheirmaximumrateforanextended
distance.Itdoesnothaveanythingtodowithhowefficientlyoneusesoxygen.

Page44

Firstfindathlete'smaximumspeed.Agoodwaytodothisistotimeeachforafull60meterdash.Besurealsotogetanintermediate30metersplittime.Thisdivides
theevaluationintoacceleration(thefirst30meters)andspeed(thelast30meters).Timethefirst10metersandthelast20metersthentimethefirst20meters,and
thelast10meters.Youwillthenhavetheinformationyouneedtohelptheathleteimproveeachoftheir10metersplits.Astheseasongoeson,workonimprovingthe
20metersplits.Finally,workonimprovingthe30meterfly.Tomaximizespeedpotential,firstincreasethenumberofrepetitionswithlowintensity.Laterdecrease
thenumberofrepetitionsandincreasetheintensity.
TrainingDrills
Thefollowingdrillswillhelppromoteandenhanceyourathletes'speeddevelopment.
InsandOuts
Insandoutsattrainingdistancesof20to60metersareanoutstandingwaytodevelopspeedandrelaxation.Herearetwoexamplesofworkouts:
20metersfast+20meterseasy+20metersfast=60meterstotalrepeatthreetimes
Afterthreeweekschangetothefollowing:
30metersfast+30meterseasy+30metersfast=90meterstotalrepeatfivetimes
BlockStarts
Fullspeedblockstartshelpdevelopreactiontimeatthestartofarace.Startsshouldberunonly10metersatfirst,then20meters,30meters,andfinally60meters.
Useastartingsignal(e.g.,apistolshotorspokenword)orarollingstart.Theathleteshouldmaintainahighrateofaccelerationthroughouttherunandshould
eventuallytrainattheracedistance(s)atracepaceinordertogetusedtostartingundertheseconditions.
StickDrill
Thestickdrillisveryeffectiveinhelpingsprintersimprovetheirstridefrequencyanddecreasetheirgroundcontacttime.Youwillneedseveral4inch18inch(about
10cm46cm)sticks.
1.Formen,placethesticksfivefeet(about1.5m)apart.Startwithfourfeet(about1.2m)forwomenandadjustdownwardforyouths.Placeupto20sticksonthe
groundforatotaldistanceofapproximately30yards(about27.4m)formenand25yards(about22.9m)forwomen.
2.Fromarunningstart,havetheathleterunoverthesticks,avoidingcontactwiththem.Dothistwotimesperweek,fourtofivetimesperworkout.Astheseason
progresseswaitingatleastfourweeksextendthelengthbetweensticksanothersixinches(about15cm).Maintainthislengthforanothertwotofourweeks,then
extendthedistanceanothersixinches(about15cm).Ifatanytimetheathletehastoreachouttocrossthesticks,theyaretoofarapart.Theemphasisofthisdrillis
onimprovingfrequency,notstridelength(althoughtheirstridelengthshouldnaturallyimprove).

Page45

3.Timemaleathletesat30,34,andfinallyat38yards(about27,31,and35m)timefemaleathletesat25,29,andthen33yards(about23,26.5,and30m).The
maximumdistancetheathleteshouldrunforthisdrillis38yards(about35m)formen[whenthesticksareatsixfoot(about1.8m)intervals]and33yards(about30
m)forwomen[whenthesticksareatfivefoot(about1.5m)intervals].
ContinuousAccelerationDrill
Thecontinuousaccelerationdrillisforgoodstartersandpoorfinishers.Workonrepeat100s(perhapsthreetofiverepetitions),timingthelast50meters.Thenafter
threetofourweeksoftimingthelast50meters,increasethetimedzoneto60meters,thento70meters,andfinallyallthewayto90meters.Emphasizetotheathlete
thattheymustmakeaconsciousefforttoincreasespeedinthelaterstagesofthe100meterdash.
DistanceDrill
Totrainspeedenduranceintheearlyseason,doaveryrelaxed280,2100,2140,and2150.Increasethevolumeatmidseasonto33150,andafter
thesecondweekatthisvolumechangeto24150.Inlateseason,do3150atabout98%,550easy,and550at100%.
Keepinmind,though,thatbeforefocusingonspeedenduranceyoushouldemphasizegeneralspeeddevelopment.Thisimprovestheathlete'soverallracingability.
Aftertakingintoconsiderationthevarioustypesoftrainingthatshouldbepartofasprinter'sregimen,andfactoringinthevolumeandintensitythatisappropriatefor
eachseason,table3.3presentssampleworkoutsforthepreseason,earlyseason,andlateseason.Youcanusethemasis,ortailorthemtomeettheneedsofyour
athletes.
PerformanceFactors
Toavoidinjuryandmeetthedemandsoftrainingdayafterday,factorslikediet,rest,andproperwarmupandstretchingmustcomeintoplay.Athleteswillnotbe
abletosustainahighlevelofperformancethroughoutalongseasonwithouttakingpropercareoftheirbodiesat,andawayfrom,thetrack.
Flexibility
Flexibilityisacomponentofsprintmechanics.Itcorrespondstotheelasticityofanathlete'smuscle,tendons,andjoints.Therearedifferentwaystoincreaseflexibility,
includingstaticstretching,resistancestretching,proprioceptiveneuromuscularfacilitation(PNF),anddynamicexercises.Ropesorrubbertubingareusefultoolsin
stretching,andpartnerstretchingisagreatwaytocreateresistancestretching.
Stresstotheathletesthattheyneedtostretchduringtheirwarmups.Butbemoreadamantthattheystretchduringtheircooldowns.Emphasizedevelopingflexibility
ofthehipjoints,ankles,andlumbarsacraljointsbydoingstretchesinvolvingthegroin,hamstring,quadriceps,lowerback,gastrocnemius,andanteriorshinmuscles.

Page46
TABLE3.3SAMPLEWORKOUTSFOR100AND200METERS
Preseason
Monday

Warmup
Sprintdrills
Speeddevelopmentwork
Turnaround40mor50msprints
Fallingaccelerationstarts
Plyometrictraining
Cooldown
Stretch

Tuesday

Warmup
Intervaltraining
4400m(jogcurve,stridestraights)
4200m@7580%ofmax.(6090sec.recoverybetweensets)
Circuittraining
Cooldown
Stretch

Wednesday

Warmup
Sprintdrills
Technicalpractice(modelingrotaryrunning)
Blockstartsandstartdrillsto30m
Stickdrillrunning
Cooldown
Stretch

Thursday

Warmup
15min.aerobicrun
Circuittraining
Cooldown
Stretch

Friday

Warmup
Sprintdrills
Technicalpractice
Modeling
Rotaryrunning
Speeddevelopmentwork
Stickdrillrunning
Rolloverstarts
4150minsandouts

Saturday

Warmup
2300m@8085%ofmax.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page47

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Preseason

46100muphillruns
Circuittraining
Cooldown
Stretch

EarlySeason
Monday

Warmup
Sprintdrills
Speeddevelopmentwork
Turnaround40mor50msprints(eitherincreasespeedorincrease
distanceto100m).
Cooldown
Stretch

Tuesday

Warmup
Sprintdrills
Technicalpractice(modelingrotaryrunning)
Speedstickrunning
460mblockstarts
430mflyingstarts(workonfinishingattape)
Boundingwithaweightedvest
Cooldown
Stretch

Wednesday

Warmup
Technicalpractice
4100mrelaxationstrides(easypace,focusongoodform)
Cooldown
Stretch

Thursday

Warmup
Sprintdrills(emphasizerotaryrunning)
4120m(speedendurance)
650mweightedsledpulls
Cooldown
Stretch

Friday

Warmup
Sprintdrills
Rotaryrunning
3420mstarts
2100msmoothstriding
Cooldown
Stretch

(continued)

Page48

(continued)
EarlySeason
Saturday

Warmup
Earlycompetition

LateSeason
Monday

Warmup
For100mathletes:5200m@90%ofmax.
3min.recoverybetweensets
For200mathletes:4300m@8590%ofmax.
1012min.recoverybetweensets
Cooldown
Stretch

Tuesday

Warmup
Sprintdrills
Technicalpractice(modelingrotaryrunning)
Speedstickdrill
2100mcontinuousaccelerationdrill
2120m(speedendurance)
Plyometrictraining
Cooldown
Stretch

Wednesday

Warmup
6100mrelaxationstrides(easypace,focusongoodform)
Cooldown
Stretch

Thursday

Warmup
Sprintdrills
Technicalmodeling(emphasizerotaryrunning)
2330mblockstarts
1150m@100%ofmax.
Cooldown
Stretch

Friday

Warmuponly

Saturday

Warmup
Mostimportantcompetition

Diet
Theathlete'sdietaffectshisorherperformancedirectly.Competitiveathletesmusteatabalanceddietcontainingallfourfoodgroups,andeatingavarietyoffoods
withineachgroupisessential.Forexample,inthevegetablegroupitis

Page49

beneficialtoeatallofthedifferentcolorsofvegetablesinordertoreceiveeverytypeofvitaminandmineral,aswellasantioxidants.Powerathletesshouldfollowa
404020ratiothatis,adietcomposedof40percentprotein,40percentcarbohydrates,and20percentfats.
RestandRecovery
Alongwitheatingright,anathleteshouldrestandrecoverproperly.Therearedifferentwaystohelpthebodyrecover,andit'simportanttouseavarietyofrecovery
approachesinordertodeterminewhichoneseachathleterespondstothebest.Completerestmeansnotperforminganyphysicalactivity,whileactiverestinvolves
maintainingsomelevelofphysicalactivitythatdoesnotpertaintotheathlete'sevent.Othertechniquesthathelprecoveryincludepooltherapy,massage,acupuncture,
chiropracticadjustments,andphysicaltherapy.Icemassageandiceapplication,coldhotcontrast,andhydrotherapyaremorespecificrecoverytools.Iceapplication
isalwaysahelpfulwaytoflushthebodyafterfatiguingexercise.Coldwhirlpooltreatmentsareanothergoodoption.
Competition
Beingmentallyreadyforacompetitionisjustasimportantasbeingphysicallyready.Thetwogohandinhand.Settinggoalsandpracticingmentaltrainingtechniques
willhelpathletescompeteattheleveloftheirpotential.
GoalSetting
Animportantpartofcompetingisbeingabletosetgoalsandacceptchallenges.Shouldyou,thecoach,setgoals,orshouldgoalsettingbedonetogetherwiththe
athlete?Iftherelationshipbetweenyouandtheathleteisstronglyauthorityoriented,youwillmostlikelyassigngoals.Ontheotherhand,iftheathletehaspersonal
experiencethatmakesherorhisinputveryvaluable,anathleteandcoachcansetgoalstogether.Ineithercase,thegoalsmustbechallengingbutrealistic.Ifathletes
seetheirgoalsasunattainable,theywillreducetheireffort,thusreducingtheirchancesforsuccess.Throughoutthecompetitiveseasonitisimportanttoreevaluatethe
athletes'goalsusingtheirresultsintrainingandcompetitions.
MentalToughness
Mentaltoughnessenablesyourathletestoreachtheirgoals.Astrongmentaldispositionallowstheathletestoacceptchallenges,handlestress,andassume
responsibilityforsuccessesandfailures.Thebestwaytoputyourathletesintherightframeofmindandtoreducetheirstressistoadequatelypreparethemforevery
aspectofcompetition.Thebestwaysforathletestoprepareincludebeingingoodphysicalshape,planningwhichcompetitionstheywillparticipateinandfocustheir
trainingaround,evaluatingperformanceandprogress,settinggoals,creatingtrainingtimetables,andlearningtoholdthemselvesaccountable.
Alargefactorintheabilitytocopewithstressisselfconfidence.Thisisdevelopedthroughfitnesspreparation,skilldevelopment,andimprovedperformance.You
mustplayanimportantroleinbuildingupyourathletes'confidence

Page50

withoutcreatingoverconfidence,whichcanleadtoatotallossofconfidencewhenunrealisticgoalsarenotmet.Youmustthereforeworkonbuildingupathletes'
confidenceyethelpthemrealizetheirpresentlimitations.Thenhelpsetapathforeachathletetofollowtogaintheskillsnecessarytobreakthroughtheselimitations.
ImageryandVisualization
Theathlete'spsychedirectlyaffectshisorherperformance,andcoachesmustlearnhowtoutilizesportpsychologytechniquestobenefittheirathletes.Mentalimagery
andvisualizationtechniquescanhelpanathletelearnthenecessaryskillsofsprinting.Mentalimageryisassistedwhentheathletescanviewfilmorvideoofcorrect
technique.Thishelpstodevelopamentalpicturefortheathlete.Afilmorvideowillalsohelpathletesrecognizeflawsintheirtechnique.Theycanthenvisualizehowto
achievethedesiredtechnicalmodel.Thisprocessinvolvestheathleteseeingthemselvesexecutingthecorrecttechnicalmodelintheirmindpriortoattemptingtheskill
ineitherpracticeorcompetition.
Beforeapracticesessionorcompetition,theathletesshouldtakeafewmomentstomentallyrehearsethetechnicalmodel.Theathletesshouldnotonlyseethemodel
intheirmindbutshouldsensetherhythmoftheeffortintheirnerves.Whenanathletedoesthiseffectively,youcanseemovementsinthebodythatarerespondingto
thementalprocess.Athletesshouldalsorehearsetheskillsawayfrompracticeinaveryquietandundisturbedsetting.Theyshouldclosetheireyesandconcentrateon
seeingthemselvesexecutingaperfectperformance.Repeatingthisprocessgreatlyenhancestheirabilitytoperformwell.Otheraspectsofcompetitionshouldalsobe
visualized,suchascrossingthefinishingtapeandbeingontheawardstand.Thishelpsmotivateandmoveathletestowardtheirgoals.
Summary
Mygoalinthischapterhasbeentomakeyouawareofandtohelpyouunderstandthemanysignificanttrainingcomponentsthatgointodevelopinggoodsprinters.
Coachescannolongersimplyprepareworkouts.Theyneedtobepartofeveryaspectoftheirathletes'training.
Yetthischapterisnotintendedtogeteveryonetoagreeonasingleplanfordevelopingallsprinters.Itsimplyshowshowpreparation,consideration,discussion,and
reviewcanbeusedtoconstructanathlete'strainingprogramandhowyoucanpreventproblemsbeforetheyoccur.Preparationrequiresaplan.Considerationentails
rememberingthateachathleteisapersonwithspecificfeelings,needs,beliefs,andopinions.Discussionbasedcommunicationwithyourathletesabouttheirprogram,
whatworks,andwhatneedstobechangedisanecessity.Anditisimportanttoreviewandevaluatetheprogramwithyourathletesandtoassesstheirprogressin
ordertohelpthemimprovetheirtechniqueandperformance.Thisincludesdevelopingagoodstartandaccelerationpattern,goodrunningmechanicsforhighspeed
performance,andtopspeedendurancethatallowsforthebestfinishpossible.Eachstageofyourathletes'developmentnecessitatescarefulreviewoftheirpast
traininghistory.Andyourathletes'emotional,physical,andsocialdevelopmentcannotbeignored.Youmaynothavealltheanswers,andthisisnotwrong.Butnot
consulting,reading,andinvestigatingtofindtheansweris!Keepinmindthatyourathletes'wellbeingisinyourhands.

Page51

4
400Meters
ClydeHart

The400meterdashisanendurancesprintincorporatingthespeedofthesprinterandtheenduranceofthehalfmiler.Itisconsideredbymanytobeoneofthemost
demandingandgruelingofcompetitiveevents.Usuallythe400meterrunnerisoneoftwodistincttypesthesprintertypeorhalfmilertype.Bothofthesetypeshave
hadtheirshareofsuccessovertheyears.Occasionallyyouwillfindanathletewhopossessessomecharacteristicsofbothsprinterandhalfmiler.
MichaelJohnson,aworldandOlympicchampioninboththe200and400meters,isaprimeexampleofthesprintertype400runner.However,hehasdevelopedhis
strengthandenduranceovertheyearstothepointthathecanbettermaintainhissuperiorspeedoveralongerdistancethanhiscompetitors.

Page52

DistributionofSpeed
Theabilitytodistributeone'sspeedandenergiesinthemostefficientmanneroverthetotalracingdistanceistheprimarymeansofachievingsuccessinthe400meter
dash.Nooneiscapableofrunningthe400metersalloutfromstarttofinish.Judgingpacewellineffortanddistributionisamust.Remember,the400metersisnota
fullsprint.Outstandingspeedat100and200meterscanbeatremendousadvantagetothe400meterrunnersbutonlyiftheylearntodistributetheseenergies
properly.Generally,theoutstanding400meterrunnerwillhaveapproximatelyaoneseconddifferentialbetweentheirbestopen200metersandthetimeittakesthem
torunthefirst200metersofthe400meterdash.Thelessexperienced400meterrunnerhasapproximatelyatwoseconddifferential.
Agoodformulaforpredictingthepotential400metertimefor200meterrunners,providedtheyarewillingtotrainandtogivealltheycantobecomeatop400
meterrunner,istodoublethetimeoftheirbestopen200meters,thenadd3.5seconds.Obviouslythesprintertypehastheadvantagethroughtheearlystagesofthe
400metershowever,ifheorsheisnottrainedproperly,thisadvantagecanmeltawayinahurrytowardtheendoftherace.Thehalfmilertypewilldefinitelyhavean
advantagefromthe300metersmarktothefinish.Weareseeingmoreofthesprintertypesucceedinthe400meterstodaylargelybecausestaminaandendurance
canbedevelopedmoreeffectivelythancanthesprintingabilitiesofthemiddledistancerunner.
Training
The400metersisanoxygendeficientevent.ThismeansthatthelevelofoxygenabsorptionisbelowthatwhichisnecessarytosupplytheATP(adenosine
triphosphate)requirement.Theenergyusedduringthe400meterdashisderivedfromthebreakdownofhighenergyphosphatecompoundsandfromthesplittingof
glycogentolacticacid.ThiseventwillrelyprimarilyontwoanaerobicsystemstheATPPCandlacticacidsystems.Physiologistshavenotfoundagoodwayto
measureanaerobicpower,andthismakesitverydifficulttoknowifoneisincreasingtheanaerobicreservesornot.Wemustrelyonwhatwehavelearnedfrom
physiologistsconcerningthecomponentsoffatigueduringtherunningofthe400meterdash.Thistellsuswhattypesofstresswemustdealwithduringboth400
metertrainingandcompetition.
Propertrainingwillhelpathleteslearntodealwiththestressthattheywillfacetowardtheendofthe400meterdash.Weknowthatsevereexercisingimposesgreat
stressonthebody,anditmustlearntoadapttothisstressoritwillbreakdown.Wealsoknowthatwhenthebodyisgraduallyputunderstress,itwilldowhateveris
necessaryforitsownwellbeingtoadjusttothisnewenvironment.Whenanorganismisconditionedtothestressofathleticcompetition,itwillbeabletoperformin
thatenvironmentwhencalledupon.
TrainingSegments
Thetrainingyearofthe400meterrunnerwillbedividedintofoursegments:
1.offseason(summerandSeptemberDecember),
2.earlycompetitiveseason(JanuaryFebruary),

Page53

3.midseason(MarchApril),and
4.lateseason(MayJune).
TypesofWorkouts
Basedonthedemandsofthe400meterevent,thefollowingtrainingworkoutsarerecommendedinvaryingdegreesofemphasisduringthetrainingyear.Thetime
frameinwhicheachworkoutisusedinthecourseofthetrainingyearisofvitalimportance.Toderivethemostfromanytrainingprogram,thecoachandrunnermust
paycloseattentiontotheproperintroductionofaspecificworkout.
SpeedEndurance
Inspeedendurancerunningtherunnerincursahighoxygendebt,andthereisadefinitelacticacidbuildup.Thistypeofworkoutisvitaltogood400meterrunning.
Thedistancesruncanvaryfrom100to600meters.Thenumberofrepetitionsisfiguredbymultiplyingtheracedistancetwoandahalftimesinthecaseofthe400
meterdash,thiswouldbeabout1000meters.Therecoveryperiodwillusuallybearound10minutes,whichgivestherunneralmostfullrecoverysothattherewillbe
qualityintheruns.Thefollowingspeedenduranceworkoutsaredesignedtohelpthelacticacidenergysystem.
Repsm

Rest(min.)

10100

510

6150

510

5200

10

4300

10

3350

10

2450

10

TempoEndurance
Tempoendurance,anaerobicworkout,willpaygreatdividendsto400meterrunners.Notonlywillithelpthemtoincreasetheiroxygenuptake,whichwillhelpto
shortentheirrecoverytime,butitwillenablethemtoaccomplishmoreandlongerworkouts.Sincetherunsaredoneataslowerpace,thisworkouthelpstherunners
learnrhythm,and,asthenamesuggests,tempo.Anothervitalbyproductofthisworkoutisthatithelpstotrainthebodytoincreaseproductionofphosphate,which
isaprimaryenergysource.Theemphasisinthefollowingworkouts,aswithspeedenduranceworkouts,shouldbeonquantityandnotonquality.Therestfactoris
generallykeptshortusuallytwotothreeminutes.
Repsm

Rest

8200

2min.

6300

2min.

50100150200300 Walkthesamedistance
350
forrest

Page54

StrengthEndurance
Thesestrengthenduranceworkoutsinvolveactivitiesthatwilllastlongerthan10seconds.Suchactivitieswillincluderesistancerunning,longhillrunning,andstadium
stepruns.
6150muphill
660stadiumsteps(figure4.1)
615sec.roperesistanceruns

Figure4.1
Stadiumstepruns.

EnduranceRunning
Theendurancerunningworkoutispureaerobicrunning.Itconsistsofcontinuousrunsof15to45minutesatasteadystatespeed.Althoughthe400metersrequires
onlyabout5%aerobicrunning,itisimportantto400meterrunnerstogetagoodbaseofaerobicrunningtoimprovetheiroxygenuptakesothattheirrecoverytime
betweeneffortsiscuttoaminimum.
15min.atsteadystatespeed
30min.offartlekrunning
6800moncrosscountrycoursewith3min.recovery
PowerSpeed
Thefollowingpowerspeedworkoutsemphasizespeedofmusclecontraction.Thisisusuallydonewithfewerthan10repetitionsandnomorethan10secondsper
repetition.
Shorthillrunsofabout60m
1030mharnessruns
1010sec.fastropejumps
EventRunning
Theeventrunningworkoutdoesexactlywhatthenameimplies.Therunnerrunsdifferentdistancesatapredeterminedracestrategyinordertolearntoworkon
differentaspectsofrunningthe400meters.Wealsorefertothisassegmentrunning.
Workout

Description

3300m

First50m,runallout.Next150m,runwitharelaxed,floatingaction.

Runalloutonthelast100m.Timeandrecordeachrun.

2450m

Thefirst200m,300m,400m,andfinal50marealltimedandrecorded.

1350m

Qualityrun,witheachsegmentrunasifinthe400mrace.

Page55

Speed
Speedworkoutswillusedistancesvaryingfrom30metersto150meters.Workwillbedoneatfullspeedeitheronthestraightawayorcurve.Restbetweenrunsis
usuallylong,allowingfullrecoveryandqualityperformances.Relayhandoffworkwillcountasdoingspeedworkouts.
640mstarts
660mflyingstarts
660msprintrelayhandoffs
Strength
Strengthworkoutsconsistofbothgeneralandspecificstrengthdevelopment.Ourgeneralstrengthdevelopmentisdonethroughthetraditionalweightliftingprograms
ofbothfreeweightsandmachines.Wealsorecommendtheuseofplyometricdrillstogiveusourspecificweightwork.
30min.traditionalweightliftingworkout(1set,13reps)
Explosivejumpsforthedevelopmentofstartingpowerandacceleration
3setsof10hops,eachleg
Fast50mboundingrunswithbarbell
Table4.1indicatesthepercentageofemphasis,bysegmentoftrainingyear,tobegiventotheaboveworkouts.Alteringtheemphasisofdifferentworkoutsthroughout
trainingwillenhanceyourathletes'performanceswhenitcomestimeforcompetition.
Inadditiontotheworkoutspresentedthusfar,table4.2presentsvariousrunningexercisesthatwillimproveeverythingfromenduranceandspeedtooveralltechnique
andrunningefficiency.Thebesttrainingsegmentorseasoninwhichtopracticetheseexercisesisalsogiven.Manyoftheserunningexercisesarealsofoundinthe
comprehensivesampleworkoutsintable4.3(seepage57).
TABLE4.1PERCENTAGEOFMAX.EMPHASISFORWORKOUTS
Typesofworkouts

Fall

Early

Mid

Late

Speedendurance

75

90

100

100

Tempoendurance

100

100

100

75

Strengthendurance

100

90

80

70

Endurancerunning

100

20

10

Powerspeed

20

60

70

80

Eventruns

25

90

100

100

Strength

100

100

100

100

Page56
TABLE4.2RUNNINGEXERCISESFORSPRINTERS
Exercise

Description

Benefits

Season

Endlessrelay

Batoniskeptmoving,
restandrunare
controlled

Endurance,stamina,
andexchangework

Australianpursuits

Sprintsandslow
joggingfortotalof3
min.

Endurance,speed,and All
kickingdrill

Longhill

100mormore,slow
runs

Endurance,stamina,
andkneelift

600m

Pacefirst400,pickup
last200m

Enduranceandstamina Fall/early

500m

Pacefirst400,pickup
last100m

Endurance,stamina,
andkneelift

350m

Qualityandtraining
Mentalpreparation,
Early/midandlate
distance,all5.57sec. endurance,andstamina
under400time

300mevent

200mslowpace,last
100mfaster

450m

Pacefirst400andpick Mentalpreparation,
uplast50m
endurance,stamina,
andkneelift

Mid/late

Shorthill

Lessthan100mfast
runs

Speed,legdrive,and
stamina

Mid/late

Flyingbears

Repeat100swith
jogging

Speed,strength,and
runningefficiency

Mid/late

320m

Qualitydistance,add
1012sec.for400time

Mentalpreparation,
speed,andrunning
efficiency

Mid/late

Speedmaker

Short50msprints,
jogging

Speed,strength,and
runningefficiency

Mid/late

150mbuildups

50mat1/2speed,50m Runningefficiency,
Early/midandlate
at3/4speed,50mat
speed,endurance,and
nearfullspeed
mentalpreparation

Mentalpreparation,
endurance,and
runningefficiency

All

Fall/early

Early/mid

Early/midandlate

DesigningaTrainingProgram
Beforecoachesplantheir400meterworkouts,theyshouldponderseveralconcepts:

Page57

Thebasicconceptofgoingfromquantitytoqualityhasnotchangedoverthepastseveraldecades.
Allworkoutsshouldfollowaprogressivepatternyoushouldstandardizeyourworkoutssothatspeedoftherunningdistanceisprogressivelyshortenedandinsome
casestheamountofrestaswell.
Theconceptofoverloadingpaysdividends.Thefollowingisanexample:Havethe400meterrunnerrun2600s,comingthroughthe400metersataveryslow
pace.Asthetimeofthefirst400metersisgraduallyloweredtothepointthattherunnerhasdifficultymaintainingpace,thedistanceislowered.Atthenextdistance,
500meters,therunnersrunatthesamepacethroughthefirst400metersasiftheywererunningatthepreviousdistance.Theathletescontinuethisworkoutdrilluntil
thedistanceisreducedto450meters.Trytoreachthisfinaldistancebymidseasonandcontinueittotheendoftheyear.Wesuggesthavingtheathletesdoonerun,
ratherthantwo,beforeamajorcompetition.Althoughtherunnersaregettinglessdistance,theirefforthasincreasedwithmorestressbeingputonthebody.
Anotherfactortoconsiderinplanning400meterworkoutsisthatittakesahardrunofaround40secondstoincurasignificantlacticacidbuildup.Thisbeingthe
case,theidealdistanceis300metersforwomenand350metersformen.Sincemostquality400meterrunnerswillcoverthisdistanceinslightlyover40seconds,
theyareworkingacoupleofsecondsintolacticacidbuildup.Byrunningthisdistance,therunnercanaccomplishseveraloftheserunsinaworkoutsession.
Keepingthesepointsinmind,acompletetrainingprogramthatfeaturessampleworkoutsforeachseasonispresentedintable4.3.
TABLE4.3SAMPLEWORKOUTSFOR400METERS

Theseworkoutscanbeappliedtoalllevelsof400meterrunners,butperformancetimes
giveninthissampleareforapotential46secondquartermilersoadjustaccordingly.

TheResttimesapplytoeachrun.Forexample,3300.Speed:50sec.Rest:1min.means:

1.1300

2.Restfor1min.

3.1300

4.Restfor1min.

5.1300

Fall(SeptemberDecember)
Monday

(continued)

1.Warmup:1milecrosscountryrun
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.2600Speed:90sec.(60sec./400mpace)Rest:15min.
4.3300Speed:50sec.Rest:1min.
5.3300Speed:40sec.Rest:5min.
6.Cooldown:1milecrosscountryrun
7.Weights

Page58

(continued)
Fall(SeptemberDecember)
Tuesday

1.Warmup:1milecrosscountryrun
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.10200Speed:30sec.Rest:3min.
4.6150longhillruns.Speed:fastRest:jogback
5.Cooldown:1milecrosscountryrun

Wednesday 1.Warmup:1milecrosscountryrun
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.4350(eventrun).Speed:48sec.Rest:10min.
50fast150relaxed(200timeof28sec.)100pickedupfastlast50steadyandkeepinggood
form
4.3200Speed:302928sec.Rest:3min.
5.Cooldown:1milecrosscountryrun
6.Weights
Thursday

1.Warmup:1milecrosscountryrun
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.600400200400600Speed:30sec.paceRest:5min.
4.6100strides.Speed:mediumRest:1min.
5.Cooldown:1milecrosscountryrun

Friday

1.Warmup:1/2milecrosscountryrun
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.Twomilecrosscountrytimedrun
4.Weights

Saturday

Noorganizedpractice,encouragedtodo3milesrunning.

Sunday

Noorganizedpractice,encouragedtodo20min.fartlek.

EarlySeason(JanuaryFebruary)
Monday

1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts(100sprint/100walk,3laps,fastereachlap,4thlaprunof200
in26sec.)
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.2500Speed:70sec.(56sec./400mpace)Rest:15min.
4.3200Speed:302928sec.Rest:3min.
5.810sec.ropejumps.Rest:10sec.Repeat

Tuesday

1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.8200Speed:28sec.Rest:3min.
4.6150longhillruns.Speed:fastRest:jogback
5.Weights

Wednesday 1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page59

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
EarlySeason(JanuaryFebruary)

3.4300(eventrun).Speed:42sec.Rest:5min.
4.3200Speed:302928sec.Rest:3min.
5.610sec.roperesistancerun.Speed:fast.Rest:10sec.

Thursday

1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.1350Speed:fast.Rest:15min.
4.4200Speed:26sec.Rest:5min.
5.Weights

Friday

1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.3200Speed:302928sec.Rest:3min.
4.1600relayhandoffwork

Saturday

Meet

Sunday

Noorganizedworkoutencouragedtodosomelightcrosscountryrunning,
about20m.

Midseason(MarchApril)
Monday

1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.2450Speed:58.5sec.(52sec./400mpace).Rest:15min.
4.3200Speed:282726sec.Rest:3min.

Tuesday

1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.6200Speed:26sec.Rest:3min.
4.520sec.roperesistanceruns.Speed:slow.Rest:3min.
5.Weights

Wednesday

1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.4300(eventrun).Speed:42sec.Rest:5min.
4.8100shorthillruns.Speed:fast.Rest:walkback.

Thursday

1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.3200Speed:262524sec.Rest:walk200.
4.3150(buildups).Speed:fast.slowmediumfast.Rest:walkback.
5.Weights

Friday

1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.3200Speed:26sec.Rest:walk200.
4.1600relayhandoffs

(continued)

Page60

(continued)
Midseason(MarchApril)
Saturday

Meet

Sunday

Noorganizedpracticeencouragedtodosomecrosscountryrunning,about20min.

LateSeason(MayJune)
Monday

1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.1450Speed:50sec.400.Rest:15min.
4.3200Speed:262524sec.Rest:walk200.

Tuesday

1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.4300Speed:42sec.Rest:5min.
4.4200Speed:28272625sec.Rest:3min.
5.Weights

Wednesday 1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.1320(qualityrun).Speed:fast.Rest:15min.
4.3200Speed:262524sec.Rest:walk200.
5.880shorthillruns.Speed:fast.Rest:walkback.
Thursday

1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.3setsofspeedmakers.Speed:fast.Rest:jog.
50meteralloutsprint,50meterswingdown,50meterslowjog.Repeatuntilfourallout
sprintsaredone.Threeminutesrestbetweensets.
4.Weights

Friday

1.Warmup:1mileofinandouts
2.Flexibilityexercises
3.2200Speed:26sec.Rest:walk200.
4.1600relayhandoffs

Saturday

Meet

Sunday

Noorganizedpracticeencouragedtodosomecrosscountryrunning,about20min.

Competition
Theidealracepatternconsistsofsmoothdeceleration,iftheathleteshavedispersedtheirenergiesproperly,withaslittletighteningupatthefinishaspossible.Runners
shouldtrytocoverthefirst50metersatneartopspeed.Atthispointtheyshouldrelaxtheactionsoftheupperbodywhilemaintainingtheirlegspeed.Theirminds
shouldsettleintotherhythmoftheraceandgetafeelfortheir

Page61

competition.Theyshouldalsobeginthinkingaboutthenextbigefforttheywillmake,whichwillbeatthe200metermark.Theyshouldbetrainedandconditionedto
knowthatatthispointintheirraceplan,theywillmakeadeterminedefforttoincreasetheactionsoftheirarmsandtobegindrivingandliftingtheirknees,tryingto
resumemoreofasprintingaction.Therunnerswholearntoworktheturnfromthe200tothe300metermarkwillusuallyfindthemselvesingoodpositiontowinthe
race.Itisacontrolledpickup,onethatshouldallowtherunnerstocomeoffthefinalcurveevenoraheadoftheiropponents.Duringthefinal100metersoftherace,
therunnersmuststayrelaxedwhilefightingtheeffectsoffatigue.Oneofthebestwaystodothisisbyconcentratingontheproperrunningtechniqueandgoodform
theyhavebeentaught.

IngerMiller'scompetitiveexperienceandeffectiveraceplanput
heraheadofheropponentsduringthefinalcurve.

Summary
Thecoachmustbecomemorethanjustatrainerbybecomingpersonallyinvolvedintheracestrategyofthe400meterrunners.Timethedifferentsegmentsof
workoutrunsaswellascompetitiveraces.Lettherunnersknowbeforehandwhatyouexpecttheir200metersplit,oreven300metersplit,tobesothatyouand
theyknowwhatkindofpacetheyarekeeping.Oftentimes,theracewilldictatewhatpacetherunnerswillhavetocarrytobecompetitive,butthisisnoexcusefornot
havingthemmentallyreadytoperformatacertainlevel.Iftheyknowtheyhavebeenthroughdifferentcheckpointsatacertaintimeinpractice,theywillnothavea
fearofdoingthisinactualcompetition.

Page63

5
100and110MeterHurdles
RalphLindeman
JohnMillar

Wanted:Highlymotivatedsprinterstoattemptoneoftrackandfield'smostdynamicevents.Mustbeextremelyrhythmicandhighlycoordinatedto
hurdle10barriersina110metersprintrace.Competitivesprintingspeedisaprerequisite.Explosivestrengthanddynamicflexibilityrequiredto
sprintoverhurdles3942inches(about99107cm)high.Tallstaturecanbeanadvantageduringthedevelopingyears(butmaycauseproblemsat
elitelevels).Determination,mentaltoughness,andabilitytoconcentratenecessarytolearnthetechniquesanddevelopspeedendurance.Terrific
opportunitiesforsuccess.
Thecoachwhoactivelyrecruitsathleteswiththesecharacteristicsforthe110meterhurdleeventhasabaseofathleticindividualsaroundwhichtodevelophisorher
team.Bytheseveryqualifications,hurdlershavetheversatilitytocompeteinotherexplosivespeedevents(sprints,verticalandhorizontaljumps,relays)andenhance
theteam.

Page64

Technique
Manycoachesteachthehighhurdlesasahighlytechnicalevent,spendingmuchoftheirtime(andtheathlete'senergy)measuringandanalyzingaspectsofhurdling
suchasnumberofstridestothefirsthurdle,takeoffdistance,landingdistance,hurdleclearancetechniques,andtouchdowntimes,whileneglectingthebasicpremiseof
theeventthe110meterhighhurdleraceisasprintevent.Themajorityofthecoach's(andathlete's)energyshouldbespentonteachingtheconceptofsprinting
overthehurdles.
Theathlete'sspeedisafunctionofhisstridelengthandstridefrequency.Thehurdler'sstridelengthisforthemostpartpredeterminedbythesetdistancefromthe
startinglinetothefirsthurdle,inbetweeneachofthe10hurdles,andthentothefinish.Ideally,thereareeightstridestothefirsthurdleandthreestridesinbetween.
Thismeansthattheyounghighschoolhurdlertakesthesamenumberofstridesastheeliteinternationalcaliberhurdler.Thedifferencebetweenthemisthehurdler's
stridefrequency.Thecoach,then,needstodeveloptheathlete'sstridefrequency,anddoesthisbytraininghimwithfastrhythmicrepetitionsoverthehurdlessoasto
adapttheathlete'sspeedtohurdling.
StartandApproachtoFirstHurdle
Thestartingpositionandblockclearancearethesameforthehurdlerasforthe100metersprinter.Thehurdlermakesatransitiontoerectsprintingposture(''running
tall")morequicklythanthesprintertopreparefortakeoffoverthefirsthurdle.
Thehighhurdlershouldstriveforeightstridestothefirsthurdle.Eightstrideswillgivethehurdlerastridelengthduringthethreestridespriortothehurdlethatwillbe
similartothestridelengththatwillberequiredonthethreestridesbetweeneachofthesubsequenthurdles.Toeffecteightstridestothehurdle,thehurdlermusthave
theleadleginthebackblockatthestartingline.
Takeoff
Asthehurdlerplantsontheeighthstepfromtheblocks,hemustdrivetheleadkneeofthefreeleglinearlytowardthehashmarkontheleadlegsideofthehurdle.
(Seefigure5.1aandb.)Afastleadkneeiscriticaltohurdlingefficiency.

Figure5.1
Theathletemustdrivetheleadkneeofthefreelegattakeoff.

Page65

Thetakeoffdistancefromthehurdledependsonthehurdler'shorizontalvelocityattakeoff.Ifthehurdlertakesofftooclosetothehurdle,theresultwillusuallybe
excessiveclearanceheightoverthehurdle.Thecenterofmassshouldberaisedonlyashighasneededfortheathletetoclearthehurdleefficiently(figure5.1c).
Theheadleadsthebodyoverthehurdle.Thisresultsinleanoftheupperbodyintothehurdle.Thetrunkleanmakesitpossibletominimallyraisethecenterofmass
foreffectivehurdleclearance.
Thetakeoffleg,whichwillserveasthe"trailleg,"mustfullyextendattakeoff.Thisissometimesreferredtoasa"delayedtrailleg,"althoughithappensnaturallyifthe
driveoftheleadkneeissufficient.
Thehipsandshouldersmuststay"square"tothehurdle.Thehurdlershouldcoordinateliftingtheelbowoftheleadarmwithdrivingtheleadknee.Theleadarmcomes
uptoapositionwherethehandisinfrontofthesternum.Thehurdlershouldnever"reach"theleadarmtoofarinfrontofthebodyoracrossthemidlineofthe
bodythisresultsinexcessiverotationasthehurdlerclearsthebarrier.
HurdleClearance
Properlegandarmactionisessentialtofastandefficienthurdleclearance.
LeadLeg
Whenthethighoftheleadlegdrivesuptoapositionparalleltothetrack,momentumistransferredtothelowerleg,whichextendsnaturally.Thefootoftheleadleg
reachesitsapexoftheflightcurvepriortoclearingthehurdle.Thefootisalwaysdorsiflexedwiththetoeup.(Seefigure5.2a.)Thehurdlershouldnever"swing"the
leadfootupandtowardthehurdle.
Thehurdler"paws"theleadfootdowntothetrackafterclearingthehurdle,withthefootstilldorsiflexed.Never"snap"theleadlegdownthisjerksthetrunkback
(actionreaction)andoutofgoodsprintposition.Thehurdlershould"holdthelean"ofthetrunkthroughouthurdleclearance(figure5.2b).
TrailLeg
Immediatelyaftertakeoff,thefootofthetraillegshould"tuckin"or"foldup"behindthehipandfollowthekneeoverthehurdleasinfigure5.2c.Thehips

Figure5.2
Properleadandtraillegpositionsduringhurdleclearance.

Page66

precedethekneeoverthehurdle,andthehurdlershould"pull"thetraillegthroughoverthehurdleinacontinuousacceleratingmotion(withno"posed"position).
ArmAction
Theleadarmshould"sweep"backinawidearc.Thisisnecessarytoincreasethemomentofinertiaofthearmtobalancethegreatermassofthetraillegmovingin
theoppositedirection.Assoonastheleadarmpassesthetrailleg,theradiusshortenstoresumesprintingaction.Thetrailarmstaysrelaxedwiththehandnearthehip
(ontheleadlegside).Itshoulddeviateaslittleaspossiblefromnormalsprintingaction.
Landing
Thehurdlershouldstriveforan"active"landing,withtheleadlegpawingbackatthegroundwiththefootstilldorsiflexedasinfigure5.3a.Thefootoftheleadleg
shouldlanddirectlybeneaththehurdler'scenterofmass(figure5.3bandc).Afastgetawaystrideistheresultofhighandeffectivetraillegtechnique.

Figure5.3
Thetouchdownandgetawaystride.

CorrectingCommonFaults
Inanalyzinghurdlers'technique,itisoftenadvantageoustoviewthehurdler,eitheractivelyorviavideotape,fromaheadonposition.Mostofthefaultslistedbelow
canbespottedfromsuchaviewingposition.
Fault:Takingofftoofarfromthefirsthurdle.
Causes:
a.Blocksmaybetoobunched.
b.Initialstridesaretooshort.
Corrections:
a.Spacetheblocksfartherapart.
b.Acceleratemoreexplosively.
Fault:Excessiveheightoverthehurdle.
Cause:Takingofftooclose/jumpingoverthehurdle.
Correction:Uselowerhurdleheightsinpractice.

Page67

Fault:Lockingtheleadknee.
Cause:Swingingthefootupinsteadofdrivingtheknee.
Correction:Performskippingdrillsonthesidesofandoverthehurdles.
Fault:Offbalancelanding.
Cause:Excessiverotationaroundtheverticalaxis.
Correction:Avoidreachingtheleftelbowoftheleadarm.
Fault:Landingonheel.
Cause:Snappingleadlegdownstraighteningtrunk.
Correction:Holdtheleanthroughouthurdleclearance.
Fault:Serpentinestridepatternbetweenhurdles.
Cause:Excessiverotationaroundtheverticalaxis.
Correction:Drivethekneeattakeoffkeephipsandshoulderssquare.
Inadditiontotroubleshootingtechniquevisually,thecoachcanalsoanalyzetouchdowntimestoevaluateperformancebothintrainingandcompetition.Thecoachcan
manually(orbyviewingvideotapeplayedatactualspeed)timethetouchdownoftheleadfootovereachhurdle,andbyplottingthedata,haveaneffectivemodelof
eachrepetitionandrace.
Drills
Sequencesofprogressivedrillscanbeusedbothtoteachhurdletechniqueinintroductorysessionsaswellastopreparethehurdlerfortrainingorcompetitionaspart
ofawarmup.Drillsmaybedoneatlowerthanstandardheightstoincreaseefficiency.Forexample,highschoolboysmaydothedrillsover3336inch(about84
91cm)hurdlesandadvancedhurdlersover3639inch(about9199cm)hurdles.
AMarch
Withthehurdlesset46feet(about1.21.8m)apart,theathletestepsinamarchingrhythmoverthetopsofthehurdles,exaggeratingkneeup/toeup/heelupaction
anderectposture.Thisisillustratedinfigure5.4.

Figure5.4
Amarchdrill.

Page68

ASkips
Withthehurdlesset68feet(about1.82.4m)apart,theathleteskipsoverthetopofthehurdles,againemphasizingkneeup/toeup/heelupactionintheskipping
rhythm.
BSkips
Withthesamesetupandsameskippingrhythm,theathletecastshisleadlegoutandoverthehurdleoneveryotherskip,pawingtheleadlegbacktothegroundafter
clearingthehurdle.
CSkips
Withthesamesetupandsameskippingrhythm,theathleteraiseshistrailleglaterallyoneveryotherskip,clearingthesideofthehurdle.
FastLegDrill
Withseveralhurdlesset8.58.8metersapart,theathleteperformsafastlegdrillovertheleadlegsideofhurdlethatis,pullingtheheeltightlytothebuttinan
acceleratingmotion,simulatingasprintstrideatmaximumvelocityoneveryfourthstride.
HalfHurdlingLeadLeg
Withsamesetup,theathletesprintsovertheleadlegsideofthehurdle,executingtheleadlegaction.Efficientexecutionmayrequiresettingthehurdlesasmuchas9
inches(about23cm)belowstandardhurdleheight.
HalfHurdlingTrailLeg
Withsamesetup,theathletesprintsoverthetraillegsideofthehurdle,executingthetraillegaction.Thisrequiresan"airstep,"withtheleadlegcoordinatedwith
traillegaction.Toavoidoverrotationaroundverticalaxis,theleadlegshouldland612inches(about1530cm)beyondthehurdle.
Althoughthissequenceofdrillsisnotacompletelistofdrills,performingthesedrillsinsequencepreparestheathleteforhurdlingatfastervelocities.Additionaldrills
thatproducestrengthanddynamicflexibilityintherangeofmotionusedinhurdlingincludethefollowing:
GroundHurdling
Seatedontheground,theathleteimitatesthearmaction,leaninghistrunkforwardoneveryfourtharmpumpandliftingtheelbowoftheleadarm,thensweepingit
backwhilekeepingtheshoulderssquare.
WallHurdling
Theathleteleadswiththekneewhileliftingtheelbowoftheleadarmand"landing"thedorsiflexedfootoftheleadkneeagainstthewall.

Page69

FenceDrillforTrailLeg
Whilebalancingbybracingwiththearmsagainstafenceoranotherhurdletosupportaleaningtrunk,theathleterepetitiouslycirclesthetraillegcontinuallyoverthe
hurdle,asdemonstratedinfigure5.5.

Figure5.5
Fencedrillforthetrailleg.

ResistedTrailLeg
Inthesamepositionasthepreviousdrill,theathletecirclesthetraillegagainsttheresistanceofapartnerholdingthefootofthetrailleg.
Inteachingthebeginninghurdler,don'thesitatetolowerthehurdlesormovethemcloser.Theobjectiveshouldbetoteachefficienthurdleclearancetechniqueatafast
rhythm,andnotnecessarilytonegotiatethehurdlesattheirstandardheightanddistances.
Itcanalsobeadvantageoustoteachthebeginninghurdlertotakefourstepsbetweenhurdles.Thiswillallowthehurdlertomaintainefficientsprinttechniquewithout
"reaching"forthehurdles,andwillforcehimorhertodevelopambidextroushurdlingability,anadvantageiftheathletewillalsocompeteinthe300meteror400
meterhurdlerace.
100MeterHurdles
JohnMillar
Thewomen's100meterhurdlesemergedfromthe80meterhurdleswhen,in1968,theIAAF
changedtheeventtoitspresentdistance.The100metereventwasfirstcontestedthefollowing
year.Thechangewasmadebecauseofincreasesinthespeedandstrengthoffemaleathletes,along
withimprovementsintracksurfacesandequipment.
Theeventconsistsof10hurdlesspacedat8.5meters,withastartingdistanceof13.0metersanda
finishingdistanceof10.5meters.Theheightofthehurdlesis33inches(.84meters).Thesesegments
determinethenumberofstridestakenbytheathlete.Thestartingdistancetothefirsthurdleisusually
coveredineightstrides,withthreestridestakenbetweenhurdles.
Muchofthetechniquedescribedforthe110meterhighhurdlescanbeappliedtothe100meter
hurdlerace.However,therearedistincttechnicaldifferencesinthewomen's

(continued)

Page70

100MeterHurdles(continued)
hurdleeventbasedonthelowerhurdleheightsandthedecreaseddistancesbetweenhurdles.The
mostevidentdifferencesbetweentheeventsarethehurdleclearanceandtraillegmechanics.
HurdleClearance
Thelowerhurdleheightinthe100meterhurdleraceaffectstheclearancestride,orthedistancethe
hurdlertravelsfromtakeoffintothehurdleuntiltouchdownoverthehurdle.Anaggressiveleadleg
resultingfromashortenedtakeoffstrideallowstheathletetoattackthehurdlemorequickly,thereby
minimizingthelossofhorizontalvelocityoverthehurdle.Thisactionandthelowerhurdleheight
enablethehurdlertokeeptheflightpathofthecenterofgravityasflataspossible,allowingherto
touchdownclosertothehurdlethanhermalecounterpartandresultinginashorterclearancestride
overthehurdle.
TrailLegMechanics
Thetraillegofthefemalehurdlerisbroughtthroughinamuchlesspronouncedmannerthanthe
"ascendingkneeunderthearm"positionusedinthemen's110meterhurdles.Thetraillegfootis
foldedtightlyagainstthebuttockasthetraillegispulledacrossthehurdle(seefigure5.6).Thelower
hurdleheightpermitswomenhurdlerstoallowthethighofthetraillegtohangdownasitcrossesthe
hurdlerailthedegreeofhangdependsontheheightoftheathlete.Shorterfemalehurdlerswillalso
bendthetraillegawayfromthepelvismorethantheirtallercounterparts.
Drills
Tomasterhurdlingtechnique,athleteslearnanumberofspecificdrillsthatnotonlyisolatethevarious
hurdlemovementsbutalsoteachthedifferentphasesandeventuallythewholemovement.Stationary
drillsarethemainsourceofteachingbeginnersthebasichurdlemovements,asthesedrillsisolatethe
differentpositionsofthelegs,arms,andbodyaswellashelptodevelopspecifichurdlingflexibility.
Oncethevariousstationarydrillshavebeenmastered,theindividualmovesontothemorecomplex
walking,skipping,andrunningdrills.
Thefollowingteachingprogressioncanbeusedindevelopingthehurdlingtechniqueandrhythmof
thenovice100meterhurdler.

Figure5.6
Traillegpositionduringhurdleclearancefor100meterhurdlers.Thelowerhurdleheightallowsforthe
thighofthetraillegtohangdownasitcrossesthehurdle.

Page71

MarchingandSkippingExercises
Sixlowhurdlesareplaced1.5metersapart.Theathletebeginsbyisolatingthetraillegandleadleg
overtheirrespectivesidesofthehurdle,andfinallycombinesbothactionsoverthecenterofthe
hurdles.
OneStepHurdling
Thehurdlesarenowplaced3.03.5metersapart.Thesamesequenceisusedasintheprevious
drills,beginningwiththetrailleg,exceptthattheathletenowtakesonestepbetweenhurdles.
ThreeStepHurdling
Thehurdlesaremovedouttoadistanceof6.5meters,allowingtheathletetobegintoestablishthe
threesteprhythmthatissocriticaltosuccessinthe100meterhurdlerace.Onceagain,thetrailleg
andleadlegactionsaredoneinisolationbeforethewholetechniqueisestablishedoverthecenterof
thehurdle.

Training
Drillscanbeofvalueforteachinghurdlingtechnique,andasawarmupmethod,butthemajorityofpracticetimeandenergyshouldbespentonfasthurdling.
Repetitionsoverhurdlescanbedoneusingseveraldifferentmethodstoaccomplishvariedtrainingobjectives,sometimeswithinthesameworkout(seetable5.1).
Theprimaryobjectivesduringthepreseasonshouldbedevelopingexplosivestrengthandlearninghurdletechnique.Explosivestrengthcanbeincreasedbydoing
exerciseslikehillrunning,boundingdrills,andplyometrics.Techniquecanbelearnedwithdrillprogressionsandvideoanalysis.Theearlypartoftheseasonshould
focusonimprovingspeedendurance.Thiscanbedonewithahigh
TABLE5.1HURDLEREPETITIONS
Method

Objectives

Starts Startingmechanicsaccelerationpattern
over2
3
hurdles
Reps
Transitionfromaccelerationphasetomaintenance
over4
6
hurdles
Reps
Speedendurance
over8
12
hurdles
Reps
3stridesinreduceddistanceforcesfasterstride
over6 frequencyquickrhythmbetweenhurdles
10
hurdles,
8.58.8
mapart
formen,
6.57m
apart
for
women
Reps
5stridesoverincreaseddistanceallowsathletetosprint
over4 overhurdlesatfastervelocity
6
hurdles,
12.513
mapart
formen,
11.512
mapart
for
women

Page72

volumeofrepetitionsatlongerdistances.Duringthemidseason,themainobjectiveshouldbeongainingracingexperience.Ahighvolumeofraceswillhelphurdlers
gaintheexperiencetheyneedtocompeteconsistentlyandintelligently.Duringthepeakseason,thefocusshouldswitchtorefiningspeed.Thisiswhenhighintensity
repetitionsandqualityracescomeintoplay.Keepingtheseobjectivesinmind,thefollowingtable(table5.2)separatesthehurdler'strainingyearintopreseason,early
season,andlateseason,andpresentsasampleweeklytrainingplanforeach.
TABLE5.2SAMPLEWORKOUTSFOR100AND110METERHURDLES
Preseason
Monday

Warmup
6100measystrides
Hurdleflexibilityexercises
530mbounduphill
Cooldown

Tuesday

Warmup
15min.continuousrun
Circuittraining

Wednesday

Warmup
25100m@1516sec.with45sec.recovery
650muphillruns
Cooldown
Stretch

Thursday

Warmup
6100m@80%
Relaxationstrides
Hurdleflexibilityexercises
Walkinghurdledrills
Cooldown
Stretch

Friday

Warmup
6300@4550sec.
35min.rest
Plyometricjumptraining
Cooldown
Stretch

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page73

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Preseason
Saturday

Warmup
Hurdleflexibilitydrills
Harnesssledpullsfor50m
Circuittraining
Cooldown
Stretch

EarlySeason
Monday

Warmup
Hurdledrills
Lowhurdletechniquepractice(gradullyworkinguptocompetitiveheights)
1300m
1250m
1200m
1150m
Cooldown
Stretch

Tuesday

Warmup
Hurdledrills
Sprintdrillsoveradjustedheightsandspacings
Plyometrictraining

Wednesday

Warmup
Nohurdling
Flexibilitydrills
1520min.aerobicrun

Thursday

Warmup
Hurdledrills
Techniquepractice
Startsover34hurdles(adjustheightsandspacing)whiledeveloping4120mspeed
endurance
Cooldown
Stretch

Friday

Warmup
Hurdledrillsandflexibility
34startsover3hurdles
2100mrelaxedstriding
Cooldown
Stretch

Saturday

Earlycompetition

(continued)

Page74

(continued)
LateSeason
Monday

Warmup
Hurdleflexibilitydrills
Hurdletechniquedrills
38hurdles,plusrunallthewayto150m
Cooldown
Stretch

Tuesday

Warmup
Hurdleflexibilitydrills
Speedhurdletraining(movehurdlesclosetogethertoemphasizefastfrequency)
Plyometrics
Cooldown

Wednesday

Warmup
Nohurdles
Flexibilitydrills
68100measystriding

Thursday

Warmup
Hurdleflexibilitydrills
Techniquepractice
34startsover5hurdles
3120mwith11hurdlesspaced1ft.(about30.4cm)closerthannormal
Cooldown

Friday

Warmuponly

Saturday

Mostimportantcompetition

Summary
Despitethefinetechnicaldifferencesbetweenthe110meterhighhurdlesandthe100meterhurdles,theybothdemandthefundamentalqualitiesofexplosivestrength
anddynamicflexibility.Attentionmustalsobegiventothepropertechniqueforeachphaseoftherace.Drillsthataccentuatetheaboveessentials,alongwithawell
thoughtouttrainingprogram,areparamountforachievingsuccessinbothraces.

Page75

6
400MeterHurdles
GaryWinckler

The400meterhurdlesisadistinctiveandchallengingevent.The400meterhurdlerneedsthestrengthabilitiesofan800meterrunner,thehurdlingabilityofthesprint
hurdler,andthevisualsteeringabilityofthehorizontaljumper.Successfulcompetitorsintheeventhavecomefromthesprint,hurdle,jump,andmiddledistanceranks.
Theeventitselfiscomposedof10hurdlesspacedat35meters,withastartingdistanceof45metersandfinishingdistanceof40meters.Thehurdlesare30inches
(about76cm)highforwomenand36inches(about91.5cm)highformen.Inselectingathletesfortheevent,oneshouldlookforthefollowing:
SprintabilitySpeedisalwaystheprimarylimitingfactorinanyspeedandpowerevent.
AggressivementalattitudeandconcentrationBythenatureoftheevent,hurdlersmustbeaggressiveandbeabletoconcentrateonnegotiatingthebarriers.
CompetitivenatureAnyathletemustbecompetitivetosucceed.

Page76

StrengthHighlevelsofbothmaximalstrengthandstrengthendurancearerequisiteforgoodperformances.Notonlymustathletesbefastover400meters,but
theymustbeabletoperformthepowerfulactionofhurdlinginahighlyfatiguedstate.
DynamicmobilityMobilitywithinthehipstoefficientlyperformthehurdlingmotionwillbecriticaloverthecourseofa10hurdleeventof400meters.
Thecoachshouldattempttoingrainthefollowingperformancequalities(inorderofimportance).
1.Abilitytoapplyforceattakeofftomovethroughthehurdleandminimizedeceleration.Applicationoftherightkindofforcesattakeoffultimatelydetermines
theefficiencyofone'shurdlingskills.Thisapplicationrequiresstrength,power,andspeedaswellasgoodtechnique.
2.Abilitytoperformeffectiveandefficienthurdlingskillswithbothlegs.Thebesthurdlerstodayandcertainlythechampionsoftomorrowwillbeathleteswho
canmastertheskillofhurdlingwitheitherleg.
3.Abilitytomaintainaconsistentrhythmfor10hurdles.Thebesthurdlerinthelongrunhasthespecialstrengthandconsistenttechniquetorunover10hurdles
withtheleastamountoftechnicaldecrementfromstarttofinish.
4.Abilitytomanageracedistributionefficiently.Knowledgeandexperienceof400meterracingbuildsasolidfoundationofracemanagementskills,whichcanbe
carriedovertothehurdlesevent.
Technique
Particularimportanceshouldbeplacedonexecutingprecisetechniqueduringdifferentphasesofthe400meterhurdles.
StartandApproachtoFirstHurdle

Figure6.1
(a)Pullingthetraillegovertheinsideofthehurdle
duringclearancewillresultindisqualification.(b)
Athleteswhousearightleadonthecurvemust
insteadruntowardthemiddleoroutsidepart
ofthelane.

Astridepatternof2225stepsistypicallyusedtothefirsthurdleforwomenand2023stepsformen.Thisispredicatedbythespeedandstrengthoftheathleteand
bywhichlegtheyprefertouseatthefirsthurdle.Mosthurdlerswillusetheleftlegforhurdlesonthecurve,asthisallowsthemtorunontheinsideofthelanewithout
fearofpullingthetraillegovertheinsideofthehurdleduringclearance.Arightlegleadonthecurvemustallowforthetraillegtoclearthehurdlewithoutbeingoffto
theinsideofthelane,asthisresultsindisqualification.(Seefigure6.1a).Anathletewhousestherightleadonthecurveshouldruntowardthemiddletooutside
portionofthelanetoallowspaceforthetraillegtoclearoverthehurdle

Page77

(figure6.1b).Thisalsomeansthattheathletewillrunfartherthanifheorshewereontheinsideofthelane.
1.Attackthefirstfourtofivestrideswiththecharacteristicinclinationofthebodyfoundinthenormalaccelerationfromblocks.
2.Attackthehurdlefromabout10metersaway.Thiswillensureanaggressiverun,whichwillminimizethedecelerationthatnormallyoccursatthispoint.Minimize
heightandincreasespeedoverthehurdleby''sprintingthroughthehurdle"asshowninfigure6.2.

Figure6.2
Minimizedecelerationby"sprintingthroughthehurdle."

Takeoff
Thetermtakeofffootwillrefertothetraillegfoot.Thisisthefootfromwhichthehurdlerwillpropelhimselforherselfintothehurdle.Theplacementofthisfootto
thetrackshouldbeactive(i.e.,pullingbackwardfromthehipwiththefootindorsiflexionandtheanklejointstrongandstable).Byactivelandingwemeananactive,
quickplacingofthetraillegintothetakeoffpositionsomewhatfasterthaninthepreviousrunningstride.Thisactivelandingactionwill"cut"orshortenthelaststride,
preventingplantingorbrakingactionandminimizinglossofvelocitygoingintothehurdle.(Seefigure6.3.)Thisplacementshouldbeontheforefootandoccurs
approximately2.0metersfromthehurdle.Anthropometricsmustbeconsideredindeterminingcorrectdistancefromthehurdle.

Figure6.3
Plantingactiononthetakeoff:(a)toomuchplantingaction,whichincreasestheheightoverthehurdle.
(b)Activefootplantandgoodsprintingactionintothehurdle,whichkeepsthemomentummovingforward.

Page78

HurdleClearance
Toachieveefficienthurdleclearance,theathletemustcomprehendtheinterplayoftheleadleg,trailleg,andarmactions.
LeadLeg
Toagreatextent,theleadleginitiatesandcontrolsthehurdleclearance.Efficientclearancebeginsinthestridesbeforethehurdle.Oncetheleadlegfinishesits
lastgroundcontactbeforethehurdle,itimmediatelyisrecovered,heeltobutt,asthekneeisdrivenuptoapointoverthehurdlerail.Thisrequiresflexionatthehip
andtheknee.Thelowerpartoftheleadlegremainstuckedunderthethighuntilthethighhasreachedparalleltothegroundorabove.Whenthethighreachesitsapex,
momentumisthentransferredtothelowerlegbyrelaxingthehamstringandallowingthekneejointtoopen.Thekneedoesnotlock.(Anotherreasonforflexingthe
hipandthenextendingthelowerlegasatwostepsequenceisthattherectusfemorisandhamstringmusclesaremultiplejointedmusclesthatcrossoverthehipand
knee,andacharacteristicofsuchmusclesisthattheydonotpermitcompletemovementinbothjointssimultaneously.)Itisnotamistaketonotfullystraightenthelead
legatthekneejoint.
ArmAction
Theleadleganditsopposingarmmustmoveinaparallelmanner.Ifthearmisdirectedinwardtowardtheleg,thenthelegwillalsomoveinward,crossingtowardthe
arm,andtheforwardmotionofthebodywillbedisturbed.Thevelocityofbotharmsmustcoincidewiththatoftheleadleg.
TrailLeg
Thetraillegmustworkinconcertwiththeleadlegandleadarmactions.Thetraillegshouldbeactivethroughoutitsrangeofmovement.Asthetrailfootleavesthe
ground,thelegisdrawnvigorouslyforwardandupward,tuckingtheheeltightlytothebuttandtherebyshorteningthetraillegleverasmuchaspossible.(Seefigure
6.4.)Thisenablesthelegtopassoverthehurdlewithgreaterspeedandreducesthedegreeofcompensatingrotationintherestofthebody.Thefootofthetrailleg
shouldneverrisehigherthanitsknee.Thetraillegiskepttightlyfoldeduntilthekneehasreachedthefrontofthebodyandisreadytoacceleratedownwardtothe
trackonceagain.Theathleteshouldattempttosprintoffthehurdle,withthetraillegcomingdownquicklyandgrabbingthetrack.

Figure6.4
Thetraillegshouldbekepttightly
foldedtowardthebodyduring
hurdleclearance.

SequencingofActions
Problemsforthecoachandathleteaspiringtoelitelevelsariselargelyfromestablishedmotorandneuralpatternswithintheathlete.Especiallywithathleteswhohave
beenhurdlingformanyyears,thereisaningrainedrhythmicpattern,

Page79

whichmayultimatelybethegreatesthindrancetobreakthroughperformances.Theathletemustbeabletodothefollowing:
Adapttoperformingsequencesofhurdlingactionsatvariedspeeds.
Anticipatethehurdlecomingupmorequickly.
Breakingrainedmentalandphysicalrhythmsfrompastracesthatwerenotofahighperformancestandard.
Understandtheinterplayoftheleadleg,trailleg,andarmactionsinhurdleclearanceandrunningbetween.Becausebalanceisakeyingredientinhurdling,these
leversmustworkathighlycorrespondingvelocitiesthatarewellcoordinated.Whenanathleteisairborne,theleadlegcannotbeforcedtocometothetrackifthetrail
legisnotcomingthroughatthesametime.Thetraillegshouldnotcomethroughuntiltheleadlegisatthepointwherethehurdlerwantsittocomebacktothetrack.
CorrectingCommonFaults
Fault:Takeoffistoofarfromthefirsthurdle.
Causes:
a.Sprintstridesduringinitialaccelerationfromblocksaretooshort.
b.Armactioninaccelerationtofirsthurdlemaybetoopassive.
Corrections:
a.Athletelackscontractivestrengthnecessarytodrivefromtheblockswithsufficientstridelength.
b.Lengthenarmactionandincreasetheamplitudeofarmmovementduringtheruntothefirsthurdleandattackthelast10meterspriortothehurdle.
Fault:Clearanceistoohighoverthehurdle.
Causes:
a.Tooclosetothehurdleattakeoff.
b.Takeofffootplantedonheeltoofaraheadofcenterofmass.
c.Nonexistentornonactivetakeoff.
d.Leadlegnotfoldedtightlyuntilthighreachesparallelorabove.
e.Athleteafraidofhurdle.
Corrections:
a.Keepathleteinsprintaccelerationposturelonger.Thiskeepsstridesshorterandhelpstheathleteattainhighervelocity.Makesuretheathleteisacceleratingina
patternandnotoverstriding.Iftheathleteisplantingthetakeofffootlikealongjumper,thiswillmakethelaststridebeforethehurdletoolongandresultinplacement
tooclosetothehurdle.
b.Practiceatallposture,makingthetakeoffstepactiveandonthefrontofthefoot.
c.Again,practiceatallposture.
d.Rehearseproperleadlegmechanicsandbodyposturegoingintohurdle.Alsoexaminewhatthetakeofffootisdoing.Ifitisplantedontheheel,thentheleadleg
willtendtoopenuptoosoon.

Page80

e.Inpracticeusehurdlesconstructedofsoft,flexiblematerialsorconstructedtobeforgiving.Ifthehurdleisnotathreattolifeandlimb,theathletewillgainthe
necessaryconfidencetorunthroughthehurdlewiththevelocitynecessarytoperformefficienttechnique.
Fault:Hittingtrailkneeonthehurdle.
Causes:
a.Rushingtakeoff(jumpingthroughthehurdleratherthanrunningofftheground).
Corrections:
a.Focusonanactivetakeoffstepanddonotrushtheforceapplicationofthetrailleg.Also,leavethetraillegbackuntilfeelingapushoffofthetoe.Thiswillcausea
stretchinthethighmusclesthatwillsnapthetraillegthroughwithlittleornoeffort.
Fault:Offbalancecomingoffthehurdle.
Causes:
a.Leadlegandoppositearmaredriveninwardandnotparalleltothedirectionoftravel.
b.Traillegopeninguptoosoonasitclearsthehurdle.
Corrections:
a.Workonkeepingtheleadlegmechanicsasdescribedabovetoenabletheathletetomoreeasilykeepactionsinlinewiththedirectionoftherun.Usesprintarm
actionintothehurdleandnotacrossthebody.Also,theathletemaybetooclosetothehurdle.
b.Doasignificantamountofworkontraillegmechanicstokeepthelegfoldeduntilthethighhasreachedapositionwherethekneeispointinginthedirectionof
travelbeforeopeninguptowardtheground.Thisproblemoftenoccurswhentheathleteistryingtorushthetraillegtotheground.
Fault:Hittinghurdleslateintherace.
Causes:
a.Lossofrhythm.
b.Tooclosetohurdles.
c.Lossofconcentration.
Corrections:
a.Athletefailstomaintainahipstallposition,whichmaycausehimorhertositandtherebynotmaintaingoodsprintmechanics.
b.Makeeyecontactwiththenexthurdleatleast15metersawayandrunaggressivelytothehurdle.
c.Thinkofthehurdleraceas400meterslongand48incheswide.Learntolimitattentiontowhat'shappeninginyourownlaneandtoconcentrateonyourown
rhythm.
Training
Trainingforthe400meterhurdleseventwillhavemanyofthesamecharacteristicsasthetrainingforthe200meterand400meterdashes.Refertothosechapters
forspecificsuggestionsaboutenergysystemtraining.WhatIlistbelowareevent

Page81

specificconsiderationsindesigningthetrainingprogramforthe400meterhurdler.
ProgramPriorities
Theprioritiesofthis400meterhurdletrainingprogramarelistedinorderofimportance.
PerformanceApproach
Thefirstpriorityistoacquiretheproperkinesthesisofforceapplicationthroughaperformanceapproach.Inthetraditionalapproachtakenbymanycoachesand
athletes,muchtimeisspentondrillswheretheathletewalks,skips,orrunsoverhurdlesspacedveryclosetogetheroratspacingsthataregreaterthanorequalto
competitivespacingsandheights.Thisapproachimprovesconditioningmorethantechnique.Itemphasizeslimbmovementskills,whichisgoodfromthestandpointof
dynamicmobilitybutfromatechnicalstandpoint,itemphasizesverticalvelocity.Thisisapooremphasis,sincemosthurdleathletesalreadygeneratetoomuchvertical
velocityattakeoff.Suchtrainingresultsinlongerflighttimesoverthehurdleandingreatergroundtimeontouchdownoffthehurdle.Allofthesefactorsresultin
slowerperformances.
Theperformanceapproachusesdrillsandexercisesdesignedtocallintoplaythesamemusclesandforcesusedintheactualevent.Theseexercisesinvolveusing
hurdlesofreducedheightandspacings,whichallowforspeedsthatare90110%ofracespeeds.Forexample,hurdleheightsshouldbe2430inches(about6176
cm)forwomenand3036inches(about7691cm)formen,andspacingofhurdlesshouldallowfor811stridesbetween.Tofigurethesespacings,usetherace
stridepatternoftheathleteandmultiplythestridelengthusedintheracebythenumberofstridesbetweenthehurdlesyoudesire.Addthreemeterstothisdistancefor
thehurdlestrideandyouhaveyourinterhurdlespacing.Examplesfollow:

Thus,forthespacingtobe11strides,youwoulduse111.88+3meters,or23.68meters.

Thus,forthespacingtobe11strides,youwoulduse112.00+3meters,or25.00meters.

Thus,forthespacingtobe11strides,youwoulduse112.13+3meters,or26.43meters.

Page82

Thus,forthespacingtobe11strides,youwoulduse112.29+3meters,or28.19meters.

Thus,forthespacingtobe11strides,youwoulduse112.46+3meters,or30.06meters.
Useexercisesthatareeffectiveandtowhichtheathletecanrelate.Onlythenwillfasterandmoreeffectivelearningoccur.
CoreStrength
Thebodyislimitedinitsabilitytoapplyforcebythe"pillar"or"core"strengthofthetrunk.Thecoremustbedevelopedwellandmaintainedtoimproveperformance
throughgreaterpoweroutput.Abdominalandbackmuscles,whichmaintaintheposturenecessaryforgoodperformance,mustespeciallybedeveloped.
SprintingAbility
Speedisultimatelythegreatestlimitingfactorinanyrunningevent.Althoughvaluabletrainingtimemustbeexpendedonrefiningtechnique,speeddevelopmentshould
beaddressedthroughouttheentiretrainingyear,notjustattheveryend.
Rhythm
Rhythmmustbeafocusthroughoutallphasesoftraining.Aconsistentrhythmshouldbeestablishedbeforethemajorcompetitiveseasoninfact,itmustbehoned
earlier,inthepreparationphases,sothatitcanbecontinuallyimproved.Lactacidpowerandcapacityareimportantabilitiesforanyathleterunningthe400meter
distance.Distributionofenergyandpropermanagementoftheracearecriticaltooptimalperformance.
Steering
Steeringistheabilityoftheathletetovisualizewherethehurdleisandtomakeadjustmentssoastonegotiatethehurdlewithoutsacrificingspeedandhurdling
efficiency.
StrengthandPower
Strengthandpowerisanimportantbiomotorabilityforallspeedandpowerathletes.Maximumstrengthmustbedevelopedforstartingabilityaswellasforpower
conversiontomaintainspeedandrhythmthroughouttherace.
SpeedandSpeedEndurance
Enhancespeedandspeedendurancequalitiestoestablishabaselinefor400meterimprovement.Anathlete'sbest400metersshouldbeapproximately2(best200
meters)+3.5seconds.Tothisyoucanadd34secondsforapredictorofbest400meterhurdleperformance.

Page83

Itisalsoimportanttolearntheproperdistributionofeffort.Use4400meterrelayswithinexperiencedathletestobuildconfidence.Itgivesathletesadditional
competitiveexperienceatthegivendistance,whichenhancestheirconfidencetorun400meters.
TeachingStrategies
Thefollowingteachingstrategiesshouldbeapartofyouroveralltrainingprogram.
1.Fastrunsoverhurdlesatreducedheightandspacing.
2.Emphasizepreparationfortakeoffandtakeoffmechanics.
Putathleteinpositionstofeelforceapplicationongroundandhipdisplacementthroughthehurdle.
Contrastresistancetospeedwiththenormalstateandwithassistancetospeed.
Controlthepatternofstridelengthtothefirsthurdletoenhancetakeoffpositionandregulatetakeoffdistance.
Controltakeoffdistancefromthehurdlebyuseofcoachingmarkers(approximatelytwometersfromhurdle)
Don'trushthetraillegrecovery."Leaveitback."
3.Approach400meterhurdleeventfromtheperspectiveofrhythmanddistribution.
Accelerationgoalshouldbeforthefirsttwohurdles.
Userhythmicunitsintrainingandincompetitiontoprovidefeedbackandmotivation.(Rhythmicunitsaresegmentsorportionsoftheracethathaverepeated
runningpatterns.Forexample,thestridefrequencyfromtouchdownofhurdleonetotouchdownofhurdletwoisarhythmicunit.)
Betweeneachhurdle,theathleterunsaspecificnumberofstridestoaccommodatehisorhermostefficientstridelengthtogettothenexthurdlewithouthavingto
speeduporslowdown.Figure6.5onpage84illustratestheevaluationofeachhurdlesegment(rhythmicunit)foraworldclasshurdler.Therhythmicunits(RU)
aremeasuredinseconds.Thestepsarethenumberofstridesfromthelandingofonehurdlethroughthelandingofthenext.
Thegivendistanceof35metersbetweenhurdles,45meterstothefirst,and40metersfromthelasthurdletothefinishlinemakesitpossibletocalculatethe
velocitiesforeachrhythmicunit.
First,seekconsistentrhythmthroughouttherace.
Trainingexample:610hurdlesatreducedspacing(1921meters)usingasmoothtransitionto,over,andoffofeachhurdle,developingaconsistentrhythm
throughout.
Second,challengetheestablishedconsistentrhythmtobreakthroughtofastertimesbypreparingtodealwithadverseconditionssuchaswind.
Trainingexample:610hurdlesatreducedspacing(1921meters)spacedatvaryingdistancestopromotethedevelopmentofa"steeringmechanism."

Page84

Figure6.5
EvaluationofeachhurdlesegmentforathleteTonjaBuford.

Table6.1provideshurdlespacingstoadvisespecificsteppatternsinpracticeatvariousspeeds.Forexample,at100percentracespeed,a13stephurdlerhas
hurdlesat35meters.Topracticeusing11stepsat100percent,movethehurdlesto30.06meters.Ifyouwanttoslowthepacedownto90percentofrace
pace,putthehurdlesat31.50meterstoachievea13steppattern.Thus,youareabletofigureoutvarioushurdlespacings,whichallowsgreateramountsof
hurdletrainingatproperrhythmicalunitswithoutgettingtoofatiguedtoaccomplishthoserhythms.
4.Developqualitiesinparallel.
Developflatspeed,hurdleacceleration,andspecifichurdleendurancesimultaneously.Thisisnecessarytoensureintegrityoftechnique.
Developstrengthinconjunctionwithspeed.Thiswillmaintainthedelicatebalancebetweenmusclestrengthandcoordination.
Drills
Technicalexercisesordrillsservetocorrectdeficienciesinmechanics,toteachandingrainpropermotorpatterns,andtopromotelocalmuscleandspecifichurdle
conditioning.Somebasicexercisesshouldbereviewedandusedevenwiththemostadvancedhurdler.Thebasisofmosthurdlingexercisesshouldbesoundsprinting
exercises.Hurdletrainingisbynatureveryspecifictoimproveasahurdler,youmusthurdle.Trainingsessionsmustbegearedtowardthespecificrhythmnecessary
inhurdling.Foradvancedhurdlers,specialhurdleenduranceshouldbeemphasizedintraining.

Page85
TABLE6.1SPACINGSFORVARIEDPRACTICESTEPPATTERNS
Hurdlespacings(inmeters)for100%ofracespeed.

9steps

10

11

12

13

25.14

27.60

30.06

32.52

35.00

14

23.61

25.90

28.19

30.48

32.77

35.00

15

22.20

24.33

26.47

28.60

30.73

32.87

35.00

16

21.00

23.00

25.00

27.00

29.00

31.00

33.00

35.00

17

19.94

21.82

23.71

25.59

27.47

29.35

31.24

33.12

35.00

13steppattern

14

15

16

17

Hurdlespacings(inmeters)for98%ofracespeed.

9steps

10

11

12

13

24.64

27.05

29.46

31.87

34.30

14

23.14

25.38

27.63

29.87

32.11

34.30

15

21.76

23.85

25.94

28.03

30.12

32.21

34.30

16

20.58

22.54

24.50

26.46

28.42

30.38

32.34

34.30

17

19.54

21.39

23.23

25.08

26.92

28.77

30.61

32.46

34.30

13steppattern

14

15

16

17

Hurdlespacings(inmeters)for96%ofracespeed.

9steps

10

11

12

13

24.13

26.50

28.86

31.22

33.60

14

22.67

24.86

27.06

29.26

31.46

33.60

15

21.31

23.36

25.41

27.46

29.50

31.55

33.60

16

20.16

22.08

24.00

25.92

27.84

29.76

31.68

33.60

17

19.14

20.95

22.76

24.56

26.37

28.18

29.99

31.79

13steppattern

14

15

16

17

33.60

Hurdlespacings(inmeters)for94%ofracespeed.

9steps

10

11

12

13

23.63

25.94

28.26

30.57

32.90

14

22.19

24.35

26.50

28.65

30.80

32.90

15

20.87

22.87

24.88

26.88

28.89

30.89

32.90

16

19.74

21.62

23.50

25.38

27.26

29.14

31.02

32.90

17

18.74

20.51

22.28

24.05

25.82

27.59

29.36

31.13

32.90

13steppattern

14

15

16

17

Hurdlespacings(inmeters)for90%ofracespeed.

9steps

10

11

12

13

22.63

24.84

27.05

29.27

31.50

14

21.25

23.31

25.37

27.43

29.49

31.50

15

19.98

21.90

23.82

25.74

27.66

29.58

31.50

16

18.90

20.70

22.50

24.30

26.10

27.90

29.70

31.50

17

17.95

19.64

21.34

23.03

24.72

26.42

28.11

29.81

13steppattern

(continued)

14

15

16

17

31.50

Page86

(continued)
Hurdlespacings(inmeters)for88%ofracespeed.

9steps

10

11

12

13

22.12

24.29

26.45

28.62

30.80

14

20.78

22.79

24.81

26.82

28.84

30.80

15

19.54

21.41

23.29

25.17

27.05

28.92

30.80

16

18.48

20.24

22.00

23.76

25.52

27.28

29.04

30.80

17

17.55

19.20

20.86

22.52

24.17

25.83

27.49

29.14

30.80

14

15

16

17

13steppattern

14

15

16

17

Hurdlespacings(inmeters)for86%ofracespeed.

9steps

10

11

12

13

21.62

23.74

25.85

27.97

30.10

14

20.30

22.27

24.24

26.21

28.18

30.10

15

19.09

20.93

22.76

24.60

26.43

28.27

30.10

16

18.06

19.78

21.50

23.22

24.94

26.66

28.38

30.10

17

17.15

18.77

20.39

22.01

23.62

25.24

26.86

28.48

13steppattern

30.10

HighKneeRoutines(MachDrills)
Exerciseisperformedwithhighkneeaction,pullingheelstobutt.Postureistall.Anklejointiskeptdorsiflexedandweightbearingisonforefoot.Progressdownthe
trackisslow,withallfootcontactsundercenterofmass.
Thethreehighkneevariationsare:
Marching
Skipping
Running
FastLegRoutines
Thisexerciseisverydifficultanddemandsgoodcoordinationandtiming.Theobjectiveistoisolatethepropermotionofthesprintstrideintoleftandrightside
movements,teachingthepropermechanicsofthelegthroughtherecoverycycle.Speedofmovementistheultimateobjective,althoughmostathleteswilllearnthis
exerciseatslowspeedsandprogresstofasterspeeds.
Thefollowingcueswillhelpwiththisdrill:
Hipstall.
Activeactionwithtoeup,heelup,kneeupsequence.
Trytoplacethesupportfootunderthecenterofmassatgroundcontact.
Therecoverylegshouldcycle,withtheanklepassingabovethekneeofthesupportleg.
Thetwotypesoffastlegroutinesare:
1.SingleSideActionsFromajogtheathleteattainsatallposture.Inconcertwiththearms,onelegisquicklycycledthroughtherecoverycycle,followingthe
sequenceofactionsdescribedaboveandacceleratingthefootbacktothetrackagain.Performanceofthemovementisalternatedwithtwotothreejoggingsteps.
When

Page87

performedproperly,theathletesensesanaccelerationuponeachcontactofthefootwiththetrack.Emphasizethefollowing:
Fullandproperrangeofmotion
Accelerationofthighandheelupwardduringrecovery
Accelerationofthighdownwardinpreparationforsupport
Activecyclingculminatinginaclawingactionofthefootinpreparationforcontactwiththegroundagain
Lowerlegkeptfoldedtightlytothethighuntilfullthighliftiscomplete
Quickactionsofthehandsandarmsinpropersprintarmmotions
2.DualSideActionsThedualsideformofthefastlegroutineisperformedinthesamewayasthesinglesideform,exceptthemovementalternatesfromleftsideto
rightsidefollowingthetwotothreejoggingstepsbetweenmovements.Whenathletesbecomeaccomplishedwiththisexercise,theycanacceleratequicklyand
performitsactionsatneartopspeed.Theultimateobjectiveistoimprovespeedofmovement,neuromusculartiming,andcoordination,andthusbeabletoperform
anefficientmovementoneachandeverystrideinfullflightsprinting.
Thefollowingexercisesmayalsobeappropriate.
FenceDrillforTrailLeg
Thehurdle(30inchesorabout76cmhigh)isplacedabouttwofeet(about61cm)fromafenceorotherimmovableobjectandparalleltoitsothattheathleteis
facingthefenceandthehurdleinthenormalorientation.(Seefigure5.5onpage69.)Standingonthesideofthehurdletheathleteinclinesthebodytowardthefence
andputsoneorbothhandsonthefence.Theathletethenperformsthetraillegactionoverthesideofthehurdle.Theexercisedevelopsspecificdynamicmobilityas
wellasteachescorrectmechanicsofthetrailleg.Thisismoreofabeginner'sexercise,butitmaybeusefultomoreadvancedathletesaswell.Theactionshouldbe
quick,andthetraillegshouldneverbeallowedtoopenupatthekneeonceithasclearedthehurdle.Theactioncomingoffofthehurdleshouldbeanaccelerationof
thethightowardtheground.
PartnerDrillforTrailLeg
Thisexerciseisperformedsimilarlytothepreviousdrill,exceptthehurdleisplacedonthetrackandtheathleteusesapartnerinplaceofthefence.Thepartner
activelypullstheathletebythehandastheathleteperformsthetraillegmovement.Inthiswaytheathletefeelswhatitisliketomovequicklyoverthehurdleandcan
begincoordinatingafast,uninterruptedmovementofthetraillegwithgoodhorizontalvelocityoverthehurdle.Figure6.6illustratesthisdrill.

Figure6.6
Partnerdrillforimprovingtraillegaction.

1.Keeptrailfoottighttothebuttandkneemovingforwardandupward.

Page88

2.Thighliftshouldcontinueuntiltrailfoothasonceagaincomeinalignmentunderthethigh.
3.Traillegthighshouldbeaccelerateddownwardwithfootundercenterofmass.
4.Hipsshouldmovethroughthehurdle,andathleteshouldfeelthefasthorizontaldisplacementofthehipsforward.Maintainhipsintallpositionthroughout.
FastLegLeadLegOverHurdles
Inthisexercisethefastlegactionisperformedwiththeleadlegoverthesideoffourtosixhurdlesspacedat78.5metersapartforthreestriderhythmand911.5
metersapartforfivestriderhythm.Thehurdleheightusedcanvaryfrom12inchesto30inches(30.5cmto76cm).
Youcanperformthisdrill:
1.Withanormalstridepatternandheelrecoverybetweenhurdles.
2.Usingafastlegactiononeveryliftoftheleadleg,thusplacingmoreemphasisonlocalmuscularendurance.
Makesureyoumaintainhipsintallbodyposturethroughout,andadheretoprinciplesprescribedearlierforfastlegroutines.
RunningHurdleSkills
Thetitleforthisgroupofexercisesreferstoavarietyofskilldrillsthatcouldbeperformedoverhalforwholehurdles.Usually35hurdlesareused,withspacingsof
7.58.2metersandheightsof2730inches(about68.576cm).Theexercisesareindividuallyorientedinthesensethateachmaybeusedtoemphasizevery
differenttechnicalpoints.Thespeedoftherunisusuallyquitefastbecausetheprimaryobjectiveistoincreaseone'sabilitytoperformcorrecttechnicalormechanical
movementsathighvelocity.
Thetwovariationsofthisexerciseare:
1.Halfhurdleleadleg
Oneachruntheemphasismaydiffer:
Maintainingdistanceoftakeofffootfromhurdle
Activetakeoffstepgoingintohurdle
Heelofleadlegtobuttgoingintohurdle.
Fastlegactionofleadleg.
Activedownwardactionofleadlegcomingoffhurdle.
Performanceofleadlegactionwhileacceleratingoverfivehurdles.
2.Halfhurdletrailleg
Oneachruntheemphasismaydiffer:
Drawheeltobuttactivelyandassoonastakeofffootleavesground.
Keeptraillegcontinuouslyinmotionfromstartofmovementuntiltouchdown.

Page89

Keeptrailtoeupandlegfoldeduntilcompletionofactiontothefrontofthebody.
Performtheleadlegactionontheoutsideofthehurdle.Thisaidsinkeepingbalanceandinbeingabletoperformthetraillegandassociatedarmactionsina
coordinatedfashion.
Activelyacceleratetraillegtothegroundunderthecenterofmassandinpositiontosprintintonextstride.
Havetheathleteimaginethattheleadlegandtraillegareracingeachothertotheground.Thisencouragesquickactionoffofthehurdleandhelpstheathlete
anticipatethetouchdown.
DesigningaTrainingProgram
Establishingatrainingplanisimportantforsystematicandcontinuousprogress.Varietyisimportantbutonlytothepointthatitkeepstheathletefreshanddoesnot
becomevarietyforvariety'ssake.Table6.2onpage90containsanoutlineofthegeneralobjectivesforthe400meterhurdlerthroughoutthetrainingyear.Some
specificexamplesaregivenforthefallpreparation.Remember,tobethemosteffectivecoachyoumustusewhatyourenvironmentprovides.Samplesofwhatother
programsdoareonlyaseffectiveasyouareinadaptingyourcoachingstyleandideastotheathletesandtheenvironmentinwhichyoubothwork.
Competition
Preparationforcompetitioniswhattrainingisabout.Ifthespecificpreparationforamajorcompetitionisnotbegunduringtheearlieststagesofpreparation,
competitivereadinesswillbedifficulttoattain.Everythingdiscussedinthischaptertothispointisimportanttotheperformanceonthebigday.Onlyminorplanning
details,suchasadaptingtowind,track,andotherenvironmentalconditions,shouldbeleftforthedayoftherace.Theathlete'sdietshouldbeverysimilartothediet
duringtheregulartrainingyear,andrehearsalofwhattoeatandwhentoeatshouldoccurduringtrainingsessionsleadinguptothecompetitionseason.Ingeneral,the
dietshouldbehighincarbohydrates,withplentyofwaterintake.Hydrationshouldbeemphasizedatalltimesofthetrainingyear.
Summary
Insummary,the400meterhurdleeventisoneofbeauty,endurance,grace,speed,andpower.Onceadumpinggroundforathleteswhocouldnotachievehighlevels
ofsuccessinthe400meterdashor800meterrun,ithasgrownintoahighlyspecializedevent.Theprimaryreasonforitscontinuedgrowthhasbeentheimproved
technicalprowessofparticipatingathletes.Skillinhurdling,oncenearlynonexistent,hasbecomethemostimportantingredientinrecentrecordperformances.Anditis
inthisareawherethemostcanbegainedforfuturerecordperformances.

Page90
TABLE6.2SAMPLEWORKOUTS
FallPreparation
Monday

Circuittraining

Fieldcircuit:suchas30pushups,10tuckjumps,100mrun,30lunges,40
crunches,200mrun,10pullups,plusotherexercisesofyourchoice,including
medicineballsandjumpropes.Thecircuitisperformedwith030sec.rest
betweenstationsandshouldlast15min.percircuit.

Tuesday

Bounding,coretraining

Longalternatelegboundingongrass:860m
Core:pushups,situps,andsoonforthetrunk.

Wednesday

Hillrunning

24200250mhill,withwalkbackrecovery.

Thursday

Sprintdevelopment,hurdleskill

Rolloverstarts(startbyleaningoveruntilyouloseyourbalanceforwardandgo)
Highkneerunning
Buttkicks
Fastlegexercise
Marchingandskippingoverhurdles
Runsover4hurdlessetat27in.(about68.5cm)andspacedat20m:68runs

Friday

Acceleration,circuittraining

Rolloverstarts
Blockstartsover2hurdles
CircuitworkasonMonday

Saturday

Aerobicrunning

Temporunsover100200mwith50mwalkbetween
Continuousrunatvariedpacefor15minutes.

Sunday

Rest

IndoorPreparation
Monday

Sprintdevelopment,powerdevelopment

Tuesday

Hurdleskill,weights,multijumps

Wednesday

Hillrunning,strengthendurance

Thursday

Weights,coretraining,swimming

Friday

Acceleration,lactacidpower

Saturday

Temporunning,coretraining

Sunday

Rest

IndoorSeason
Monday

Sprintdevelopment,powerdevelopment

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page91

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
IndoorSeason
Tuesday

Hurdleskill,weights

Wednesday

Lactacidpower,strengthendurance

Thursday

Weights,coretraining,swimming

Friday

Acceleration

Saturday

Competition

Sunday

Rest

OutdoorPreparation/Season
Monday

Hurdleskill,weights,coretraining

Tuesday

Lactacidpower,400meterhurdledistribution

Wednesday

Coretraining,temporunning

Thursday

400meterhurdlestarts,weights

Friday

Coretraining,temporunning

Saturday

Competition

Sunday

Rest

Page93

7
800MeterstoMile
MikePoehlein

Themiddledistanceeventsincludethe800meterrun,themilerun,andalldistancesinbetweenincludingthe1500meters.Thatthe800meterworldrecordisnow
1:41indicatesthatracesofthesedistancesareverydemanding,requiringamixtureofspeed,strength,andendurance.Theathleteswhosucceedcangiveittheirallon
raceday,butalsocanreallyletithangoutonkeypracticedays.
Besidesthephysicalskillsthatareneededtoperformsuccessfullyinthiseventcategory,mentalstrengthisessentialtorunathighspeedsforthedurationoftherace.
Youmusthavecouragetokeepgoingwhileyourbodyistellingyouit'sgoingtobepainfultocontinueatsuchintensity.Thatcourageisdevelopedduringtraining.
Practicesareaimedatnotonlybuildingthenecessarystaminafortheseraces,butdevelopingtheconfidencetopersevereaswell.Middledistanceracingissomeof
themostchallengingintrackandfield.Itrequirespreparationthatdevelopsalltheessentialbiomotorabilitiesaswellasmentaltoughness.

Page94

SelectionProcess
Themiddledistanceshavealwaysbeenamongmyfavoriteofthetrackeventstocoach.IalwaysfeltIcouldinfluencetheexistingtalentpoolsomewhat,especially
whenIwascoachinginhighschool.SinceIenjoyedthemiddledistanceevents,Iwouldinsomecasestrytomovethesprintersand400meterrunnerstothe800
metersandmileatanearlyage.Then,Iwouldconvincethemtotrycrosscountryinthefallasawayofestablishingcontactand,moreimportantly,togetthemto
makethetoughmentaladjustmentfromthesprintstothemiddledistance.Withthistaskaccomplished,Iusuallyhadapoolofathletesthatwassignificantlyfasterthan
mostofouropponents.
Whenselectingcandidatesforthemiddledistanceraces,besuretotakeintoconsiderationtheathletes'workethic.Ifyourchosencandidatesdon'ttrulyloverunning
andenjoyhardtraining,theywillnotsurviveinthemiddledistances.
PhysicalTraits
Anotherconsiderationisthephysicaltraitsofmiddledistancerunners.Itisbelievedthatthesuccessfulmiddledistancerunnerwillhavearatiooffasttwitchtoslow
twitchmusclefibersofabout50:50,witha5to10%deviationeitherway.Forexample,theideal800meterprospectwouldprobablybeat60%fasttwitchand40%
slowtwitch.Amilermightbe60%slowtwitchand40%fasttwitch.Agood,stableteamofmiddledistancerunnerswillallfallsomewhereinbetweenthese60:40or
40:60ratios.
Theproblemishowtoknowanathlete'smusclefibertype.Collegecoachesgettheirathletesintotheuniversityphysiologylabforamusclebiopsy.However,thismay
notbeavailabletoyou.Inthiscase,theverticaljumptestmayhelp.
VerticalJumpTest
Asimplebutfairlyaccurategaugeindeterminingaptitudeformiddledistancerunningisaverticaljumptest.Oncetheathletesareinprettygoodshape,haveeachone
takeatwoinchpieceofchalkandstandflatfootedagainstawalltheyaretoreachashighaspossibleandmakeamarkonthewall.Next,whilestartingfroma
flatfootedpositionwithbothfeetonthefloor,theyaretojumpupandmakeamarkabovetheoriginalmark.Havethemdothisthreetimes.Measurethedistance
betweenthestandingmarkandthejumpingmark,andaveragethethreemarks.
Afteryouhavetheresultsofallyourteammembers,dividethegroup.Thethirdwiththehighestmarkswillmakeupthesprinters.Themiddlethirdarelikelytobe
mostsuccessfulatthemiddledistances.Thelongdistancegroupwilllikelycomefromthelastthird.Ifyouhavealargegroup,thereisalotofvalidityinthistest.
Thisisonlyaquickguideandshouldnotalterotherselectioncriteriaestablishedbythecoachingstaff,butitisagoodindicatorofyourathletes'musclefibertype.In
thefinalanalysis,however,yourcandidatesmustalsohavegoodbodyflexibilityandgoodspeed.

Page95

TypesofMiddleDistanceRunners
Therearebasicallythreetypesof800meterrunners.(Thesameprofileswillalsobeusedtoidentify1500meterandmilerunners.)
1.Thosepossessingexceptionalspeedfor400meterswhomoveuptothelongerdistance.
2.Thosethataregiftedwithbetterthanaverage400meterspeedandalsocompetesuccessfullyinthemile.
3.Runnerswithaverage400meterspeedwhoaremainlythemilertype,butyetbecauseofsuperiorconditioningareabletocompetequitewellat800meters.They
areespeciallyeffectiveinchampionshipmeetswhereseveralroundsofqualifyingarerequired.
Technique
Posturalandmechanicalconsiderationsforthemiddledistanceswillvaryslightlybetweenthe800and1500meterrunner/miler.Bothwillrunwithaveryerect
posture.Theheadshouldbelevelwiththeeyesfocused50100metersdownthetrack.Makesureathletesdonotlookdownattheirfeet.
Therhythmofthestridecycleissimilartothatofasprinter,exceptthatsincerunningeconomydictatesashortstride,theheelrecoveryafterthedrivefootliftsfrom
thegroundwillnotraiseallthewaytothehips.Itwillrecovertoonlyaboutthreefourthsofthatdistanceforthemilerwhenitstartstodescendforward.The800
meterathletewilllookmorelikethe400metersprinterwithfairlyhighheelrecovery.Bothathleteswillswingthefreelegforwardanddownward,andmovethefoot
backunderthebody'scenterofmassuponlanding.Sincethemiddledistancerunnerismovingataslowerratethanthesprinter,thebodydoesn'tpassoverthe
supportfootasquicklyandthefootcanlandalmostdirectlyunderthecenterofmass.(Seefigure7.1,pages9697.)
Dorsalflexionoftheanklejointisstillanimportantissuetokeeptheathleterollingofftheballofthefoot.Astheathlete'sfootlandsnearlyflatfootedforthe1500
meterrunner/miler,theathleteshouldpropelforwardofftheballofthefoot.The800meterathletewilllandhigherontheball,butthendropthefootflatatthepointof
midsupportjustbeforepropellingofftheballofthefootagain.
Thearmcarriageforthe800meterathleteisverysimilartothatofthesprinter.Thehandsshouldberelaxedandswingforwardtothemidlineofthebody,butwithout
crossingthemidline.Thehandwillswingaboutchinhighwiththeelbowbendingtolessthan90degrees.Onthedownswing,thehandmovesbacktowardthehip
pocketastheelbowopenstoabout120degrees.
Themiler,ontheotherhand,willhaveashorterarmstrokeduetoashorterstride.Themotionshouldbeinthesamedirectiontothemidlinebutnotcrossingit.
Inbothraces,theshouldersshouldremainlevelandperpendiculartothedirectionoftherun.Notwistingbackandforthofthetorsoshouldbeobserved.When
watchingthemotionoftheathlete'sbodyatthetopofthehead,youshouldnotseemuchupanddownmotion(verticaldisplacement).

Page96

Figure7.1
Distancerunningtechnique.Notethewaythefreelegswingsforwardanddownward
thenmovesunderthebody'scenterofmassuponlanding.

TrainingPhilosophy
Wemustalwaysguardagainsttrainingabsorbingtoomuchofanathlete'scompetitivefire.Someathletesbecomeworkoutcentered,sothatworkoutstakeonmore
importancethanactualracing.
Forthisnottohappen,wemustaddressallfacetsoftheathlete.Peoplearetridimensional:withaphysicalside,amentalandemotionalside,andaspiritualside.A
propertrainingprogrammustincludecomponentsofallthreedimensions.
Trainingitselfmustbemultifaceted.Keepinmindthateveryonecandramaticallyimprovehisorherrelativerunningspeed,power,flexibility,endurance,strength,self
image,andselfconfidence.Justthinkwhattheresultwouldbeifallofthecomponentswereimproved.
Finally,asinmostphysicalactivities,middledistancetrainingisalearningprocess.Thislearningcomesfromeventspecifictraining,fromtrainingthatinvolvesallofthe
energysystems,andfromtrainingthatteachesthementalaspectsoftoughnessandcompetitivespirit.
ThePhysicalSide
Thephysicaldimensioninvolvesnotonlypropertrainingbutunderstandingtheraceandthetacticsspecifictothatrace.
Whenplanningracetactics,thefollowingfactorsshouldbeconsidered:
Distanceoftherace
Whatyouknowabouttheopponentsintherace
Conditionoftheracingsurface
Weather
Currentphysicalcondition
Leveloftrainingofrivals
Personalability,strengths,andweaknesses,includingpacejudgmentandabilitytoleadorfollow
Numberofcompetitorsintherace

Page97

Figure7.1(continued)

Remindyourathletesofthefollowing:Saveabout40%ofyourenergyforthelastonequarteroftherace.Expecttheunexpected.Nevertaketheleadunlessyou
wanttodosomethingwithit.Youmightwishtoincreasethepace,decreasethepace,ortogaintacticalposition.Itisalsocriticaltomaintaincontactifyouarenot
leading.Contactreferstoyoureffectivestrikingdistanceorbelievablepassingdistance.
Otherkeycomponentsoftrainingarerecoveryandproperrest.Whentrainingloadsareapplied,theremustbesufficientrecoverytimeforthebodytoadapt,resulting
ingreaterfitness.Insufficientrecoverywillleadtophysicalbreakdown,injury,orillness.
TheMentalandEmotionalSide
Onthementalandemotionalsideoftraining,youandyourathletesmustalwayshaveaplanoraroadmapofwhereyouwanttogo.Thisshouldbesupportedbya
setofvividgoalsthatprovideforimmediate,shortrange,midrange,andlongrangeplanning.Remember,thegreatestmotivationisaseriesofachievementsor
accomplishments.
Thehigheryourathletes'performancegoalsare,themoresubsidiarygoalstheymusthave.Forexample,ifthegoalistoincreasetrainingloadby10%,thenyouneed
aseriesofgoalsthatprovidetheathletewithmoresleep,morerecovery,improveddiet,andrehydration.Youmustalsoaddressthehabitsthathelpyourathletes
reduceandmanagestress,andyourathletesneedarefocusingplanincasetheunexpectedhappens.
Yourathleteshavetoexpecttheunexpected.Ifitdoesoccur,howareyourathletesgoingtopreparethemselvesmentallyandphysically?
Askthemtothinkabouthowtheywoulddealwiththefollowing:
Preeventhassle
Delayinstart
Lossoffocus
Poorperformance
Nonidealconditions
Poorstart
Mistakeinevent
Thesethingshappensotheremustbeaplantohandlethem.

Page98

Duringtheraceitisimportanttostaywithinpassingdistanceoftheleader.SaraThorsett(right)
workshardtomaintaincontactwiththeleadingrunnerinthis1500metercompetition.

Rememberthattheabilitytoconcentrateisoneofthefinalpiecestothecomplexjigsawpuzzlewearetryingtopiecetogether.Theabilitytofocusonthecomplete
taskiscriticalforultimatesuccess.Ifyourathletesdon'thavetheabilitytoconcentrateorfocusontheassignedtask,theyruntheriskofwastingalltheirpreviously
learnedskills.
TheSpiritualSide
Thespiritualsideoftrainingdealswiththeintangiblequalitiestheathletemayormaynotpossess.Forexample,drive,desire,belief,confidence,andcommitmentare
vitaltosucceed.RogerBannistersaid,''Thebattleforthefirstsub4minutemilewasfoughtinthemind,notinthebody."
Thespiritualsideofathleticsfinallycomesdowntothecompetitivespirittheathletecanmusterinimportantsituations.Ofalltraits,thisisthemostinternallygenerated.
Theathletemusthaveaninnerresolvethatsparksthisdimension.Itisalsofedbytheenthusiasm,emotion,andinspirationofpreviousachievements

Page99

andfutureconquests.Thisspiritiscontinuallyfueledbytheenergytheathletecandrawfromthosearoundhimorher.Withawarenessandunderstandingofthisspirit,
itcanbeheightenedandimproved.Thecorrectbeliefsystemandenvironmentcanimprovetheoverallstrengthofthesoul.
TrainingCycles
Regardlessofwhetheryourathletesareinmiddleschool,highschool,orcollege,mostAmericantrackandfieldprogramsreachtheirpeakcompetitiveseasonsduring
lateMarch,April,andMay.SomecompetitionextendsintoearlyJune.Atthistimecompetitivetrackendsforabout90%ofparticipatingAmericans(thoughitisjust
gettingstartedfortherestoftheworld).
Becausethisisthepeaktimeoftheyear,fortrainingcyclepurposes,weshallworkfromthesetentativeguidelines:
Preseasonworkouts:FebruaryandMarch
Midseasonworkouts:ApriltomidMay
Lateseasonworkouts:midMaytomidJune
Whatyoudoduringtheseperiodswillvaryaccordingtothelengthoftheindoorseason,andtheage,previousbackground,andmental,emotional,andphysicalhealth
oftheathletes.Regardlessofthesevariables,however,youcanstillusethetrainingpercentagesintable7.1asageneralguidelinefromwhichtobuildyourworkouts.
Table7.1isbrokendownintothepreseasonandlateseasonandgivessuggestedtrainingpercentagesbasedonthephysicaldemandsofthe1500meterrunner/miler
and800meterrunner.
TABLE7.1TRAININGPERCENTAGESFORMIDDLEDISTANCERUNNERS

1500m/mile

800m

Preseason

Speed10%
Anaerobicendurance10%
Aerobicendurance80%

Speed10%
Anaerobicendurance30%
Aerobicendurance60%

Lateseason

Speed30%
Anaerobicendurance40%
Aerobicendurance30%

Speed40%
Anaerobicendurance30%
Aerobicendurance30%

PreseasonWorkouts
Emphasiswillslowlyswitchfromquantitytoquality.Progressionoftrainingrequiresyoutoconsiderlongerseriesofintervalswithshorterrestperiodsfrompreseason
tomidseason.Asyouapproachthelateseason,thevolumewilldropandrepetitionswillincreaseinquality.

Page100

TimeTrial
Isuggestdoingthebulkofpreseasonworkat3Kor5Kracingpace.Ifyouaren'tcertainofthis,giveyourathletea3Ktimetrial,eitheroutdoorsorindoors.Subtract
30secondsfromthattime.Forexample,iftheathlete's3Ktimeis11:00,use10:30asyourreference.Thistimebreaksdownto3:30per1000meters.Soagood
workoutmightbe
51000at3:30,withatwominuterestinterval,repeat1200satpace,or
31200at4:12,withthreeminutesrest.
Astheathletegetsstronger,thesetimesshoulddrop.Giveyourathletesagoalfortheseworkouts.Aftertheyreachthesetimegoals,take30to45secondsoffthe
recoveryinterval.Awordofcaution,though:changeonlyonevariableatatime.Iprefertolowerthetimeoftherunningintervalfirstbecausethisisastrength
workoutbasedonthetimeoftheathlete's3K,andweassumethattimewilldropastheseasonprogresses.Alsobearinmindthat,althoughitisn'tpracticaltodoa
specific3Kevaluationforallyourmiddledistancerunners,youmightatleastdividethemintotwoorthreegroups,basedontheir3Ktimetrialresults.
Theworkoutsdescribedaboveshouldbeconsiderablyharderthantheaerobicrunsthataredoneduringallphasesoftraining,buttheyshouldbesignificantlyslower
thanracepace.
PracticeRuns
Inordertodeterminetheathlete'sfitnessateachstageoftraining,Iwouldsuggestanoccasionalworkoutinvolvingaseriesofpracticerunsthatwouldmirrorthe
estimatedracepaceofanuntrainedmiddledistancerunner.Thisisbestdonebydoingatimetestortimetrialatthreefourthsoftheracingdistancethatis,600
metersforthe800meterprospect,and1200metersforthe1500/milecandidates.
Forexample,let'sassumethecandidatesran1:33fora600.Thatmeanstheyarecoveringeach200at31seconds.Wecoulddomanydifferentworkouts,butI
suggestnotdroppingbelow300metersduringthisstageoftheathlete'scycle.Ialsolikedoingoneworkoutevery10daysatslightlyfasterthancurrentracepace.So
thefollowingaretwopossibleworkouts:
5400at62seconds,withtwominutesrest
4500at78seconds,withtwominutesrest
(62secondsand78secondsrepresentthesamepacesasinthe600metertimetrial.)
Theseworkoutswouldsatisfytheracepacerequirements.
SpeedTraining
Tosatisfythespeedrequirement,againprobablynotmorethanonceevery10daysduringthispremeetsegment,youcouldhavetheathletesdothefollowing:
6to8300at45seconds,withtwotothreeminutesrest
Whenpracticing,repetitionatnearracepaceisthepropertimetolookattheathlete'smechanics.Whenrunningslowerpacesyoucannotevaluatetheathletedueto
thechangesthatoccurinslowerruns.

Page101

Eachathletewillresponddifferentlytothoseworkoutssoyoucanchangeeitherthespeedoftheworkout,orlengthofrest(butnotboth).
Workoutssimilartotheseshouldnotberepeatedtoomanytimesduringthisperiodbecausewhiletheysignificantlyraisethefitnessleveloftheathlete,theymay
reducetheathlete'sabilitytoimproveattheendoftheseason.
MidseasonWorkouts
Duringthemidseason,continuetoemphasizequality,andfocusoneventspecifictraining.Followingtheprincipleslistedbelowwillenableathletestocontinueto
improve.
Thebestrunnerstrainclosertoracepacemoreoften.
Thebestrunnersarecapableofracingoffahighmileagebase.
Thebestrunnersshowaveryhighrateofconsistencyintraining.
Thebestrunnersbuildarecoveryplanthatensurestheyremaininjuryfree.
Mosttrainingsessionsmustbedoneundercalculatedpressure.Trainingnotdoneunderpressureisofnorealvalue.
Thebestrunnerslookforwardtoandthriveonpressure.Fatigueandtimeareyouropponents.
Duringtheearlypartofmidseason,shifttheemphasisgraduallyfromtrainingtoracing.Thenumberofcompetitionsyourteamhasperweekandthenumberofraces
yourathleteshavepercompetitionwillbefactorsinsometypesoftraining.
Allsuccessfulmiddledistancecoachesfollowwhatiscalledbracketing,ortheoverundertheory.Simplystated,intheearlyseasonan800meterrunnercompetes
onlyoccasionallyinthatevent.About60%ofthetimeheorshecompetesinaracebeyond800meters.Thiscouldbea1200inadistancemedleyrelayorthe1500
meters.Theideahereistodeveloptheathlete'sstayingpowerandspecificenduranceforlateronwhenheorsheneedstorunmorethanoneraceorneedstorun
morethanoneroundofqualificationsinchampionshipmeets.Itisalsogoodforconcentrationanditcutsdownonthelikelihoodofinjury.
Occasionallyitisgoodtohaveyourathletesruneventsoflessdistance,or"below"theirnormalevent.Ifyouhavealotof"lessimportant"meets,considerhavingyour
middledistancerunnersrunthe400and4400meterrelay.Dothesamewithyourmilergroup.
Bracketingisusefulinotherwaysaswell.Itcancreateexcitementbecauseitgivesathletesabreakfromthenorm.Italsoprovidesindicatorsontraining.For
example,iftheathletecompetessuccessfullybelowthechosenevent,butnotaboveit,thatindicatesthatthetraininghasbeentoospeedoriented.Iftheathlete
competeswellabovetheracingevent,butnotbelowit,thatindicatestheneedformorespeedworkinthetraining.
Theidealistobeabletocompetebothaboveandbelowtheevent.Allnationallevelandinternationallevelathletescandothis.Wealsousethesemethodsto
diagnoseonemorething.Iftheathleterunsthefirst75%oftheracewellbutcan'tfinish,heorsheprobablyneedsafewlongerraces(ortraining).Iftheathlete
finishesstrongbutcan'tfindthatkickoronemoregear,perhapsalittlespeedwork,orsomeshorterraces,willeliminatethatweakness.

Page102

Thetrainingworkoutsduringthissegmentwillbedeterminedsomewhatbywhattheraceresultstellyou.Inthelatterstagesofthiscycleyouwillneedtoremovesome
ofthetrainingthatistoofarremovedfromtherunningrhythmsofyourathletes'racing.Forexample,youmightreplacea6to10milerunatsevenminutespermile
witha3to4milerunatasignificantlyquickerpace.
Thisisalsotheperfecttimetoreintroduceresistancetraininginvolvinguphillanddownhilltraining.Alsousefulareboundinghurdlehops(figure7.2),ropejumping,and
naturalmethodsofincreasingflexibilityanddevelopingmuchneededlowerlegstrength.

Figure7.2
Boundinghurdlehops.

Duringthissegmentofyourtrainingracingcycle,itwouldbewisetoaddoneworkoutofpurespeed,suchasoneofthefollowing:
810100metersat95%maximum,witha100meterslowwalk
68200metersat90%offullspeed,witha200meterrecovery
Suchaworkoutshouldnotbeusedmorethanonceevery10days.
Althoughatthispointintheseasonspeedisstartingtobecomeimportant,itisbesttogetitthroughhillrunsandbyracingbelowone'snormalevent.Thelasttypeof
workouttoconsiderusingduringthisperiodconsistsofeither400sor500sattwotothreesecondsbelowcurrentracepace.Useamoderatepacewithoutfull
recoveryforthese.
For800meterathletes,youmaywanttouse231000,or121200,attwosecondsslowerthanracepace,withacompleterecovery.Iftheathletehasbeen
experiencingaslumpinperformance,thismayhelpbringherorhimoutofit.
LateSeasonWorkouts
Aswithalltraining,thereisaprogression.Ifyourathletesaren'tonscheduleforreachingracinggoals,thereareseveralwaystogetthemonschedule.Onewayisto
givethemseveraldaysofeasyrunningorcompleterest.Backdownonhardanaerobictraining.Worklowvolume,highintensityrunswithfullrecovery.
Wehavedeliberatelyheldoffonspeedtraining.Whenwemixspeedwithrestandbackoffstrengthtraining,weusuallyseeimprovedspeed.Forourspeed
workouts,itisacceptabletouselongerrestperiodsaswetrytoinfluencetheexplosivequalitiesofourathletes.
Restandrecoverybecomeaprimeconsiderationlateintheseason.They,alongwithhighlevelcompetitionandsignificantlybetterweather,arethefinalcatalystsfor
thebreakthroughathletesareexpecting.
Keepingtheabovetrainingstrategiesinmind,table7.2presentsasampleweeklytrainingplanforeachpartoftheseason.

Page103
TABLE7.2SAMPLEWORKOUTSFOR800METERSTOMILE
Preseason
Monday

1015min.warmuprun
Stretching
4100m@strides
41200m@datepace*5min.recoverybetweensets
1015min.cooldownrun
Stretching

Tuesday

6milerunatasteadystatepace
Mostlyaerobic

Wednesday

1015min.warmuprun
Stretching
6500m@datepace
400mwalkrecoverybetweensets
1015min.cooldownrun
Stretching

Thursday

45min.aerobicrun
68100m@racepace
10min.cooldown
Stretching

Friday

1015min.warmuprun
Stretching
4100mbuildups
2150mbuildups
68300m@datepace
200mrecoverywalkbetweenreps
1015min.cooldownrun
Stretching

Saturday

4575min.longaerobicrun@conversationalpace

EarlySeason
Monday

1015min.warmuprun
Stretching
4100mstrides
41000m@3sec.fasterthandatepace
15min.cooldownrun
Stretching

Datepacethepaceoftheintervaltoberunthatisequaltothepaceofthebestperformance
thattheathleteiscurrentlyabletoachievefortheeventthatheorsheispreparingfor.

(continued)

Page104

(continued)
EarlySeason
Tuesday

1015min.warmuprun
Stretching
23mileloop@80%ofmax.
10min.restbetweenreps
Circuittraining
10min.cooldownrun
Stretching

Wednesday

1015min.warmuprun
Stretching
4100mstrides
4150m@buildups
4500m@2sec.fasterthandatepace
Fullrecovery
10min.cooldownrun
Stretching

Thursday

45min.aerobicrun
8100mslightlyfasterthanracepace
10min.cooldownrun
Stretching

Friday

30min.run@easypace
4100mrelaxedstridesand/orbatonexchanges
10min.cooldownrun
Stretching

Saturday

Someracingatdistancesabovemajorevent

LateSeason
Monday

1015min.warmuprun
Stretching
6100mstrides
21200m@goalpace**6min.restbetweenreps
10min.cooldownrun
Stretching

Tuesday

1015min.warmuprun
Stretching
22mileloop@80%ofmax.or30min.
10min.cooldownrun
Stretching

**

Goalpacethepaceoftheintervaltoberunthatisequaltothepaceoftheperformancethatthe
athleteisstrivingtoachievebytheendoftheseason.

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page105

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
LateSeason
Wednesday

1015min.warmuprun
Stretching
4100mstrides
4150mbuildups
4600m@2sec.fasterthan3/4ofracedistance
10min.cooldownrun
Stretching

Thursday

1015min.warmuprun
Stretching
4100mbuildups
2150mbuildups
6flying50msprints
15min.cooldownrun
Stretching

Friday

30min.aerobicrun
4100measystrides
10min.cooldownrun
Stretching

Saturday

Someracingatdistancesbelowmajorracingevent.

Competition
Whenpreparingforacompetition,itisimportanttokeepthefollowingstrategiesinmind.Thesetacticsshouldallbepracticedmonthsinadvance,sothatwhenrace
dayrollsaround,theyhavealreadybecomesomewhatsecondnature.
PracticingRaceTactics
Arunnerwhoplansonchangingtemposortakingtheleadshouldrehearsethosethingsinpractice.Fartlekworkoutswherethereareavarietyofspeedchangescan
beveryhelpful.Practicerunsthatincorporateincreasesanddecreasesinspeedareverytaxingbuthelptheathleteprepareforthosestressesincompetition.
The2%Margin
Thereisamarginof2%thattherunnermustrespect.Thismeansthatathletesmayrun2%aboveorbelowtheirbestracepaceandstillbeabletostayontheirtarget
pace.Arunnerwhogetsoutofthismarginwilllikelycrashandburn.Ineverygoodrace,thereisashortperiodoftimewhentheoutcomeisinbalance.Allracesare
wonorlostatthistimethepersonwhorecognizesthatexactmomentoftenwins.
TheSuccessSegment
This"successsegment,"asitiscalled,usuallyoccursinthelast25%oftherace.Thepersonwhocontrolsthesuccesssegmentwillwinthemajorityoftheraces.

Page106

Youmustrecognizethissegment,andunderstandthetendenciesofthebetterrunnersintherace.Thisistheportionoftheracethatisthemostdifficultmentallyto
maintainastrongpacewhentheathleteistired.Somesuperiorathleteswilltakeoffatthispointandchallengeyoutogowiththem.Othersmaysitawhileanddelay
theirkick.Youmustunderstandyourownabilities,establishedthroughtraining.
ReservingEnergy
Youmustalsoplanforthissegmentbysavingabout40%ofyourenergyforthelast25%oftherace.Youmustlearntoraceearly,buttonotexpendallofyour
energy.Youdon'twanttoleavethelastquarteroftheracetowillanddeterminationonly.Determinationisawonderfulquality,butoflittlevalueonanemptytank.
Trytohavethemindsetofapitbull,butalsoconservealittlefuel.
EffectsofHeat
Dependingontheareaofthecountryyoulivein,yourathletesmayberacinginhotconditions.Manythingscangowronginthelatestagesofaraceruninsevere
heat.Oneisthattherunner'sbodymechanicsbreakdown.Thiswillhappentoallrunners,buttodifferentdegreesandatslightlydifferenttimes.Thelongeranathlete
canholdoffthisbreakdown,thegreaterhisorherchancesofsuccess.
MentallyPreparingforFatigue

InthisraceReginaJacobstakestheleadwhileheropponents
struggletokeepup.

Haveyourrunnersdoverydifficultexerciseswhentheyareextremelytired,sotheycanatleastbementallypreparedforanddelaythisshutdownduringarace.For
example,runastrongtempodistancerunoffivetosixmilesandcomebacktothetrackandrunrepeatshortintervalsinastateoffatigue.
LeadingVersusFollowing
Itismoretiringtoleadthantofollow,sincethereisusuallyawindconditionandthefrontrunnerwillcatchallofthewind.Atsomepointintherace,leadingis
obviouslycritical,becauseifyouneverleadyouneverwin.Iusuallytellmyrunnerstonevertaketheleadinthemiddlestagesofaraceunlesstheywanttodo
somethingwithit,suchasforcetheiropponentstoraceearlytoeliminatetheirlateracekick.Or,ifthepackiswellbelowyourability,causethepacetobemoreto
yourownracestrategy.

Page107

AvoidingaBox
Acriticalaspectofmiddledistancerunning,especiallythe800,istoavoidgettingboxedin.Onecanusuallyavoidaboxbyrunninginthesecondorthirdpositionjust
offtherightshoulderoftheleader.Alwaysknowwherethecompetitorsintheraceare.Thisisnotadifficultskilltomaster.
MaintainingTouchContact
Trytoimpressonyourrunnerstoneverletaracestringout.Ifitdoes,theyshouldreactimmediatelyandfillthegaptomaintainwhatiscalledtouchcontact.Touch
contactisthefeelingthatyoucanphysicallyreachoutandtouchtherunnerinfrontofyou.Aslongastherunnerhastouchcontact,heorsheisstillintherace.
AnticipatingtheMove
If,inthelastquarteroftherace,thereareseveralrunnersstillincontention,itisjustamatteroftimeuntilsomebodytriestomakeamove.Theathleteshould
anticipatethismove,andthenrespondtoit.Thisisthesuccesssegmentoftherace.Remindyourathletes:Bethere,beaccountable,andyouwillbesuccessful.Being
accountablemeanstakingresponsibilityforyourselftobereadytoreacttoothers.Maintainyourmentalconcentrationofyourrunningaswellasthosearoundyou.
Summary
Itiscriticaltolayoutayearlytrainingscheme.Weneedblueprintsofwherewewantourathletestogoandhowtheycangetthere.Muchofoursuccessdependson
howaccuratelyweassesstheathletes'abilitiesandhowweplanondevelopingthosetalentsovertheyear.Theplanwillhelpathletesmaintaintheirenergyand
enthusiasm,andabalancebetweentheirpersonallifeandtheirathleticlife.
Theoldsayinggoes:Planyourworkandworkyourplan.Notbadadvice.

Page109

8
3000to10,000Meters
LanceHarter
HarryGroves

Totrainadistancerunner,onemustunderstandandhavetheabilitytoimplementaprogramthatabidesbyscientificprinciplesthatgovernphysicalandmental
responsestotraining.Basicbiomechanical,physiological,andpsychologicalfactorsmustbeappliedprogressively,systematically,andintelligentlytoeachindividual
athlete.Successthenbecomesamatterofplanningratherthanrandomphysicalandpsychologicalchallenges.Withthisinmind,thefollowingparametersneedtobe
considered.
1.Alltrainingprogramsareindividualized,yetacommonapproachcanbeusedtoprovideteamcontinuity.
2.Eachindividualneedstoidentifyanidealblendofvarioustrainingschemestodevelophisorherspecificstrengthsandreduceweaknesses,usingthefollowing
physiologicalprinciplesasguidelines:
Specificstressesmustbeapplied.
Thestresscannotbetoogreat.
Thebodywilladapttothestressduringtherest/recoveryphase.

Page110

Theapplicationoftrainingloadsstressesthebodysothatasthebodyadaptstothoseloadsitbecomesstrongerandincreasesitsphysicalcapacity.Ifthosetraining
loadsaretoogreatortoofrequent,thebodywillnotadaptandmaybreakdown.Adequaterecoveryisthekeytophysicaldevelopment.
3.Alltrainingisdesignedtophysiologicallyandpsychologicallyenhancetheathletes'potentialtofunctionascloseaspossibletohisorhermaximumpotentialin
racingthatis,wetrainathletestorace.
4.Trainingmustbeconsistentandprogressive.
5.Coachandathleteopenadirectlineofcommunicationbyestablishinganddiscussingtheathlete'sseasonandcareergoals.Thisgivesathleteandcoachaclearand
positivedirectionintrainingandracing.
6.Aconsciouseffortismadetocreateaholisticstressawarenessandmanagementprogram.
7.Eachathlete'srunningmechanicsinboth''fresh"and"fatigued"stateareevaluated,andadailyroutineof"formdrills"isimplemented.
Technique
Adistancerunner'sstride,likethatofanyothertrackathlete,iscomposedofthreephases:
1.Pushoffordrive
2.Recovery
3.Support
Duringthepushoffphase,thebodyispropelledforwardviathesupportfootandfinallythetoes.Therecoveryphaseisthatperiodwhenthebodyisintheairwith
neitherfootingroundcontact.Thesupportphaseiswhenthefootrecontactstheground.Asthebody'scenterofgravitypassesoverthesupportingfoot,thedrive
phaseofthenextstridebegins.Aseachlegispropelledforward,theoppositearmopposesallphasesoftherunner'sstride.Inotherwords,theleftlegisforwardat
thesametimetherightarmisforward,andviceversa.

Figure8.1
(a)Atallrunningposture,and(b)agreaterbodyleandueto
increasedacceleration.

Page111

Factorstoconsiderininstructingrunningmechanicsincludethefollowing:
Individualdifferencesinrunningstylesmustberespectedwhilebasicprinciplesofmechanicsmustbeobeyed.
Stridelength(thedistancebetweeneachfoot)andstridefrequency(thestridespersecond)arethebasiccomponentsofrunningspeed.
Goodrunningpostureisproducedby"runningtall,"withtherunner'sshouldersbeingsquaretotherunner'ships,andweightcenteredoverthehipsandrespective
supportfoot.(Seefigure8.1a.)
Thegreatertheacceleration,thegreaterthebodyleanforward(figure8.1b).Donotleanforwardatslowspeeds,asthisresultsinaninefficientrunningstyle.(The
forwardleaningactioncausesthebodytoreachoutwiththefoottopreventfalling.Thisresultsinbraking,whichslowstheathleteandrequiresmuchphysicaleffortto
overcomethebraking.Also,itleadstoshorterstridelength.)
Distancerunnersshouldseekarunningstylethatisefficientforthemajorityoftherace,yetleavesthemeffectiveforspecificchallengesinarace,suchaswhenthey
decidetocatchanopponentorkickattheendofarace.
Armactionshouldbea"comfortableforwardandbackswing,"withtheanglebetweenforearmandbicepatlessthan90degrees(figure8.2a),untilasprinting
actionisrequiredandtheoptimalarmanglechangestoapproximately90degrees.(Seefigure8.2b.)Duringthearmactionswingforwardandback,therunnershould
avoidanarmcarrythatcrossesthebody'smidline,asthisultimatelycausesadecreaseinstridelength.
Thearmscontrolrunning,asthearms'cadencesupportstherunner'sfrequencyinstriderevolutions.
Theoptimalfootstrikeisa"midfoot"strike,inwhichtheathletelandsonarelativelyflatfootinasupportingpositionunderthehips,whilethebody'sweight
continuouslymovesforwardtotheballofthefootastherespectivelegstraightensandfinallyintoapushoffphasefromthetoes.

Figure8.2
Anglebetweenforearmandbicepat:(a)lessthan90degrees
forthemajorityoftherace,and(b)90degreesduringsprinting
action.

Page112

RunningCuesforCoachesandAthletes
Posture:
Runtallwithyourhipsunderneathyou.
Chestoutasshouldersstaysquaretoyourhips.
Toeup,heelup,kneeup.
ArmAction:
Keepyourshoulderslooseandrelaxed.
Armsswingforwardandbackfromhiptoshoulderlevelasasingleefficientmotion.
Keephandscuppedandfingersrelaxednoexcesstension.
Footstrike:
Landinaflatfootaction,withacontinuousactivefootstrike/pawingmotion.
Acceleration:
Quickenarmsbyshorteningthearmangleto90degrees.
Quicklypawthegroundandeffectivelypushoffforward.

Training
"Aneffectivetrainingprogramresultsfromefficientplanning,thejudicioususeofrestandrecoverydays,andgradualincreasesintrainingintensityandduration."
Dr.JackDaniels

Thereareamyriadoftrainingmethods,eachvaryinginpurpose,format,intensity,andduration.Yetwemustrememberthatthephysiologicaldemandsofdistance
racesrequirevariousaerobicactivitylevels,withtheremainderbeinganaerobic.Sothethrustofanathlete'sprogramshouldbebuiltuponthesephysiological
parameters,whilethecoachandathleteadjustthetrainingschemetocomplementinnatestrengthsandimproveuponareasofweakness.Inanyschemechosen,
specificseasonalandlongtermtrainingandracinggoalsneedtobedetermined.
Thefollowingaresamplesofspecifictrainingmethods:
SteadyPaceRuns
Steadypacerunsarethosethatcanbemaintainedforanhourormoreatapaceequivalentto70%ofanindividualathlete's
(approx.oneandahalfminutes
permileslowerthan5Kracepace).Workoutsof30to60minutesatthiseffortideallydevelopthecardiovascularsystem,improvecapillarization,andimprove
runningefficiency.
AnaerobicThresholdTraining
Anaerobicthreshold(AT)temporunningtrainsathletestosensitize,tolerate,andbuffertheincreaseinlacticacidaccumulationsandgreaterrunningintensities.Most

Page113

successfulrunnerstargettheirtrainingtothisspecificthreshold,plusorminus5%.Thresholdrunscanbesustainedforroughly20minutesatapacethatis
approximately1520secondspermileslowerthan10Kracepace,or90%ofmaximaleffort.
CruiseIntervals
Cruiseintervals(CI)areeffortsperformedatapproximately8890%of
.Effortsare310minuteseach,withrecoverieslimitedtooneminuteorless.The
benefitsofcruiseintervalsaresimilartothoseofATtemporunning,yetallowonetoincorporatemorequalitypertotalworksessions.Totalworkcanequala
maximumof8%oftotalworkingmiles.
PaceSurgeTraining
Similartofartlektraining(i.e.,speedplay),pacesurgingalternatessteadypacerunswithboutsof"pickups"or"surges."Forexample,amilesteadyrunpacedat6:00
mightinclude3060secondburstsatthetwoandfourminutemark.Throughpacesurgetraining,athletesdevelopamental/physicalracingweaponthatprepares
themforadjustingtothecompetition'spaceshiftsandforexecutingtheirownpaceshifts.
RepetitionTraining
Idealrepetitiontrainingconsistsofeffortsfrom15secondsto2minutesoffastpaced(35seconds/400fasterthanracepace)running,witha1:45run:recovery
rationumberssupportedbyphysiologists.Theintensityofeffortisusuallyatorslightlyfasterthanracepacetodeveloptheathlete'spaceconsciousnessandefficiency
atmaintainingracepace.Repetitioneffortstotalingupto20minutesof"qualitywork,"or5%oftheweeklytotalmileage,aremaximal.

Pacesurgeandspeedendurancetraininggivesthisathletethe
abilitytosurgeaheadofhisopponentsduringcompetition.

IntervalTraining
Intervaltrainingeffortslastonetofiveminutes,withrecoveriesequaltoorlessthantheeffortthatis,a1:1work/restratio.Individualeffortsareapproximately95%to
100%

(i.e.,5Kracepace)andcantotal8%oftotalweeklymileagepersession,withamaximumoftwoperweek.

SpeedEndurance
Speedendurancetrainingconsistsofsubmaximaltonearmaximaleffortsof30to90seconds,withcompleteornearcompleterecoverybetweenrepetitions(1016
minutes).Thissystemgenerallypreparestheathletetofinishstrongly,andtobetterhandle"surging"duringcompetitions.

Page114

SpeedDrills
Inspeedtraining,sprintsof7to20secondsareperformedatnearmaximaleffort,withrecoveriesoftwotofiveminutes.
RestandRecover
Anytrainingformatwillresultinstresstothebody.Followaboutofstresswithrest,andthebodywilladapttothestressandbereadyforanevengreaterstressload.
Athleteswhoarenotallowed,ordonotallowthemselves,properrestwillusuallysufferincreasedillnessorinjury.
DesigningaTrainingProgram
Eachrunnerhasnaturalstrengthsor"weapons"thosetoolsthatgivearunnerhisorheruniquecompetitiveabilities.Eachrunneralsohasweaknesses.The
weaknessesshouldbethefocusinearlyseasontraining.Thestrengthsshouldalwaysbeaddressedbutprimarilyinthelaterstagesoftraining.
First,onemustdeterminethelengthofthetrainingandcompetitionseason,orthemacrocycle.Second,determinethedateofthe"summit"competition,anddividethe
totalnumberofweeksfrom"starttosummit"intothreephases:preparation,base,andcompetition.
PreparationPhase
PhaseI,knownasthepreparationphase,laststhreetosixweeksandisdevotedtotheathletes'entryorreentryintotraining.Itprimarilyincludesaerobicrunning,
flexibility,andintroductiontobasicdynamicdrills.
Duringthisphase,thevolumeperweekshouldbeincreasednomorethan15percentperweektominimizethechanceofinjuryorillness.
TrainingTerms
Thetermsusedtodescribespecificperiodsoftrainingcanseemaninfinitelitany.Belowisa
simplelistofperiodizationterminology.
Trainingyeartheperiodoftimeaspecificathletetrainsduringasinglecalendaryear.
Macrocycleatermthatdescribesanextendedtrainingregime.Forexample,crosscountry,
indoor,andoutdoorseasonsaccumulativelywouldbeasinglemacrocycle.
Cycleaperiodforwhichworkoutswithaspecificpurposeareplanned.Thisisasubsetofa
macrocycletermssuchasmesocycle,monocycle,bicycle,andtricyclerefertovarioustypesof
cycles.
Microcycleaspecificandintegralpartofacycle,lasting7to21days.
Phaseanothersubsetofacycle.Aperiodmaydivideintothreebasicphases:preparationbase
competition,leadingtoapeakingprocess.
Sessionasingleday'sworkload.
Unitaspecificpartofasingleworkout.

Page115

BasePhase
PhaseII,knownasthebasephase,isthetimebetweenthepreparationandcompetitionphases.Giventhatittakesaminimumofthreetosixweekstoenterorreenter
trainingandthatthecompetitionphasebeginsandendswiththeseason'sraces,thelengthofthebasephasemustbeadjustedtoeachathlete'slengthofseason.Ifthe
basephaseislongerthan12weeks,itcanbedividedintoearlyandlatephases,eachwithitsspecificwork.
Nomattertheduration,duringthebasephasethetrainingpriorityshiftsfromvolumetointensity.Inotherwords,thevolumecanandwillchange,butmoresubtlythan
inphaseI.Volumeshouldbeincreasednomorethan10percentperweek.Intensityisincreasedthroughashiftintrainingsystems,withagreateremphasison
preparingforracetempo.
CompetitionPhase
PhaseIII,thecompetitionphase,ispredeterminedbythefirstracedateandthesummitraceoftheseason.Likethebasephase,phaseIIIcanbedividedintotwo
phasesinthiscase,acompetitionphaseandapeakphaseifthetotalnumberofweeksexceeds12.Eachsubphasewillhaveuniquetrainingrequirementsspecific
totheathlete'sracingneedsandabilities.AlsoasinphaseII,thereisagradualshiftintrainingemphasistowardadaptationtoracepace.Asthisphaseprogresses,the
volumegraduallytaperswhiletheintensityincreases.
Asthecoachandathletedesignthemacrocycle,thevarioustrainingphasescanbeidentified,forone,byprimaryandsecondarytrainingprioritiesandalsobyspecific
workoutsthatsuittheindividualathlete.
Referringbacktothevarioustrainingsystems,onethensimplymatchesthespecificneedwiththespecificsystem.The"dosanddon'ts"ofspecificworkoutsisyour
decision,andwillalwaysberightwhenyoucananswerthequestion,"Whyarewedoingthisworkoutandhowwillitmakethisathleteracebetter?"Remembertonot
includetoomuchquantityorqualityinasingleworkouttheathleteshouldalwaysbeabletohavedonemore.
Workoutrecoverytimesvaryaccordingtothespecificathlete'sage,ability,experience,andsoonandthespecifictypeanddurationofthetrainingsession.Ageneral
approachtotrainingisthehardeasymodel,inwhichahardsessionisfollowedbyoneormoreeasydaysduringwhichrecoveryandregenerationoccur.Theathlete
isthenreadyforanotherhardworkoutbout.
Table8.1onpages116118containssampleworkoutsforeachphase.Itcanbeusedasaguidewhencreatingworkoutsthatfiteachathlete'sneedsduringdifferent
partsoftheseason.
PeakingfortheSummit
Ifonehascarefullyplannedandthenexecutedaperiodizedplanoftraining,thefinalthreeweekscanbethemostcritical.Bythistime,thephysiologicalworkhasbeen
accomplishedsonowthepsychologicalwork,oremphasisonconfidencebuilding,isparamount.Assumingthatthetraininghasgoneaccordingtoplan,asimple
formulafortaperingvolumeisasfollows:
Threeweeksfromsummit:reduceby15%fromthehighesttrainingvolume.
Twoweeksfromsummit:reducebyanother15%.
Oneweekfromsummit:reducebyafinal20%.

Page116
TABLE8.1SAMPLEWORKOUTSFOR3000TO10,000METERS
PREPARATIONPHASE

Objectives:

Aerobicdevelopmentspeed/paceadaptationintroducethresholdtraining/pacetraining
(goalpace1/datepace2)

WeeklyWorkout

Monday

20min.AT3run
Buildups
Cooldown

Tuesday

Easyrun

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Veteran

Novice
Easyrun(aerobicpace)

Easyrun
4

Negativesplitrun
Buildups

6150@RP5,or
6300@RP

ATrun

Easyrun
Accelerations

Fartlek
(shortON6,longOFF6)

Saturday

34600@bestavg.,or
31000

Interval150swithequal
rest

Sunday

Offorlongrun

Objectives:

Thresholddevelopmentaerobictolerancelactatetolerancespeed/paceadaptation

Easyrun
Buildups

BASEPHASE(EARLY)

WeeklyWorkout
Monday

Rephills
Intervalruns

Tuesday

Easyrun

Wednesday

ATrun:accelerations

Thursday

Speed(Rep60,80s),or
Speedendurance

Friday

Warmup/cooldown

Saturday

Competition

Sunday

Offorlong,easyrun

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page117

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
BASEPHASE(LATE)

Objectives:

Lactatetolerancethresholdtrainingaerobicdevelopmentspeed/paceadaptation

WeeklyWorkout
Monday

341000mintervalswith1:1rest
Twist

Tuesday

ATrun,accelerations

Wednesday

Easyrun

Thursday

Intervals:600,600,250,250,250

Friday

Easyrun

Saturday

Testworkout
Longcooldown

Sunday

Offorlongrun

Objectives:

Lactatetolerancespeed/paceadaptationaerobicmaintenanceracesimulation
tactics/strategy

COMPETITIONPHASE

WeeklyWorkout
Monday

2500/150@GPHit(achievegoalpace),or
2700@CZ7pace

Tuesday

Easyrun

Wednesday

Repetition150swith1:5rest(restperiodis5theintensityperiod)

Thursday

Easyrun
Accelerations

Friday

Preraceprep.

Saturday

Competition(summitrace)

Sunday

Offoreasyrun
COMPETITIONPHASE(PEAKPERFORMANCELEVEL)

Objectives:

Finetunespeed/paceadaptationracesimulationtactics/strategyaerobicmaintenance

WeeklyWorkout
Monday

(continued)

1000@GP
2300or500@GP

Page118

WeeklyWorkout(continued)
Tuesday

ATrun
Accelerations

Wednesday

Easyrun

Thursday

Easyrun
Accelerations

Friday

Preraceprep.
Cooldown

Saturday

Competition

Sunday

Offoreasyrun

1.Goalpace(GP)aworkoutpacethatcorrespondstosummitperformancepace.
2.Datepace(DP)thecorrespondingworkoutpacethatreflectspresentracepaceefforts.
3.Anaerobicthreshold(AT)therunningpaceatwhichtheacceleratedproductionoflactateoccurs(usually
around160170BPMs).
4.Negativesplitasteadyrunorpacesurgeeffortwherethefirstpartoftheworkoutiscompletedataspecific
paceandthereturnorbalanceoftheruniscompletedatafastereffort.
5.Racepace(RP)theaveragepersegmentpacethatwillachievewhatyouarecapableofrunningatthe
currentdate.Sameas"datepace."
6.ON/OFFanotherdescriptionofapacesurgeeffort(fartlek)wheretheONeffortistheuptempooftherun
andtheOFFeffortistherecoverypartoftherune.g.,3min.ONwith1min.OFF5sets.
7.Criticalzone(CZ)thespecificfinishingeffortpaceneededtomaximizetheathlete'sabilityto"outkick"the
opposition.Asinanyotherphaseoftraining,thecriticalzone(orfinishingeffortability)mustberehearsed
repeatedlytointroduceandthenbuffertheathletetothistrainingzone.
Blendsmixingoneortwospecifictypesofworkoutsisacommontrainingaxiom.Onemustrememberthatthe
sumofthesepartsmustbeconsidered,andthatmorethantwotypesofworkoutsshouldnotbeblended.

Whilethevolumecomponentisdescribedmathematically,theintensityfactorcanbebestcharacterizedverbally,as"aggressiveyetcontrolled."Thisisnotthetimeto
leaveone'sbestraceeffortinatrainingsession.
Bytaperingthetrainingvolume,theathleteisabletoregeneratephysically.Usingtheoverloadprincipleoftraining,theathletewillbereadyforanevengreater
physicalchallenge.(Overloadreferstotheunitoftraining,butdonewithadecreasedvolume.)Theathleteneedstousethefinalthreeweekstofocusonpositive
accomplishmentsandtoanticipatetheupcomingchallengewithafightingspiritandrenewedconfidence.
LifestyleRulesforSuccessfulDistanceRunning
byHarryGroves
Athletesneedtolookatwhattheycouldbeandthenatwhattheyreallyare.Atthatpoint,theymustbegintoimplementthepropermechanics"toclosethegap."
Distancerunnersmusthavetheproperactivelifestyletobecomeevenagood(letalonegreat)runner.
Thefollowingare10absolutelifestylecovenantsforyourathletes:

Page119

ExerciseEveryDay
Run(ordosometypeofcardiovascularexercise)everyday,unlessyouareill.Ofcourse,illnessrequiresacommonsenseapproachofnorunning(orcompleterest)
inordertorecoverasquicklyaspossible.Properrunningisdonebecauseyouenjoythedevelopmenttowardtopcompetition.Whenyourunoutofcompulsion,you
areworkingonalosingmentalstatenotthewinningone.
Whenrunning,traininallyourenergysystems:
Aerobicconditionisdevelopedwithrunsrequiring140160heartbeatsperminuteandcomposing60%oftotalweeklymileage.Forcollegiaterunners,thismeans
runsfrom30minutesto2hoursat6:00to6:10milepace.Thepacegoesdownalittlewithlongtermdevelopmentandupslightlywithlongerruns.(Theheartratein
trainingmayvaryindividuallybutthosegivenherearerepresentativeofthegeneralindex.)
Anaerobicconditionisdevelopedwithrunsrequiring160180heartbeatsaminuteandcomposing20%to10%ofthetotalweeklymileage.Forcollegiateathletes
theserunscouldbe34milerunsat3Kor5Kpace,with3:00jogrecovery,ortemporunsofthreetofivemilesfor5to25minutesatfasterthanmarathonpacebut
slowerthan10Kpace.Theseareanaerobic(lactatethreshold)runs.Youcouldalsousea1525minutefartlekrunatpacessimilartotemporuns,withveryshort
recoveryjogs.
Aerobiccapacityisdevelopedwithrunsrequiring180195heartbeatsperminuteandcomposing15%to5%ofthetotalweeklymileage.Forcollegiateathletes,
workoutswouldbe1012400meters(200jog)atmilepace,56800meters(200or400jog)at3Kpace,shortfartlek(speedplay)atmilepaceorfaster.
Theseworkoutsdeveloprunningeconomy(improvedgasmileage).Alongwithaerobicconditioningandanaerobicconditioning,thisdirectlyimprovesthe

Anaerobiccapacityisdevelopedwithrunsrequiringa100%trainingheartrateofover195beatsperminuteandcomposing5%to3%ofthetotalweeklymileage.
Theserunscouldberepeatedhard400satfasterthanmileracepace,orhard800satmilepace,or200sat800paceorfaster,withfullrecoveriesbetweenruns.The
heartratemustdropbelow120beatsperminutebeforethenextrun.Althoughthisenergysystemistrainedlargelywithshortspeedruns,timetrialsandracingcould
beputinthiscategory.Inthelateseason,therunnershouldadd100150meterspeedbursts,withfullrecovery,totrainingtoensuregoodspeedmechanicsaswell
astoaddtoanaerobiccapacity.
Shouldyourathletesruntwiceadayoronce?Howmuchdailyandweeklymileageshouldtheydo?Answersmustvary.Inhighschoolandcollege,ourrunners
obviouslydonottrainenough.Theprecompetitivephaseoftrainingisnotlongenough.Itshouldconsistofatleastsixtosevenmonthseachyear,withaslow
progressioninmileageandintensityuptothecompetitivephase.Collegeseniorsshouldbehittingsome100mileweeks,withtwoadayrunsatleastfourorfivedays
perweek.Themorningofameet,onetotwomilesshouldbecommonplace.Morningrunshavetobepartofthelifestyle.

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StrengthTrainThreeTimesaWeek
Workonupperandlowerbodystrengththreetimesaweek.
Weights(freeweightsarepreferabletomachines)
Manualresistanceexercise
Waterresistance
Plyometrics
Uphillrunningorwalking.Downhillrunninghasvaluebutrequirescautiontoavoidinjury.
Manuallabor.Thisstrengthdeveloperwasinvoguebeforeweightswereinvented.Manygoodathletesinthepastbuiltaveryhighgeneralstrengthlevelbyfarm
work,constructionwork,andsoon.
Allstrengthtrainingmethodsinvolvepropertechnique,numberofsets,andrepetitions.Consultastrengthcoachwhocaninterpretstrengthbuildupforthedistance
runner.
WorkonFlexibilitybeforeandafterExercise
Beforeandafterworkouts,traintheflexibilityofjointsforafullrangeofmovement.Flexibility,likestrength,requiresaknowledgeableselectionofpropermuscle
groupstobeflexed,durationofexercise,staticorballisticmethods,thestretchcontractstretchcontractantagoniststretchmethod,andrangesofflexibility.Thebest
resultsaregainedwithflexibilitytrainingpriortoandafterrunning.
DevelopGoodRestandRelaxationHabits
Thesehabitsconstitutealargepartofthephysicalandmentalregenerationofthehumanbodyandspirit.Regularityofbedtimesandrisingtimes,witheighthours
sleep,isadvisable.
PracticeGoodNutrition
Forbestresults,consultwithacertifiednutritionist.Approximately65%ofyourtotaldietshouldbecarbohydrates,20%fat,and15%protein,withvitamin,mineral,
andwaterintakeallimportantpartsofthenutritionalcycle.Whentoeatinrelationtotrainingandcompetition,whattoeat,andhowtoeatwhenyouareonthe
roadthesetooareimportantnutritionalconsiderations.Itisessentialthathardtrainingdistancerunnershavethecaloricintakeneededfortheperformancelevelof
theirsportintrainingandcompetition.Youandthenutritionistcanworktogetherinthisentirearea.
PreventInjurybyDoingLowerExtremityExercises
Thisincludesincorporatingstrengthexercisesfortheankleandfoot,withsupplementaldrills,naturalactivitiessuchashikingandbiking,orexplosivegamesusinglegs
andfeet.Barefootdrillsinthegrassorsandwillcontributetostrengthifdoneinmoderationonaregularbasis.Maintainingcalfstrengthbytoe

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walkingandtoestepclimbingcanpaybigdividendsbypreventinglowerextremityinjuries.Offthewallcalfstretchingshouldalsobeadailyritual.
DevelopaPositiveStateofMentalHealth
Thiscomesthroughbalancedlifestylehabitsintheareasofwork,love,play,andspirituallife.Balanceisindividualizedbutcertainlydoesnotentailaconstantoreven
allotmentoftimeineacharea.Enjoymentofourselvesandotherhumanresourcesisessentialforthebalance.Abalancehelpsuslivewithouremotions,whichisthe
secrettohealthfulliving.
Achievingbalancedlifestyleissometimesdifficultforcollegiatedistancerunners.Withthepressureofacademicdemands,manyathletesdevelopan''unquenchable
thirst"forsocialinteractionandsexualgratificationthatupsetsthebalanceinallfourareas.Althoughathletics,orforthatmatter,evenacademics,canbeoverindulged,
oversocializationisoneofthebiggestpitfallsforcollegiateathletes.Inaddition,societyandbiologyplaceathletesinavulnerableposition.Theyarepressuredto"grow
up"or"beanadult"and"fitin."Unfortunately,thebombardmentoftheseforcessomehowcomesdowntoacanofbeerorthegreathormonalpush.Alcoholic
consumptionandsexualgratificationacceleratetothepointthatotherpursuitsaresecondary.Frankly,ittakesarealadulttobeagreatdistancerunnerandtobeable
toworkone'swaythroughthetrapsofsocietyandbiologytoachievebalancedlifestyleandtoputeverythinginitsproperorder.
Despitethehighratioofsuccessofsomeforeignathletes,wecannotremoveAmericanathletesfromtheAmericansocialstructureandreplacetheirlifestylewiththat
offoreignathletes.However,wemustlearnfrombothcasesourselvesandouropponentsandmoveforwardtoahighlevelofperformancebasedoncommon
senseandlogic.Theveryfirststepisgettingofftherationalizationtrail.Inotherwords,don'tmakeexcuses.Focusbecomeseasier,whichleadstomorepositive
resultsandmoreattainablerunninggoals.
LiveTruthfullyandHonestly
Facethetruthdirectly.Successandrationalizationaretheantithesisofeachother.Ifyoudidn'treachyourgoal,wasitbecauseyoufailedtocommityourselftothe
necessaryeffort?Wereyouwillingtotrainmorethanonceaday?Didyoumakeaneffortintheweightroom?Didyouloserestortrainingbecauseyouwastedtime?
Behonestwithyourself.Makingexcusestakesyoubackwardinyourathletic,aswellaspersonal,development.Avoidusingpsychologicalploystoadjusttofailureor
frustration.
EnjoyYourPersonalandSocialLife
Havefunbutrememberthatfunanddissipationarenotpartners.Physicalandmentalabuseofone'sselfretardsgrowth.
UseMentalTrainingtoImprovePerformance
Understandthepsychologicalaspectsofdistancerunningandusementaltechniquesforpositiveresults.Forbestresults,consultasportspsychologistforusefulmental
trainingdrillssuchasvisualizationandselftalk.Youareprobablyalready

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usingmanypositivepsychologicaltechniquesinyourtrainingandcompetition.Trytobecomemoreawareofthem.
Inthefinalanalysis,thereisnomagicalwaytogainsuccess.Forgreatdistancerunners,thereismileage,thereiseffort,andthereistheproperapplicationofthese10
guidelinesofproperlifestyle.
Summary
Asathletespreparefortheculminationofyetanotherseason,theyshouldtaketimetorechecktheirphysicalandmentalfocus,consideringeachofthefollowing:
Thinkrealisticallyandkeepyourpoise.
Accuratelyanalyzeandcritiquetheseasonthusfar,eliminatinganynegativeaspectsandemphasizingthepositive.Continuetobuildconfidenceinyourabilityto
performwell.
Evaluateupcomingopportunitiesandpreparepace,racestrategy,tactics,andsoon.
Understandeachworkout'spurposeandapplicationtoracing.
Rememberyourflexibilitytrainingtwicedaily.
Takeadvantageofeveryopportunityinworkouts.
Donotinsertanyunknownvariablesintoyourdailyroutine.Noradicalchanges.
Think!Andthinkpositive!
Stayhealthyandrested.
Believeinyourselfandyourprogram.Don'tfinishyourseasonorcareerwith"IwishIhad...."

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9
Relays
RobJohnson
KarenDennis

Thesportoftrackandfieldplacesastrongemphasisonindividualparticipationandindividualperformance.However,relaysareanintegralpartofthesport.Relays
generategreatexcitementamongthespectatorsandarefunandexcitingfortheparticipantsaswell.Relayrunningrequiresthecooperativeeffortoffourindividuals.
Therelaysarethetrueteameventsoftrackandfield,andmayprovideopportunitiesfortalented,andsometimesslightlylesstalentedindividualstocollectively
producegreatperformances.Insomeregions,relaysaresopopularthatcollegesandhighschoolteamsdevoteatleastoneormoremeetsaseasonforcompetingat
hugerelaycarnivalssuchastheDrakeRelaysandPennRelays.Thesecarnivalsandsimilarsmallerversionsserveasgoodopportunitiestoshowcasegreatrelay
competitions.Someofthe50statechampionshipsheldatthehighschoollevelrunasmanyasfourdifferentrelaysintheirrespectivemeets.Therelaysmostfrequently
runatthevariousstatechampionshipsarethe4100meters,

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4200meters,4400meters,and4800meters.Somestateswillalsoincludeasprintmedleyasoneoftherelaysattheirchampionship.Collegechampionships,
andinternationalchampionshipssuchasthePanAmericanGames,WorldChampionships,andOlympicGames,includeonlythe4100and4400relays.
SprintRelay
byRobJohnson
The4100metersprintrelayisthefastestandthemosttechnicallydifficultofalltherelays.Inorderforasprintrelaysquadtobesuccessful,itmustdisplayspeed
andskill,combinedwithexcellentteamwork.Becauseofthetechnical,timing,andtacticaldemands,developingaconsistent,cohesivequartetcanbechallengingfor
eventhemostaccomplishedcoach.However,toseewelltimedandwellexecuted4100exchangesmadeunderpressureandinstiffcompetitionmakethisatruly
beautifuleventtowatch.Itisalsoasterlingexampleofsynergy,whereacombinedeffortcanproduceafastertimethanthesumoftheindividualtimes.(Ifyouaddthe
best100metertimesofeachrunnertogether,youshouldbeabletoproducearelayfasterthanthetotaloftheirindividual100metertimesduetotheflyingstartof
threeofthelegs.)
TeamSelection
Thedecisionofwhichathletesrunthevariousrelaylegscanbeacriticalfactorinthesuccessofasprintrelay.Asprintrelayisnotjustthesumofitsparts.Theability
topass,receive,andadjustunderpressureaffectsthespeedoftherelayexchangesaswellastheenergydistributionoftheathletes.
LeadOffLeg
Theleadofflegrequiresanexperiencedathletewhoiscapableofgoodstartsfromtheblocksandhasaccelerationability.Theathleteshouldhavegoodbalanceand
theabilitytorunthecurve.Theonlyexchangetechniquenecessaryistobeabletofocusonthereceiver'stargethandandattacktheendoftherunwellintothe
exchangezone.Whenconsideringwhotohaverunthelegswiththecurves,looktoathletestrainedinthe110or100hurdles.Theseathletesworkagooddealon
stridefrequencyrhythm,whichisconducivetorunningonthecurves.Theircoordinationandbalancealsohelpsmakethemgoodcandidatesforthecurves.
SecondLeg
Thesecondlegoftherelayrunsthebackstretch,withverylittleornocurverunning.Thispermitstheuseofaveryfastrunnerwhodoesnotneedtobeagoodcurve
runner.However,theathletedoesneedtodevelopbothpassingandreceivingskillstobeeffectiveinthisleg.Goodrelayexperienceisveryhelpfulforthisathlete,as
heorshemustbeabletoadjustquicklytoerrorsintimingbyteammates.
Manycoacheschoosetoplacetheirbestsprinterhere,withtheintentionofgettingthebatonintothisrunner'shandearlyandpassingitlateinordertomaximizehisor
herspeed.Excellentspeedandspeedenduranceisveryimportantforthisleg.Beingaquickacceleratorisnotascritical,sincetheaccelerationzoneallowsmoretime
tobuildspeedintothefirsthandoff.Inlookingforathletes

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whohavegoodpowerandspeedendurance,consider400meterrunnersorlongjumpersforthesecondandanchorlegs.
ThirdLeg
Therunnerofthethirdlegoftherelaywillbeacompletecurverunner.Thereforebalanceandleaningabilitywhilesprintingisapriority.Thisrunnermusthavethe
abilityofthesecondlegtobothpassandreceive.Itiswisetouseanathleteonthislegwhohasgoodrelayexperience,sincepassinglaneadjustmentsareneeded
sometimesonbothendsoftheleg.Agoodcurverunnerwhomaynothavesprintstartingskillscanbeagoodcandidateforthisleg.Thisathletemustbeastrong
sprinterandhavegoodspeedendurancetoattackthezoneofthefinalexchange.
FourthLeg
Oftencoacheswillputeithertheirfastestorsecondfastestathleteinthisposition.Thefourthleghassomeofthesamerequirementsasthesecondleg.Italsorequires
averycompetitiveathletewhocanfinishtheeventbyeithercatchingorholdingoffotherchallengersintothefinishline.Thisathleteneedsonlytobeabletoreceivethe
batonwell,notpassit.Sincetherunisdonecompletelyonthestraight,curverunningabilityisnotneededeither.Allyouneedhereisagood,fastcompetitor,allowing
youtoplaceotherathletesinstrategicpositions.
Technique
Theultimategoaloftherelayistomovethebatonaroundthetrackandacrossthefinishlineinthefastestlegalwaypossible.Sincetheaccelerationphaseissocritical
forbatonspeedthroughtheexchangezone,theblindexchangehasproventobethemosteffectiveandfastestmethodofpassingthebatoninthe4100relay.With
theblindexchange,oncetheoutgoingrunnerstartstoaccelerate,heorshemustnotlookback,butanticipateandbereadytoreceiveahighspeed,nonvisualpass.
Thereareseveralmethodsforexecutingafast,blind4100relaybatonpass.Thesprintrelayexchangesfallintothreecategoriesandcanbedescribedintermsof
whattheincomingrunnerdoeswiththehandandthebatonattheexchange,suchas
1.upsweep,
2.downsweep,and
3.pushpress.
Thesesameexchangescanalsobedescribedorreferredtobywhattheoutgoingrunnerdoeswiththehandinpreparingtoreceivethebaton,inwhichcasethe
exchangeactionwouldbecalled
1.palmdown,
2.palmup,and
3.openpalm.
Thesemethodsofexchangingthebatonaredescribedinthefollowingsections.
Upsweep/PalmDown
Theupsweep/palmdownmethodisoneoftheoldestmethodsstillusedtoday.Theoutgoingrunner,afteracceleratingwellintotheexchangezone,upon

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commandextendsthereceivinghandandarmbackatadiagonalangle.Theincomingrunnerplacesthebatonwithanupward,sweepingmotionintotheinverted"V"
formedbythereceiver'shand,whichispositionedpalmdown.(Seefigure9.1.)
Advantages:
Itiseasyforbeginnerstolearn.
Proponentsfeelitisasafepass.
Someusersbelieveittobemoreconsistent.
Itmaybeeasiertomaintainbatonspeedthroughtheexchangezonebecausepropersprintpostureismaintained.
Disadvantages:
Ifthepassismissed,thereceiver'shandisnotinagoodpositiontograbforthebaton.
Becauseofthelackofarmextensionandcloseproximityofthepasseratthepointoftheexchange,thereisalossoffree(onemeter)distance.
Gettingtheshortendofthestick.Thereisatendencywitheachexchangetohavelessbatonprotrudingforthenextrunner.Therehavebeeninstanceswhenthe
anchorpersonispresentedwithlessthanthetopthirdofthebaton.Theincomingrunnermayhavetoadjustthebatoninthehandpriortotheexchange.
Thepassermustmakeanefforttoplacethebatondeepintothereceiver'shand,tryingtomakehandtohandcontactasthebatonisdelivered.
Despitethedisadvantages,itshouldbenotedthatthe1990men'sFrenchnational4100teamsetaworldrecordusingtheupsweeppass.However,twoU.S.
teamsbroketheFrenchrecordusingthedownsweep.
Thereisalittleknownvariationoftheupsweeptechnique,whichwe'llconsiderhere.TheBranchouttechniqueisnamedforitscreator,CoachMikeBranch,formerly
ofWheatonWarrenvilleSouthHighSchoolinIllinois.ThekeytotheBranchoutpassisfortheoutgoingrunnertoextendthearmbackwiththehanddown.Butthe
handshouldbeliftedhigherandfurtherfromthetorso.Thethumbshouldalsobepointedoutandaway,withfingersbackandin.The"V"

Figure9.1
(a)Upsweep/palmdownmethodofexchange.(b)Closeupofcorrecthandpositions.

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pointsbacktowardtheincomingrunner.Theadvantagesofupsweep/thumboutmethodareeasytoseeandmeasure.
Downsweep/PalmUp
Thedownsweeppassispopularandhasbeenusedsincethe1960s.Withthispass,theoutgoingrunneracceleratestoapredeterminedspotintheexchangezoneor
respondstoaverbalcommand.Thearmisthenextendedbackstraight.Thetargethandisheldhigh(nearlyparalleltothetrack)withthepalmfacingup,fingers
slightlyspread,andthethumbturnedtowardthetorso.Theincomingrunner,whilemaintaininganormalsprintaction,extendsthebatonandarmforwardina
downwardsweepingmotion.(Seefigure9.2.)Thisexchangemayrequirethepassertosteerthebatonintothetarget.Alittlewristactionmaybeneededtoanglethe
batonsothatitfitsthediagonalgrooveformedbytheupwardlyturnedpalm.
Advantages:
Thehandcanbeheldhigherandfurtherfromthebodythanwiththeupsweepmethod.
Thelongerarmextensionprovidespotentialforgreaterfreedistance.
Thismethodprovidesabetterviewofthetarget.
Ifcorrectlyexecuted,the"dragtime"(timespentwiththearmextendedbehind)willbeshorterandthepasscanbecompletedinfewerstrides.
Thehandtohandtransferisusuallyfaster.
Disadvantages:
Thetimingandplacementofthebatonbythepasseriscrucial.
Thismethodrequiresmoredrillandpracticetime,especiallyforbeginners.
Theincomingrunnermustavoiddoingthe"windmill"thatis,swingingthebatonhighandbackoverheadpriortodelivery.Thepassershouldalsoavoid"freezing
thestick"thatis,runningwiththearmandbatonprematurelyextended,beforebeingcloseenoughtomaketheexchange.
Thereisatendencytoprovideapoortargetinoneofthefollowingways.
1.LazylimbThearmand/orhandisbentandnotheldbackstraightandhightoprovideagoodtarget.

Figure9.2
(a)Downsweep/palmupmethodofexchange.(b)Closeupoftheexchange.

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2.PendulumswingThetargetarmisprematurelystraightenedpriortopassingthehipasitisswungrigidlybackward.Thisactionmaycauseastretchreflexthat
forcesthetighttargetarmdownandtowardthetorsowitheachstride.
3.BicepsqueezeAvoidtryingtopintheextendedarmagainstthebody(biceptotorso)inanattempttokeepithighandsteady.Theactionofaccelerationwill
causetherunner'sarmtomoveandprovideanunsteadytarget.
ThedownsweeppasshasbeenusedbymoreU.S.highschoolsandcollegesthananyotherpass.SeveraloftheU.S.nationalteamshaveusedthisexchangewith
excellentsuccess.
PushPress/OpenPalm
Thepushpress/openpalmexchangemethodanditsvariationsaregrowingexceptionallypopular.Thispushpressmethodisinmyopinionanadvancementanda
naturalevolutionofthebestoftheaforementionedexchanges.Inthepushpressexchange,thepalmofthetargethandisneitherdownnorup.Thepalmisexposed
andopensoutfacingtheincomingrunner.Thehandplacedinthispositionprovidesabigtargetandcanbeeasilyseen.Inthispass,theoutgoingrunner,upon
command(verbalornonverbal),extendsthetargetarmrearward.Thisisdonebydrivingtheelbowbackandhighquickly.Thisactionenablesthelowerarmand
handtoreachoutataboutshoulderlevelheight.Toachievethedesiredhandposition,thethumbisbrushedagainstthesidepocketareaasthehandswingsbackpast
thebody.Thethumbisdown,withfingersslightlyspreadandpointingawayfromthebody.
Noticethatthenaturalalignmentoftheextendedarmisnotstraightbackbehindthebody.Ifyoulayayardstickdownthebackoftheextendedarm,youwillseethat
thenearlylockedoutelbowisslightlyoutside(notdirectlybehind)theshoulder,andthethumbisslightlyoutside(notbehind)theelbow.Iftherunnersruntheir
appropriatebordersandtheoutgoingrunnerprovidesthetargetasdescribed,thebatonwilltravelthemostdirectpathdownthecenterofthelane.
Thekeyisproperhandpositiondonecorrectlythehandcreatesabigtargetandnaturalfitforthebaton.Infact,Ioftenrefertorelaytechniquesusingapushpressto
anopenhandasa"naturalexchange."
Advantages:
Theincomingrunnercandeliverthebatonwiththeleastamountofdeviationfromnormalsprintarmaction.
Thismethodprovidesgoodhorizontalthrustofanearverticalbatonwithlongarmextension.
Thismethodmakesiteasiertosteerandplacethebatonintothehand.
Userfriendlydrillscanbepracticedwithorwithoutapartner.
Disadvantages:
Thismethodrequiresworkwithagreaternumberofdrills.
Thereisatendencytobecomeoverconfidentandcarelesswiththemethod.Diligent,focusedpracticeand/ordrillsshouldbecontinuedthreeorfourtimesperweek.

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Thepushpresspassappearstobemorenatural,inthatitallowsfornormalsprintactionandoptimalbatonspeedthroughtheexchangezone.Thismethodand
numerousvariationsaregrowinginpopularitysomeoftheU.S.nationalteamsandmostoftheelitecollegiate4100relayteamsusethepushpresstechnique.
SnatchPass
Onevariationofthepushpress,"naturalexchange"techniquethathasproveneffectiveincertainsituationsisthesnatchpass.Thesnatchtechniquerequiresexcellent
timingandgoodhanddexterity.Withthesnatch,theoutgoingrunneruponhearingaverbalcueactivelyreachesbackandinonequickmotionsnatchesthe
properlyplacedbatonfromtheincomingrunner.Animportantkeyforthepasseristofocusonthetargethandandelbowofthereceiver.Ifthepassisnotmadeon
thefirstattempt,simplytryitagaintheverynexttimetheelbowisswungback.Thereceiver'shandshouldberelaxed,withthefingersextendedoutandslightly
spread.Theopenpalmhelpsprovidea"mitt"withwhichtocatchandsnatchthebatonnaturally.Thesnatchisrisky,yes,butifdonecorrectly,itisquickandslick.
SemiBlindPass
Anothervariationofthepushpresstechniqueisthesemiblindpass.Thesemiblindpassisnotusuallyemployedinthe4100relay.However,ithasproven
effectiveinthe4200,andinsomecasesthe4400andsprintmedleyrelays.Withthesemiblindpass,theoutgoingrunneruponcue,usuallyvisualturnsand
runsawayfromthepasserforafew(twotothree)strides,thenlooksbackandextendsthehandforaquick,butvisual,exchange.Thetargetispresentedreadyto
receiveapushpresspass.Itisrecommendedthatwhenrunningthe4200,particularlyindoors,eachreceiverfacetheinsideofthetrack,takingthebatonwiththe
lefthand,thenswitchingtotherighthandassoonaspossible.Thesameprincipleapplieswhenthesemiblindpassisusedforthe4400exchange.
AlternatingMethod
Inthe4100relay,passingthebatonrighttoleft,lefttoright,andrighttoleftsequentiallyisknownasthealternatingmethod.Inusingthealternatingmethod,the
runnerdoesnotswitchthebatonfromhandtohand.Therunnerpassesthebatonwiththesamehandinwhichheorshereceivedit.Theadvantageofthismethodis
thatitallowsthefirstandthirdrunnerstorunascloseaspossibletotheinsideofthelaneoncurves.Thesecondandfourthrunnersstayintheoutsideoftheirlanesso
thattheincomingrunnerscanstaytotheinsideasthepassismade.Thisallowsthepasstobemadeinastraight,forwarddirectionandnotacrossthebody.Thisisa
fasterandmoreefficientexchange.
TrainingDrills
Thefollowingtrainingdrills,whendonecorrectly,willhelpcontributetoasmooth,flawlessexchange.Togetafeelforhowthehandshouldbepositioned,standwith
yourbacktothewallandextendthearmsothatyoucantouchthewallwithonlythetipsofthefingersandthumb.Thecupformedbythehandinthisposition
providesagoodmittforabatontofit.Thefingersshouldbekepthorizontal(paralleltothefloor)withthethumbdown(perpendiculartothe

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floor).Practiceswingingandextendingthearmbackwithfingersbarelytouchingthewall.Thehandshouldbeopen,withthefingersrelaxedandslightlyspread.This
helpsprovideabig(althoughmoving)targetandanaturalhandpositionforwhichtoreceivethebaton.
BottleItDrill
1.Placeanemptytwoliterplasticsodabottleonthecornerofatable(a30inchor76cmstoolalsoworkswell)oronadesknearawall.
2.Positionyourselfwithyourbacktothewall(asdescribedabove).
3.Standingwithyourbacktothetable,pumpyourarmsfourorfivetimes,thenquicklyreachbackandgrabthebottleoffthetable.
4.Becausethebottleislargerthanthebaton,itforcesthehandintoafavorablepositiontoreceiveabaton.
5.Trythisdrillnearamirrororlookbackoccasionallytocheckyourtechnique.
6.Remembertodrillwithbothyourleftandrighthands.
7.Whenyoucanquicklyreachbackandgrabthebottleonthefirstattempt,thenyoumaybereadytotrythesnatchexchange.
8.Asyoubecomemoreproficient,replacethebottlewithaplasticbaton.Toavoidcrackingthebaton,wraptheendswithtape.
OffTheWallDrill

Figure9.3
Offthewalldrill.

1.Standwithyourbacktothewall.
2.Holdaplasticbatonorbottleinonehand,doafewarmpumps,anddrivetheelbowuphigh,extendingthearmsothatthebottlecanbebouncedlightlyoffthewall
andbackintoyouropenhand.(Seefigure9.3.)
3.Whilefacingforwardawayfromthewallcontinuedoingthearmswingwiththebounceandcatchactionagainstthewall.
4.Repeatthisdrillwithbothhands.

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PresstheFleshDrill
1.Facethewall.
2.Holdthebatonwithyourlefthand,positionyourrightfootforward,andflexyourkneesslightly.
3.Swingyourarmsinanaturalsprintmotion,thenextendyourleftarmandbatonforwardinapushpressaction.
4.Gentlybouncethebottleorbatonoffthewallandbackintoyourwaitinghand.
5.Attempttodeliverthebatonwithastraight,horizontalmotionvisualizeyourselfpressingthebatonintotheopenpalm(flesh)oftheoutgoingrunner.
6.Repeatthedrillwithbothhands(makesuretoputyourleftfootforwardwhenyouhavethebatoninyourrighthand).
QuartetDrill
1.Linefourrunnersupinastraightlinewithinthelane.
2.Thefirstrunnerstandswiththeleftfootjustinsidetheinnerborder.Thesecondrunnerstandswiththerightfootjustinsidetheouterborderattheappropriatefull
arm'slengthhandoffdistance.Thethirdrunnerstandswiththeleftfootjustinsidetheinnerborderanequaldistanceapart.Thefourthrunnerstandswiththerightfoot
justinsidetheouterborder,againattheappropriatedistancefromthethirdrunner.
3.Thefourrunnersdonotstanddirectlybehindoneanother,butstaggeredoneithersideofthelanesothatthebatontravelsdownthemiddleofthelane.Thisright
leftrightlefthandoffallowsthefirstandthirdrunnerstohugtheinsidelaneandruntheshortestpossibledistance,whilethebatontakesthemostdirectpath.
4.Passthebatonforwardusingverbalpassingcues.
5.Whenthefourthrunnerreceivesthebaton,heorshereversesthedirectionofthehandoffandsendsthebatonbackthroughthelinewiththearmfullyextendedto
therear,thebatonheldperpendiculartotheground.
''AboutFace"isavariationofthequartetdrillinwhichallfourrunnersturn180degreesaroundandthefourthrunnerbecomestheleadoffrunner.
Athirdvariationhasrunnersswitchingpositionsothateachparticipantreceivesthebatoninallfourpositions.
LightTouchesDrill
1.Haveallfourrunnersassumethesamestaggeredpositiondescribedabove.
2.Allfourrunnersmustmoveforwardwithsynchronizedarmandlegmovements.

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Figure9.4
Lighttouchesdrill.

3.Thefirstrunner,withabatonintherighthand,lightlytouchesthebatoninthenextrunner'swaitinghandasitswingsbackinsync(figure9.4).
4.Afterthreelighttouches,thebatonispassedforward.
5.Thisexerciseisrepeatedbetweenthesecondandthirdrunnersthreelighttouchesandahandoff,lefthandtorighthand,whilethemotionsremaininsync.
6.Thethirdrunnerthenperformsthreelighttouchesinthefourthrunner'sopenpalmandhandsoffthebatonrighthandtolefthand.
7.Whenthebatonreachestheanchorrunner,thebatonisreversedandhandeddirectlybackthroughtheline,andtheexerciseisrepeated.
VariationsontheLightTouchesDrill
Thelighttouchesdrillcanhaveaconditioningaspect.Havethequartet(thiscanalsobedonewithfiveorsixrunners)coverfourlapsaroundthetrack.With
beginners,thefirstlapcanbeaquickwalkoraslowjog.
1.Onthefirstlap,therunnersdothreelighttouchespriortopassingthebatonforward.
2.Thepaceofthesecondlapisalittlequicker,withonlytwolighttouches,thenagrab.
3.Thethirdlapisslightlyquickerthanthesecond,withonlyonelighttouchandthenapass.
4.Thefourthandfinallapisthequickest,butundercontrol,withthebatonbeingpassedforwardinsyncwiththereceiver'sarmswingandonfirstcontact,withno
touchactionpriortothepass.
Thisdrillallowsthebatontobemovedforwardandreversedwithfourtosixrunnersforuptoamile.

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MileRelay
byKarenDennis
Arelayteamdevelopsitsownuniquechemistryduringthetrainingprocess.Relaychemistryreferstothecombinedpersonalitiesofrelayteammembers.Relay
alchemyisthemagicalprocessoffourgoodathletestransformedintoagreatrelayteam.Thefastestfourrunnersonyourteamarenotnecessarilythebestrelay
combination.Thebestrelaycombinationincludesthefastestfourrunnersontheteamwhoworkharmoniouslytogether.Arelayteamoffastrunnersvoidofharmony
iseasilytornapartbydysfunctionanddisunityandoftenperformsdisappointingly.Thecoachhasthechallengeofselectingtheperfectcombinationofrelay
componentstobringaboutthedesiredresult.
TeamSelection
Eachathleterunningthemilerelay,or4400meterrelay,hasacertainroletofulfill.Thecoachknowstheskilllevelsofmembersoftherelaypool,andhas
observedhowpotentialcandidatesperformunderpressure.Selectingpersonnelinvolvesmatchingtheappropriaterunnertotherequiredrole.
LeadOffLeg
Theroleofthefirstlegistogettheteamoutfrontandtomaketheexchangewithaleadontherestofthefield.Thefirstrunnermustbeaggressiveenoughto
commandalead,yetcomposedunderpressureastheleadrunner.Theleadrunnermustbestrongandhaveagoodsenseofpace.
Theleadrunnerremainsinlanefor400metersplusthedistanceequaltothe200meterstaggertothesecondexchangezone(approximately500meterstotal).The
firstleg,runningaflatout400meterrun,hasthedauntingtaskofsettingtherhythmoftherelay,andthatperformancewillgreatlydeterminetheperformanceof
successivelegs.Thefirstrunnermaybethesecondfastestpersonontheteam.
SecondLeg
Theroleofthesecondlegistokeeptheteamintherace.Induelingheadtohead,thesecondrunnerkeepstheteamincontention.Thesecondrunnermustbe
physicallystrongenoughtowithstandpossiblejostlingorbumpingatthebreakpointandbeabletoruntheraceintraffic.Iftheteamisnotinfirstplace,thesecond
runnermustbefearlessinchallengingthelead.Iftheteamisoutfront,thesecondrunnerhastorunastrong,flatout400meterstogivethethirdlegasmuchleadas
possible.Thesecondrunnerhastohavecourage,andhastobeabletoruntheracenomatterwhatplacetheteamisin.
ThirdLeg
Theroleofthethirdrunneristoputtheteaminpositiontowin.Thethirdrunnerispivotalindeterminingtheoutcomeoftherace,asthisisthefinalopportunityto
providealeadortorecapturetheleadbeforethelastexchange.Thethirdrunnermustbephysicallycapableofrunningwellfrombehindorinfrontandmusthave
confidenceinhisorherabilitytodoso.Thethirdrunnermustrunaflatout400meterswithanearnestnesstosetuptheanchorrunnertowin.Thethirdrunnerisoften
thesecondbestpossibleanchorlegontheteam.

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FourthLeg
Thefourthrunner,oranchorleg,hasthefinalopportunitytosecurevictoryfortheteam.Theroleoftheanchorlegistoputtherelayawaybyrunningasfastasit
takestodoso.Theanchor,likethethirdleg,mustbecomfortablerunningfrombehindorinfront.Knowingtheteams'successorfailuredependsonthisleg,the
fourthrunnermustbeselfassuredandconfidentinhisorherabilitytomaketheimpossiblepossible.Thefourthrunnerisoftenthestrongestand/orfastestlegonthe
relay,andisoftentermedthe"horse."
Technique
Themechanicsofbatonpassingisoftennotpracticedenoughtoensureexceptionalexchanges,particularlyinthe4400meterrelay.Somepeoplemistakenlythink
thattimelostthroughapoorexchangeisrecoveredsomewhereinthenextleg.Thebatonexchangeinthe4400meterrelayisasimportantasintheshortersprint
relays.Efficientandflawlessbatonexchangesresultinafasterrace.Furthermore,aslightleadof5metersintheraceislengthenedto1015meterswithsuccessful
batonpassing.
Opinionsvaryoverthebesttypeofexchangeinthe4400meterrelay.Mostcoachesselectavisualorsemivisualexchange.Inmyopinion,theadvantagesofthe
visualexchangearegreaterthantheadvantagesofthesemivisualexchange.
VisualExchange

Figure9.5
Visualexchange.

Figure9.6
Inthevisualexchange,thereceivingrunnerextendsthe
lefthandchesthightoretrievethebatonfromtheincoming
runner.

Avisualexchangeenablesthereceivertojudgethepositionandfinishingspeedoftheincomingrunner.Thereceivertakesthebatoninthelefthandwhileonthemove,
keepinghisorhereyesonthebaton.Thevisualpassissafeandavoidsthepossibilityofleavingbehindtheincomingrunner,whoisgreatlydecelerating(figure9.5).
Anotheradvantageofthevisualpassisthatitallowsthereceivingrunnertoseehisorherplacebetweenotherrunnersintheraceandthecurb,andsodetermine
opportunitiestomoveinsidetoamorefavorableposition.Runningontheinsideborderofthelaneenablestheathletetoruntheshortestdistancepossible.Indoing
so,eachrelaymemberrunsamoreenergyefficient400meterrace.
Thereceivingrunnerfacestheinsidelanestripewiththelefthandextended

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chesthightotakethebatonfromtheextendedrighthandoftheincomingrunner(figure9.6).Itistheresponsibilityofthereceivingrunnertoretrievethebatonfrom
theextendedhandoftheincomingrunner.
Unlikeinsprintrelays,inwhichasetmarkpointandablindexchangeareused,milerelayreceiversmustjudgewhentobeginrunningagainstthespeedofthe
incomingathlete.Howwelltheexchangepartnersknowandrespondtoeachotherinraceconditionsdeterminestheamountoftimelostintheexchangezone.Relay
chemistrybecomesanimportantcomponentwhenthequalityoftheexchangedependsonthereceivers'abilitytojudgeorsensethespeedoftheincomingrunner.A
perfectpassoccurswhenexchangepartnersexecuteinsuccessfulsynergy.Ameasureofsuccessisnolossofspeedthroughtheexchangezone,fasterindividual400
metersplits,andoptimalrelayresult.
StepbyStepFormula

Figure9.7
Theincomingrunnerusestherighthandtopass
thebatontotheoutgoingrunner'slefthand.

Figure9.8
Afterreceivingthebaton,theoutgoingrunner
switchesthebatontotherighthand,getting
readyforthenextexchange.

Figure9.9
Thisrunner'spositionallowsforagood
targetofexchangefortheincomingrunner.

Thefirstrunnercarriesthebatonthroughouttheraceintherighthand,passingtothelefthandoftheoutgoingrunner.Theincomingrunnermustrunaggressivelydown
thehomestretchthroughtheexchangezoneandpassestotheoutgoingrunneronthemove(figure9.7).
Thesecondrunnerispositionedinhisorherlaneinastartingstance,withtheleftfootback,therightfootforward,lookingovertheleftshoulder,andlefthand
extendedtopresentagoodtargetofexchangefortheincomingrunner.Theexchangeisusuallydownwardwiththehandfacingupward.Immediatelyupontakingthe
baton,theoutgoingrunnerchangesthebatontotherighthandandassumesracepacearoundthecurve,stayinginthelaneuntilthebreakpointaroundthefirstturn
(figure9.8).
Thethird,andlaterthefourth,runnerstandsreadyfortheexchangeatthecommonexchangeline.Heorshefacestheinfieldofthetrackwiththelefthandextended
asadistincttargetfortheincomingrunner(figure9.9).Thereceivers'positionsontheexchangezonelinedependontheplacefinishoftheincomingrunners.Receivers
mustjudgewhatlanetoretrievethebatonin,makeroomfortheexchange,andcheckforcrowdedandcrossoverconditions.
Thefourthrunnertakesthebatoninthelefthand,changesittotherighthand,andfinishestherace.

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TrainingDrills

MichaelJohnsonshowsoffhisteam'srelaychemistryashetakesthe
batonandgiveshisteamanedgeovertheiropponents.

Usethefollowingdrillstohelpmakeyourrelayteamrunlikeawelloiledmachine.First,rememberthesepoints:
Practicebatonexchangesatleasttwoorthreetimesaweek.
Practicecounteringthejostlingthatthethirdandfourthreceiverswilloftenexperienceattheexchangezoneline.
Practicecounteringtheheavytrafficexperiencedatthebreakpointonthesecondrunner'sleg.
Curverunningismoreefficientwiththebatoncarriedintherighthand.Additionally,mostrunnersprefercarryingthebatonintherighthand.Energyconservedwhen
runningcurveswillbeneededduringthelast80meterswhereastrongfinishbeforetheexchangeisneeded.
Frequentrelaypracticesessionsarethekeyinbuildinggoodrelaychemistry.
FiveManRelay
The"fivemanrelay"involvesfiveathletesrunning100meterintervalsoveradistanceof400meterscontinuously.Eachrunnerremainsatthepositionheorshe
finishedthe100mruninwhilethebatoniscarriedaroundthetrack.Thefifthrunnertakesthebatonatthefinishlinetobringittothefirstrunnertorepeatthedrill.
Eachrunnerpracticesjudgingthepaceoftheincomingrunnerwhenleavingtheexchangezone.Theexchangepartnersbecomeadeptinestablishingeyehand
coordination.Bothrelaypartnersmustfeelconfidentinthepositionoftheirhandswhenmakingtheexchange.Thecoachemphasizesasteadyconsistentpace.The
paceshouldstartoutslowandshouldpickupasskilllevelsimprove.Thetrainingsessioniscompletedwhenthefirstrunnerhascompleted16carriesofthebaton,or
onemile.

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RabbitDrill
The"rabbitdrill"allowsforaproductivetrainingsessionwithathletesotherthan400meterrunners.Thisdrillteachesathletestojudgepaceandpositionintherace
whenrunningfrombehind.Beforecommencing,thecoachneedstoknowtheindividual400metertimesofthetraininggroup.Considerthefollowingexample:
AthleteA=62seconds
AthleteB=53seconds
Therabbitistheslowerrunner.ThecoachsendsAthleteAona400metertimedrunwiththeunderstandingthatheorsheistokeepthepursuingAthleteBfrom
catchingupbeforeAthleteAcompletesthetrainingdistance.Usingthisexample,thereisninesecondsdifferenceinspeedbetweenathletesAandBthecoachwill
sendthepursuingAthleteBthreetofivesecondsafterthe"rabbit"AthleteAbeginsrunning.Thegoalistochallengetherabbittostayaheadofthepursuingrunner
withoutpanickingortighteningup.Thegoalofthepursuingrunneristomakeupthedeficitwhilesimultaneouslystayingwithinhisorherownracecapabilities.Itis
extremelyimportantthateachathleterunhisorherindividualrace,whatevertheteam'spositionintherace.
ThreeTurnStaggerDrill
Thecoachselectsallpotentialrelaymemberstoparticipateinthisdrill.Itismosteffectivewithsixtoeightpairsofparticipants.Coachingobjectivesincludethe
following:ensuringnolossofspeedduringtheexchange,runningaggressivelyaroundthefirstcurve,counteringjostlingeffectsatthebreakpoint,andexperimenting
withdifferentrelaycombinations.
Divideanevennumberofparticipantsintotwogroups:one"incomingrunners,"theother"outgoingrunners."Arrangetherunnersintoteamsoftwoandassigneach
teamalane.Positiontheincomingrunnerofeachteam40metersbeyondthe100meterstartline.Theoutgoingrunnersareintheirrespectivelanesatthestartofthe
milerelay.Theincomingrunnersracetopassthebatontotheoutgoingrunnersontheirteam.Theoutgoingrunnersreceivethebaton,andatracepacechallengeone
anotheraroundthecurvebeyondthebreakpointtothe150metermark.
Alternatelanesaftereachroundtogiveoutgoingrunnersexperiencerunningbothinsideandoutsidelanes.Aftereachteamhasrunindifferentlanes,switchthe
incomingandoutgoingrunnersandrepeatthedrill.
Summary
Thedrillsandtechniquespresentedinthischapteraredesignedtohelpgiveyourrelayteamanedge,orthemuchsoughtafter"relayalchemy."Relayalchemy
describesfourindividualswithcombinedqualitiesofdesire,determination,dedication,andhardwork.Arelayteamsounitedandfocusediscapableofproducing
magicalandmemorableraces.

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PARTIII
JUMPINGEVENTS

Page141

10
LongJump
KyleTellez
KathyJames

Inallthejumpingeventsintrackandfield,thereisastrongrelationbetweentheexecutionoftheapproachrunandtakeoffandtheperformanceofajump.Themore
consistentandmoretechnicallycorrecttheapproachrunandtakeoff,thebetterthejumpperformance.
Mostworldrecordperformancesinthejumpingeventsintrackandfieldhaveresultedfromasuccessfulapproachrunandtakeoff.Whenalongjumperbreaks
contactwiththeground,thecenterofgravityformsaparaboliccurve.Onceintheair,thereisnothingthatcanbedonetochangethispredeterminedflightpath.
Therefore,themajorityofcoachingtimeinthelongjumpshouldbespentdevelopingatechnicallysoundapproachrunandtakeoff.

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Technique
Thelongjumpcanbebrokendownintofourcomponents:
1.Approachrun
2.Lasttwostrides
3.Takeoff
4.Actionintheairandlanding
Thetechnicalinformationwillbeexplainedandillustratedusingarightfootedtakeoffjumperwhoisstartingtheapproachrunwiththeleftfoot,takinganoddnumber
ofstrides(19strides),andusingthehitchkick.
ApproachRun
Theobjectivehereistodevelopaconsistentapproachrunthatallowsforgradualacceleration,beginningwiththefirststrideandendingwithmaximumcontrolled
speedatthetakeoff.
LengthoftheApproach
Thelengthoftheapproachrunshouldbebetween12and19strides(figure10.1).Theapproachrunshouldbeaslongaspossibledependingonthejumper's
experience,sprintingtechnique,andconditioninglevel.Thelengthoftheapproachrunwilldeterminetheamountofspeedthatisdeveloped.
Thelongertheapproachrun,themoredifficultitistodevelopaconsistentstridepattern.Thus,inexperiencedjumpersshouldbeginbyusingashorterapproachrunof
12strides(figure10.1a).However,asjumpersgainexperience,improvesprintingtechnique,andgetstrongerthroughaconditioningprogram,theapproachruncan
belengthenedto14stridesandeventually18strides(figure10.1b).
Asuccessfulapproachrundependsontheconsistencyofthefirsttwoorthreestrides.Itisherethattherhythmoftherunisdeveloped.Iftherunisinconsistent,itis
usuallybecauseoftheinconsistencyinthefirsttwoorthreestridesoftheapproach.
Tohelpdeterminetheconsistencyofajumper'sapproachrun,acheckmarkshouldbeplacedfourstridesoutfromthetakeoffboard(figure10.1,bc).Thecheck
markshouldmeasure26to31feet(about7.9to9.4m)awayfromthetakeoffboard.Thedistanceforthefourstridecheckmarkwillvarydependingonthejumper's
height,speedontherunway,anddistanceoftheapproachrun.Experiencedjumpers,whoaretall,fast,andhave18or19strides,shouldbecloserto31feet(about
9.4m)atthecheckmark.Moreinexperiencedjumperswhoareshorter,notasfast,andhave12or13strides,shouldbecloserto26feet(about7.9m)atthecheck
mark.Thus,ifduringacompetition,alongjumperishittingthecheckmarkat27feet(about8.2m)butissupposedtobehittingearlier,at31feet(about9.4m),the
jumperisprobablytooclosetothetakeoffboardandisfoulingorshorteningthelastfourstridestogetontheboard.
Keepinmindthatifajumper'stakeofffootisthesamefootusedtopushoffwithatthestartoftherun,therewillbeaneven(say,18)numberofstrides(figure10.1b)
(e.g.,startwithleftfootandtakeoffwithleftfoot).However,ifthejumper'stakeofffootisnotthesameasthefootthatstartstherun,therewillbeanodd(say,19)
numberofstrides(figure10.1c)(e.g.,startwithleftfootandtakeoffwithrightfoot).

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Figure10.1
Approachrunsof(a)12strides,(b)18strides,and(c)19strides.

Page144

SpeedandAcceleration
Theapproachrunshouldbemadeatthemaximumspeedatwhichthejumpercancompleteasuccessfultakeoff.However,whilelongjumpersaretrainedas
sprinters,rawspeedisnotthekeytotechniqueinthelongjumpmaximumcontrollablespeedis!
Sprintingisapushingactionagainsttheground.Jumpersshouldnottrytopullagainsttheground.Theformationofthelegisillsuitedtoexertapullingforce.In
addition,apullingactionwhensprintingisadirectcauseofhamstringdamage.
Aconsistent,fastapproachrunwilldependonagradualacceleration.Manyinexperiencedjumpersmakethemistakeofacceleratingtoofast,toosoon.Thiscauses
themtodeceleratetowardtheendoftheapproachrun.Thus,speedislostgoingintothetakeoff,resultinginapoorperformance.
Usinga19strideapproachrun,thejumperbeginstherunbypushingdownandbackagainstthegroundwiththeleftfoottosetthebodyinmotion.Inaddition,there
isaslightinclinationofthewholebodyfromthegroundatthebeginningoftherun.Asthejumperaccelerates,thebodygraduallystraightensupintoanuprightposition
bytheendofthefourthorsixthstride(figure10.2).
Whenestablishinganapproachrunforbeginningjumpers,itisbesttoworkontheapproachrunwithoutjumping.Thisway,thejumperscanisolatetheapproachrun
anddevelopaconsistentacceleration,stridepattern,andrhythmoftherunthroughrepetition.Inaddition,evenwithexperiencedjumpers,itisbeneficialtopractice
theapproachrunwithoutjumpingtofurthertheconsistencyandrhythmoftherun.

Figure10.2
Thestartoftheapproachrun:asthejumperaccelerates,thebodygraduallystraightensinto
anuprightposition.

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LastTwoStrides
Theobjectiveinthelasttwostridesistoprepare,or''setup,"forthetakeoffwhileconservingasmuchspeedaspossible.Priortotheselaststrides,thejumperisina
fullsprintingpositioninwhichthejumpercontinuestheaccelerationbypushingdownagainsttheground(figure10.3,ac).
PenultimateStride
Thepenultimatestrideisthenexttothelaststride(leftfoot)fromthetakeoff,wherethereisaloweringofthejumper'scenterofgravity(figure10.3,df).Itisthe
longerofthelasttwostridesbecauseoftheloweringofthecenterofgravityandtheflexionofthekneeandankleofthesupportingleg.Thereisanoticeable
"gathering"ofthejumper'sbodyduringthepenultimatestride.Inaddition,thefootisplacedflatontheground.
Jumpersmustfeelthelowering,or"gathering,"ofthebodyduringthepenultimatestride.Thepenultimatestrideisdifferentthananormalrunningstridesojumpers
shouldnotjust"run"throughthepenultimate.Itisimperativethattheypreparethebodyduringthepenultimate.
LastStride
Thelaststride(rightfoot)isshorterthanthepenultimatestridebecauseoftheraisingofthejumper'scenterofgravity(figure10.3,gionpage146).Asthetakeoff
footmakescontactwiththeground,thefootisplacedflatandinfrontofthejumper'sbody.Inaddition,thereisaslightflexionofthejointsofthetakeoffleg.During
thisslightflexion,themusclesofthetakeofflegareforcedintoanactivestretchingphaseoreccentriccontraction.Immediatelyfollowingthisactivestretchingphase,
thereisashortening,orconcentriccontraction,ofthemusclesofthetakeoffleg.Whenaconcentriccontractionisprecededbyaphaseofactivestretchinginthe
musclesofthetakeoffleg,elasticenergyisstoredandthetakeofflegis"loadedup."

Figure10.3
(ac)sprintingposition(df)thepenultimatestride

Page146

Thelaststrideisshorterinlengththanthepenultimatestride.Therefore,jumpersshouldthinkofthelasttwostridesaslongshort.Thiscansometimeshelpthemsetup
thetakeoffmoreeffectively.Jumpersmustavoidreachingonthelaststride,becauseplacingthetakeofffoottoofaroutintothefrontofthebodywillresultina
brakingorstoppingeffectandpoorjumpperformance.
Itiscriticalthatjumpersstayrelaxedandmaintainapproachspeedthroughthelasttwostrides.Theycanaccomplishthisbycontinuingtostroketheirarmsthroughthe
lasttwostrides,sincestoppingthemovementofthearmswilldecreaseapproachspeedintothetakeoff.
Takeoff
Theobjectiveinthetakeoffisto"loadup"thetakeofflegtocreateaverticalimpulsethroughthejumper'scenterofgravity.
ContactwiththeGround
Asthejumper'stakeofffootmakescontactwiththegroundandthelegisloadedupwithelasticenergy,averticalimpulseorliftiscreatedthroughthecenterofgravity
(figure10.3j).Thisverticalimpulsecreatedfromthetakeofflegprojectsthejumper'sbodyupandoutintotheair.Coachesshouldencouragejumperstothinkabout
jumpingfirstandthenrunningupandoutofftheground.Focusingonlyonrunningupandoutoffthegroundtendstocausethejumperstonotloadupthetakeoffleg
andthusbypassaverticalimpulse.
FootPlacement
Thetakeofffootisplacedflatanddirectlyinfrontofthejumper'sbodytoallowforamaximumverticallift.Ifajumperplacesthefootheelfirst,itwillcauseabraking
orstoppingeffectatthetakeoff.Ontheotherhand,ifthejumperplacesthetakeofffoothighuponthetoes,therewillbelittlestabilizationonimpact,causingtheleg
tobuckleorcollapse.Asthebodymovesthroughthetakeoffandupintotheair,thejumpercontinuestorunupandoutofftheground(figure10.3,jk).

Figure10.3(continued)
(gi)thelaststride(jk )thetakeoff

Page147

BodyPosition
Thejumper'sbodyisuprighttotheground,allowingforoptimalpositionattakeoff.Jumpersshouldfocustheireyesupandoutwhenleavingtheground.Theyshould
notbelookingdownintothesandoratthetakeoffboard.
Toworkonthetechniqueofthelasttwostridesandthetakeoff,establishashortapproachrunofeightstrides.Shortrunjumpingallowsthejumperstoisolateand
emphasizethepropertechnique.Inaddition,jumperscantakemorejumps,sinceshortrunsreducethefatigueduringtraining.
Jumpersshouldnotoveremphasizejumpinguphighattakeoff.Ahighangleoftakeoffusuallycausesjumperstoslowdownconsiderablytoachievetheheight,thus
losingcriticalspeedneededatthetakeoff.Jumpfordistance,notheight.
ActionintheAirandLanding
Theobjectiveforthefourthandlastcomponentistorotatethebodyintoanefficientlandingpositionthatmaximizesjumpdistance.
Oncecontactwiththegroundisbroken,thejumpercandonothingtoaltertheflightpathofthecenterofgravity.However,thejumpermovesthearmsandlegsabout
thecenterofgravitytocounteractforwardrotationandassumeanoptimalpositionforlanding.
HitchKickTechnique
Thehitchkicktechniqueallowsthejumpertocounteracttheforwardrotationdevelopedatthetakeoff(figure10.3l).Bycyclingthelegsandarmsthroughtheair,the
jumperisabletomaintainanuprightbodypositionandsetupforanefficientlandingposition(figure10.3,mp).Ifthejumperdidnotcounteractforwardrotationby
cyclingthearmsandlegs,thebodywouldcontinuetorotateforwardintoafacedownpositioninthesand.

Figure10.3(continued)
(lp)theactionintheair

Page148

Othertechniquesforlongjumpersintheairarethehangandthesail.Eachofthesestylesaccomplishesthesametaskasthehitchkickbycounteractingforward
rotationintheairinordertoachieveanefficientlandingposition.
Inthehangtechnique,thejumperextendshisorherbodyinalong,outstretchedpositionandholdsthatpositionmomentarilysothatheorsheappearstobehanging.
Then,upondescending,thejumpersnapsthelegstoaforwardlandingposition.Thehangisbeneficialinthatthelongpositionoftheathleteasheorsherisesintheair
retardsthetendencytotumbleforwardandloseextension.
Usingthesailtechnique,theathleteimmediatelyliftsthelegsupintoatoetouchingpositionuponrisingupfromthetakeoff.Thismakesiteasyforthenovicetotryto
getintoalandingpositionearly.However,itdoesnotcounterthetendencytorotatetoofarforward(tumbling).Thiscancausethefeettolosegoodextensionupon
landing.
Landing
Foranefficientlanding,thejumperextendsandsweepsthearmsdowntowardtheground(figure10.3q).Thisactionofthearmsraisesthelegsuptowardthetorso
andclosertothejumper'scenterofgravity(figure10.3,qs).Thus,theactionofthearmscausesanequalandoppositereactionwiththelegs.
Asthejumpermakescontactwiththesand,thekneesbendandflextocushiontheimpact.Inaddition,thearmsarebroughtforwardtoassistthejumper'sforward
momentumandavoidfallingback.
Remember,thebestjumpscomefromawellexecutedapproachrunandtakeoff.Thus,ifajumperishavingaproblemwithundesirablerotationintheairandan
inefficientlanding,alwayslooktotheapproachrunandtakeoffasthesourceoftheproblem.
Haveworkoutsandcompetitionsvideotapedsothattheymaybereviewed.Videotapedjumpsareanimportantteachingtoolforcoachesandjumpers.Inaddition,
watchvideosofworldclassjumpersandcomparetechnique.

Figure10.3(continued)
(qs)thelanding.

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Training
byKathyJames
Inpreparingandtrainingforthelongjump,thefirstthingacoachandathletemustrememberistoplaneachpracticesession.Efficientworkoutsthatareplanned
aheadoftimeproducethebestresultsinlearningandperformance.Donotmakeupworkoutsasyougoalongdoingthiscreatesaninconsistenttrainingpattern
duringeachtrainingperiod.Determinethegoalofeachworkoutasyouplanthetrainingsessions.Knowingwhatistobeaccomplishedduringeachworkoutiscrucial
totheoverallperformanceoftheathlete.Itwilleliminateunderandovertrainingandreduceinjury.Aftereachworkout,assessthespecificperformanceobjective.
Analyzingtheeffortandabilityoftheathletetoexecuteandcompletetheworkoutiscriticalindeterminingthefeasibilityandbenefitoftheworkout.
Thefollowingcomponentsshouldbeconsideredinplanningworkouts:
Warmup:Warmupisessentialtooverallperformanceandthehealthoftheathlete.Warmupsproceedfromgeneraltospecific,andbeginslowlyandgradually
increaseinactivitylevel.Warmupspreparethemuscularandcardiovascularsystemsforstrenuousactivity,reducingcramps,strains,pulls,orrelatedinjuries.
Review:Toenhanceathleticperformance,itisimportanttointroducenewskills.Giveaclearandsimpleexplanationofwhatistobeaccomplishedwiththeskill.Be
suretoreviewtheseskillsduringthecourseoftheworkout.Itmayalsobehelpfultodemonstratetheskilltomakesureitisdoneproperlyandwithcorrecttechnique.
Thenwatchtheathleteexecutethetechniqueforoptimumperformance.Last,providetheathletewithfeedbackduringthepracticesession.Giveaclearandaccurate
reasonifthereisaproblemintheexecutionoftheskill.Bepositiveandunderstandable.Correctoneerroratatime.Feedbackalwaysmotivatesandencouragesthe
athletetoexecuteproperlyandprepareforthenexttrainingsessions.Italsoteachestheathletesthefundamentalsoftheworkoutstheyareaskedtoperform.
Fitnesstraining:Itisveryeasytogetcaughtupinthetechnicalsideoflongjumptrainingandforgetsprintingandstrengthtraining,especiallyduringtheseason.Be
suretoincludethisfitnesstrainingforstrengthandspeedthroughoutallphasesoftheseason.
Cooldown:Justasitisimportanttowarmupbeforepractice,itisequallyimportanttocooldownattheendofapracticesession.Thiswillrelaxthemuscularand
cardiovascularsystemsgradually,helpingtopreventinjury.Walkingandjoggingfor510minutesfollowingtheworkoutandconcludingwithstretchingisagoodway
tocooldown.
Evaluation:Evaluatethepracticebydiscussingthebenefitsofthepracticesessionwithyourathletes.Keepaccuraterecordsofeachtrainingsessiontodetermine
theireffectiveness.Decidewhichgoalsweremetandwhichneedmoreattention.
Thelongjumpincorporatesspeed,strength,andagility.Asyouplanthepracticesessions,thereareseveralessentialcomponentstoconsider,whicharediscussedin
thefollowingsections.

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StrengthTraining
Crucialtoalongjumper'ssuccessisthedevelopmentofstrength,specificallythedevelopmentofjumpingpower.Indevelopingstrengthelementsforthelongjump,
concentrateonthespecificqualitiesneededinjumping.Thesequalitiesarebasedonthreefactors:
1.Power
2.Jumpingendurance
3."Specialstrength"
Aspecifictypeofenergyisrequiredtoexecuteasuccessfullongjump.Poweristhemaximumavailableabilityofthelegandbackmusclesduringapproachand
takeoff.Jumpingenduranceisthemuscularabilitytowithstandmultipleboundingandjumping."Specialstrength"isusedtobridgethegapbetweensheerstrengthand
explosivepower.Specialstrengthgivesthejumpercontroloverallmechanicsofthebackandlegmusclesusedinhorizontaljumping.Thefollowingprinciplesof
strengthtrainingshouldbeobserved:
Resistanceismoreimportantwhentrainingforstrength.
Strengthismoreimportantwhentrainingforpower.
Powertrainingwithweightsisinitiatedonlytowardtheendofthebuilduptrainingperiodandafterlifttechniquetraining.
Withspecialstrength,thestrengthapplicationofthelegsismosteffectivewhentheathleteworksonarigidsystem,supportedbystrongbackandabdominal
muscles.Thespecialstrengthreferstotheabilitytoapplyalargeforceinaveryquickperiodoftime.The"specialstrength"shouldenablethecenterofgravitytotake
adefinitepath.Thelengthoftimeofthisstrengthmovementisdirectlydeterminedbytheendspeedoftheapproach.Thelongjumper'sspeedfromtheapproachrun
greatlylimitsthetimetheathletehastoapplytheforceatthetakeoffboard.Therefore,thefasterthespeed,thelesstimetheathletehastoapplytheforce.Power
exercisesandspecialstrengthtrainingcomplywiththe"principlesofoverload"tothemusclesandjointsandconcentrateonpuremaximumstrength.
Themostimportantfactorinstrengthtrainingforthehorizontaljumpsisthemethodused.Themostproductiveandprominentmethodusedbyelitejumperstodayis
plyometricsinconjunctionwithweighttraining.
Plyometrics
Plyometricsisatypeoftrainingthatcombinesendurance,coordination,andpurestrengthtraining,throughwhichjumperscanproducebetterexplosivereaction
movements.However,thebiggestbenefitofthistypeoftrainingisthedevelopmentofstretchreflexinthemusclesinvolvedduringtakeoffandinflight.
Thegoalofjumpingdrillsistodeveloptheneuromuscularsystemsothatstrengthgainscanbeincorporatedinspeedmovements.Twomethodsofplyometricsare
usedinthisphase:longjumpingandshortjumping.Longjumpingtakesplaceduringthefirstsixweeksinordertoconditiontheathleteandbuildspeedendurance.
Thesejumpscanbesubdividedintolowintensitylongjumpsandhighintensitylongjumps.Bothtypesofjumpsaredoneoveradistancegreaterthan30metersbut
theyaredoneataloweramplitudeoras

Page151

quicklyaspossible,respectively.Shortjumpingisdoneoverashorterdistance(lessthan30meters)veryexplosively.Plyometricsshouldbedonetwotimesper
week,allowingseveraldaysrestinbetween.MondaysandThursdaysorMondaysandFridaysbeforeweighttrainingispreferable.
Thefollowingareexamplesofplyometricjumpingexercises:
LongJumpingExercises
LowIntensity
Highskips
Alternatebounding
Singleleghops
Doubleleghops
RRL,LLR,RRL,LLR...
RR,LL,RR,LL...
Gallops
Boundingupahill(orstairs)
Straightlegjumpsupahill(orstairs)
Doublelegjumpsupahill(orstairs)
Rampsand/orhillrunning
Jumprope:
singleleg
doubleleg
doubles(tworoperotations/jump)
highknees
Jumpingorhoppingoversevenormorecones
Alternatestepupsonbench,box,orstepfor30secondsormore(figure10.4)

Figure10.4
Alternatestepups.

Page152

HighIntensity
Sameaslowintensityexercisesbutperformedasquicklyaspossible
Includea30metersingleleghopfortime
ShortJumpingExercises
Anyofthelongjumpingexercisesbutperformedwithgreateramplitudeandfewerrepetitions.
Standingtriplejump
Standinglongjump
Jumpingoverhurdles(aboutonemeterapart):
Fivelowhurdles
Fivehurdlesofvariousheights
Puttwohurdlestogetherandjumpoverwithtwolegs
Jumpingoverboxes(1218inchesorabout30.546cmhigh,twotothreefeetorabout61to91.5cmapart):
doubleleg
singleleg
alternating
combinations
Jumpinginplacefromhalfsquat
Jumpingfromhalfsquatupahill(halfthedistanceoflongjumpingbutfaster)orsteps
Anyjumpsinplace:
doublelegtuck
singlelegtuck
pike
splitsquat
squatjumps
forwardandbackwardovercone
sidetosideovercone
Box/benchjumps:
highkneestepups
alternatingrunups
Timedjumpsof1030meters:
singleleghops
standingtriplejumps
standinglongjumps
Singleanddoublelegboundingholdingontopartner'sshouldersortorailing
Table10.1isagreatwaytoincorporatetheaboveplyometricexercisesintothreefourweekperiods.

Page153
TABLE10.1PLYOMETRICSTRAININGSCHEDULEFORLONGJUMP
Period1(4weeks)
Week

Exercise

Reps/distance

Longjumping(lowintensity)

4100m(choose4exercises)

Shortjumping

26repsperexercise

Longjumping(lowintensity)

350m(1exercise)

350m(1exercise)

Longjumping(highintensity)

230m(1exercise)

230m(1exercise)

Shortjumping

26reps

Longjumping(highintensity)

330m

330m

330m

Activerest

Sprintdrills

Period2(4weeks)
5

Shortjumping

26reps

220m

Longjumping(highintensity)

230m

Shortjumping

26reps

220m

210sec.

Longjumping(highintensity)

230m

Shortjumping

4exercises3setsof6reps

Sprintdrills

225m

Period3(4weeks)
9

Shortjumping

326repsor

3230m

10

Shortjumping

446repsor

4430m

11

Shortjumping

546repsor

5430m

12

Shortjumping

26reps

FreeWeightExercises
Thefollowingfreeweightexerciseswillhelpdevelopalongjumper'sexplosivestrength,orpower.

Page154

SquatMovements
Backsquat

Frontsquat

full

full

halfjump

staticdynamic

staticdynamic

PullMovements
Cleans

Snatches

midthighpull

midthighpull

belowkneepull

belowkneepull

fullpull

fullpull

cleanfrommidthigh

snatchfrommidthigh

cleanfrombelowtheknee

snatchfrombelowtheknee

fullclean

fullsnatch

PressMovements
Bench

Jerk

Incline

split

Behindtheneckpress

power

seated

push

MedicineBallExercises
Usingamedicineballcanalsobeaneffectivewaytodeveloptheupperandlowerbody.
UpperBody
Weekone,do10repetitionsofthefollowingexercises.Weektwo,do15repetitions.Weekthree,do20repetitions.Weekfour,do15repetitions.
Chestpass
Overheadpass
Underhandpass
Seatedrotations
Kneelingpass

Seatedrollbackanduppass(Athleteholdsthemedicine
balloverhead,rollsbackwithfeetcomingup,rollsback
uptoasittingposition,thentossestheball.)
Seatedcrossbodyscoop
Sideoverheadextensionpass
Bendoverbetweenlegspass

LowerBody

Thighbounces

Seatedquadlifts

Footpasses

Lyinghamstringlifts

Heelpasses

"Fire"balls

Legraiserolloverputback

Ninetydegree"drives"

Page155

TypesofWorkouts
Thefollowingaredifferenttypesofworkoutsthatshouldbeincorporatedintoyourathletes'trainingregimen.Eachworkoutisdesignedtoimproveadifferentaspect
ofthelongjumper'sperformance.
SpeedEndurance
Highoxygendebtandlacticacidbuildupwithclosetofullrecoverybetweeneachrun.Theseworkouts'emphasisshouldbeonquality.
Repsm

Rest

5100

510min.

3150

510min.

2200

10min.

1400

10min.

TempoEndurance
Thisaerobicworkoutwillincreaseoxygenintake,whichwillshortenrecoverytime.Tempoworkoutsaredoneataslowerpace,whichwillhelptherunnerlearn
rhythm.Theemphasisshouldbeonquantity,notquality,withrestkeptshort.
Repsm

Rest

6200

2min.

4300

2min.

50100150200250300

Walkthesamedistanceforrest

StrengthEndurance
Activitiesinstrengthenduranceworkoutstypicallylastlongerthan10seconds.Theyincludeuphillrunningandresistancetyperunning.Theemphasisisonsprint
musculature.
6100mhill
61520sec.resistancerunning
2(41520sec.)jumprope
PowerSpeed
Powerspeedworkoutsemphasizespeedofmusclecontractions.Theyareusuallydonewithfewerthan10repetitions,andnomorethan10secondsperrepetition.
68shorthillruns5060m
6830massistancerunning
6810sec.fastropejumps

Page156

EnduranceRunning
Thistotallyaerobicrunningworkoutconsistsof15to45minutesofrunningatasteadypace.Basetraining.
DevelopingaTrainingProgram
Keepingthesetypesofworkoutsinmind,table10.2presentsasampletrainingprogramforlongjumpers.Theemphasisofeachtypeofworkoutchangesasthe
seasonprogresses.Youcantailortheworkoutstomeettheneedsofyourathleteswhilestillmaintainingthebasicpremise.
TABLE10.2SAMPLEWORKOUTS
Technique,Speed,andStrength:Weeks14
Monday

3300mwith200mofwalkorjogrecovery
Drills:3660mofAskip*andBskip**3660mofhighknees
Eventspecificdrills
Weights

Tuesday

Temporuns:(+)=50mofjog()=100mofwalkbetweensets
100+100+100
100+200
100+100+200
100+200
100+100+100

Wednesday

Powerspeed(progressestopowertechnique):
620mofAskipinto20msprint
620mofBskipinto20msprint
360mofrunningbounds
61050m
Eventspecificdrills
Weights

Thursday

68200m,with200mofwalkorjog
Drills:sameasMon.

Friday

810150m,with150mofwalkrecovery
Weights

Speed,Strength,andEndurance:Weeks512
Monday

2300m1200m,with10mrecovery
Techniquedrills/weights

Tuesday

8100mat8590%speed
Lighttechniquedrills

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page157

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Speed,Strength,andEndurance:Weeks512
Wednesday

Jogandstretch/weights
Eventtechnique

Thursday

3200m
Lighttechniquedrills

Friday

5150matracepace,withfullrecovery
Weights

CompetitivePhase
Monday

2200mfast,withfullrecovery
Lighttechniquedrills

Tuesday

Fulltechniquedrills
Weights
660mat6070%,withfullrecovery

Wednesday

Jogandstretch

Thursday

3150mfast
Techniquedrills
Weights

Friday

Rest

Saturday

Competition

Askipskippinginwhichthefreelegswingsupuntilthethighisparalleltothegroundandtheheelof
thefreelegmeetsthehipsthenextendsdowntomeettheground.
**

BskipsameastheAskip,exceptthatthefreelegextendsstraightforward(asinaGooseStep)
beforelanding.

Summary
Asmentionedearlier,itisbesttodevotethemajorityoftrainingtimeforthelongjumptodevelopingatechnicallycorrectapproachandtakeoff.Thisisbecauseofthe
strongrelationbetweencorrecttechniqueorexecutionoftheapproachrunandtakeoffandperformanceofthejump.Thevariousdrillsandworkoutspresentedinthis
chapteraremeanttoenhanceone'sperformancebydevelopingpower,speed,andendurance.Asweallknow,onceyou'reintheair,there'snochangingyour
course.Therefore,youmusttrainhardtodeveloptheconsistencynecessarytobesuccessfulincompetition.

Page159

11
TripleJump
DeanHayes

Thetriplejumpisauniqueeventrequiringacombinationofspeed,strength,andbalance.Itiscomposedofthreedistinctphasesthatmustflowintooneanother.They
arethehop(takingoffandlandingonthesamefoot),thestep(landingontheoppositefoot),andthejump(performedsimilartothelongjump).Thehopandjumpare
relativelyeasytomaster,butthestepisadifficultskill.Thetriplejumpwasformerlycalledthehopstepjump,butthenamewaschangedtoemphasizetheequal
importanceofeachphase.
Triplejumpersmustpossessaboveaverageabilityinsprintingandjumping,andatthesametimepossesspowerfulmusclesandgoodmotorskills.Theprogram
discussedinthischapterisforboththebeginningandadvancedjumper.

Page160

Technique
Propertechniqueisessential.Itissomethingthattriplejumperswillcallontimeandtimeagaintogivethemselvesanedgeincompetition.Teachingandreinforcing
technicalprecisionearlyonwillmakeitsecondnatureincompetition.
Approach
Thetriplejumpapproachshouldbelongenoughtoallowthejumpertoacceleratetonearlyfullspeed.Atthesametime,theapproachmustberelaxedsothatthe
jumperisundercontrol.Iftheapproachistooslow,thejumperwilllosemomentuminthelaterphasesoftheevent.Ifitistoofast,thejumperwillbeunabletocontrol
thelegsandkeepthemfromcollapsing.Thelengthoftherunshouldbe100to130feet(about30.5to39.6m).Thebeginningjumper'sapproachshouldbeabout
100feet(about30.5m).Asthejumpergainsexperienceandmaturity,theapproachcanbelengthened.Beginningjumpersmaywishtouseacheckmarkalongthe
latterpartoftheapproach.Asjumpersgainexperience,theymaypreferusingonlythebeginningmark.Thejumpershouldpracticetheapproachuntilitisconsistent.
Approachstepsshouldbeworkedonjustbeforethecompetitiveseasonbegins.
Hop
Thefirstphaseofthetriplejumpisthehop,andthefirstpartofthehopisthetakeoff.Theobjectiveinthehopistogoforwardandup(notupandforwardasinthe
longjump).Thisisaccomplishedbykeepingthebodyuprightandrotatingtheheelofthehopleghighupunderthebuttocksandthenextendingitasfarforwardas
possible(seefigure11.1ac).Theideaisfortheathletetofeelthatheorsheis''runningofftheboard."Remindthejumpertostayuprightandnotlookdownorlean
forward,astheleaningmakesitdifficulttobringthelegupforthenextphase.
Therearethreemethodsofarmaction:

Figure11.1
Thehopandstepphasesofthetriplejump.

Page161

1.Singlearmaction
2.Doublearmaction
3.Combination
Thecombinationusuallyisasinglearmhopanddoublearmstepandjump.Thedoublearmbeginsinthelaststepbeforetheboardasthejumperbeginstheactionto
getthearmsinplaceforthetakeoff.Theathletestopsthearmthatisgoingback.Heorshestopsitatthehiponthetakeoff,andthenletsitgoforwardwiththeother
armsothatbotharmsgoforwardasthelegrotatesunderthebuttocks.Theathlete'shandsshouldnotgohigherthanthechin.Ifthearmsaredriventoohigh,thefoot
willcomedowntoohardandtoofast.Agreatnumberofjumpersdrawbotharmsbehindthebackaboutoneandahalfstepsbeforethetakeoffboard.Thisis
acceptableforbeginners,butaftersomeexperienceitisbetterifthejumpercanchangetothepreviouslydiscussedmethod.Pullingbotharmsbacktendstoslow
downtheapproachjustbeforetheboard,andthelossofspeedatthispointhinderstheflowoftheotherphases.
Thesinglearmmethodissimplyarunningmotionofftheboard,asifthejumperistakingonemorestep,onlythe"runningstep"isahop(figure11.1).
Selectthemethodofarmactionbasedonthespeedoftheathlete.Asaroughguide,thefastathletecanbestusethedoublearmmethod,thejumperofaverage
speedcanusewhichevermethodismostcomfortable,andtheslowerathleteusuallybenefitsfromsinglearmaction.Thecoachandathleteshouldexperimentanduse
themethodbestsuitedtothatathlete.
Inthehop,thelegshouldbepulledthroughforextensionandasthefootisabouttoland,itshouldbeflattenedsothatthejumpercan"roll"overthefootintothenext
phase(figure11.1c).Landingonthetoesinterruptsspeedandflowlandingontheheelcancauseheelbruises.Also,a"heellanding"makesitmoredifficulttocontrol
theforwardmovement.Thelandingshouldbeveryslightlyontheheel,followedbya"rolling"actionofthefoot.
Duetothenatureoftriplejumping,athletesshouldwearlight,durableshoeswithheelcupsinsertedinthem.Constantpoundingandlandingontheheelsnecessitates
usingheelcupstoavoidbruisesandinjuries.

Figure11.1(continued)

Page162

Step
Justbeforethehopisfinished,thearmsarepulledbackagaininpreparationforthestepthesecondphaseofthetriplejump.Thestepisaccomplishedbybringing
theotherleg(oppositeofthehopleg)forward(figure11.1df,pages160161).Thejumpershouldstrivetogettheupperlegperpendiculartothebody(hiparea)or
paralleltotheground.Thearmscomeforwardifdoublearmactionisutilized.Ifthesinglearmmethodisused,theoppositearmgoesforwardasinrunning.Again,
thearm(s)shouldnotgohigherthanthechin.
Therearetwomethodsofexecutingthestep.Onemethodistokeepthebodyuprightandtheupperbodybasicallyperpendiculartotheground.Theupperlegis
paralleltotheground,andthelowerlegispositionedsothatthetoesarejustaheadoftheknee.Thisisdonesothejumpercan"ride"theleg,orholditup.Atthelast
instant,thejumperextendsthelegandreachesoutasfaraspossible.Thisextensionisaidedbypullingthearmsbacktopreparefordoublearmactioninthejump
phase.Again,thefootshouldhitthegroundalmostflatfooted.Theheel"barely"leadstheaction.
Theothermethodfor"stepping"istoletthelowerlegextendaheadofthekneeduringthestep.Thisrequirestheupperchestandheadtobestoopedslightlyforward
inanefforttoholdthefootup(figure11.1fg,page161).Asthefootisextended,orheldforward,thearmsaredrawnbehindthebacktoprepareforthejumpphase
(figure11.1hi,page161).

Figure11.2
Triplejumptechniquefor(a)WillieBanksand(b)MikeConley.Part(c)showsan
overheadviewofthetriplejump.

Page163

Jump
Asthejumpphaseisinitiated,thearmsareinterchangedifthesinglearmmethodisused.Ifthedoublearmmethodisused,thearmsarepulledthroughwithapunch,
andtheathleteexecutesajumpsimilartothatofthelongjumper.Generally,ahangstyleofjumpisusedbecausethereisnotenoughtimeforahitchkick.
Thejumpershouldtrytogetashighaspossible,withthearms(bothareusedinthehangstyle)reachingupandthenextendingforward.Thefeetareextendedsothat
theheelsleadthewayintothepit.
Figure11.2showsthejumpsoftwooftheleadingtriplejumpersinU.S.history,WillieBanksandMikeConley:
Notetheirsinglearmactionofftheboardtomaintainspeed.
Notethatinthehopandsteplanding,theyland"barely"heelfirstinanefforttorollintothenextphase.
Notehowerecttheirbodyisatsomeearlypointinthehopandstep,theleadwiththekneeinthestep,andtherotationofthehoplegupunderthebuttocks.
Notethedoublearmactioninthestepandjumpphases.
NoteConley'slowerhopangletomaintainspeed.Eachphasegetshigher.

Figure11.2(continued)

Page164

Notethedoublearmhangstyleinthejumpphase.
Notetheefforttoleadwiththeheelsintothepit.
Notethetwocontrasting(butcorrect)styleswiththearmsinthejumpphase.Inone,thearmsdriveuphigh(Conley)andintheother,thehandsgoinfrontofthe
bodyandbackaroundhighoverthehead(Banks).
TeachingProgression
Thetriplejumpisanunnaturaleventandshouldbeintroducedtoprospectivejumpersbyhavingthemwatchfilmstogetaquickpreviewoftheevent.Filmstudy
shouldbefollowedbyabriefdemonstrationofastandingtriplejumpemphasizingthelegmovementsonly.Instructtheprospectivejumpertodoafewstanding
triplejumps.Jumpsshouldbedonewitheachlegtodecidewhichismostcomfortable.Emphasizeanevendistanceforeachphasedonotallowtheathletetogofor
distance.Instead,stresslearningthelegmovementsofeachofthethreephases.Althoughabeginnerwillprobablyhaveproblemswiththeflowofthetriplejump,it
willbegintocomeafterafewattempts."Flow"isthebounceorrhythmthatissoimportanttogoodtriplejumping.Itgivesthejumpertheexhilaratingfeelingofflying
throughtheair.
Ifjumpersdonottrytoextendtheirreachtoofar,theycankeepthejumpundercontrolandfeelencouragedabouttheirprogress.Also,thiswillkeepthemfrom
leaningtoofarforwardduringthejumpandgivethemtimetohaveanactive"phaseleg."Thephaselegshouldbedevelopednext,byhavingthejumperstandonone
legandjumpup,makingthestandinglegrotateunderthebuttocksandreachoutinfrontbeforelanding.Theathleteshouldalternatelegsforthisdrillsothat
coordinationisdevelopedinbothlegs.
Ofthethreetriplejumpphases,thestepisthemostdifficulttomaster.Thehopisrelativelyeasytoperform,buttherecoveryisdifficult.Theathleteusuallywillnot
haveproblemslearningthebasicsofthejumpphase.Thegreatestprogressintriplejumptrainingwillcomefromimprovingthestep.However,onemustremember
thateachphaseisdependentontheothers.
BoundingExercises
Thenextstageofdevelopmentcomesthroughboundingexercises.Inthebeginning,theseshouldbedoneforcontrolratherthanforstrength.Later,strength
(endurance)canbeincluded.Threemainexercisesareusedinthisstage:
1.Hoppingexercise.Thisshouldbedonewithbothlegs(RRRR...orLLLL...).Inthebeginning,itisdoneforabout25meterswitheachleg.Asthejumper
growsstrongerandmoreconfident,thedistanceisincreased.Checktobesurethatthejumper'sbodyisuprightthroughoutthehopping.Itisrecommendedthat
beginnersdotwosetsof25metersofhoppingonMonday,Wednesday,andFriday(threedaysaweek).
2.Stepexercise.ThisisRLRLR....Again,emphasizetheuprightbodyand"bounce"inthelegs.Thebeginnerjustreachesoutasfarasheorshecan,being
carefulnottoleadwiththetoes.Thelandingisflatfooted,witha"pawing"actionjustbeforethefootstrikestheground.

Page165

3.Hoptostepexercise.Thisexercisehelpsthejumperinchangingfromthehoptothestep.ThedrillisRRLLRR....Thecoachshouldwatchthejumper
performtheseexercises.Also,itisbeneficialiftwoormorejumpersworktogether,asthecompetitiontendstomakethejumpersrunfasterandstretchfarther.The
triplejumperworksonthejumpphasebydoingpopups,justlikethelongjumper.Thepopupshouldbedonefromashortapproachandusingthehangstyle,since
thetimeintheairistooshortforagoodhitchkick.
RunningandJumpingExercises
Thenextstepindevelopingthetriplejumperistoincorporateashortrunwiththejump.Twoexercisesarehelpfulhere:
1.Thefirstdrillisrunningoverlowhurdles.Thisisdoneatleasttwiceaweek.Thehurdlesshouldbespacedathighhurdledistanceand"threestepped."
2.Inthesecondexercise,theathleteshouldattempttojumplowhurdlesspacedaparttoallowanevendistribution,orthehop,thestep,andthejump.Theathlete
shoulduseathreeorfivestepapproach.Thisgivessomespeedbutnotenoughtocauseatotalbreakdownofthestepphase.Emphasizea"levelflight"duringeach
phase,keepingthebodyupright.Ifthejumpergetstoohighinaphase,thelandinglegwillbreakdown,whichcurtailsmomentumforthenextphase.
ArmAction
Thenextstepindevelopingatriplejumperisdecidingwhattypeofarmactionshouldbeused.Somejumpersusesinglearmactioninthehoptomaintainspeed,and
useadoublearmactioninthestepandjump.
Atthisstage,theathleteshouldbereadytoattemptthecompletetriplejump.Startwithasevenstepapproach(undercontrol)andstressthehopphase,withaneasy
stepandjumpincluded.Thehopshouldberelativelyshortsoitdoesnotcausethejumpertobreakdown.Also,thejumpershouldavoidgettingtoomuchheight,
becausethiscausesajarringeffectandcanleadtoabreakdown,too.Theheadshouldbelevel,withtheeyesfocusedstraightahead.Theathleteshouldattempttogo
throughthecompletetriplejumptolearnextensionineachofthethreephases.
Thefinalphaseofinstructionistolengthentheapproach.Adistanceofabout120feet(about36.6m)shouldbeadequate.Useacontrolledruntobeginwith,and
increasethespeedastheathleteisabletouseit.
Training
Thetrainingprogramusedisthemostimportantfactorinthesuccessofatriplejumper.Theprogramthatfollowsshouldbeusedinitsentirety.Leavingoutone
segmentwillhindertheeffectivenessoftheprogram.Agoodconditioningbaseisimportant,anddevelopmentofthelegandarmskillsisnecessary.Thedrillsmustbe
doneoverandoveruntiltheybecomeautomatic.Thetriplejumpermustdevelop"thinkingfeet."Makeaspecialefforttodevelopthepartsoftheprogramwherethe
jumperisweakest.Triplejumpersmusttrainregularlyandaggressivelyinordertocompetesuccessfully.However,awelltrainedjumperdoesnotleavehisorher
bestjumpsonthepracticefield.

Page166

Drills
Thefollowingdrillsmaybeusedaspartofyouroveralltrainingprogram.
StandingTripleJump
Theathletefacesthelongjump/triplejumppitandplacesamark2025feet(about6.17.6m)fromthepit.Fromthemark,thejumperdoesastandingtriplejump
andlandsinthepit.Next,markoffthehopdistance,thestepdistance,andthejumpdistance.Concentrateonkneedriveforthehopandstep,andarmaction(both
armsdriving)forthejump.Thedistanceshouldbe810feet(about2.43m)forthehop,1113feet(about3.44m)forthestep,and1215feet(about3.74.6
m)forthejump.Anythingbetween30and38feet(about9.111.6m)isagooddistanceforbeginnersformen.Women'sdistanceshouldbeproportional.
HurdleHopping
Fourtoeightloworintermediatehurdlesareplacedfivetosixfeet(about1.51.8m)apart.Thejumper,withtheaidofthedoublearmupswing,leapsoverthe
hurdleswithbothlegstogetherandwiththekneesbroughtuptothechestinordertoclearthehurdle.Asstrengthincreases,theheightandthenumberofhurdlescan
beincreased.Adjusthurdleheightandthedistancebetweenthehurdlesforindividualjumpers.Beginnerswilllikelyhavedifficultywithintermediatehurdles.
SplitSquat
Thisisasquatjumpinwhichthelegsarealternated.Disregardarmactionbecausethisisnotatriplejumpaction.Bringfrontkneeupclosetoabouta90degree
angle,withaslightbendinthebackleg.Thenalternatelegs.
DoubleLegJump
Driveoffbothlegswiththeuseofthekneesandankles.Assoonasthejumperisofftheground,theleftkneeisdrivenupashighaspossible,beyondparallel.Land
onbothfeet.Settledownanddriverightbackupthistime,liftingtherightkneeashighaspossible.Keepthefootunderthekneewhileusingarmsvigorously.
HoppingDrill
Stayonthesameleg,withasinglearmaction(unlessdoublearmactionisnormallyused).Asthejumperliftsoffthejumpingleg,heorshebringsthethightoparallel
and,asthatlegreturnstotheground,theoppositekneecomesfromthebehind(split)positionandforwardasitwouldinthestepphase.
Thefollowingthreedrillsarethecoreofthetriplejumptrainingprogram.Thesedrillshelpthejumpertolearntoperformeachphaseofthetriplejumpcorrectly.At
thesametime,thedrillsgivethejumperthethrillofcompeting.Thedrillsemphasizeeachphaseandthemovementfromonephasetothenext.

Page167

BenchDrill#1
Thebenchesare12inches(about30.5cm)widesothatgoodfootplacementcanbetaught.Theyare18inches(about46cm)high.Thejumper"bouncesup"onto
thebenchandthendrivesoff.Thesequenceofthisdrillishopstephopstephopjump(figure11.3).Alternatethestartinglegsothatbothlegsaredeveloped
equally.

Figure11.3
Benchdrill#1.

BenchDrill#2
Theseconddrilldevelopsthestepphaseandencouragesa"bounce"action.Thisdrillhasthejumpersteppingoverthebencheswithanotheralternatestepbetween
thebenches.(Seefigure11.4.)Thestepbetweenbenchesisareal"jumpstep."Thelegscanbereversedinthisdrill,too.

Figure11.4
Benchdrill#2.

Page168

BenchDrill#3
Thethirddrillisapopupdrill(figure11.5).Theathleterunstoandthenjumpsoffofthebenchintothepit.Itrequiresonlyashortrunandthereforedoesnotfatigue
thejumper.Infact,afivestepapproachcanbeusedforallthedrills.
Eachofthedrillsendswiththejumpphaseintothelandingpit.Theheelsleadthejumperintothepit.

Figure11.5
Benchdrill#3.

WeightTraining
Weighttrainingisamajorportionofthetriplejumper'strainingroutine.Properliftingtechniquesshouldbefollowed.Theathleteshouldbeginwithaverylightweight
andincreasetheweightgradually.Weightsshouldbeliftedregularlyatleastthreetimesaweek.Astrainingprogresses,workoutsshouldbemoreintense.Athletes
shouldbetiredafterweighttraining,buttheyshouldnotbetotallyexhausted.Iftheweightworkoutistoodifficult,theathlete'sjumpingworkoutswillbeadversely
affected.
Table11.1isaweightroutinerecommendedfortriplejumpers.Thefollowingguidelinesshouldbefollowedintheweightliftingprogramforjumpers:
Lifteveryotherday.
Alternatelyworktheupperbodyandlowerbodyduringworkouts.
Wearaweightbeltforheavylifting.
Liftinagroup.Athletesmusthelpeachother.Besidesbeingsafer,thisaddsincentiveto"liftmorewithlesseffort."
Donotincreasethepoundagetooquickly.
Periodicallyscheduleatestingsessioninwhichmaximumliftsareusedtotestincreasesinstrength.
Itisbesttousefreeweightsintrainingbecausebalanceislearnedandstressisputontheathletethroughagreaterrangeofmotion.Weightmachinesare
recommendedforyoungerathletesorlargegroupssincepoundagescanbeeasilychanged.
Jumpersmuststretchandloosenupbeforetheweightworkout.

Page169
TABLE11.1WEIGHTTRAININGWORKOUTSFORJUMPERS
Exercise

SetsReps

Kneeextensions

310

Legcurls

310

Inclinesitups

315

Legpresses

410,7,4,2

Toeraises

320[usingatwoinchbyfourinch(about5cmby
10cm)boardunderthetoes]

Halfsquats

38(useonehalfofbodyweight)

Splitsquats

210(useonefourthofbodyweight)

Kneeraises

315

Stepups

310(withheavyweight)

Halfsquatsandsplitsquatsarecoordinatedintwoweekperiods.SquatsaredoneMWF,andsplitsquats
aredoneWMF.

DevelopingaTrainingProgram
Asinallothertrackandfieldevents,thetypeofexercises,thenumberofreps,andthelevelofintensitydiffersduringeachpartoftheseason.Thekeyistodevelopa
programthatallowsathletestopeakduringtopcompetitions.Table11.2presentsasampletrainingprogramfortriplejumpers.Theearlyseasonworkoutsemphasize
volumerunningandphysicalconditioning,whiletheinseasonworkoutspreparethebodyforkeycompetitions.
TABLE11.2SAMPLEWORKOUTSFORTRIPLEJUMPERS
EarlySeason(Fall)

Intheearlyseason,utilizelotsofvolumerunning,suchas8300meters,10200
meters,or6400meters.Usealonggrassrunof5milesatleastonceperweek.Doan
abundanceofhillrunningandstretching.Thejumpermustbeingoodphysicalcondition
beforethebeginningoftheregulartrainingprogram.Thetriplejumpisaveryphysically
demandingevent.

Monday

Grassrun(35miles)
100200300400200100/jogsame
Weights

Tuesday

10200m,with200interval
Runstadiumstepswithweightjacket
Doeasytakeoffdrills(justtogetthearmtechnique)

(continued)

Page170

(continued)
EarlySeason(Fall)
Wednesday

8300m,with300interval
675measy
Weights

Thursday

Grassrun
Runstadiumsteps
Takeoffdrill

Friday

Grassrun
Weights

InSeason

Hereistheworkoutschedulefortheremainderoftheyear.Thisroutinecanbevaried
accordingtofaultsorweaknessesfoundinthejumper'stechnique.Skiponeweight
trainingsessionbeforeabigmeet,suchastheconferenceorstatemeet.Thesameistrue
forbenchworkouts.

Monday

Bounding:325100mofhopping.Usetheregularhoppinglegtwiceandtheotherleg
once.Ifanathleteishavingtroublemakingthetransitionfromonephasetotheother,he
orsheshoulduse350mofRRLLRR,asthisincorporatestheboundingandadds
practiceofchangingfromthehoptothestep.Also,thisdrillhelpstoimprovethe
capabilitiesofeachleg.
Running:2300mforendurance675mforspeed.
Weightlifting

Tuesday

Thisisa''drill"day:
Benchworkdo6gooddrillsofeachofthe3exercises.
Run103lowhurdlessetathighhurdlespacing(10yardsbetween).Thisisforrhythm
andevennessofstepsontherunway.Italsoteachesaggressiveness.
Run6100morworkontheactualapproach.Runstadiumsteps.Ourathletesusea
weightjacketandrunstadiumsteps5times.Ifstepsarenotavailable,useahill.Thisisa
gooddaytopracticetheactualtriplejumptakeoff.Thisisdoneatareducedspeed,but
correcttechniquesarestressedespeciallythecorrectarmaction.

Wednesday

UsethesamebasicworkoutasMonday,butuserunningof525m,535m,and550
m.

Thursday

ThesameworkoutasonTuesday.

Friday

SameasMonday,exceptmuchmorerelaxedandeasy.

Page171

Competition
Theseasonitselfisjustameansoftestingtheprogressofthejumper.Ifthejumperalsolongjumps,itisprobablybesttotakeonlythreelongjumpsandthreetriple
jumpsifbothareonthesameday.Ifoneachievesabigpersonalbest,itisusuallybettertoskipthenextjumptocollectoneself.Also,trainasregularlyaspossible,
easingupintrainingonlyinthetwotofourpracticesessionsprecedingthepeakeventoftheyear.Finally,rememberthatyourjumpers'aimistodotheirbest,not
worryabouttheirplaceinthecompetition.
Summary
Withsolidpracticehabits,triplejumpersshouldfeelconfidentintheirability.Letyourathletesknowthattheirgoalistodotheirbestinacertainmeet,notachievea
certaindistance.Remembertoworkonthepartsofthejumpthatgivetheathletethemosttrouble.Repeatingthethingstheathletescandowelldoesn'tgivethemthe
helptheyneed.Practicehardsoyouknowyourjumpersareready.

Page173

12
HighJump
SueHumphrey
DougNordquist

Thehighjumpwasrevolutionizedinthelate1960sbyDickFosburywhenhe"backed"overthebartoanOlympicgoldmedalinMexicoCity.Abitlater,onthe
femaleside,CanadianDebbieBrillwasexperimentingwiththe"Brillbend,"abackoverstylesimilartoFosbury's.Theuniquenessofthesestylesaddstothebeautyof
thehighjumpforthespectators.Speedandpowerarerequiredofthejumperasheightsareovereightfeetforthemenandpushingtowardsevenfeetforthewomen.
TwentyeightyearsafterFosbury'sOlympicgoldmedal,AmericansweretreatedtoanotheroneinAtlantawhenCharlesAustinwonandsetanewOlympicrecordof
7feet,10inches.BulgarianStefkaKostadinovaaddedthegoldmedaltoherworldrecordperformancesasshedominatedthewomen'scompetitionduringthe
1990s.
Asbiomechanicalstudiesprovideongoingstatisticaldatatocoachesandjumpers,athletescontinuetopushthemselvestogreaterheightsthroughbettertrainingboth
onandoffthefield.Theceilingonthiseventiscontinuallybeingraised!

Page174

Technique
Withtheadventofthefoamlandingpit,thehighjumpwaschangedforever.ThesoftandsafelandingsurfaceallowedDickFosburytodevelophisrevolutionary
backlayouttechnique.Sinceitssuccessfuluseinthe1968Olympics,the"Fosburyflop"hasdominatedtheworldhighjumpscene.Thereasonsforthisaremany:it
enablesthejumpertoutilizethespeedthatcanbegeneratedintheapproachrunuptherotationsdevelopedinthetakeoffareusedtotheadvantageofthejumperit
enablesthejumpertoclearthebarinaneasyandefficientmannerandthebasictechniquecanbemasteredwithrelativeeaseforearlysuccess.
Thetechnicalaspectsofthejumpcanbebrokendownintothreebasicphases:
1.Approach
2.Takeoff
3.Barclearance
Approach
Theapproachisprobablythemostneglectedportionofthehighjump,andprobablytheeasiestaspecttoisolateandimprove.Many,manyhighjumpers,fromyoung
toworldclass,havemajorproblemswiththeapproach.Theseathletesspendmoreworkouttimewiththetakeoffphaseandthebarclearancephasebecausethey
believethemtobemostimportant.Thisisaninefficientuseoftimeandeffort.Tounderstandwhy,thinkbackwardfrombarclearance.Barclearanceisaffectedby
theheightofthecenterofmassintheparabolicarc,aswellasbytheresultantrotationsoverthebar.Bothoftheseareinfluencedbythetakeoff,whichistheresultof
thebodypositionattouchdown.Thebodypositionattouchdownisinfluencedbytheapproach.Thisiswhytheapproachissoimportant.Iftheathletecannotarrive
ataconsistenttakeoffpointwithanoptimumamountofspeed,developedthroughaconsistentstepbystepacceleration,theapproachisnotbeingusedeffectively.
Thus,thejumperisnotgoingtoachievethemaximumamountofverticalliftatthetakeoff,ortheproperamountofresultantrotations.
LengthoftheApproach
Theapproachshouldbelongenoughtodevelopanicerhythmandgenerateadequatespeedforthetakeoff.Theapproachlengthisusually8to12runningstrides
(duringthischapterwewillrefertoa10stepapproachasthenorm).ThepathofthecurveshouldbeamodifiedJ,whichallowsthebodytogetintotheproper
position(lean)atthetakeoff(figure12.1).Althougha10stepapproachisprobablytheaverage,theapproachcanbeasshortas7steps,witharunin,oraslongas
12stepsfromastandingstart.Phaseoneoftheapproachstartswiththefirstthreetofourstepsinastraightline,followedbyathreetofoursteptransitiontothelast
foursteps,whichcurvegraduallytowardthenearstandard.Thetouchdown(sometimescalledtheplant)shouldbeatthenearstandardtoprovideasolid,visible,and
consistentlandmarkfortheplacementofthetouchdownfoot.
Layout
ThelayoutofthepathofthemodifiedJapproachisimportant.Theathleteneedstohavea"straightahead"marktofocusonduringtheinitialportionoftherunup.

Page175

Figure12.1
Tenstepapproachpath.

Aninitialmarkcanbeestablishedbyhavingtheathletemeasureoutfromthenearstandard,andparalleltothebar,15ofhisorherownfeet,inaheeltotoemanner
(figure12.2onpage176).Themarkerthatisthenplacedwillbe1016feet(about34.9m)fromthenearstandard,onanimaginarycontinuationofthelineofthe
bar.Thisdistancewillvaryfromathletetoathletethetaller,stronger,fasterathleteswillbeusingawiderradius,andsothestraightaheadmarkwillbefartheraway
fromthenearstandardthanthemarkforashorter,youngerathlete.

Page176

Figure12.2
Checkmarks(startingmarkand"straightahead"mark)areusedtohelp
theathleterunaconsistentapproach.

Theathleteshouldthenwalkout19walkingstridesperpendicular(90degreeangle)totheimaginarylinecontinuingstraightoutfromthebar(figure12.2).This
startingmarkwillbeanywherebetween40and70feet(about12.221.3m)fromthestraightaheadmarker,depending,again,ontheathlete.Thiswillgivetheathlete
anapproximatestartingmarkfora10stepapproach.Standingatthisstartingmarkandfacingthestraightaheadmarker,thejumperwillstartrunningatthestraight
aheadmarkerbypushingoffwithhisorhertakeofffoot.Theathletewillcontinuetorunforthreeorfourstepsatthestraightaheadmarker,thengraduallycurve
towardthenearstandardandpastthebar(figure12.3).Ifthetakeofffoot'stouchdowniswellinsidethestandard,movethestartingpositionbackifthetakeofffoot's
touchdowniswelloutsideofthestandard,movethestartingpointup.This"trialanderror"methodistheonlywaytofinetunetheapproach.Ifnecessary,usecheck
marksintheapproachtohelptheathletetorunaconsistentandpropershapedapproach.Removethemarksassoonaspossiblesothattheathletewillbeableto
focusattentiononotheraspectsoftheapproach.
Onceaconsistentstartingpositionisdeveloped,whichmaytakeseveralworkoutsessions,measurethestartingpointwithatapemeasure.UsethePythagorean
theorem(a2+b2=c2)totriangulatetheapproachviewpoints:onecornerbeingthestandard,thesecondcornerbeingthestraightaheadmark,andthethirdbeingthe
startingpoint.Thiswillallowtheapproachtobethesameateachvenueatwhichtheathletewillcompete.Don'tbeafraidtomakeslightadjustments,uporback,
basedonfacilityconditions,athletefreshness/fatigue,orweatherconditions.Astheseasonprogresses,theapproachlengthwillincreaseastheathlete'sstrengthand
speedincreaseandashisorhercomfortandconfidenceintheapproachgrows.
Consistency
Oneofthemostimportantaspectsoftheapproachisconsistency.Consistencyinrunningmechanics,stridelengthandfrequency,theline(shape)ofthecurve,and

Page177

Figure12.3
Theapproachshouldcontinuepastthestandardstoensurethattheathlete
staysinthecurveandfinishestheaccelerationpattern.

theaccelerationpatternareallnecessaryforaconsistentapproach.Thejumperwantstohavethetouchdownfootinthesameplaceinrelationshiptothenear
standardeverytime.Thisisdevelopedthroughrepetitiverunningoftheapproachwithoutjumping.
Onewaytocheckconsistencyisbytimingtheathlete'sapproach.Startasthefirststepleavesthegroundandstopatthetouchdown.Keepalogofeachjump,with
approachtimesandtheresultandqualityofeacheffort.Thisgivesimmediatefeedbacktothecoachandathletebyallowingcomparisonbetweengoodandbad
jumps.Inameetsituation,thiswillallowthecoachtoidentifyiftheathlete'sapproachspeedistoofastorslowandadvisetheathleteaccordingly.
Goodrunningmechanicsarenecessarytoaconsistentapproach.Theapproachstrideissimilartothatofaquartermiler,relaxedbutpowerful,runningwithanupright
posture.Thesegoodrunningmechanicsmustbedevelopedawayfromthehighjumpapronthroughtheuseofintervaltrainingonthetrackandmustbeconstantly
reinforcedindrillsaswellasonthehighjumpapron.
BeginningApproach
Fortheapproachtobeconsistent,steponeneedstobeconsistent.Ifthefirststepisonlytwoinchesoff,bythetenthstepthatcouldbemagnifiedtooverafootanda
halfineitherdirection!Manyapproachproblemscanberectifiedwithaconsistentfirststep.Whethertheathletestartsfromastandingpositionorismovingintothe
startingmark,steponeneedstobeasolid,deliberate,upright,andpowerfulrunningstride.Thiswillsetupadynamicpatternofstretchreflexesinthemuscles,which
allowsformorepowerfulcontractions,thusastrongertakeoff.Consistencyisdevelopedbyeliminatingvariables.
Stepstwo,three,andfourareinastraightlinetowardthemarker.Thearmandkneeactionsareexaggerated.Theathleteisrunninginanuprightmanner.The

Page178

eyesarefocusedonthestraightaheadmarker.Theaccelerationrhythmisstartedhere.Besureeachofthesestepsisslightlyfasterthanthepreviousone.
Acommonproblemwithjumpersisthattheywilleithercutinorswingtheapproachpathoutwideinsteadofrunningstraightatthestraightaheadmarker.Thiscanbe
seenbythecoachfromdirectlybehindtheathlete(figure12.4).Bothchangesinthelineoftheapproachadverselyaffecttheradiusofthecurve.Youcanrectifythis
problembyreinforcingthattheeyesaretofocusonthestraightaheadmarker.

Figure12.4
Approachpath:(a)Cuttingofthecurve.(b)Swingingtoowide.

Transition
Anotherkeyaspectoftheapproachiscalledthetransition.Transitionwilloccurinthreestepswhenthejumpermovesfromthestraightlinesegmentoftheapproach
tothecurvedsegmentoftheapproach.Thistransitionhappensoverstepsfour,five,andsix(inthe10stepapproach).Thereshouldbenovisualpointwherethe
jumperstartsthecurve.Onstepfourtheathleteshouldgraduallyshifthisorhereyefocustowardthenearstandard.Thiswillstartthedisplacementofthecenterof
massslightlyintothecenterofthedevelopingcurve.Stepfive,beingtheoutsidefoot,shouldcrossoverthecenterlinejustslightly.Theeyefocusshouldnowbeonthe
nearstandard.Stepsixshouldcontinuearoundthecurvewithanevenmorepronouncedlean.Theeyefocuswillthenmovetothefarstandard.Theleanbecomes
morevisibleasthecenterofmassisdisplacedfurtherinsidethecurvinglineofthefeetuntilthepointoftakeoff.Remember,thisleancomesfromtheankleandnotthe
waist.Theathleteshouldmaintainanerectrunningposture.
Moreimportantthanthefootonwhichthecurveisinitiatedisthatitbeasmooth

Page179

transition.Acommonmistakehereistomakestepfivea"cut"towardthebar(likeapostpatterninfootball).Thismustbeavoidedbecauseitwilltakeawaythelean
atthetakeoff(theimportanceofthiswillbediscussedinthetakeoffsection),sincethejumperwillberunningstraightatthebarwithoutacurvetothetouchdown.This
problemiseasilyviewedfrombehindtheathleteintheapproachorwhenstandingatthestraightaheadmarkerlookingtowardthestartingmarker.Teachingthe
athletetocrossoverwithstepfivewillkeephimorherfromsteppingoutofthecurvewiththeoutsidefoot(stepfiveona10stepapproach),andsokeephimorher
frommakinga"cut"tothebar.
Curve
Thelastfourstepsintheapproachareonacurve.Thisisoneofthehardestaspectsoftheapproachtoexecute.Aproperlyruncurveenablesseveralthings.
Primarily,thecurvedapproachiswhatgeneratestherotationsthroughthejumper'sbody,allowingtheproperbarclearance.Second,itallowsthejumpertojump
vertically(straightup)andstilllandsafelyinthepit.Third,itwillincreasetheforcethattheathleteappliesontheground.Finally,thecurvehelpstheathletetolower
thebody'scenterofmasspriortothejump.Besurethattheathleteisleaningintothecenterofthecurvefromtheanklesandnotthehip.
Eyesarefocusedonthejunctionbetweenthebarandthefarstandard.Donotallowthejumpertofocusonthemiddleofthebarbecauseitwilltakehimorheroutof
thecurve.Also,donotallowthejumpertolookdownatthetakeoffpoint,sincethatwillcausehimorhertoleanforward.
Astheathleteisrunningtheapproach,havehimorherrunthecurvepastbothofthestandardsandnotintothepit.Thiswillkeeptheathleteinthecurvethroughthe
touchdown,reinforcingtheproperbodyleanattouchdown.Itwillalsobuildthehabitofnotgoingunderthebar,whichmaysaveajumpinameet.Agooddrillfor
stayinginthecurveistorunincircles(1215feetinradius)whilefocusingonrunningmechanicsandposture.Dothisaspartofthewarmupprocess.Startslowly,
andgraduallyincreasetherunningspeedaslongasthemechanicsdon'tchange.
PracticingtheApproach
Aftertheapproachhasbecomecomfortable,starttoincreasetheapproachspeed.Theapproachshouldstartdeliberately,andthenthespeedshouldgradually
increaseallthewaytothetakeoff.Thisgradualaccelerationisimportant,sincetheabilityoftheathletetoconvertthehorizontalvelocity(speed)toverticalvelocity
(lift)isthesinglebiggestadvantageoftheflopstyleofhighjumping.Theapproachspeedneedstobeatitspeakatthetakeoff,sodecelerationduringthelastfew
stepsisdetrimentaltothejump.Becarefulnottoallowtheathletetoshortenthestrideswhilepickingupthetempooftheapproachrun.Listentotherhythmofthe
feetduringtheapproacheachstepshouldbeslightlyfasterthantheprevioussteps,whilekeepingthestridelengththesame.Theaccelerationcanbecomparedtoa
ballrollingdownaramp,graduallyincreasingitsspeedoverthelengthoftheramp.
Theapproachneedstoberunoverandoveragain.Thereisnootherwaytodevelopaconsistentapproach.Starttrainingtheapproachwithoutjumpingintheearly
seasonandcontinuethroughtotheweekofthe"bigmeet."Thetimeconstraintsforthetrainingofschoolagedjumpersdoesnotchangethefactsrepetitionhereis
theonlyway!Patiencewillpayofflaterintheseason.Thegood

Page180

jumpershaveconsistent,graduallyacceleratingapproachesthatweredevelopedthroughagreatdealofapproachworkrepetition.Practicingtheapproachwithout
jumpingwillhelpyourjumperstodeveloptheconsistencyneededtojumphigh.
Remembertoworktheaccelerationlistentotherhythmofthefeet.Iftheathleteisslowingdownoverthelastthreesteps,havehimorherstarttheapproachmore
slowlytofacilitatethepatternofacceleration.Oncethepatternisset,havetheathletestartalittlefaster,butbesurethattheaccelerationpatternremains.Also,have
theathletetrynottobreaktheplaneofthebarafterthelaststep.Thiswillhelptomaintaintheleanallthewaytothetouchdown.Notdeceleratinguntilthefar
standardispassedwillhelpmaintaintheaccelerationtothetouchdown.Todevelopaconsistentapproach,runtheapproach,runtheapproach,andthenrunitagain!
Iftheathleteishavingahardtimemaintainingtheapproachfundamentalswhenjumping,donotbeafraidtolowerthebarevenaslowasthreeorfourfeet.Thiswill
allowthejumpertofocusontheapproachphaseandnottheheightofthebar.
TheLastFewSteps
Aswediscussedearlier,therhythmoverthelastthreestepsmusthappenfast!Butitmustalsoputtheathleteinthepropertakeoffposition.Stepeightshouldbea
normalrunningstride.Astheathletemovestostepnine,thepenultimatestep,heorshepreparesforthetouchdown.Atstepnine,thejumpfootisalreadymoving
forwardinasweepingmotiontothetouchdownpoint.
Therhythmisquiteimportant.Therhythmofstepseight,nine,andtenshouldhavethesamerhythmasinspeakingthewords"day,today,"ortherhythmofaskipping
motion(LLRRLLRetc.).Thisrhythmisimplementedasyourunthroughstepninetoquickenstepten.
Nowremember,theimportantthingistostartslow.Startbyjoggingthroughtherhythmofthelastthreestepsslowlyinastraightline.Itwillfeelawkwardand
mechanicalatfirst,butwithtimeandpracticeitwillbecomemorenatural.(Iusedtopracticethelastthreestepswalkingbetweenclassesinhighschoolitlooked
weird,butitworked).Onceyoufeelcomfortablewiththelastthreesteps,speedupthejog.Workforfluidityinmovementwhileexaggeratingeachmovement.When
thisisconsistent,movethetempouptoaslowruninastraightline.Again,makeitlooksmooth,withexaggeratedmovementswhilemaintainingtherhythm.Now,run
thedrillinacurve.Rememberthatthelaststepisfast.Thetouchdownfootshould"sweep"quicklyintoposition,notcyclenearthebuttocks.Asyouprogresswith
thisdrill,trytojumpstraightupandlandinthesameplacefromwhichyoutookoff.
Nowit'stimetoaddthelastaspectofthejumptothedrillloweringthecenterofmass.Inordertojumpup,theathletemustlowerthecenterofmasspriorto
leavingtheground.Thismusthappengraduallyinthehighjump.Theloweringofthecenterofmassisfromthehipsandnottheshoulders.Itwillbeagraduallowering
overthelastfourtofivestepsandnotanimmediatedroponstepten.Thisloweringisonlyaboutaninchtotaloverthelastfoursteps.Iftheathlete'slegfeelsasifitis
goingtobuckle,thelaststepistooshortortheathletehasloweredtoomuch.Onthelaststep,themoreobtuse,orstraighter,theangleoftheknee,thestrongerthe
legwillbe.Workonplacingthefootsoftlywithasweepingmotionofthisfast,soft,laststep.Thenormalprogressionfordevelopingthis

Page181

aspectofthejumpisanywherefromtwotothreemonthstomaybeayear.
Now,whenthefirstjumpsaretaken,don'tchangeanything!Keepthebarlowandconcentrateonexecutingtherun.Oncetheapproachissolid,then,andonly
then,movethebarup.Eachjumpsessionshouldstartwithseveralapproachestopatterntherhythmandacceleration.Thisisaneverendingprocessofdeveloping
andrefining.Bepatientanddon'tshortchangethisaspectofthetotalhighjump.Thisiswheretheaverageathletehasanadvantageoverthosejumpersthathavegreat
''hops"butnothingelse.Andifthatathletehasagreathoplookout!
Takeoff
Inthelastsectionontheapproachphase,wementionedtheimportanceofaconsistentproperfootplacementatthetouchdowninpreparationforthetakeoff.
Remember,oncethejumperhaslefttheground,themaximumheightofthecenterofmasshasbeendetermined.Thatiswhytheisolationofthetouchdownpositionis
quiteimportant.
FootPlacement

Figure12.5
Thefootshouldbepointinginside
thefarstandardattakeoff.

Footplacementisquiteimportantforthesafetyoftheathlete.Thefootshouldtouchdownaboutthreefeet(about.9m)outsidethenearstandardatananglethat
pointstowardthefarstandard(figure12.5).Thisfootplacementangleisaresultofthedirectionofthelaststep.Thefootshouldneverbepointedoutsidethefar
standard,thisputstoomuchstressontheankleandcancauseseriousankleinjuries.Thisfootplacementpositionalsousesthestandardasasolidvisualreference,
allowingthejumpertoseewherethefootistobeplaced.
Usingthispointforthetakeoffalsohasseveralbenefitsafterthejumperhaslefttheground.Itallowsthejumpertouseallofthepitforsafety.Anditallowstheathlete
topassoverthebarinthemiddle,thelowestpointaswellasthemostforgivingifhit.
BodyLean
Fortheathletetojumpofftheground,forceneedstobeappliedtotheground.Thegreatertheforce,thehigherthejump.Thetakeoffphaseofthehighjumpallows
thejumpertotransferthespeed(horizontalvelocity)generatedintheapproachtolift(verticalvelocity).Ifthejumperisintheproperbodypositionattouchdown,he
orshewillbeabletoefficientlytransferthishorizontalvelocitytoverticalvelocity.Thisspeedconversioniswheretheflopstyleofhighjumphastheadvantageover
theotherstyles.Basically,thefasteraflophighjumpercanrunandtransferthatspeed,thehigherheorshewilljump.Thisreinforcestheimportanceofaccelerationin
theapproach,referredtointheprevioussection:thefasterthespeedatwhichtheathletecompletestheaccelerationoftheapproach,thehigherheorshewilljump.
Howdoesahighjumpermanagetojumpupwhileacceleratingtothetouchdownforthetakeoff?Well,thismaysounddifficult,butitcanbedone.Rememberthat
oneofthebigadvantagesoftheflopstyleofjumpingistheconversionoftheapproachspeedtolift.Agood"flopper"willconverthisorher

Page182

horizontalvelocity(approachspeed)toverticalvelocity(lift)throughappliedforcetotheground.Ifwerememberourbasics,thegreatertheverticalvelocity,the
higherthecenterofmasswilltravel,thusthehigherthejump.Howdoesthejumperchangeorconvertthehorizontalvelocitytoverticalvelocity?Bodylean!
Thereareactuallytwoangularcomponentstotheproper"lean"attouchdown:backwardleanandinwardlean(figure12.6).Leancreatesthethreerotationalforcesat
thetakeoff,whichmovethebodyarounditscenterofmassoncethejumperhaslefttheground.Thefirstrotationisaresultofthebackwardlean(asinthelongjump),
andthesecondrotationisaresultoftheinwardlean(intothecenterofthecurveandawayfromthebar).Withjustaboutalljumpers,thebackwardleancomponent
happensnaturally.Thiscreatesaforwardsomersaultingrotation.Thisistherotationthatthelongjumpersfightwiththehitchkicktopreventthemfromlandingon
theirface.ThisisusefulaswellasdesirableintheFosburyflop.Thesecondcomponentofthelean,theinwardlean,istheresultofrunningthepropercurve.This
componentismuchmoredifficultandoften

Figure12.6
(a)Backwardlean,whichcreatesaforwardsomersaultingrotation.(b)Inwardlean,which
resultsinalateralsomersaultingrotation.

Page183

Figure12.7
Therotationscreatedattakeoff(includingforwardandlateralsomersaulting)dictatethebody's
movementoverthebar,ortheresultantrotation.

lackinginsomejumpers.Itcreatesalateralsomersaultingrotation,likeacartwheel.Thisinwardleanallowstheathletetojumpstraightupandnotintothebar,as
wellasbringsabouttheforcesthatallowthebodytorotateoverthebar.Thethirdrotationisthetransverserotation,whichisliketheballerina'spirouette.Thisis
howthejumperisabletogethisorherbacktothebar.Thisrotationisaresultoftheknee'sblockingaction.Whenthesethreerotationsforwardsomersaulting,
lateralsomersaulting,andtransversearecombined,theresultiswhatweseehappeningtothejumperoverthebar,calledtheresultantrotation(figure12.7).
Furtherdiscussionoftherotationwillhavetowaituntildiscussionofthebarclearancephase.
Inordertojumpvertically,thecenterofmassneedstobedirectlyoverthetouchdownfootatthepointoftakeoff.So,atthestartofthetakeoffphase,thecenterof
massshouldbebehindandinsidetheapproachcircle.Thisallowsthecenterofmasstocontinuetotraveldirectlyoverthefoottothepointoftakeoff,allowingthe
jumpertojumpvertically.Thisissometimescalledthe"hinge"moment.Withoutthelean,thecenterofmasswouldpassbytheverticaltakeoffposition(thecenterof
massoverthetakeofffoot),causingthejumpertojumpintothebar.Theleaningpositionattakeoffcreatesaneccentricthrust,whichcandevelopsomerotational
forces,butatthecostofverticalvelocity.Jumpingstraightupatthetakeoffisimportantinthehighjump.Ifaphotographistakenjustbeforethemomentthefoot
leavestheground,thejumpershouldbecompletelyvertical.
Ifthecurveintheapproachisexecutedcorrectly,theathletedoesnotneedtothinkaboutjumpingintothelandingpit.Thejumper'scenterofmasswillcontinueona
straightlinepath,tangentialtothecurve,intothelandingpitjustaswhenayoyoswungaboveyourheadandletgotravelsinalinetangenttothecurvedpathaway
fromthecenterofthearc.Thejumperthatstaysinthecurveand"hitsthevertical"attakeoffwillgetthemaximumheightoverthebar,andstilllandsafelyinthepit.
Mostyoungjumpersdonotexecutethisphasecorrectlyandjumpintothebar,thinkingthat'snecessarytomakeittothelandingpit.Ajumper

Page184

cangetawaywiththisonlyaslongasthebarheightisbelowhisorherstandingheight.So,itisimportanttoteachthecorrectleanfromthebeginning,toquellthis
habitearlyinthejumper'sdevelopment.
BlockingAction
Theuseofthearmsandfreelegareanotherimportantaspectofthetakeoffphaseofthehighjump.Thesethreelimbscombineforwhatiscalled"blocking,"a
stoppingofoneormorebodypartstoaccelerateanother.Themoreefficientandaggressivetheblock,themoreforceisappliedandthehigherthejump.Firstlet's
addressthefree,or"drive,"leg.Thefreelegshouldmovethroughasfastandashighaspossiblethetoeshouldnotdragontheground.Thethighshouldbeatleast
paralleltotheground,ifnothigher.Thethighshouldalsofinishparalleltothebar.Thekneeshouldnotbedrivenacrossthebodytorotatethebacktothebar
(transverserotation)although,ifthecurveisrunproperly,thismayseemtobehappening.Remember,ifthejumperisrunningthecurvetothetouchdownproperly,
thefreelegwillhavetostartbehindandinsidethetouchdownfootandmoveinacircularpatharoundthetouchdownleg.Thiswillcreateenoughtransverserotation
togetthebacktothebar.Ifthelastportionofthecurveisflat,orstraight,thejumperwillthenneedtomanufacturethistransverserotationbydrivingthekneeacross
thebody.Thisactionwilldisrupttheverticallineofforcesinthebody,movingthearmintothebarandkneeawayfromthebarandcausingabreakatthe
hipandlossofpreciousheightoverthebar.
Thearms,too,arepartoftheblockingaction.Actuallytwotypesofarmblockingactionscanbeused,singlearmordoublearmblocks.Thereareadvantagesand
disadvantagestoeach.Bothwillbediscussed.
Inthedoublearmblock,atthetouchdownbotharmsareasfarbackaspossibleandmovethroughtogetherandstopabruptly,withtheforearmatshoulderleveland
thehandshigh.Gettingthearmsbackwithaminimumamountofeffortanddisruptiontotherunupisimportant.Therearetwoeffectivemethodsofachievingthis.
Theleastdisruptivewayofgettingbotharmsbackistokeeptheinsidearm(theleftarmfortheleftfootedjumper)movingnormallythroughouttheapproachandhold
theoutsidearm(therightarmfortheleftfootedjumper)backonthepenultimatestep.Thisactionshouldbewalkedthroughslowlymanytimestopatternthecorrect
movements.Theadvantageofthismethodisthatthereisaminimalamountofdisruptiontoapproachrunningmechanics,sothatitiseasiertomaintaintheacceleration
patternallthewaythroughthetakeoff.Thedisadvantageisthatitisnotaspowerfulasthe"swim."
The"swim"methodofgettingbotharmsbackforthedoublearmblockingmotionistohavethearmstogetherinfrontofthebodyonthepenultimatestep,thenpulling
thembothbacktogetherinpreparationfortakeoffitlookslikethebreaststroke.Thismethodhastheadvantageofbeingmoredynamicandresultsinamorepowerful
blockingmotion.Thedisadvantageisthatitisagreaterdisruptionofapproachrunningmechanicssotheathleteismoreapttoslowtothetakeoff.
Thesinglearmblockisalsousedbymanysuccessfuljumpers.Thearmsdonotstopmovingthroughouttheapproach.Onthepenultimatestep,theinsidearmis
forward,andstaysforwardandreacheshighastheoutsidearmcontinuesforwardthroughthetakeoff.Theadvantageofthismethodisthatthereisnochangeinthe
approachrunningmechanicssoitiseasiertomaintaintheapproachaccelerationthroughthetakeoff.Italsoallowsthecenterofmasstobe

Page185

higheratthepointoftakeoff.Butthedisadvantageisthattheinsidearmisusuallyreachedouttowardthebar,causingtheathletetomisstheverticaltakeoffposition
andtojumpintothebar.Thisisabigproblemfortheyoungjumperasthebargoeshigher.
Thelastthingtodiscussonthesubjectofarmblockingistheshoulderangletothebarduringthetakeoff.Theshouldersshouldbeatleastperpendicular(ataright
angle)tothebarbutbetterturnedslightlyaway,showingthebacktothebarslightly.Thiswillhelpthejumperattainverticalpositionatthetakeoff.Italsoaidsinthe
rotationoverthebar.Thischangeintheshoulderangleshouldbedoneatthetouchdownandnotbefore.
BarClearance
Aswehavediscussed,oncethejumperleavestheground,theflightpathofthecenterofmasshasalreadybeendetermined.Thebodywillrotatearoundthecenterof
massinitspredeterminedparabolicpath.Theathletecanonlyspeeduporslowdowntheserotationsbymovinghisorherlimbs.Again,thisiswhymostattentionto
techniquemustbeontheaspectsprecedingtakeoff.Theconservationofmomentumwillallowthejumpertospeeduptherotationbyshorteningtheleversthatis,by
movingthearmsandlegsclosertothecenterofmass.Conversely,therotationscanbesloweddownbylengtheningtheleversthatis,bymovingthearmsandlegs
awayfromthecenterofmass.
HeadandShoulders
Asthebody(centerofmass)rises,therotationscreatedattakeoffwilldictatethebody'smovementaroundthebar.Asthejumperleavestheground,thetakeofflegis
keptlow,andtheblockingkneestaysup.Theheadisbalancedontheshoulders,notatalltiltedintothebar.Iftheheadislookingatthebar,theshoulderandhipon
thatsidewilldrop.
Theheadandbackshouldpassthebarfirst,withthebackflattothebarandtheshouldersapproachingparalleltothebar.Again,theheadshouldbebalancedonthe
shoulders,lookingup.
Hips

Figure12.8
Rotationoverthebar.

Assoonastheshoulderspassthebar,theyshouldbelowered(somesay"headback"),causingthehipsandbuttockstoriseastheyapproachthebar.Thisisthe
"arch"overthebar.Thisiswheretherotationneedstobethefastest,sothefeetshouldbeasclosetothebuttocksaspossibleandthearmsattheathlete'sside.This
combinationoftheshortlever,tightbodyposition(arch)andtherotationgeneratedthroughthetakeoffphasewillallowthejumper'shipstorisesufficientlytoclear
thebar(figure12.8).

Page186

Onemisconceptionisthatifthejumperhitsthebarwiththebuttocksatthe"unarch"phaseordragsthebaroffwiththecalves,heorsheneedsto"holdthearch
longer"or"kickthefeetharder."Thisiscommonlybadadvice,sincebothproblemsareusuallycausedbyalackofrotationatthepointoftakeoff.Tellingajumperto
holdthearchlongerisalmostliketellinghimorhertohangintheairlongeritcan'tbedone,becauseoftheforcesactinguponthebody.Iftheathletehastheproper
rotation,thehipswillcontinuetoriseastheathleteclearsthebar.Butalackofrotationwillcausethejumpertoappeartobe"shot''inmidairanddrop"dead"onthe
bar.
LegsandFeet
Asthehipsclearthebar,thehamstringsneedtoberaised.Thisisdonebyloweringthehips.Theathleteshouldbringthechintothechest,loweringthehipsandso
raisingthehamstrings.Thiswillsimultaneouslyraisetheknees,puttingthemintheproperpositiontoclearthefeet.Withthekneesup,straighteningthelegswillclear
thefeet.Astheathletecontinuestodescendtowardthepit,therotationneedstobeslowedsotheathletewillkeepthelegsstraightandextendthearmsoutaway
fromthebody.Thejumpershouldlandinthepitontheupperback,nottheneck,toensureasafelanding.
Training
Thehighjumpisanexplosive,powerfuleventthatcallsforprimarilyanaerobictraining.Eventhoughabroadconditioningbaseisneeded,theeventisbasedupon
speed,power,andaquickconversionfromhorizontalspeedtoverticallift.
WarmUp
Traditionalwarmupsbeginwithawalk/jograngingfrom400meterstoamile,followedbyavarietyofstretchesandfourtosix100meteraccelerations.
Moreactivewarmupsarebecomingcommontoday.Thewarmupbeginswithajogof400to800meters,followedbybothstaticanddynamicflexibilitywork.
Nextaresprintdrillsconsistingof34setsover30to50metersofhighknees,skips,buttkicks,carioca,andbackwardruns.
Dynamicflexibilityworkoftotalbodycircles,scissors,legswings,sidebends,hurdleseatexchanges,lunges,andinvertedbicyclesisrepeatedfortwotothreesetsof
10reps.Hurdlemobilitydrillsshouldbeaddedintwotothreetimesaweek.Thenumberofhurdlesusedandtheheightofthebarriersdependonthetrainingageof
thejumper.
CircuitTraining
Generalstrengthexercisestoworktheentirebodyshouldbedoneatleasttwiceaweek.Thesecircuitswouldincludepushups,situps,squatjumps,lunges,back
extensions,toetouches,andothersimilarexercises.Themaingoalofthesedrillsistodevelopandstrengthenthebody/pillar,whichwillprovideagoodfoundationfor
continuedtrainingandaninjuryfreecondition.
Multiplethrowingdrillswithamedicineballand/orshotputshouldalsobedonetwiceaweek.Again,theweightoftheimplementdependsonthetrainingageofthe
athlete.Coachescancreateavarietyofexercisesthattheathletecando

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byhimselforherselforwithapartner.Again,thegoalistodevelopthetotalbodyandprovideagoodbasefortraining.Propertechniqueinthesedrillsisvitalfor
maximumexercisebenefitandtopreventinjuries.
Multiplejumpingcircuits,primarilyusingbodyweight,arealsodonetwiceaweek.Exercisesincludehops,standinglongjumps,standingtriplejumps,rocketjumps,
lungejumps,tuckjumps,buttkicks,bounding,anddepthjumps.Someofthesecanbedoneoverhurdlestoaddvarietyanddifferenttrainingeffects.
Generalstrengthconditioning,multiplethrows,andmultiplejumpsaredonetwiceaweek,butnotallonthesameday.Twooftheseriescanbescheduledonthe
sameday,ifneeded.Thenumberofrepetitionswilldependonthetrainingageoftheathleteandthetimeofseason.Forexample,anexperiencedathletemightdo
threesetsof12repetitionsinpreseason,twosetsof15repetitionsinearlyseason,andonesetof8to10repetitionsinthecompetitiveseason.Anoviceshouldcut
thesenumbersatleastinhalf.Itisveryimportantthatcoachesmonitorathletesandtheirrecoveryfromworkouttoworkout.Adjustthenumberofrepetitions
accordingly.Itisbettertodolessworkvolumethantoomuch!
WeightTraining
Liftingphasesaredividedthesamewaytrainingseasonsare.Acoach/athletemustalsoplanoutthejumper'sseasonalgoalsandprioritytimesforstrengthtraining.
Workoutsshouldincludetotalbodydevelopmentthroughoutallphases.
ConditioningPhase(Preseason)
Thefirstphase,whentheathleteisreturningtotraining,shouldfocusonagoodoverallconditioningbase.Inayearroundprogram,thisphaselastsfromsixtoeight
weeks,withprogressiveloadingoccurring.Highschoolathletesshoulduseafourtofiveweekconditioningphase.Atfirst,circuitscanbeusedtodevelopoverall
fitness,andthenaspecificnumberofsetsandrepetitionscanbeestablished.Thevolumeatthistimeis5065%ofthejumper'stestedmaximum.
MaximumStrengthPhase(EarlySeason)
Liftingformaximumstrengthbecomesafocusduringthepreseasonandearlyseason.Theworkoutprogramshouldincludethreetofivesetsof10to15repetitionsat
5085%ofthelifter'smaximum,threetimesaweek.Thisphaselastssixtoeightweeksfortheyearroundathleteandfourtofiveweeksforthehighschoolathlete.
PowerPhase(CompetitiveSeason)
Whenthejumpertransfersfrommaximumstrengthtopowerduringthecompetitivetrainingphase,theworkoutchangestothreetofivesetsoffivetoeightrepetitions
at6590%ofthelifter'smaximum,twotothreedaysaweek.Thisphaselastsfourtosixweeksfortheyearroundathleteandthreetofourweeksforthehighschool
athlete.
PeakingPhase(LateSeason)
Lateseasonliftinginvolvesapowerphasetostaysharpandexplosive.Theprogramconsistsofonetothreesetsofonetofourrepetitionsat75100%ofthelifter's
maximum,onceortwiceaweek.Typically,thisphaselaststwotothreeweeksforayearroundathleteandtwoweeksforthehighschoolathlete.

Page188

CommonlyUsedLifts
Theseliftswillbeusedthroughoutallofthetrainingphases.Itisnottheexercisebutthenumberofrepetitionsandweightloadthatdeterminethetypeoftrainingper
phase.Notallexercisesaredoneeachworkout.
snatch
cleans(variousstartingpositions)
squats(variousdegrees)
oneleggedsquats
stepups
lungejumps
hamstringcurls(singleanddoubleleg,standing/seatedposition,ifpossible)
heelraises
shinstretches/strengthening
upperbodylifts(bench,incline,latpulls,rowing,tricepspress)
abdominalwork
lowerbackwork(deadlift,goodmornings,backhyperextensions)
midupperback(bentoverrowing,pullups,chinups,onearmdumbbellrows,reverseflys,latpulldowns)
Agoodindicatorfordevelopingaliftingprogramisbaseduponaoneorfiverepetitionmaximumlift.Sincemanylifters/coachesareworriedaboutmaxingahigh
weightbecauseoftheinjuryrisk,somecoacheshaveusedapercentagebreakdowntoprojectafiverepmax.Afterdecidingwhatgoalweightaliftershouldliftfora
singlemax,thecoachwouldthentake90percentofthatnumbertoprojectafiverepmax.Forexample,ifthesinglerepmaxgoalwouldbe200pounds,afiverep
maxwouldbe180pounds.Ifthegoalsinglerepmaxwouldbe250pounds,take90percentofthe250pounds,whichwouldbe225pounds,forthefiverepmax.
Creatingatrainingprogramisoneofthemostchallengingandexcitingdutiesacoachhas.Sinceeachathleteisdifferentandreactsdifferentlytovarioustrainingstimuli,
itisvitalthatacoachcontinuallymonitorhowanathleteisreactingtoeachtrainingsession.Coachesshouldnotbeafraidtomakechangesintheplan,asneeded.
ThereisnotonespecifictrainingplanthatwillmakeeachjumperanOlympicchampion.Writingeffectivetrainingplansisanongoingprojectforcoachesandavery
importantoneintheoveralldevelopmentofanathlete'ssuccess.
Plyometrics
Jumpersmustdevelopasolidtrainingbasefirstbeforeattemptingtoaddplyometricstotheirplan.Atleasttwotofourweeksofconditioningworkshouldbedoneto
preparetheathleteforthistypeofpowertraining.Plyometricsaredonetocreateandmaintainpowerandexplosiveness,whicharevitaltoanyjumper.
Athletesshouldstartwithshortdrilldistancesof10to30meterswithfourtoeightrepetitions,andthenprogressto40to50meterswiththreetofourrepetitionsof
eachexercise.

Page189

It'sagoodideatostartbackingofftheplyometricsaround14daysbefore"bigmeets"torefreshthelegs.
Samplesoflowintensityplyometricsare:
highskips
bounding
singleleghops
doubleleghops
RRL,LLR,RRL,LLR...
RR,LL,RR,LL...
jumprope
gallops
doublelegjumps
ramps
hills
hoppingandjumpingovercones
stepups
stairrunning
walkinglunges
standinglongjump
standingtriplejump
hurdlejumps
jumpsinplace:
doublelegtuck
singlelegtuck
pike
splitsquat
forward/backward/sidetosideovercones
squatjumps
Thesedrillsbecomehigherintensityifdonequicklyand/oroveralongerdistance.Thedrillsabovecanbeusedforheightand/orfordistance.Coachescancreate
differentpurposesforthesedrillsintheirworkouts.Highjumpersdo"high"jumpplyometricstobeeventspecific.Yet,"long"jumpplyometricsprovideneededpower
andexplosivetraining.Table12.1onpage190isasampleplyometricsworkoutplanforthepreseason,midseason,andlateseason.
TrainingDrills
Thefollowingdrills,whenincorporatedintoyourathletes'completetrainingprogram,aremeanttoimprovetechniqueandcreateaconsistentapproachandexecution.
EventSpecificDrills
curverunsof2040metersinthedirectionoftheapproachcurve
Srunsupanddownafield
Jrunsof4050metersindirectionofapproach
walkingapproaches
scissorsjumpsfromashortapproach
shortapproachesofthreetofivestrideswithsometypeoftakeoff
techniquejumps
fullapproacheswithtakeoff
fulljumps
boxjumpsfromashortapproach
backoversfromthegroundand/orabox
backarchesontheground

Page190
TABLE12.1SAMPLEPLYOMETRICSWORKOUTSFORHIGHJUMP

Theseworkoutsshouldbedonetwiceaweekduringthepreseason,midseason,and
lateseason.

Week

Numberofjumpspersession

Preseason

300*

350

400

250

Midseason

150**

200

250

150

Lateseason

100***

10

150

11

200

12

150

Abouttwoweeksbeforethepeakdate(s)ofmajormeets,starttaperingofftheseexercises.
Powercircuitsshouldalsobecreated.Coachescanputtogetheracombinationofhops,skips,hurdle
hops,boxjumps,lunges,andshortsprintstovarythepowertraining.
SampleCircuit

10hurdlehops

330mofhighskips

330mofbounds

310hopsonrightfootandthenonleftfoot

33lunges

5splitsquatjumps

sprint30m

Jumpsinplaceusingonlybodyweightforresistance
Addinmovementtojumps,boxes,cones,etc.forextraresistance
***
Powermovementsdonequicklyoverashortdistanceorinplace
*

**

Page191

TechniqueDrills
Therearethreeapproachestodoingtechniquedrills:
1."Quality"daysarewhenthebarisfourtosixinches(about10to15cm)belowthejumper'sbestmarkandabout15jumpsaretaken.Enoughrestisallowed
betweeneacheffortsothatqualityiskey.Thecoach/jumpercanvarythebarheightastheworkoutcontinues.
2."Endurance"daysarewhenthebarisstartedeightinches(about20cm)belowthejumper'sbest.Thepurposeofthisworkoutistotake2530jumpsatavariety
ofheights.Thejumpertakesthreeclearancesatthefirstheight,thenmovesthebaruptwoinchesandclearsitthreetimes.Thebarcontinuestoberaiseduntilthe
jumperhastwomisses,andthenitisloweredaninch.
Oncethejumpermissesaheighttwice,thebarislowereduntilthejumpergetsthreeclearancesinarowthenthebargoesbackup.Thebarcontinuestoberaisedor
lowered,withajumperneverhavingthreemissesinarow.
Althoughplentyofrestistaken,thejumpermustbeingoodshapetocontinuegoodtechniquethroughouttheworkout.Ifthejumpergetstechnicallysloppy,thecoach
shouldstoptheworkoutsothatbadhabitsaren'treinforced.
3."PR(personalrecord)jumping"iswhenthebarissetwithintwotothreeinchesofthejumper'sbest.Approximately1214jumpsaretaken,workingongood
techniqueatahighheight.Barclearanceisn'tasimportantaslearningtolookatthebaratagreaterheight,stayingrelaxed,andusingthedistanceinfrontofthebar
effectively.
Ashortstablebox(approximatelyfourinchesor10cmhigh)couldalsobeusedfromashortapproach(45strides).Thisdrillgivesajumperextraheightandallows
greaterheightstobeattempted/clearedinpracticesettings.
WorkoutReminders
Keepinmindsomeofthefollowingideaswhenstructuringapracticesession:
Speedortechniqueactivitiescomebeforestrengthwork.
Powerworkisn'tdonewithintensiveendurance.
Gamesandspeedendurancecanbeusedafterpowertraining.
Throwingeventscomeafterpowertraining.
Leavesometimebetweenpowertrainingandtechniquework.
Alwaysusepropertechnique.

TrainingSeasons
Theentireseasoncanbedividedintooneortwopeaks,dependingonthetrainingageandgoalsoftheathlete.Eachpartofatrainingseasoncanbedividedintothe
generalcategoriesofpreseason,earlyseason,competitiveseason,andapeak.

Page192

Preseason
Foranathletetrainingyearround,trainingduringthefallpreseasonkeysonconditioningand"gettingintoshape."Overall,onewantsmorevolumeandlowerintensity
inthisphase.(Seetable12.2.)Themottoforthisphasemightbe"trainingtotrain."Afivedaytrainingweekcouldbedividedintotwotothreedaysofconditioning
runsoftwotothreemiles,orlongerintervalsof500700metersongrasstwodaysofshorterintervalsof150350meters,preferablyongrass/softsurfacesandtwo
tothreedaysofstrengthtraining.Thisphasewouldlastsixtoeightweeksforayearroundtrainingplan,butonlyfourtofiveweeksforahighschoolathlete.
Highschoolathleteswhohaveashortpreseasonphasebeforemeetsbeginshouldhavesometypeofconditioningphasefortwoweeksbeforepreseasonwork.Ifthe
athletehasbeenactiveinanothersport,heorsheshouldpossiblytakeafewdaysofmentalandphysicalrestbeforebeginningtraining.Anyachesandpainsfromthe
previoussportshouldbeallowedtohealbeforeaddingadditionalstressesfromtraining.
EarlySeason
Astheathleteenterstheearlyseason,twodaysofeventspecificworkshouldbeadded.Weighttrainingisstillkeyedtowardbuildingstrength.Aphilosophyduring
thisphasewouldbeof"trainingtocompete."Theintensityincreaseswhilethevolumeislowered(table12.3).Thisperiodalsowilllastfourtosixweeksforayear
roundprogramandthreetofourweeksforthehighschoolseason.Sincemore
TABLE12.2PRESEASONWORKOUTSFORHIGHJUMP
EarlyPreseasonPhase
Monday

34600monthegrass,weights

Tuesday

6350m

Wednesday

15min.runontheroads,weights

Thursday

10200m

Friday

8105080mhillruns,weights

Afterfourtosixweeksofgeneralconditioning,oneoftheconditioningdayscanbechangedtoinclude
moreeventspecificwork,andplyometricsshouldbeaddedtothestrength/powertraining.
LatePreseasonPhase
Monday

45500m,weights

Tuesday

Plyometrics,eventspecificwork(sprints,approachdrills)

Wednesday

56300400m,weights

Thursday

Plyometrics,812150200m

Friday

8105080mhillruns,weights

Page193
TABLE12.3EARLYSEASONWORKOUTSFORHIGHJUMP
Monday

810200400m,weights

Tuesday

Plyometrics,eventspecificwork(HJdrills)

Wednesday

8125090m(speedwork),weights

Thursday

Plyometrics,eventspecificwork(HJdrills)

Friday

Speedwork,weights

TABLE12.4COMPETITIVESEASONWORKOUTSFORHIGHJUMP
Monday

Speed(3060msprints),plyometrics

Tuesday

Eventdrillsandactualjumping,weights

Wednesday

Conditioning(250300mrepeats)

Thursday

Eventdrillsandactualjumping,speed,weights

Friday

Speed

Saturday

Competition

techniqueworkisadded,thisisadifficulttrainingtime.Athleteswillbetired!
CompetitiveSeason
Duringthecompetitiveseason,athletesshoulddotwodaysofeventspecificwork,includingapproachandeventdrillstwotothreedaysofweightswithmorepower
workonetotwodaysofplyometricstwotothreedaysofspeedworkandoneconditioningdayof200300meterruns.Thisperiodshouldlastfourtosixweeksin
ayearroundprogramandthreetofourweeksinahighschoolseason.Seetable12.4.
PeakingPhase
Astheathletepreparesfortheyear'smajorcompetition,thevolumeofworklessensastheintensitystayshigh.Workoutsshouldbeadjustedtooneconditioningday
of150200meterrepeats,twotothreedaysofspeedwork,onetotwodaysofweights/power,andonetotwodaysofeventspecificwork.Seetable12.5onpage
194.Thisistheshortestphaseoftheseason,whentheathleteisreadytoperformathisorherbest!Forayearroundprogram,peakingshouldcoverthreeweeksin
ahighschoolplan,itwouldlasttwoweeks.
Whenanathletehasadoublepeakplan,areturntoabriefconditioningphaseisneededafterthefirstpeak.Thehumanbodycanholdahighleveloftrainingforonly
ashortperiodbeforeitneedstoberechargedforthenextleveloftraining.
Coachesshouldadjustthetimeineachphasetotheoverallseasonlength.Onewayofplanningaseasonistoselectthemainperformancedateandcounttheweeks
backward.Thiswillensurethattheathleteisrestedandreadyfor"themeet."

Page194
TABLE12.5PEAKINGPHASEWORKOUTSFORHIGHJUMP
Monday

Speed,weights

Tuesday

Eventspecific,speed

Wednesday

Conditioning

Thursday

Eventspecific,weights

Friday

Speedoractiverest

Saturday

Competition

Competition
Onceallthe"onthetrack"trainingiscompleted,thejumperfacestheultimatechallengeofcompeting.Someathleteshave"theeyeofthetiger"anddotheirbestwhen
themeetarrives.Otherspracticelikechampions,butlosetheirconfidencewhentheyputontheiruniforms.Coachesandathletesmustrecognizethepsychological
partofeacheventandtrainforit,too.Asthesayinggoes,"Highjumpingis80%mental."Yet,doweworkonthispartfor80%oftotalpracticetime?Veryfew
athletesand/orcoachescouldansweryes!Psychologicalpreparationisdefinitelyaneglectedareainsportstoday.
GoalSetting
Todevelopapsychologicalplan,anathletemustknowwhatheorsheplanstoachievethroughtrainingandcompetition.Allthoseinvolvedmustthinkaboutand
determinetheirgoals.Thisgoalsettingshouldbedirectedbyacoachormoreexperiencedmentor.Itisvitalthattheathletecreateaplanofactionthatspecifiesthe
expectedendresultoftrainingandcompeting.Forexample,someathleteshavethegoalofbeingthebestintheirschool,ortheirstate,ortheircountry,oreveninthe
world!Iftheathletedreamsofbecomingthebestatthestatechampionshipwhilethecoachbelievestheathletecanmaketheteambuthaslittlechanceofscoring,
thereisagreatgapintheexpectationlevelofthetwopeoplemostdirectlyinvolvedwiththeathlete'sdevelopment.
Therefore,oneofthefirstthingsanathleteshouldestablishiswhatlevelofcompetitionheorshewouldliketoachieveandwhatleveloftalentheorsherealistically
has.Oncethosethingsareestablished,theathleteplansthestepsforachievingwhatcanberealisticallyachieved.Theseshortterm,intermediategoalsenablethe
athleteandcoachtokeeptrackofprogressandmakeadjustmentsasneeded.Ithelpsiftheathletewritesthegoalsdownandpoststheminaplacewheretheywill
easilybeseendaily.Thisconstantreminderoftheexpectedfinalresulthelps"train"themindonwhatthebodywantstoachieve.
MentalPreparation
Throughoutanathlete'scareer,severalfactorswillinfluencewhatfinalperformancelevelisreached.Theathletecancontrolsomeofthesefactorsmanyheorshe
cannot.Actually,theonlythingtheathletecancontrolishowheorshereacts

Page195

andrespondstodifferentincidents!Forexample,iftheweatherisbadduringthebiggestmeetoftheyear,theathletecan'tchangethatfact.However,theathletecan
controlhowheorshementallypreparesandreactsonthatday.
Therefore,eachathleteandcoachmustdevelopanindividualtrainingplanthatincludeseverypossiblewarmupandcompetingsituation.Thiscanbedoneby
practicinginalltypesofweatherconditionsandhavingconfidenceandapositivementaloutlookaboutcompetitioninsuchconditions.Sometimes,teamgoalscan
affectwhichathletesacoachusesfora"bigmeet."Thesesituationsneedtobediscussedwiththeathletesinvolved.Eventhoughnotallpartiesmightagreewiththe
coach'sdecisions,thosedecisionsprevail.
Overtime,eachathleteshouldresearchandpracticeusingdifferenttypesofmentalpreparationtacticstodiscoverwhichone(s)workbestforhimorher.Oncethe
strategiesarenarroweddowntothemosteffectiveonesforthespecificathlete,aselfplanshouldbecreatedandfollowed.Adjustmentswillneedtobemadeasthe
athletegrowsanddevelopsdifferentpracticeandcompetitivestrategies.Coachesshouldrealizethateachindividualhashisorherownneedsandshouldcreatehisor
herownspecificgoalplan.Itishopedthatcoachesandparentswillbesupportiveasanathleteworkstowardachievingbothshortandlongtermgoals.
MentalImagery
Someofthementalpreparationtechniquescommonlyusedbyjumpersarementalimagery,affirmations,relaxationtraining,andcopingstrategies.Withmental
imagery,theathletevisualizesthe"perfect"performanceoverandoverinhisorhermindwithoutevenjumping.Oncetheathletehasthepropertechnicalmechanicsin
mind,mentalpracticecanbeused,withthejumperputtinghisorherbodyintoamentalcolorvideothatshowstheathletecompletingthe"perfect"jump.Itis
importantthatthisimagerybeasrealaspossible,includingcolor,crowdnoisesandscenes,sounds,andapictureoftheathleteclearingthebarsuccessfully!The
athleteshouldstartthe"video"atthebackoftheapproach,continuethroughtakeoffandactualbarclearance,andevenincludegettingoffthepittowavingatthe
cheeringcrowd.
Theathleteshouldrepeatthispictureinhisorhermindoften,bothatthehighjumpapronandawayfromthetrack,toreinforcethekinestheticpatternsexpected.All
mentalpracticemustbeofsuccessfulattemptsandtechniques.Theathleteshouldfeelinchargeofthesituationandfeelgoodabouttheprogressbeingmade.
Affirmations
Affirmationscanalsocontributetopositiveperformances.Theseareshort,strongstatementsabouttheathleteorperformance.Theyarephrasedinthefirstperson"I"
andtieintotheathlete'sgoals.Forahighjumper,possibleaffirmationsare"I'mfast,""I'mstrong,""Stayquick,''and"Jumphigh."Affirmationscanbewrittenoncards
andcarriedthroughoutthedayand/orpostedinlockersandathome.Again,allthoughtsmustbepositive.Negativethoughtsarenotallowed!
Relaxation
Athletesusuallyperformtheirbestwhentheyarerelaxed.Whenmosteliteathletesareaskedabouttheirrecordperformances,theycommentthatitseemedsoeasy
andnothingspecial.Theathletewassorelaxedandconfident,thatheor

Page196

shewasn't"making"ithappenheorshewasjust"letting"ithappen.Thistypeofrelaxationiswhattheathletewantstofeelwhencompeting.
Manyarticleswrittenbysportpsychologistsgiveroutinesforpracticingrelaxationtechniques.Onekeyistopracticetheroutinesonaregularbasis,invarioustraining
sessionsandtheninlowkeycompetitivesituations.
Theseskillsworkformanyathletes,butnotall.Ifafterrepeatedlypracticingrelaxationtechniques,theathleteisn'tfindingpositiveresults,heorsheshoulduseanother
strategy.
CommonFears
Someathleteshaveafearoffailureandbecomeoverlyanxiousaboutwhatotherswillthinkofthembasedonhowtheyperform.Suchathleteswillneedtofocuson
thepersonalsourcesofthefearoffailureandworkwithacoachorparenttoreduceoreliminatethesefears.Itisveryimportantforanathletetohonestlyevaluatehis
orherpersonalfeelingsandhowtheymightaffectaperformance.
Athletesmustrealizethatcompetitivecareersarejustonepartoftheirlivesandnotbasetheirentireidentityonathletics.
Someathleteshaveafearofsuccessandneverreachtheirprojectedpotentialbecauseofthisfear.Theseathletesaren'tcomfortablewiththeresponsibilitiesofbeing
numberone.Coachesandparentsmightseetheseathletesbackingoffinameetwhenanimprovementseemedpossible,ortheathletesseemhappytostayatthelevel
theyarecurrentlyatanddon'ttrytomoveuptothenextlevel.Thisfearhaskeptsomeverygoodathletesfromreachingtheirfullpotential.Themindissopowerful.If
thereisfearaboutbeingnumberone,anathlete'sperspectiveofhimselforherselfmustbebroadened.
Ontheotherhandistheathletewhothrivesincompetitivesituationsandactuallyimprovesasthelevelofcompetitionrises.Suchathleteshaveapositiveselfesteem,
whichincludesseeingthemselvesaswinners.Theseathletesalsomustbechallengedandexpecttobetterthemselves.Whatseemstochallengethistypeofathleteis
winning.Theyarecompetitors.Butifthelevelofcompetitionislow,theywillwinwithoutbeingchallengedenoughtofulfilltheirpotential.Coachesstillneedtowork
withthistypeofperformerandkeephimorherfocusedonthegoalandthepreparationneededtoachievethegoal.
Balancingthementalneedsofanathletecanbeasdelicateascoordinatingthephysicaldemandsofanathleteattheelitelevel.Unfortunately,thereisnoonewayof
doingthistrainingitisanongoingadventureforbothathleteandcoach.But,whentheydoreachthistypeofpreparation,theresultsarefantastic.Itshouldbeevery
coach'sultimategoaltoexperimentandworkwithanathletesoastopreparehimorhernotonlyphysicallybutmentally.Iftwoathletesarecloseinphysicaltraits,the
athletewhoismentallytoughestwillbethevictor!Ascoaches,wemustaddressthisvitalcomponentofpreparation.

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Summary
Ifthetechniquesinthischapterareimplemented,theathletewillbesuccessful.Remembertomoveslowlyandthoroughlythrougheachtechnicalelement.Keepthe
focusononlyoneortwotechnicalelementsatatime.Allowtheathletetomasteronetechnicalelementbeforemovingtothenext.Bepatientwiththeworkonthe
approachthedividendspaidoutlaterwillbeenormous.Ifthetechnicalaspectsoftheapproacharesolid,almosteverythingelsewill"jump"intoplace.
Butintheend,allthatmattersiswhatmycoachJimKieferwouldtellmewhenIgotcaughtupintoomanytechnicalthoughts:"Doug,jumphighanddon'tknockthe
baroff!"Goodluck!
Likewise,Sue'sfinalencouragementtoherjumper,CharlesAustin,beforehewentintotheOlympicfinalwasto"havefunandtakecareofbusiness."Haveagreat
season!

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13
PoleVault
JimBemiller

Thepolevaultmaybethemostexcitingandchallengingofalltrackandfieldevents.Anaccomplishedvaulterclearingacrossbaratrecordheightisoneofthemost
dramaticeventsinallofsport.Thevaulterusuallypossessesallaroundathleticability.Tobesuccessful,thevaultermustdeveloptheskillsofasprinter,longjumper,
andgymnast,aswellasthespecificconditioningtotakepartincompetitionsthatmaylastoverthreehours.Finally,avaulterusuallypossessesaninquisitiveand
fearlessattitude.Worldclassvaulters,suchasworldrecordholderSergeiBubka,exemplifythistypeofbold,explosiveathlete.Ascoachesweshouldendeavorto
prepareourathletesbyhelpingthemtomasterthebasicelementsofvaultingtechniqueastheydeveloptheirallaroundphysicalconditioning.

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Thecoachshouldkeepinmindthatthepolevaulthasmanyinherentvariablestoconsider:theathlete'sspeed,howhightheathletegripsonthepole,selectingthe
properpolesize,barheight,standardplacement,windconditions,differingfacilities,andsoon.Oneofthekeystosuccessfulcoachingistheabilitytosynthesizethese
variablessothattheathletecanconcentrateonmasteringthebasicsoftechnique.Thecoachshouldemphasizesafeandaggressiveexecutionoffundamentals.
CharacteristicsofthePoleVaulter
Goodvaulterscomeinallshapesandsizesbutwhenscoutingforpotentialvaulters,thecoachshouldkeepinmindthefollowinggeneralcharacteristics:speed,
gymnasticsability(bodycontrol),grippingability,eagernesstolearn,andanaggressivenessthatiscombinedwithcommunication,teamwork,andanalyticalability.
Speedallowstheathletetocreatepolespeed(thespeedatwhichthepolerotatesaboutitsbaseintheplantingbox).Gymnasticsabilitygivesbodycontroland
strength.Grippingabilityallowsthevaultertogripashighaspossibleonthepole,whileallowingthepoletomovetoaverticalpositionastheathleteswingsaround
thetophandhold.Aneagernesstolearnisnecessarygiventhetechnicaldemandsoftheevent.Aggressivenessisnecessaryfortheexplosiveenergyrequired.
Speed
Speedisthemostimportantcharacteristicofasuccessfulvaulterbecauseultimatelythespeedoftheathleteattakeoffdirectlycorrelateswiththeabilitytoholdhigher
onthepoleandultimatelyclearhigherheights.Coachesshouldnotoverlookpromisinghurdlersandrelayteammemberswhensearchingforpotentialvaulters.
GymnasticsAbility
Successfulvaultersmustdevelopgymnasticsability,sothattheyhaveakinestheticawarenessofbodypositioninrelationtothemovingpole.Gymnasticsabilityalso
enablesthevaultertohavebodycontrolduringmovementsintheair.Gymnasticstrengthismoredesirablethansimpleweightliftingability,becausethelatterdoesnot
necessarilyprovidevaulterswiththeabilitytomanipulatetheirownbodyweightinacoordinatedandaggressivefashion.Beginningcoachesoftenoverlookthe
developmentofgeneralgymnasticsability.Thisisanareawheremanyyoungathleteshavepotentialbutneedtodeveloptheirabilities.
GrippingAbility
Theathlete'sabilitytogripashighaspossibleonthevaultingpolewhilecreatingsufficientpolespeedtosuccessfullycompletethevaultingactionisdictatedbythe
athlete'sheightandextendedreach,combinedwithspeedofapproach.Ultimately,thehigherthevaulterisabletoholdonthepolewhilestillmovingthepoleto
vertical,thegreaterthemaximumheightobtainable.

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EagernesstoLearn
Thecoachshouldlookforathleteswhoarewillingtolearn,becausetheprocessofdevelopingtheirtechniquewilltakeseveralseasons.Thevaultermustbe
"coachable"andbeabletoimprove.Theathletemustbecomeastudentoftheevent,strivingtodevelophisorhertechniqueandeagertoanalyzeerrorsandworkto
correctthem.
Aggressiveness
Mostvaultersareaggressiverisktakers,whichisnaturalconsideringtheevent.Butsuccessfulvaultersalsoareabletocommunicatewiththecoachandothervaulters
abouttechniqueandtraining.Vaultersshouldbeabletoworkwiththeirteammatesinpracticeandcompetition.Thepolevaultisateamsportinmanyrespectsthere
isalwaysequipmenttobemoved,stepsandpolestobecaught,andtheneedforimmediatefeedbackandconsultation.Averysuccessfulcoachoncetoldme,"There
aretwotypesofvaulters.Thewildandcrazydaredevil,andtheanalyticalchessplayertypewhoisalwayslookingforwardtothenextmove."Whethercoaching
"daredevils"or"thinkers,"thecoachshouldmoldthegroupintoacooperativetrainingunittobeasefficientaspossible.
Technique
Theathleteandthepolemustworktogethertoformasystemthatallowstheathletetoholdashighaspossibleonthepolewhileusingpropertechnique.Theathlete's
horizontalspeedintheapproachistransferredtoverticalriseduringtakeoff,driveswing,andextensionphases.Vaultingtechniquebeginswiththefirststepsoftherun
andcontinuessequentiallywiththeloweringandplantingofthepole,takeoff,thedriveswing,extension,clearance,andlanding.Thefollowingaredescriptionsand
analysesofthesevariousphasesofthevault.Asstated,thevaultisasequentialevent,andthecoachshouldteachpropertechniquefromthefirststepsofthe
approachforward.Whateverthetimeconstraints,theathleteshouldbecomeproficientincarryingandrunningwiththepolebeforemovingontothelaterphasesof
thetakeoffandairbornemovements.Faultytechniqueinthebeginningphasesoftheapproachandtakeoffwillonlymakelaterphasesmoredifficulttocomplete
successfully.
Thefollowingdescriptionsandaccompanyingfiguresapplytothelefthandedvaulter.
GripandPoleCarry
Thekeyinthegripandcarryisforthevaultertorunefficientlyduringtheapproachandperformanefficient,aggressiveplantingofthepoleasheorshepreparesfor
thetakeoff.Whilecarryingthepole,thevaulter'stophandshouldbepositionednearthetopofthelefthip.Thevaulter'slefthandshouldhookthetopofthepolewith
thethumbinaclosed,comfortableposition.Thevaulter'sbottomarmshouldbepositionedapproximately46inches(about1015cm)fromthecenterofthechest
orleftside.Thebottom(right)armshouldmaintaintheelbow

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belowtherighthandandmaintainastraightorcockedbackrightwrist.Therightwristshouldneverdroopdownorbendtowardtheathlete'spalm.Thedistance
betweenthehandsvarieswiththeindividual,rangingfrom18to24inches(about46to61cm).Thewidthofthegripshouldbesuchthatiftheathleteweretoassume
ahandgriponahorizontalgymnasticsbarequivalenttothegriponthepole,heorshecouldhangandswingupandoverthebarefficiently.Thisgripwidthallowsthe
vaultertoperformlaterphasesintechniqueefficientlyandaggressively.
Thevaultershouldbeginthepolecarrybyraisingtheendofthepolealmosttoverticalalonghisorherside,whichallowsamoreeffectiverun.Thehighpolecarry
enablesthevaultertocontrolposturefromthebeginningoftheapproachbecausethepolewillbeeasiertocarryandtheweightofthepolewillbeexclusivelyonthe
lefthand.Thelefthandshouldremainclosetotheathlete'slefthipduringthepolecarry.Thelefthandshouldnotdriftbehindthevaulter'shipduringtheapproach,
becausethiswillcausepoorpostureduringtheapproachandproblemsduringtheplantingphase.
Approach
Thelengthoftheapproachincompetitionvarieswiththeindividual,butrangesfrom100to150feet(about30.5to45.7m,or7to10rightfootstrikes),dependingon
theabilityandtheexperienceoftheathlete.Theapproachshouldbelongenoughtoallowarelaxedstartandgradualincreaseinrhythmandaccelerationtoreacha
maximumcontrollablespeedduringtheplantandtakeoffphases.
Theathleteshouldbeginwithalonger,morepowerfulstrideintheapproachandfinishwithafastrhythm.Thevaulterbeginsbyplacingtherightfootonthestarting
checkmark.Thisstartingpositionproducesabalancedbodypositionasthevaulterholdsthepoleonhisorherleftside.Thevaulterbeginstheapproachbyrocking
backontotheleftfootsoastopushforwardinapowerfulmannertodevelopaconsistentpostureandrhythmassoonaspossible.
Thecrescendooftheapproachshouldbebasedontheathletegraduallyincreasingspeedthroughoutthelengthoftherunupwhilemaintainingpropersprinting
posture.Whileperformingtheapproach,thevaulter'schestshouldbesquarewiththerunway,andthevaultershoulddropthepolegraduallyinreadyingfortheplant.
Thecoachshouldconsiderthevaulterandpoleasasinglesystem,andtheloweringofthepoleshouldbesynchronizedwiththevaulter'sspeedintheapproach.The
coachandathleteshouldstrivetodevelopaconsistentapproachpatternthatallowsthevaultertoreachandcontrolmaximumspeedwhiledevelopinganefficient
plantingactioninpreparationforanaggressivejumpandtakeoff.Thevaulter'sapproachandloweringofthepoleshouldbesynchronizedsoastoincreasethe
vaulter'sabilitytoperformaquick,aggressiveplantandtakeoff.
Propersprintingmechanicsshouldbeobserved.Thebodyleanoftheathleteshouldoriginatefromtheanklesasthevaulterpushesoutatthebeginningofthe
approachwith"longandstrong"strides.Donotallowtheathletetobendforwardfromthehipsastherunprogresses.Therunningpostureshouldremaintallasthe
athleteapproachesthetakeoffandmaintainsefficientsprintingtechnique.Asthepoledrops,theathlete'sstridesshouldaccelerate.Correcttimingofthepoledropwill
helpacceleratetheathleteasheorsheapproachesthetakeoff.Thestriderateoftheathleteshouldincreaseastheplantisinitiated.Thecoachshouldemphasizethat
theapproachandloweringofthepoleisacontinuousmovement,synchro

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nizedtoallowforaquick,aggressivetakeoffaction.
Generally,thecoachusesthreecheckmarksfortheapproachrun.Thebeginningmarkisthestartingpointoftheapproach.Thisistheonlymarktheathleteshouldbe
awareofduringtheapproach.Thesecondcheckmark,orcoach'smark,shouldbeplacedsixstrides(threerightfootstrikes)backfromthetakeoffpointtohelpthe
coachmonitortheconsistencyofthevaulter'sapproach.Thethirdcheckmarkisthetakeoffpoint,whichshouldbedirectlyunderneaththevaulter'stophandwhenthe
polecontactsthebackoftheplantingbox.
Thecoachgenerallywillobservethreescenariosduringtheathlete'sapproach:
1.Iftheathleteisconsistentlyinside(closertothebox)thecoach'smarkandistakingofffrominsidetheoptimaltakeoffpoint,thecoachshouldconsidermovingthe
athlete'sstartingpoint"fartherout,"awayfromthebox.
2.Iftheathleteisconsistentlyoutsidethecoach'smarkbutisstillplanting"under"(insidetheoptimaltakeoffpoint),thecoachshouldconsidershorteningtheathlete's
startingcheckmark,toreducethetendencyoftheathletetooverstrideintothetakeoff.
3.Thethirdgeneralpossibilityisthattheathleteistoofaroutattakeoffandthatthecorrespondingcoach'smarkisalsotoofarout.Thecoachcorrectsthisbymoving
theathlete'sstartingpointforward.
Thevaultermustcounteachtimetherightfootstrikestherunway.Asstatedabove,mostvaulterstakebetween7and10strides(rightfootstrikes)intheapproach,
dependingontheirabilityandconditioning.Countingthestridesallowstheathletetobecertainofwhentoinitiatetheplantingandjumpingactionofthetakeoff.Failure
tocountcausestheathleteto"feel"or"eyein"theplantandtakeoff,whichleadstoindecisionandfalseperceptionsofthepropersequenceoftheplantingandtakeoff
action.Workonapproachtechniquesonthetrack,awayfromtherunway.
PolePlantandTakeoff
Theplantandtakeoffarecriticaltoexecuteforasuccessfulattempt.Developingsolidfundamentalsintheefficientplantingofthevaultingpoleisessential.Thelastfour
stridesshouldbeexecutedinafast,rhythmicmanner,andtheplantisinitiatedthreetothreeandahalfstepsbeforetakeoff.Ifthevaulterhasaninestrideapproach
(18steps),theplantingactionshouldbeginastheeighthstride(eighthrightfoot)contactsthetrack,ifnotslightlybefore.Thevaulter'spolecarryshouldcoordinatethe
startoftheplantingaction,withthepolepassingthroughahorizontalpositionasthevaulterbeginstheplantingphaseonthenexttolastrightstride.Asthat
penultimaterightfootstrikesthetrack,thevaultermovesthepoleforwardandupwardsothatthelefthandisclosetotheleftshoulderandbotharmsareaggressively
punchingthepoleforwardandupward.Whenthepenultimatestride,orlastleftfoot,touchestheground,theleftarmshouldbemovingpasttheathlete'sheadasboth
armscontinuetopunchforwardandupward.Astheleftarmmovesupward,theupperbodyofthevaulterwillrotateslightlytotheleftandthenreturntoasquare
positiontoallowthepoletoremainclosetotheleftshoulderastheathletepunchestheplantupward.
Therighthandshouldbeafulcrumaboutwhichthetoparmrisesasthepoletipisdirectedintotheplantingbox.Astheleftarmpassesthefulcrum,botharmsare
directedaggressivelyupward.Therighthandshouldnotbeallowedtodrop

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orbeextendeddowntowardtheplantingbox.Bothhandscontinuetoactivelypushthepoleoverheadasthetakeofffootstrikesthetrack.Botharmsarestraightened
atthecompletionoftheplant,givingthebodyanextended"tight"positioninalljointsexcepttheleadleg,whichisdriven,likealongjumper's,atrightanglestothe
trunk.Astheathletedrivesoffthetakeoff,similartothetakeoffforthelongjump,itisimperativethatthewrist,elbow,andshoulderoftheleftarmareinanextended,
"strong"position.
Attakeoff,thevaulter'seyes,head,andchestshouldbedirectedupwardandoutward,similartoalongjumper.Theathlete'sfocusshouldbeondrivingoffthetakeoff
footandupthroughtheextendedarmsasheorsheattemptstomovethepoleashighandforwardasfastaspossible.Inthecorrecttakeoffposition,thepoleis
directlyoverthetakeofffootandtheleftarmisashighaspossible(figure13.1a).Duringtheplantingphase,thepoleshouldbemovedforwardandupwardcloseto
theathlete'sbody,soastonotupsethisorherbalanceduringtheplantandtakeoff.Theathleteshouldperformtheplantandtakeoffphasewithhipsandshoulders
squaretotherunway,withaslightopeningoftheupperbodyasheorshecurlsandpunchestheleftarmoverhead.(Theleftarmcurlsasthevaulterpushesthepole
towardthebox,thenitcomesupwardtoraisethegripabovethehead.)Theplantshouldbeperformedactivelyandaggressively,butthevaultermusthaveasmooth
transitionontosupportofthepole.Thesensationshouldbethatofdrivingthepoleupwardandforwardasaresultofanearly,aggressive,highplant.
Astheplantphaseiscompletedandthepoleissupportedagainstthebackwallofthebox,theathlete'stakeofflegisextendedasthetoparmisfullystraightenedand
pressedupward.Asinthelongjump,thevaulter'sleadlegperformsastrongdriveoffthegroundsuchthatthethighisparalleltothepolewhenthetakeoffactionis
completed(figure13.1b).Thetakeoffactionshouldmoveforwardandupward,leadingwiththeupperbody,notwiththehips.Thetoparmremainsstretchedand
strong,whilethelowerarmproducesactiveresistanceagainstthepole.Becauseofthewidthofthegripandtheactivetakeoff,thelowerarmwillbend,butshouldnot
beallowedtogettooclosetothepole.Theplantandtakeoffshouldbeperformedinabalanced,yetactiveandaggressive,fashion.Asstated,theoptimaltakeoff
spotisverticallyunderthetophand,sincethevaultercanraisethepoletoamaximumabovethetrackonlybytakingofffromtheverticalpositionbeneaththegrip.A
fullyextended,aggressivetakeoffpositionisthekeytotheproperexecutionoftheswingandextensionphasesonthepole.

Figure13.1
(ad)Polevaultprogression.

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DriveSwing
Thedriveswingphasebeginsshortlyafterthetakeoff,astheathletemovesforwardandupwardinastrong,stretchedposition.Thedriveswingshouldbeperformed
asquicklyandpowerfullyaspossibletoutilizethemomentumtheathletehasgeneratedintheapproachandtakeoffphases.Asthestretchedtakeofflegcatchesup
withtheleadleg(figure13.1cd)andbothlegsbeginafastupwardmovement,thevaultershiftsthepoleforwardwiththeshouldersandfixedarms,asifrowinga
canoepaddle.Theathleteshouldmakethisacontinuousmovementofdrivingtheleadlegandswingingthetraillegasaggressivelyaspossible,topromoteaposition
whereheorshecanprojectthehipsasagymnastwouldontheringsifattemptingtoswingfromahangingpositiontoanupsidedownposition.Imaginethat
gymnasthangingmotionlessfromasetofringsandaskedtoprojectthehipsashighaspossibleoverthehead.Heorshewillnottrytopullthefeetandkneesup
andcurlthebodyupsidedown,butwillinsteadbegintoswingandwhipkickthelegs,usingtheshoulderstorotateandcreateaswingingmotiontoprojectthehipsas
highaspossible.Similarly,thevaulterusestheshouldersandfixedarmsinarowingmotionasheorsherotatesthroughtheshouldersandsimultaneouslyswingsthe
feetandhipsupwardinanaggressivebuildingofmomentum(figure13.1eg).
Theterm"driveswing"isusedbecausetheathleteshouldcontinuetomovethepoletoaverticalpositionduringtheswing.Theupwardandforwardmovementofthe
topofthepoleshouldnotberestricted,resultinginamomentumbuildingswingthatallowsthevaultertopenetrateandlandsafelyinthepit.Theathleteshouldrefrain
fromthrowingtheheadbackinanattempttoraisethehips.Theheadshouldremaininlinewiththebodyduringtheswingandshouldalsonotfocusonthecrossbar
duringthemovement.Boththrowingtheheadbackandfocusingonthecrossbarrestricttheraisingoftheathlete'scenterofgravity(hipandtorsoarea)duringthe
swing.
Theswingupshouldbeaccomplishedbysimultaneouslyshiftingthebodyparts:legsandhipsupandshouldersdown.Correctgymnasticspecificdrillsareimportant
tocreateafast,momentumbuildingswingasthepolecontinuestomoveforwardandupward.Itisparticularlyimportanttomaintainthe

Figure13.1(continued)
(eh)Polevaultprogression.

Page206

rotationthroughtheshoulderswhentheathletehascoveredthebentpolewithhipsandlegs.Ifduringthisphasetheathleteincorrectlyattemptstopullwiththearmsor
bendstheleftarm,orbendsexcessivelyatthekneesorhips,thepolewillbeginstraighteningfasterandwillthrowthevaulterawayfromthepole,notallowingthe
vaultertoobtainashighatrajectoryascanbeobtainedbymovingtheshouldersdownwardwhilethehipsriseclosetothestraighteningpole.Asthehipsswing
upward,therightelbowwillbreakandmovetotheleftsideofthepoletoallowthevaultertocontinuetheswingascloseaspossibletotheunbendingpole.
Extension,Turn,andClearance
Asthepolestraightens,theathleteshouldbeginanaggressiveverticalstraighteningofthebody,includingthetorso,hips,knees,andfeet.Theathleteshouldbemoving
paralleltothepoleandascloseaspossibletothepoleasitunbends(figure13.1honpage205).Astheathleteextendsupwardalongtheunbendingpole,heorshe
initiatesabodyturnaroundthepole.Theturningmovementbeginswhentherightshoulderhasreachedtheheightoftherighthand(figure13.1i).Themovementis
assistedbytheturningofthelegsandarms.Bothlegsshouldremainclosetogether,andthetrunkandlegsaretobekeptasrigidaspossibletoavoidanylossof
verticalvelocity.Agoodkeyforthevaulteristoattempttoturntheleft

Figure13.1(continued)
(im)Polevaultprogression.

Page207

hipascloseaspossibleintothetophandasthebodyturnsandextends.Theathletehasnowextendedandturnedasaunit,andthevaulter'sstomachisnowfacing
thecrossbar(figure13.1jk).Theentireextensionandturnphaseisanexplosiveculminationofthetakeoffandswingphasesandshouldbeseenasaquickly
executedstraighteningoftheathlete'sbody,analogoustoanupsidedownpowerclean.Therightarmreachesitsfullextensionandreleasesthepolethentheleftarm
isreleased(figure13.1lm).Thearmsarequicklyliftedawayfromthecrossbarasthethumbsrotatedownandinward,causingtheelbowstorotateawayfromthe
crossbar.Duringtheclearancephase,theathlete'schinmustremaintuckedclosetothechestuntilitcrossesthecrossbar.Iftheathleteprematurelyliftsthehead,the
chestwillbethrownintothebar.
Theproperexecutionoftheprecedingtechniquemakesitpossibletoperformasafelandinginthelandingpit.Toavoidanklesprains,theathleteshouldneverlandon
thefeet.Allsafetypaddingshouldbeinplaceandmaintainedproperlytoavoidinjury.
Whileitisimportantforthecoachtounderstandtheprecedingtechnicalaspectsoftheevent,theathletewillnotbeabletofocusonsomanydetailswhileperforming.
Thevaultershoulddeveloptheathleticskillsneededforthevaultthroughphysicalactivitiesandspecifictrainingdrillspriortoactualvaulting.Duringvaultsessions,
onlyoneaspectofatechniqueandaquickrhythmshouldbeemphasized.Forexample,''tallplantandfastswing"couldbethefocusofavaultsession.Thecoach
shouldalsocontinuetoemphasizetheaggressiverhythmofthevault.Theathleteshouldalwaysaimforactive,powerfulexecutionofthecorrecttechniqueratherthan
simply"hangingon"thepoleduringthevaultorsegmentingthephasesduringexecution.Coachesshouldkeepthefocusonexecutingthebasicsaggressively
otherwisetheoldproblemof"paralysisbyanalysis"islikelytooccur.Thecompletevault,fromtakeofftolanding,lastsslightlyoveronesecondsotheathletedoes
nothavetimetoanalyzeduringexecution.Coachesmustkeepitsimpleandattackthebasics.
TeachingProgression
Anovicevaultershouldbeintroducedtotheeventbybeingallowedtowatchmoreexperiencedvaulterstrainandcompete,ifpossible.Thisgivesthebeginnera
perceptionofthecorrecttechniquesandeffortrequiredtovaultsafelyandeffectively.Iflivedemonstrationsarenotavailable,makeavailablevideotapesofcorrect
technique.
StepOne
AwayfromtheRunway
Beginbyteachingthenovicevaulterthepropergripandhandspreadonthepole,asdescribedearlier.Awayfromtherunway,teachthevaultertoruncorrectly,with
goodpostureandrelaxedrhythmandwithaslightforwardlean.Thevaultershouldrunontheballsofthefeet,likeasprinterorlongjumper,andberelaxedenoughto
developasmoothrhythmduringthepolecarry.
Fromtheoutset,havethevaulterdevelopthetechniqueofcountingtherightfootstrikes(ifheorsheisalefthandedvaulter)andpracticemakingthetransitionfrom
theruntotheplantingpositionwithaquickandaggressivethreesteppoleplant.Thevaultershouldprogresstoanapproachrunof5075%effortwhilemaintaininga
goodrhythmduringtherun,andshowaquickplantingandtalljumpingpositionofftheground.

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StepTwo
LongJumpRunway
Afterthevaulterhasdemonstratedproficiencyonthetrackbymakingconsistentapproachesoffivetosevenstridesandfinishingwitharhythmicplant,heorshecan
movetothelongjumprunway.Removethebuttplugofthepoleandhavetheathletegrip812inches(about2030.5cm)inexcessofhisorherextendedreachon
apoleplacedvertically.Instructtheathletetoreproducetherunandplantactiondoneonthetrackandhavehimorherplantintothesandandvaultwithastraight
poleintothelongjumppitfordepth.Thecoachshouldmonitortheathleteduringthisdrilltobesurethatheorshehasestablishedasoundrhythmofrunningand
plantingthepolewithafullyextendedplantandtakeoffposition.Donotbeconcernedwiththepolebendingrather,emphasizetheextendedtoparmandstrong
jumpandtakeoffintothesandpit.Theathleteshouldlandonthefeetandcontinuetojogoutthebackofthepit.Theemphasisshouldbeonatall,"tight,"aggressive
takeoff,andontheathletemovingthepoleforwardandupwardwiththearmsandchesttoachieveasmuchdepthaspossibleintothepit.Becauseofthelowgrip,the
polewillremainridgedandthepressureofthebottomarmwillnotbeafactor.
StepThree
PoleVaultRunway
Whentheathleteshowsaconsistentapproachandtall,aggressiveplantpositionandtakeoff,heorshemayprogresstothepolevaultrunway.Recreatethedrill
describedaboveonthepolevaultrunway,havingtheathleteusethesamefivefootstrikeapproachtojog,plantthepole,andswingintothepit.Emphasizethecorrect
plantingandtakeoffpositionsandestablishthecorrecttakeoffpointbelowtheathlete'stophandwhenthepoleisplacedatthebackofthebox.Theathleteshouldbe
encouragedtodeveloparhythmicrunandplantingcadence,leadingtoanaggressivetakeoffthatallowshimorhertoplantthepoleandswingintothebackofthepit
safelyontheathlete'sback.Graduallyaddmorestrides,morespeed,andahigherhandholdaslongastheathletecontinuestovaultwithpropertakeoffpositions.This
shouldleadtoefficientpolespeedtolandsafelyinthemiddleorbackportionsofthelandingpit.
StepFour
SevenStrideApproach
Oncetheathleteestablishestherhythmofanaggressiveplant,takeoff,andswing,heorshewillcontinuetoprogresstowardasevenstrideapproach.Donotbe
concernedwiththeathletebendingthepoleduringtheseinitialdrills.Apolethatbendstooeasilyfromashortapproachcausesbadhabitstobeingrainedbythe
vaulter,suchasbeingabletopulldownonthepoleattakeoff,sinkingratherthanjumpingproperlyintothepit,orpullinginwithbotharmsinsteadofpushingthepole
forwardwhilejumping.
StepFive
ShortApproachVaulting
Whentheathleteisproficientfromasevenstrideapproachonthetrack,andcanshowproficiencyintheshortapproachandplantsequence,heorshecanmoveto
therunwayforshortapproachvaulting.Thecoachshouldmakesurethatthepolebeingusedissufficientforvaulter'sweightandhandhold,toallowhimorherto
safelyenterthepit.Fromthisapproachdistance,theathleteshouldbeabletosafelybeginbendingthepoleandlandinginthemiddletobackportionofthelandingpit.

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StepSix
VaultingwithaCrossbar
Whentheathletehasmasteredshortapproachvaultingandexhibitsaquickandproperplantandtakeoffthatresultsinasafelandinginthepit,heorshemay
progresstovaultingwithacrossbar.Thecoachshouldrequirethattheathletevaultwhilekeepingthecrossbaratmaximumsettingsbehindtheverticalplaneofthe
vaultbox.
Atthispoint,theathletemaybegintocontinuetheswingaroundthetophandandallowthehipstoriseandturnasheorsheattemptstocrossthebarwhilepresenting
thestomachandchesttothecrossbar.
Whenteachingbeginningvaulterswhoareusingashortapproachofsevenstridesorless,agripheightof12feet(about3.7m)orlessisrecommended.
Thecoachshouldalwaysstresstheimportanceofanaggressiveandproperplantandtakeoff.
Coachesshouldexplaintonovicevaultersthatallvaultingpoleshaveadefinitebendwhentheyaremade.Byrotatingthepoleyoucanlocatethe"bow."Thebow
shouldfacethepitasthevaulterleavestheground.Therefore,thebowwillfacetowardtherunwayduringthecarryandapproachrun.
StepSeven
ShortRunVaulting
Theathleteisnowreadytostartshortrunvaultingatlowheights.Theathleteshouldbeginbyusingapoleratedathisorherownweight,withalowhandhold.Asthe
athlete'sproficiencyandconfidenceincreases,heorsheandthecoachcanbegintofocusonthevariousphasesoftherun,plant,takeoff,swing,andextension.
Training
Theoverridingtrainingphilosophyshouldbeoneofmaintainingabalancebetweenallofthecomponentsoftraining.Aswedevelopaworkoutschedule,wemust
keepinmindtheexampleofformerPolishnationalcoachAndrzejKrzesinski,whohasproducedmanyworldclassvaulters.CoachKrzesinskibelievesthattraining
shouldbelikechargingabattery.Theprocessshouldbedoneoveralongperiodoftime,withtheathletegraduallydevelopingfitnessandtechnique.Overemphasisof
anycomponentwillresultinadeficiencyinanothertrainingcomponent.Forexample,overemphasisinweighttrainingbeforeatechniquesessionthefollowingdaywill
causethetechniquesessiontosuffer.(Seetable13.2onpage212forasampleworkoutstructure.)
Eachtrainingsituationisuniqueinregardtoequipment,timeconstraints,andofcoursethecharacteristicsoftheathletesthemselves.Soacoachshouldstructure
workoutsbyconsideringtheseparameters.Thefollowingaregeneralconsiderations.
GeneralFitness
Theathleteshouldcompleteageneralconditioningprogramofapproximatelythreetofourweeks.Longercrosscountryrunsof1520minutesshouldbestructured
twotothreetimesaweektodevelopacardiovascularbase.Generalweightliftingconditioningshouldalsobedonetwotothreetimesaweek.Gymnasticstraining,or
swingdrillsonaropeorhighbar,shouldbedoneatleast

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twiceweeklyduringthisbaseconditioningphase.Generaltechniquesessionsshouldbeconductedtwotothreetimesaweektodeveloptheathlete'sskillsofrunning
withthepoleandproperplantingandjumpingtechniques.Walkingorjoggingplantdrillsshouldbeperformeddaily.Theathletesshouldnotbeallowedtodoany
actualpolevaultingduringthegeneralconditioningphase.Aftertheathletehasdevelopedgeneralfitnessandcandemonstrateproperrunningandplantingtechniques
awayfromtherunway,vaultingsessionscanbeaddedtotheworkoutschedule.
Afterachievinggeneralphysicalandtechnicalconditioning,theathleteshouldfollowaworkoutschedulethatfavorsabalancebetweenallfacetsofhisorhertraining.
Asmentionedabove,eachtrainingsituationisuniquetherefore,thecoachmustadaptthesegeneraltrainingparameterstotheindividualathlete.Followingarethe
basiccomponentsofthevaulter'strainingcycle,whichmustbeadaptedtoeachindividualtrainingsituation.
Running
Twotothreetimesaweektheathleteshouldrunintervalsofvaryingdistancesnottoexceed300meters.Intheearlyseason,atypicalrunningworkoutwouldconsist
of4300metersatlessthanmaximumspeed,buthardenoughtohavetoworktomaintainspeed(perhaps@9095%ofmaximum),followedby4100meter
easyaccelerationstowarmdown.Astheseasonprogresses,athleteswillprogresstoshorterdistancessuchas6150metersor10100meters.Scheduleinterval
sessionsforaftervaultingsessions,iftheathletescanhandlethisworkload.
TechniqueSession
Techniquesessionsshouldbeheldtwotothreetimesaweek.Techniquesessionsmayincludeactualvaulting(table13.1)aswellastheotherdrillsdescribed.Each
techniquesessionshouldfocusontwoorthreeofthedrills,withaprimaryfocusinmind.Forexample,onetechniquesessionperweekmaybefocusedonrunning
withthepole,properrunningposturewiththepole,andrhythmofapproachrunsonthetrack.Aseconddayoftechniquemightconcentrateontheplantingand
jumpingaction,usingpopups,takeoffdrills,orstraightpole/sandpitjumping.Alwayspracticesomesortofplantdrillstoestablishproperrhythm.
GymnasticsTraining
Gymnasticstrainingshouldbescheduledtwotothreetimesperweek.Participationinabeginninggymnasticsclassortrainingatagymnasticsfacilitywithan
experiencedgymnasticscoachispreferable.Theemphasisshouldbeondrillsinvolvingswingingfromtheringsorhorizontalbar.Conditioningoftheshouldersand
torsoshouldbeapriority.
WeightTraining
Weighttrainingshouldbescheduledtwotothreetimesaweekandtaperedduringthecompetitiveseason.Beginningathletesshouldconcentrateongeneralweight
trainingbutastheirexperienceandphysicalmaturityincreases,theyshouldfocusonmoreexplosiveOlympicstylelifting.

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TABLE13.1SAMPLEVAULTINGTECHNIQUESESSION
WARMUP

Webeginbyjoggingatleastthreequartersofamiletoonemileandperforming
stretchingandflexibilitydrillsfor15minutes.Theathletesdo270meterand280
meteraccelerationstowarmup.
Allathletesthenmeasuretheirapproachrunsandbeginbychoosingthreewarmup
drillstodeveloptheareastheywishtofocusoninpractice.Forexample,theathletes
maydofivetoeightrepetitionsofswingups,takeoffdrills,orlowgripstraightpole
vaults.Thesedrillsarefollowedbyfourtosixapproachrunsdoneonthetrackto
completethewarmupandtocheckthevaulters'approachesbeforetheybegin
vaulting.

VAULTING
SESSION

Ifthevaulterisjumpingfromashortapproach(7leftsorrights),heorshemaybe
abletocomplete1520vaultspersession.Iftheathleteisjumpingfromalonger
approach(9or10leftsorrights),heorshemaycomplete1015vaultspersession.
Eachsessionshouldfocusononeaspectofthevaultthattheathleteisattempting
toimprove.Forexample,theaspectmightbeearlyplantaggressive,relaxedand
consistentapproachesoracceleratingthroughthedriveandswingphases.
Thetraininggroupsshouldalwaysworktogether.Aftertheathletetakesapractice
vault,heorshereceivesfeedbackfromthecoachandthencatchesthenextvaulter's
takeoffstepandpole.Theathleteproceedsbacktherunwaytocatch(identify)the
nextvaulter'scoach'smark,andfinallymovesbackintherotationforthenext
attempt.Thisrotationcreatesagoodsystemoffeedbackforallathletesastheytrain.
Vaultingworkoutsshouldbedonewhentheathletesareinrelativelyfreshcondition
andcanaggressivelycompletetheirattempts.Alwaysbeginonsmallerpoleswith
lowergrips,andmovetoheavierpolesandhighergripsifneededordesirableduring
theworkouts.Allpracticesareconductedwiththestandardsplacedatmaximum
settings(80centimeters)topromotesafetyandaggressiveandpowerfultakeoffs
andswingrhythms.

COOLDOWN

Asacooldown,theathleteshouldalwaysjogeasilyforapproximately10minutes
andstretchoutforanother10minutesbeforemovingontothenextcomponentof
thetraining.

RestandRecovery
Atleastonesessionperweekshouldinvolveactiverecoverybytheathlete.Theseactivitiesincludeeasyjogging,stretching,swimming,underwatervaulting,andso
on.Polevaultingsessionsrequiretheathletetoberelativelyfreshandabletocompletejumpswithanaggressiverunandplant.Therefore,thecoachshould

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TABLE13.2SAMPLEWEEKLYWORKOUTFORVAULTING

Becauseeachcoach'ssituationisunique,acoachmustdevelopaweeklycyclethat
worksbestforhimorher.Atypicalearlyseasonworkoutschedulecouldbe
constructedasfollows:

Monday

Vaultingtechniquesessionfollowedbyintervaltrainingorhurdledrills.

Tuesday

Gymnasticstrainingfollowedbylightjoggingandweighttraining.

Wednesday

Vaultingtechniquesessionfollowedbypolerunsandlongjumpdrills.

Thursday

Gymnasticstrainingandweightlifting.

Friday

Polevaultplantdrillsandlightjoggingandstretchingpriortoacompetition.Ifno
competitiononSat.,approachrunsandintervaltraining,suchas6150m.

Saturday

Competition.Ifnocompetition,polevaultdrillsandweightlifting.

Sunday

Activerest.

ThefollowingisatypicalweeklytrainingschedulewehaveusedattheUniversityof
Tennessee:

Monday

10100maccelerations,followedbylightplyometricsorhurdledrillsandhurdle
running.

Tuesday

Gymnasticstraining,followedbyweightlifting.

Wednesday

Vaultingandtechniquesession,followedbyfilmreview.

Thursday

Gymnasticsandweighttraining.

Friday

Techniquedrillsession,followedbyintervalsforexample,6150m.

Saturday

Activerestforexample:swimming,underwatervaultdrills,andstretching.

Sunday

Vaultingsession,followedbyweighttrainingandfilmreview.

Again,balanceisthekey.Thecoachmustbesensitivetoeachathlete'sabilityto
acceptdifferentworkloads.Also,differentathletesmaynotbeabletoperformsimilar
workouts.Somemayneedmoreorlessworkineacharea.Forexample,vaultingthree
timesaweekmaynotbepossibleforsomeathletes,andtheirworkoutsshouldbe
limitedaccordingly.

makesurethatsessionsonvaultingtechniqueareprecededbyeasyormediumeffortdays.Duringearlyseasoncompetitions,adayofrestandrecoverywitheasy
activitypriortocompetitionisbeneficial.Priortolateseasoncompetitions,twodaysofrestandrecoveryarepreferable.Restandrecoveryperiodsarenot
synonymouswithinactivity.Athletesshouldalwaysjog,stretch,ordootherlightactivityduringtheserestingcomponents.
Integration
Becausevaultinghasvarioustrainingcomponents,vaultersshouldbeintegratedintootherworkoutgroupsifpossible.Toooftenthevaultersareleftontheirown

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whennotactuallyvaulting.Thecoachcanmaximizeefficiencyanddevelopteamspiritbyhavingthevaultersrunwiththesprinters,performdrillsessionswiththe
hurdlersandlongjumpers,andliftwiththethrowers.Atthecollegiatelevel,decathletesandvaultersarenaturalworkoutpartners.
Table13.2onpage212illustratesaweeklyworkoutstructureshowingthetypesoftrainingthatshouldbeaddedtotheathletes'weeklyworkouts.
CorrectingCommonFaults
Someofthemorecommonfaultsthatathletesandcoachesmayencounterincludethese:
Deceleratingattakeoff
Takingofffromaninside,or"under,"position
Keepingtheheadandeyesfocusedonthebar,killingswing/inversion
Failingtoextendbotharmsattakeoff,resultingincomingdownonthebar
Inconsistentapproachrun
Thefollowingdrillsshouldbeusedtocorrectthesecommonfaults:
StiffPoleVaulting
Thevaulterusesalowhandholdandasixsteprunwitharidgedpole.Theemphasisshouldbeonatallandtighttakeoffandfullyextendedtoparm.Iftheathlete
doesnotreachthevertical,thegripshouldbeloweredbutiftheathletedoesreachtheverticalandpassesquicklyintothepit,thehandholdmaycontinuetobe
graduallyincreaseduntiltheathletemakesaverticalpositioninthedirectionofthelandingarea.
ApproachRuns
Theathlete'srunshouldbemarkedonthetrack,awayfromtheboxorlandingarea,bymeasuringhisorherstepsfromatowelorsmallsandtuberepresentingthe
box.Allathleteandcoachmarksshouldbeincluded.Thevaultersimulateshisorherapproachplantandaggressivetakeoff.Thisdrillwillencourageconsistencyand
confidenceintheapproachandplant.Remembertoalwaysrunthroughthetakeoffandsimulateastrongjump.Theathleteistorunthroughthetakeoff,nottothe
takeoff.
PopUps
Thevaulterjogsfromashortapproachwithalowhandholdandpracticesplantingthepoleinthebox,thensimulatesaquick,rhythmicplantandswing,landingonhis
orherbackinthepit.
TakeoffTowelDrill
Tocorrectthehabitofchronicallytakingofftoofarunderthetophand,thecoachplacesatowelsixinchesinfrontofthevaulter'sidealtakeoffpoint.Instructthe
vaultertorun,plant,andtakeofffrombehindthetowel.Thevaulterwillbeawareofthetowelwithoutfocusingonit.Theinnatefearofsteppingonthetowelis
generallystrongenoughtobreakthechainofingrainedmovementpatterns.

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Counting
Teachyourvaultertocounteverytimetheleftfoot(forarighthandedvaulter)contactsthetrackduringtheapproach.Theathletewillnowbeabletoanticipatethe
beginningoftheplantonthecorrectcount.(Note:Somevaultersprefertocountbackward,asforarocketlaunchIsuggestexperimenting.)Thisdrillwillhelp
vaulterswhofeeltheplantactionsneaksuponthemandcatchesthemunpreparedtobegintoplantandtakeoff.
Push
Coachescanincreasetheirvaulter'stakeoffvelocityandresultingpenetrationbyactuallypushingontheathlete'sbackattakeoff.Thecoachshouldstandontheleft
sideoftherunway(forrighthandedvaulter)andpushthevaulterbetweentheshoulderbladesusingtherighthand.Spottingtheathletehelpsthevaulterbecomemore
confidentandthusmoreaggressive.Thepushisespeciallyusefulinhelpingavaulterraisethegriporwhenswitchingtoalargerpole.
ShortRunVault
Thevaultisperformedwithashorterrun(sevenstrides).Havetheathleteconcentrateononephasethatneedsimproving.Theshortapproachallowsmorevaultsto
becompletedduringapracticesession,andallowsvaulterstofocusontechniqueusingsmallerpoleswithwhichtheyfeelconfident.
TakeoffDrill
Beginningfromafourstepapproach,theathletewalksandperformstheplantingandtakeoffmotionsandextendsintoatall,tighttakeoffposition.Thecoachspots
theathletefrombehindbyfirmlygraspingthebackandlatareaasthevaulterrisesfromthegroundandreturnstotherunway.Thisdrillwillshowtheathletethatthe
armsmustbefullyextendedandrigidandthatthedrivelegandchestmustalsoremainrigidasheorsheleavestheground.Forarighthandedvaulter,thisdrillcan
alsobeperformedwiththecoachspottingtheathletefromtheleftsideoftherunway.Theathletejogsorwalksafourtofivestepapproachduringtakeoffthecoach
spotsthevaulterwiththerighthandinthecenteroftheathlete'sbackbetweentheshoulderbladesandthelefthandontheathlete'sleftthigh.Theathletemustremain
"tight,"withafirmgriponthepole.Thecoachstabilizestheathleteasheorshejumpsoffthegroundandassiststhereturntotherunway.Theathletemustleadwith
thechestanddrivekneeandholdthispositionthroughoutthedrill.Tofinishthedrill,theathletereturnstolandonthetakeofffootandtakesseveraljoggingsteps
backward.Iftheathleteabortsthedrill,thecoachmustspottheathletebywrappinghisorherarmsaroundtheathlete'storsoandgentlyloweringtheathletetothe
ground.
GymnasticsApparatus
Theathletemaysimulatephasesofthevaultongymnasticsrings,parallelbars,rope,orothergymnasticsdevices.Thegymnasticsapparatusisverybeneficialin
teachingtheathletetoswingaggressivelyandcontrolthebodysothatthehipsrisewhiletheshoulderslower.Itisalsovaluableforteachingtheathletetoswingand
rotatethroughtheshouldersratherthanpullandcurlupsidedown.Abeginninggymnasticscoursecanhelpteachspacialawarenessandbodycontrol.

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VaultingforHeight
Setthebaratthevaulter'spersonalbestoratoneortwofeetabovethat.Thisencouragesthevaultertoextendaggressivelyandtorefrainfromlookingatthebar,
whichcausestheathletetoflagoutinsteadofcontinuingupward.
VideotapingandImagery
Videotapetechniquepracticesasmuchaspossiblesothatathletescanobservetheirtechnique.Thevaulter'sinternalimagerymaybequitedifferentthanwhatheor
sheseesonthevideoreplay.Thevaultershouldalsousevisualizationtomentallyrehearseperformingthecorrecttechniques.
AdjustmentsforWeather
Itisimportanttopracticevaultinginlessthanidealconditions.Vaultersshouldpracticeintoaheadwindorshiftingwindonaregularbasissothattheylearntomake
adjustmentsbyshorteningtheirrun,usingasofterpole,andloweringthehandhold.Vaultersshouldpracticemakingthesesameadjustmentsforvaultinginwet
conditionssothattheywillmaketheproperdecisionsduringcompetition.Ifthereisatailwind,vaultersmustmakesimilaradjustmentstotakeadvantageofgood
conditions.Ingoodconditionswithfavorablewinds,vaultersmaybeabletoraisetheirhandholdandincreasethelengthoftherun.Inbetterconditions,vaulterswill
alsobeabletousestifferpoles.Thecoachshouldmonitorallpracticesandbeespeciallyvigilantifpoorconditionsarise.Theathletesareeagertocompeteandare
aggressiveinnaturesothecoachmustdecideifinclementweathershouldprohibitthemfromvaulting.Asagoodruleofthumb:Iftheathleteis"intheair,"thecoach
shouldbetheresupervising.
Competition
Vaultersshouldabidebythemottoof"BePrepared."Vaultingcompetitionswillgenerallylastseveralhourssoathletesshouldpreparethemselveswithproper
clothingandequipmentsuchasextratowels,umbrellas,tapemeasure,andchalkortapetoensureagoodgrip.Vaultersmustalsokeepproperlyhydratedduringthe
competition.Duringlongercompetitiontheathletesmayconsumesmallamountsoffruitorlightsnackstomaintaintheirenergylevels.
Afteraproperwarmup,includingpolerunsandtechniquedrills,theathleteshouldtakefromthreetofivefullapproachjumpswithasmallpole.Theopeningheight
shouldbeapproximatelyoneandonehalffeetbelowpersonalbestorthegoalheightheorshehassetforthatcompetition.Thecoachandathleteshouldgaugethe
windandweatherconditionsforadjustmentsinthesegeneralparameters.Ifthereisanunfavorablewind,orcoldorrainyweather,theathletemaystartwithasmaller
poleandaloweropeningheight,ormayevenrunfromashorter(sevenleftorrightfootstrikes)approachrun.Irecommendthatthevaulterjumpeveryheightinthe
competitionafterstarting,todevelopconfidenceandrhythminhisorhervault.Passingheightsisonlyforthemostexperiencedathletes.Ifthevaulterneedstoswitch
toastifferpolebecauseheorsheisgettingtoomuchdepth,orthepoleismovingtoverticalfasterthantheathletecanswingupsidedown,Irecommendswitching
polesonthefirst

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attemptatanewheight,ifpossible.Vaultersshouldsticktotheirgameplanandfocusontheirapproachandtakeoffduringcompetitions.Don'tletothercompetitors
affectyourdecisions.
Itisveryimportantthatteammatesworktogetherduringthecompetitiontohelpwithsteps,poles,andstandards,becauseinallprobability,thecoachmaynotbe
allowedintothemeetareaormayhavebeencalledawaytocoachotherevents.Teammatesworkingtogetherisabigadvantageduringcompetition.
Summary
Successfulvaultingrequiresconsistentpropertechniquebytheathlete,coupledwithaggressiveexecution.Tovaultsafely,theathletecannevergo"halfspeed"onthe
runway.Bydevelopingpropertechniquethroughplantingdrillsandapproachruns,theathletewilldeveloptheconfidenceandconsistencytovaulteffectivelyandhave
fun.

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PARTIV
THROWINGEVENTS

Page219

14
ShotPut
BillGodina
RonBackes

Mostcoachesbelievethattechnicalproficiencyismoreeasilyachievedbyinitiallyteachingallputterstheglidetechnique.Later,atthehighschoolorcollegelevel,the
coachorathletewilldeterminethebesttechnicalpathtotake(glideorspin).Coachesshouldkeepinmindthatmanyofourworldclassspinners,suchasJohn
Godina,were60footglidersinhighschool.Theglideprovidedthemasolidunderstandingofthepowerpositionandreleasemovement.Traditionally,thisgroupwas
verysoundintheglidebeforeswitchingtotherotation.Oncethetransitiontothespintechniqueismade,someathletesseedramaticimprovementsintheir
performances.Itisoftencharacteristicslikestrength,flexibility,andspeedthatdictatewhichtechniqueisbestforaparticularathlete.Withalittleexperimentation,the
athleteandcoachcandeterminewhichtechniquewillresultinthebestperformances.

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GlideTechnique
WhenParryO'Brien,ayoungUniversityofSouthernCaliforniaathlete,turnedthestartingpositionoftheshotputmovement90degrees,ahistoricalbreakthroughin
techniqueoccurredintheevent.AndO'Brienbecamethefirstmantobreakthe60footbarrier.HecompetedonfourOlympicteams,wontwogoldmedalsandone
silvermedal,and,from1952to1956,had116consecutivevictories,arecordthatstillstandsthirtyyearslater.O'Brien'sdistancerecordswereprogressivelybroken,
climaxingin1965whenanotherAmerican,RandyMatson,shatteredthe70footbarrier.''Gliders"continuedtopushbackshotputdistances,culminatingwithUlf
Timmermann'sworldrecordof75feet,8inches(about23.06m)in1988.Althoughthespintechniquehasgrowninpopularityinrecentyears,manyworldclass
throwerscontinuetousetheglide.
Sincetheworldrecordforthemen'sshot,75feet,101/4inches(about23.12m),wasachievedbyaspinner,whydoworldclassathletescontinuetousetheglide?
Theanswerliesintwodimensionssimplicityandconsistency.Thefactis,theglidemovementislinearandsimple,unliketherotationalstyleofthespin,whichis
highlycomplex.Theglidecanbeusedwithmoreconsistencybecauseithasthreephasesthatarereadilyachievedtherotationalmovementhasmoreopportunitiesfor
error.
PhasesoftheGlide
Intheglidetechnique,threeprinciplesareessentialtoputtingtheshotfar.Theseareangleofrelease,heightofrelease,andvelocityofrelease.Theoptimumangleof
releaseintheglideis40to42degrees.Thehigherthereleasefromhorizontal,themoredistanceisachieved.Finally,thevelocityofrelease(howfasttheshotleaves
thehand)istheprimarydeterminerofdistanceachieved.Oneofthesefactors,theheightofrelease,isdeterminedbytheheightoftheathleteandcannotbeinfluenced
bycoachingortraining.However,theothertwofactorscanbeinfluencedbystrength/powertrainingandtechniquedevelopment.
Sometimesdescribedasthelinearstyle,theshotputglidehastheleastcomplextechniqueofthefourthrowingevents.Whatisforgottenbymanyisthattheglideisa
rhythmicactivitythatmustbesequentiallyexecutedtoachieveoptimumresults.Thephysiologicaldifferencesinathletesnecessitatesvariationsofthetechnique
describedinthischapter.Ourfocuswillbethecriticalpathofcertaineventsthatmustoccurregardlessofindividualvariation.
StartingPosition

Figure14.1
Directionalfocusofcircle,with
12o'clockasthedirectionofthe
throw.

Theathletefaces6o'clockinthering(figure14.1).Theweight/centerofgravityisovertherightfoot.(Ourexamplewillusetherighthandedshotputter.)Theshotis
heldonthecenterfingersandtuckedagainsttheneckwiththethumbdown(figure14.2a).Theanglebetweenthetorsoandupperarmis90degrees.Theheadis
square,withtheeyesfocusedonapointoutsidetheringforquickreference,selectadistanceequaltothediameterofthecircle(aboutsevenfeet).Thetorsocanbe
ineitheranuprightstartingpositionforadynamicstartoralower,moretraditionalposition.Regardlessofthestartingposition,thebackandneckmustbeinastraight
plane.

Page221

Movementisinitiatedbypushingoffthesupportlegandthrustingthenonsupportlegtowardthefrontofthering(figure14.2b).Thehipsbegintosettletowardthe
centerofthering.Therightheeldepartstherearofthecirclelast.Throughouttheinitialmovement,theupperbodyremainsfacingthesixo'clockposition,whilethe
lowerbeginstoturnandface3o'clockonthecircle(figure14.2cd).Thefeetlandwiththelefttoebetweentherightinstepandheel.Thisrelationshipofupperand
lowerbodyiscommonlycalled"separation."Thecenterofgravityisovertherightleg.Theshotisbehindtherighthipreadytofollowthebodythroughtorelease.
Thisisthe"powerposition,"whichwillgeneratetorqueandpermitapplicationofforcethroughoutthethrow.
Proponentsoftheverticalstartpositionbelievethatthe"dynamicstart"increasestheshotvelocityalongthepathoftravelandrequireslessstrength.Ontheother
hand,thosebeginninglower,inthe"Tposition,"believethiscreatesamoreprecisepowerpositionformoreefficientapplicationofforce.TheTpositionrequiresmore
strengthtopropeltheathletetowardthefrontofthecircle.

Figure14.2
(ad)Shotputtechnique,startingfromthe"Tposition."

Glide
Thetwomainapproachestoachievingthepowerpositionarethelong/shortglideandtheshort/longglide.Themodellong/shortgliderwasAlFeuerbach.His
techniqueconsistedofaverydynamicstart,whichdrovehisrightfoot8to12inches(about20to30.5cm)beyondthecenteroftheringwhileachievingthepower
position(figure14.2e).Theshort/longglidewashighlyinfluencedbyGermancoaches,whoproducedtheprototypeinUlfTimmermann.Theinitialmovement,though
dynamic,isshorter,withtherightfootatorbehindthecenterofthering.Theproponentsoftheshort/longglidebelievethattheshotismoreeasilydriventhrougha
singleplanewithgreatervelocityandthattheforceislesslikelytobesplit.Whenmatchingthetechniquetotheathlete,oneshouldconsiderspeed,[strength,agility,
andheight.Historically,thesmaller[5feet,11inchesto6feet,1inch(about180cmto185cm)],moreathleticindividualappearstobemoresuccessfulwiththe
long/shorttechnique.
Thethrowisinitiatedfromthepowerposition.Thehipsbegintoturnaroundthecenterofgravity,whichpassesthroughtheballoftherightfoot,whichneverstops
turning(figure14.2f).Theuppertorsotrailsthehipsastorqueisappliedfromthelegs.At2o'clocktheupperbodyandshotaccelerateandcatchthelowertorso.
Delivery
Thedeliveryphasebeginswithinitiationofthearmstrikeandtheshotbeingpushedfromtheneck.Theleadlegstraightensandbeginsablockingaction,whichhalts
leftsidemovementandacceleratestherightsideandtheshot(figure14.2g).Atrelease,

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thearmisfullyextended:thethumbispointeddownandtheshotisflickedawaywiththefingers.Theheadisupandtheeyesarefocusedonthetrajectory.
Therearetwoprimarymethodstofinishthethrow.Thefirstisthereverse.Inthereverse,linearmomentumfromtheblockisdissipatedbyexchangingthepositionsof
theleftandrightfeet(figure14.2h).Therightarmisextendedandtheleftarmisparalleltotheground.Theputterlandsflatfootedontherightfootandfaces9
o'clock.Thesecondmethod,usedbymanyEuropeanthrowers,isthenonreversethrow.Inthenonreverse,thefeetremainessentiallyinthepowerpositionatrelease.
Therightfootmovesforwardfourtoeightinches(about10to20cm)followingrelease.Currentbiomechanicalresearchindicatesthatthenonreversetechniqueis
moreefficientsinceitpermitsapplicationofforceoveralongerpathduringdelivery.

Figure14.2(continued)
(eh)Theglideanddelivery.

TeachingProgression
Techniqueismostsuccessfullytaughtandcoachedfromthefrontofthecircletotherearofthecircle(from12o'clockto6o'clock).
Grip
Thefirststepistogriptheshotinamannerthatfacilitatestheapplicationofforceduringthedeliveryphase.Theshotisplacedonthepadsofthecenterthreefingers
inthepalmofthehand.Thethumbandfifthfingerstabilizetheshotinthatposition.
CarryingPosition
Onceacomfortablegripisachieved,thecoachandathletemustdeterminethecorrectcarryingpositionforeachthrower.Theshotispositionedonthenecktopermit
releasewiththethumbpointingdownandthefingersfullyextended.Astartingpointisontheneckundertherightjaw.Throughexperimentation,theoptimumposition
isdeterminedandisprogrammedintotheathlete'smusclememory.Keepinmindthatthepositionpointsfortheindoorandoutdoorshotwilldifferandmustbe
determinedbyexperimentation.
Control
Controlandkinestheticawarenessofthelegsandrightsideofthebodyinthepowerpositioniscritical.Thepowerpositionisestablishedwiththeheeloftherightfoot
alignedwiththetoeoftheleftfoot.Thefeetareapproximatelyshoulder

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widthapart.Thispositionpermitsmaximumgenerationoftorqueandapplicationofforcebythelargestmusclegroupinthebody,thelegs.
Toprogressivelytraintheathlete,drillsatthefrontoftheringarecritical.
DoublePivotDrill
Thefirstdrill,thedoublepivotdrill,isthebeginningofharnessingthelegsandhipsintheput.Thefeetarepositionedinthecorrectheeltotoerelationship,withthe
shotcorrectlypositionedontheneck.Theathletesquatsdownontheballsofbothfeet,facing3o'clock.Fromthatposition,thethrowerraisestotheverticalposition
whilepivotingsimultaneouslyontheballsofbothfeet.Thepivotis90degrees,withthecenterofgravityovertherightfoot.Thearmsareextendedandtheshotis
released.Theheadisback,withtheeyesoverhead.Bothfeetfinishinthe12o'clockposition.
NonreverseThrow
Drillnumbertwofocusestheballisticqualitiesofthethrower.Thisisanonreversethrowinwhichthebodyextensionbeyondthetoeboardisemphasized.Transferof
momentumfromtherightsideofthebodytotheleftsideculminatesinahardblock.Thissimulatestheshotaccelerationexperiencedinthefullthrow.Theathlete
beginsfacing3o'clock.Theleftlegisslightlybent,withweightontherightside.Therightfootpivotsviolently90degrees,turningtherightlegintothebentleftleg.
Theleftleglocksandinitiatestheblock,whichresultsinaccelerationoftheshot.Theliftcreatesastretchreflex,whichcontributestoanincreaseofshotvelocity.Both
feetfinishpointedinthe12o'clockposition.
FullReverseStandThrow
Drillthreeisthefullreversestandthrow.Theathleteassumesthepowerposition.Thelowerbodyfaces3o'clock,andtheupperbodyisinthe6o'clockposition.
Manypublicationsdescribethisuppertolowerbodyrelationshipas"separation."Thelegsdriveviolentlywitharotationallift.Theleftleglockstoestablishthe
blockingforce.Therightfootreplacestheleftfoot,landingonthebottomoftheentirefootparalleltothetoeboard.Thethrower'supperandlowerbodyisfacing9
o'clock.Therightarmisupandextended.Theleftarmisextendedbackandparalleltothesurfaceoftheringforbalance.
Beforeteachingmovementfromthebackofthering,makesurethethrowerhasmastereddrillsonethroughthree.Thethrowermustfeeltherightsideandunderstand
theimportanceoflegsinaccelerationandballisticdeliveryoftheshotintheblock.Finally,thecontrolledreverseenablesthethrowertoremaininthering,resultingin
afairthrow.
RhythmandSpeed
Thefinalphaseoftheteachingprogressiondealswithinitiationoftheglidefromthebackofthering.Theathletefaces6o'clock,glidestothecenterofthering,
pauses,andreleasestheshotusingthedoublepivot,nonreverse,andfullreversestandthrowdrills.Oncethethrowerhasachievedconsistencyoffootplacement,the
pauseiseliminated.Thefocusbecomesrhythmandspeedintransitiontooneofthethreethrowingdrills.
Theglideremainsthefoundationforshotputting.Forasuccessfulglide,thegrip,implementposition,singularlineofpower,andactiverightsidemust

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maximizevelocityfromtherearoftheringtothemiddle.Theblockbytheleftsidecannotbeneglectedifshotaccelerationistooccurandmaximumvelocityachieved.
Theglideistaughtinsegments,butthecoachmusttiethepiecestogetherthroughthedevelopmentofrhythmandconsistency.Remember,eachathleteis
biomechanicallydifferent,buttheprinciplesdescribedmustbeachievedbyalliftheyaretosucceed.
SpinTechnique
byRonBackes
ThespintechniquewasamajorreasonwhyIwasabletocompeteinthe1992OlympicGamesinBarcelona,Spain.Inhighschool,usingtheglidetechnique,mybest
markintheshotputwas50feet,5inches(about15.4m).However,Ididmanagetothrowthediscus181feet,9inches(about55.4m).Thisdiscrepancyin
performancesledmyfirstcollegecoachatHamlineUniversity,DickMulkern,tosuggestItakethespinningactionusedinthediscusandapplyittotheshotput.Thus,
Istartedusingthespintechnique.Iquicklytooktothespinandsawdramaticimprovementsinmyperformanceandmyenjoymentoftheevent.Undertheguidanceof
mycoachfromtheUniversityofMinnesota,SteveForseth,Iachievedacareerbest68feet,113/4inches(about21m)withthespintechnique.EvenwhenIwas
throwingthe16pound(about7.3kg)shotput68feet(about20.7m)withthespin,Icouldonlymuster61or62feet(about18.6mto18.9m)withtheglide.Iam
notopposedtousingtheglidetechniquehowever,someathletes,likeme,mightbenefitfromusingthespin.
Thefollowingaresomeofmypersonalinsightsandexperiencesoverthepast17yearsofperformingandcoachingthespintechnique.Itismyhopethatthesewillaid
youinyourcoachingofthespin.
Philosophy
Myphilosophyregardingthespintechniquehasalwaysbeensimplicity.Whendonecorrectly,thespintechniqueshouldappearefficientandeffortless.Theathlete
mayevensay,"Thatfelteasy"or"Ihardlyfeltthatone."Thisisasignthattheathletehasfinallymasteredasmoothandefficientthrow.Itisimportantforathletesto
focuson"bigpicture"conceptslikebalance,rhythm,andthefeelingofdifferentpositionsofthethrow.Asacoach,itisimportanttousecommonvocabularyand
simpleanalogiestohelpathletesmastertheseconcepts.Bydoingthis,smalltechnicalproblemswilloftentakecareofthemselves.
DevelopingaCommonVocabulary
Akeyfactorinmasteringthespintechniqueisthedevelopmentofacommonvocabularybetweenthecoachandathlete.Commontermswillenhancethe
communicationprocess,reducechancesformisunderstanding,andhelpincompetitivesituations.Isuggestcoachesdevelopahandbookthatoutlinesthetrainingplan,
describestheprogramphilosophy,andliststermsanddefinitionstogivetohisorherathletes.Thiswillimprovecoachingeffectivenessandbuildconfidenceandtrust
withtheathlete.Someexamplesofcommontermsthatrelatetobodypositioninclude:
Powerpositionfortherighthandedthrower,thisisthepositioninwhichtheathlete'sleftlegtouchesdowninthefrontofthecirclewhiletherightlegisnear

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thecenterofthering.Theshouldersfacethe6o'clockpositionwhilehipsarefacing3o'clock.
Wraptherelationshipoftheleftarmtotherightleginthepowerposition.Itreferstotheleftarmposition,whichappearstobeacrossthebodyatthemomentthe
athletereachesthepowerposition.Thishelpskeeptheshouldersfromopeningtoosoon.
Cowboythebowleggedstartingpositioninthebackofthecircle.
Separationtherelationshipbetweentheupperandlowerbodyduringthespinmovement.Thelowerbodyisalwaysmovingaheadoftheupperbodysoastodrag
theupperbodyalong.
Torquethemusculartensionbetweentheabdominalobliquemusclesandthetrunk,whichisaresultofseparation.
ExplainingComplexConcepts
Anotheraspectofcoachingthathelpstheathletesisthecoach'sabilitytocommunicatecomplexconceptsusingsimpleterms,"key"or"cue"words,andsimple
analogies.Thisisespeciallyimportantwhencoachingthespintechniqueasitwillhelpsimplifywhatsomedeemamorecomplexsetofstepsthanthatoftheglide.
Simpletermshelpbothexperiencedthrowersandrookieslearnorcorrecttechnique.Keywordsorcuesareshortphrasesthathelptheathletefocusonaspecific
aspectofthetechnique.Theyareextremelyusefulincompetitionwhentheathleteneedstolimitthenumberofthingstothinkaboutandwhendirectcoachingcontact
islimited.
Becauseoftheshotput'stechnicalnature,therewillbealotoffrustration.Thecoachandathletemustbepatient.Improvementwillnotalwaysbesteady.Itusually
comesinspurts,betweenlongboutsoffrustrationandangst.Humorisalsoanecessaryelementifacoachwishestohavealongcareer!
PhasesoftheSpin
Alltechnicaldescriptionsinthefollowingsectionswillbefortherighthandedthrower.
StartingPosition

Figure14.3
Startingor"cowboy"position
ofthespintechnique.

Startbystraddlingthecenterlinewiththefeetjustslightlywiderthanshoulderwidthapartandthetoespointedoutabout20degrees(Figure14.3).Theathlete'slegs
shouldbeinabowedpositionandthatdistancebetweenthekneesshouldbemaintainedastheystarttheirturn.Mycoach,SteveForseth,termedthis,"thecowboy
position."Thekneesareslightlybent(1/2squatdepth)inaclassicuprightathleticposition.Theathlete'shipsshouldbepositionedontopofthemnotleaningtoofar
forwardorsittingtoofarback.
WindandEntry
About60percentoftheweightisthenshiftedtotheleftlegandkeptontheleftlegduringthepreturnwindup.Isuggestkeepingtherightfootflatandgrounded
duringthewindup.Theleftarm,leftknee,andfootturntogetherinwardduringthewindandthenoutwardduringtheentrytoinitiatethethrow.(Theentryisthe
beginningofthespinmove.Thewindisapreliminarymoveintheoppositedirectiontocreateseparationatthebeginningofthemoveintothe

Page226

spin.)Atthepointwheretheathletecompletesthewindupandstartstomoveintothethrow,therightfootneedstoimmediatelycomeofftheground.Iftherightfoot
islateingettingoffthegrounditwillbedifficulttogetonbalanceovertheleftleg,andtheleftlegwillhaveatendencytodragbehindontheentirethrow.
Theathleteoftenwilltrytousetheupperbodytocreatemomentumtostartthethrow.Themovementinthebackofthecircleneedstobeinitiatedwiththelower
body.
360DegreeDrill
AdrillthatIusetopracticethestartiscalledthe"360degree"drill.Theathletegetsintothestartingpositionandattemptstopivotontheleftleg,completingafull
360degreeturnlandinginthesameexactpositiontheystartedin.Theemphasisinthisdrillistogoslowwhilekeepingtherightleglowandwide.Justasintheactual
throwtheleftarmshouldnotmoveaheadoftheleftleg.Thisisagreatdrillforworkingonbalance,anditcanalsobeusedinthediscus.Irecommendusingitinthe
warmup,performingthreesetsoftenrepetitions.

Figure14.4
Inthe360degreedrill,therightfootis
sweptwideandlowtomakethefirst180
degreesoftheinitialturn.

Therightfootissweptwideandlowastheathletemakesthefirst180degreesoftheinitialturn(figure14.4).Theleftarmshouldnevergetaheadoftheleftthighand
knee.Themovementislikethatofadoor.Theleftsideisthehingeandtheathlete,likeadoor,movesaroundtheleftside.
Afterthefirst180degreesoftheturncomesthedriveintothemiddleofthecircle.Ifeelthisisthecriticalpointinthethrow.Itiswheretheathletewillestablishtorque
andseparationforthereleaseoftheshot.Asinthereleaseoftheshotwheretheathlete"blocks"theleftsideinordertoacceleratetherightside,thesameprinciple
appliesastheathletecomesoutofthebackofthering.Whentheathleteisfacingthethrowingsector,theleftfootshouldstoprotatingandbepointingdowntheright
handsectorlineoratleasttorightofcenter(between1and2o'clock,asshowninfigure14.5).Theleftarmispointedtothecenterofthesectorandheldasthe
athletedrivestherighthipaheadoftheshoulderintothemiddleofthecircle.Agoodkeyhereistohavetheathletetrytofeeltherightlegpassingunderneaththe
outstretchedleftarm.
Therightfootiscarriedinawidesweepingmotionwiththetoepointedoutasiftheathleteiskickingasoccerballatthe180degreepointoftheinitialturn.Asthe
athleteturnstherighthipintothemiddleofthecircle,theleftarmisbroughtbackacrossthebodyinawrappingmotion.Icallthisthe"wrap."Ithelpskeeptheupper
bodybackwhentheathletelandsinthepowerposition(figure14.6).Theathletefocusesonkeepingtheweightovertherightlegastheleftlegismovedquicklytothe
frontofthecircle.Oncetherightfootmakescontactwiththecircle,itshouldcontinuetoturnastheleftlegwheelstothefrontandtheathletecompletesthethrow.

Page227

Figure14.5
Duringthedriveintothemiddleof
thecircle,whentheathletefacesthe
throwingsector,theleftfootstops
rotatingandpointsbetween1and2
o'clock.

Figure14.6
The"wrap,"wheretherighthipturns
intothemiddleofthecircleandthe
leftarmcomesacrossthebody.

Becauseofthetremendousforcecreatedbytherightlegsweep,thespintechniquemayproduceaslightlynarrowerstanceatthefrontofthecirclethantheglide
techniquewould.Thisistypicalanddoesnotnegativelyaffectthethrowinanyway.Thekeyisthattherightfootcontinuetoturninthemiddleofthecircle.
Anotheradvantageofstoppingtheleftfootrotationwhenitispointingdowntherightsector,besidesanaccelerationoftherightside,isthatthethighswillcome
togetherandthewheeloftheleftlegwillbetightandquick.Theblock,orholdingoftheleftsideoutoftheback,alsohelpspreventanathletefromoverrotatingand
theleftlegfromswingingwideandslowtothefrontandlandinginanopenposition.
Therhythmofthethrowthroughthesetwophases,giventhatthetechniqueisperformedasprescribed,isanotherimportantfactorandiskeytolongthrows.Thefirst
180degreesoftheturnisdoneinasmoothandcontrolledmanner.Comparedtotherestofthethrow,itistheslowestmovement.Whentheleftsideisblocked,the
rightlegandhipwillaccelerateintothemiddleofthecircle.Theleftfootshouldbepickedupoffthecircleassoonaspossiblesothatitmaybewheeledtothetoe
boardasquickaspossible.Bothfeetshouldlandalmostsimultaneously.Goodtechniquecanbeheardaswellasseen.InmymindIheartherhythmplayedoutina
seriesofsounds:"Voomboom/boom".The"voom"isalongdrawnoutsoundIassociatewiththewidesweepoftherightleg.The"boom/boom"soundrepresents
aquickplacementoftherightandleftfeetatthefrontofthecircle.Individualsmayuseothersounddescriptionstodescribethismovement.Using"voom
boom/boom"helpedmefocusonasingleconceptthatinvolvedmanypartsofthetechnique.
Delivery
Thepositionofthebodywhentheleftlegfirsttouchesdownatthefrontofthecircleindicateswhetherornottheathletehasperformedthetechniquecorrectlyupto
thispoint.Itwillalsotellyouiftheathletewillhaveachanceforagoodthrow.Theathlete'sweightshouldbepredominatelyovertherightleg.Theshoulderswillbe
facingthebackofthecircle.Theleftarmwillbepulledacrossthebodymakingan"X"acrosstherightthigh.Again,Irefertothisasthe"wrap."Therightfootshould
bepointingtosomewherebetween3and6o'clock(seefigure14.7onpage228).
Themovementinthefrontofthecircleisacontinuationofwhathasbeenestablishedcomingoutofthebackofthecircle.Thehipsandrightfootshouldcontinueto
turnastheshotiskeptbackandbehindtherighthip.Theleftarmshouldbeextendedandbroughtupandoverattherelease.Theleftarmisthenbentandbrought
downtotheside.Itellmyathletestotryandimaginetheyaresqueezinganorangeunderneaththeirarmpit.Thehipsaccelerateupandontoastrongblock.

Page228

Figure14.7
Thespintechniquefromstarttofinish.

Theblockatthepointofreleasecanbethoughtofintermsofthewholeleftside.Theathlete'sleftlegshouldbeaggressivelystraightenedthereshouldbenobendin
theleftleg.Thereshouldbenobendingbackorbreakofthelefthip.Theoverallconcepthereisthattheathletebetallontheleftsidewhenreleasingtheshot.The
higherthereleasepoint,thelongerthedistance.Thereleasepointshouldbeoutinfrontofthetoeboard.Thehipturnsthroughthereleaseandcontinuestoturnafter
thereleaseoftheshot.Itissimilartotheconceptofasprinternotstoppingatthefinishlinebutinsteadrunningthroughthefinishline,maintainingmaximumspeed.In
thesameway,thethrowerfocusesontherighthipturningallthewaythroughevenaftertheshotisreleased.Iliketotelltheathleteto"finishthethrow."Thethrower
shouldfinishwithahighrightshoulder.Thefinishshouldresemblethatofagymnastwhosticksthelanding.Inthesameway,thethrowershouldstickthefinish.The
athletewillendupfacingthebackofthecircleorrotatingallthewayaroundafterthereleaseoftheshot.Thisisagoodindicationthattheathleteisbalancedandhas
completelyfollowedthroughonthefinish.
Figure14.7illustrateseachphaseofthespintechnique.
Troubleshooting
Thefollowingareafewtroubleshootingtipsthatwillhelpkeepyourathletemovinginapositivedirection.
TestingBalance

Figure14.8
Tiltedshouldersoraforwardfallingmotionare
signsthattheathleteisoffbalance.

Theoverridingfactorinthespintechniqueisbalance.Thecoachshouldeasilybeabletorecognizeanathletewhoisnotbalanced.Theathletemayhavetrouble
stayinginthecirclethrowsmaygooutofthesectortheathlete'sshouldersmaybetiltedortheymayappeartobefallingintothemiddleofthecircle(figure14.8)
theycouldhavetroublecompletingafullturnona360degreedrill.Theathleteshouldbeincontrolofthebodyduringtheentirethrowandfollowthrough.Agood
waytotestbalanceistoaskathletestostopindifferentphasesofthethrow.Iftheycanstopandholdaproperposition,itisagoodindicationthattheyarebalanced.
CheckingthePositionoftheShotduringtheThrow
Anotherimportantconceptinthespinisthepositionoftheshotrelativetotherighthipduringthethrow.When

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theathletessetupinthebackofthecircle,theshotispositionedbehindtherighthip.Astheyperformthetechnique,asafullthroworfromthepowerposition,the
shotneedstostaybehindtherighthipuntiltheverypointofrelease.Inthespin,thisrelationshipoftheshotandrighthipisestablishedduringtheinitialturnandthe
leadingofthehipintothemiddleofthecircle.Itisimportanttomaintaintherelationshipduringthedrivetothemiddleofthecircle,thewheel,andtherelease.Ifthe
shotmovesaheadoftherighthipduringtheinitialturnanddriveintothemiddle,theathletewilllandwiththeshotaheadofthehipandwillnotbeabletoregaina
properrelationshipfortherelease.
VideotapingtheAthlete
Videotapingcompetitionsandpracticeswillhelpthecoachhelptheathletesmasterthespintechnique.Ifathletesdonothaveacoachtoobservethem,videotaping
willallowthemto,inessence,coachthemselvesorsendthetapetoacoachandreceivelongdistancecoaching.Ifacoachispresent,thenthisallowsbothtoview
areasofimprovementanddeterminewhatneedstobeemphasizedinpractice.Italsogivestheathleteanopportunitytovoiceopinionsanddemonstratehisorher
comprehensionofspecificconcepts.
Thespintechniqueisaviableoptionforathletesandcoachesatalllevels.Coacheswhohavenothadexposuretothespinshouldnotshyawayfromteachingitto
theirathletes.Almostalloftheconceptsforthediscusarethesamefortheshotputspin.Keepitsimplefocusonbigconceptsandputinalittletimetostudythe
technique.Beastudentofthesport.Balanceisthekeyinallaspectsofthrowingtheshotput.Theathletemustbebalancedthroughouttheentirethrow.Remember
alsotodesignabalancedtrainingprogramasdescribedinthenextsection.Itismyhopethatalloftheseprinciples,combinedwithanintensedesiretocompete,will
bringyoumuchsuccess.
Training
Whilethrowingtechniqueis,ofcourse,vital,thedevelopmentofstrengthandpowercannotbeneglected.Bothareessentialelementsofshotputting.Thecoachand
athletemustunderstandanddevelopastrengthtrainingprogram.Aneffectiveprogramincludesweighttraining,plyometrics,andtheuseofvariableweight
implements.Thestrengthliftsaresquatsandthebenchpress.Thepowerliftsarecleansandsnatches.Duringearlyphasesoftraining,thevolume(numberof
repetitions)ishighandintensity(weight)islow.Astheseasonprogressestowardtheculminatingevent(state,regional,orNCAAchampionships),thevolumeis
reducedandtheintensityincreased.Fordevelopmentalathletes,eachcoreliftisperformedonceaweek.Foradvancedandelitethrowers,thecoreliftsmaybe
executedtwiceaweek,witharestdayinsertedinthemiddleoftheprogram.
Aswithweighttraining,plyometricsbeginwithhighvolumeandlowintensitytwiceaweek.Inthemiddleoftheseason,thevolumedropstoweekly,andthefinal
quarteroftheseasonhasnoplyometricsexercises.Forthenovicethrowers,floorexercisesandboxes,notallerthan18inches(about46cm),arerecommended.For
advancedathletes,a24to30inch(about61to76cm)boxissatisfactory.Theboxesarespacedthreetofivefeet(about91to152cm)apart.Theathletedoesa
seriesofhopsonandoffeachbox.Thisexercisecanbedonetakingofffrombothfeet,alternatingfeet,orhoppingononefootonly.

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Anotherboxdrillistoplaceaboxnextto,butoutsideof,thethrowingcircleat6o'clock.Theathletestartsontopoftheboxthenspinstothepowerpositionintothe
circlebyhoppingdown.Thisenhancestheathlete'sstrengthandpower.
Finally,variableweightimplementscanbeusedtodevelopbothstrengthandpower.Overweightimplementtrainingduringthebeginningandmiddleoftheseason
buildsstrength,andusingunderweightimplementsduringthefinalquarterbuildshandspeed.Theuseofvariableweightedshotsshouldbestructuredlikealifting
workout,identifyingthenumberofsetsandnumberofthrowsperworkout.Theimplementsshouldconformtothe''10%rule"thatis,theweightis10%ofthe
standardimplement.(Seetable14.1.)
Table14.2presentsacomprehensivesampletrainingplanforshotputtersthatfollowstheprogressionfromhighvolume,lowintensityduringtheearlytrainingphaseto
lowvolume,highintensityastheseasonprogresses.Itcanbealteredbasedontheneedsoftheathletesataparticularphaseoftheseason.
TABLE14.1VARIABLEWEIGHTIMPLEMENTSFORSHOTPUT
Standard

Overweight

Underweight

4kg.

10lb.

8lb.

12lb.

13lb.

10lb.

16lb.

18lb.

14lb.

TABLE14.2SAMPLETRAININGPLANFORSHOTPUT
Allweighttrainingsessionsshouldincludeseveralsetsofabdominalandabdominalrotationexercises.
PrepreparationPhase(2weeks)
Throwing

VolumeComplete1020throws,twiceaweek,usingcompetitionweighted
implements.
FocusStartwiththebasics,introducingtheeventtonewthrowersandreteaching
theveteranathletesontheteam.Focusonthebigconceptslikeproperthrowing
positionsandusingthelegstothrowtheimplement.

Lifting

Circuittraining.Pick10exercisesencompassingthewholebody.Performeachexercise
for30sec.,rest15sec.,andperformthenextexerciseinthecircuit.Use3050%ofmax.
weightor1/3ofbodyweight.Recordthenumberofrepsforfuturereferenceandgoal
setting.

Running

Run23daysaweek.Alternateamonglong,short,andhilldays.
Longsprint5200m,walk200mforrecovery.
Shortsprint8100m,walk100mforrecovery.
Hills6150m,walkbackforrecovery.

Plyometrics

Onedayperweek.Multiplesetsof10and5reps,60totalcontacts,doubleleg
variations,boxesorhurdlesnohigherthan18in.(about46cm).

Medicineball

Twodaysaweek.Pick36exercisesperformingthemfromeachsideofthebody.Do2
3setsof10repsperexercise.Exercisescouldinclude:overheadbackward,

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page231

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
PrepreparationPhase(2weeks)

underneathforward,backtobackpartnerexchange,siderotationthrows(power
position),overheadsteppingforward,overheadfromsitupposition,hipthrow(holdball
onhipperformingapowerpositionmovement)oranyeventspecificmovement.

PreparationPhase(1012weeks)
Throwing

VolumeComplete2030throws,23daysaweek,usingregulationandheavier
implements(12lb.or.45.9kgoverregulation).
FocusIdentifyandprioritizetechnicalaspectsforeachindividual.Starttosettechnical
goalsineachpractice.Anexamplemightbeforathletestolearnthegripandoncethey
havethatdown,moveontomasteringastartingposition.

Lifting

3or4daysperweek

Examples:
Mon.
Tues.
Thurs.
Fri.

4dayprogram
Pulls(cleans,snatch,orhighpull)andsquat
1or2pushes(bench,military,incline)+supplementary
Pullandsquat(light)
Pushandsupplementarylift

3dayprogram

Week1

Mon.
Wed.
Fri.

Week2

Mon.
Wed.
Fri.

Pullandsquat
Benchandpress(upperbody)
Pullandfrontsquat

Setsandreps:

Initialexercisesshouldbeprecededbyasufficientnumberofwarmup
setsusingalighterweight.Eachsetshouldprogressinweight.The
focusisonincreasingtheweightusedonthelastsetcomparedtothe
lasttimeperformingthelift.
Pulls3or4setsof56reps
Presses3or4setsof810reps
Supplementary3setsof810reps

Running

Run23daysaweek.Alternateamonglong,short,andhilldays.
Longsprint6150m,walk150mforrecovery.
Shortsprint880m,walk80mforrecovery.
Hills6100m,walkbackforrecovery.

Plyometrics

Onetotwodaysaweek.Multiplesetsof10and5reps,60total
contactspersession,doublelegvariations,boxesorhurdlesno
higherthan18in.(about46cm).

Medicineball

Sameasinconditioningphase.

Benchandpress(upperbody)
Pullandsquat
Inclineandupperbody

PrecompetitionPhase(1012weeks)
Throwing

(continued)

VolumeComplete2030throws,23daysperweek,usingregulationweighted
implements.
FocusStarttodesignandpracticeacompetitionroutinetousewhentheseason

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(continued)
PrecompetitionPhase(1012weeks)

starts.Oncebasictechniqueismastered,starttoworkontherhythmofthethrow,slow
andrelaxedtoquickandexplosive.

Lifting

Pulls3or4setsof34reps
Presses3or4setsof5reps
Supplementary3setsof68reps

Running

Run23daysaweek.Alternateamonglong,short,andhilldays.
Longsprint8100m,walk100mforrecovery.
Shortsprint840m,fullrecovery.
Hills560m,fullrecovery

Plyometrics

Onetotwodaysperweek.Multiplesetsof10and5reps,80totalcontactspersession,
doublelegvariations,boxesorhurdlesnohigherthan18in.variations,boxesorhurdles
nohigherthan18in.(about46cm).

Medicineball

Sameasinconditioningphase.

CompetitionPhase(68weeks)
Throwing

VolumeComplete1525throws,23daysperweek,usingregulationandlight
implements(12lb.lighterthanregulation).
FocusQualityisdefinitelymoreimportantthanquantityatthispoint.Besensitiveto
howtheathletesfeel.Iftheyaretoofatiguedtoperformthetechniqueproperly,then
stopthrowinganddosomedrillsorjustendthethrowingsession.

Lifting

Pulls3or4setsof23reps
Presses3or4setsof35reps
Supplementary3setsof68reps

Running

Run2daysaweek.Alternatebetweenlongandshortsprints.
Longsprint880m,walk80mforrecovery.
Shortsprint82040m,fullrecovery.

Plyometrics

Onedayperweek.Multiplesetsof10and5reps,50totalcontacts,doublelegvariations,
boxesorhurdlesnohigherthan18in.(about46cm).

Medicineball

Sameasinconditioningphase.

UnloadingPeakPhase(710daysbeforemaincompetition)
Throwing

VolumeComplete1020throwsusingregulationandmainlylightimplements(12lb.
lighterthanregulation).Afewthrowsthedaybeforethecompetitioncanbeagoodidea
tocalmthenervesandgetaccustomedtothecircle.
FocusEmphasizetherhythmofthethrowandmentalpreparationforthecompetition.

Lifting

Pullsandpresses3setsof3reps,lightandquick(7075%ofmax.)

Running

Run2daysaweek.Alternatebetweenlongandshortsprints.
Longsprint660measystrideouts,walk80mforrecovery.
Shortsprint520m,fullrecovery.

Plyometrics

Noplyometrics

Medicineball

Onedaythisweekcutvolumeto1setof10repsforthe4selectedexercises.

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Competition
Thecompetitionphaseneedsmorethantechnicalandstrength/powerpreparation.Alargeportionofthepreparationismentaltraining.Usepositiveselftalkand
mentalimagery,projectingtheidealthrowonthemind'smoviescreen.Arehearsalbeforeeachmajormeetreducesstressandincreasesconfidence.Thehigherthe
caliberofcompetition,thegreatertheroleofthementaldimension.AnoldquotefromHenryFordbestsumsthisup,"Whetheryoubelieveyoucanoryoubelieve
youcan't,you'reright."
Twowaystoimplementmentalimageryaretodoitawayfromcompetitionandalsotoimplementitjustbeforeyouthrow.Gotoarelaxedsetting,perhapsyour
bedroomorsomeprivateareathatallowsformentalconcentration.Listentomusicthatstimulatesyou,butallowfornootheroutsidedistractions.Closeyoureyes
andseeyourselfcompeting.Letthemusicgetyouintotherhythmofthethrow.Seeyourselfcompletingthetechniquesuccessfully,withquicknessandexplosiveness.
Envisionyourselfcompetingthethrowonbalanceandincontrol.Mentallyrehearsethethrowfromthethrowingpositioninsideyourselfaswellaswatchingyourself
fromoutsideyourbody.Seeyourselfonthevictorystand.
Repeatingtheabovetechniquewillhelpthebodylearncorrectformandalsoallowtheathletetofeeltheaction.Thesecondmethodinvolvestheathletesatthe
competitionsite.Whiletheathletesarewaitingtheirturn,theyshouldclosetheireyes,blockouteverythingaroundthem,andmentallyrehearsetheaction.
Summary
Eachathleteshouldstrivetofullyunderstandallaspectsoftheevent.Thebettertheathletes'understandingofpropertrainingandtechnique,thequickerandmore
thoroughlytheywilldevelopgoodtrainingmethodsandproperthrowingtechnique.Inessence,theyneedtobecomestudentsofthesport,alwaysstrivingtoimprove
theirknowledgeandtechnique.Thiswillalsoresultinintrinsicmotivation,whichweallknowisvitalinindividualsportsliketrack.

Page235

15
Discus
DonBabbitt

Inthediscusevent,distanceisdeterminedbythefactorsofsize,technique,andstrengthcombinedwiththeelementsofbalanceandspeedtogeneratemaximalpower
androtationaltorque.Theidealathletefordiscusthrowingistall,withlongarmsandlegs,andhasquickfeetandgoodbalance.Theadvantageofgoodleverageis
illustratedbythefactthatmanyoftheworld'stopmalethrowershavemeasuredalmost2meters,orabout6feet,6inches,inheight,whilemanyofthetopfemale
throwersare5feet,10inches(about178cm)ortaller.GabrieleReinsch,whoholdsthewomen'sworldrecordof252feet(76.81m),stands6feet,2inches(188
cm),whileConniePriceSmith,whohasbeenoneofAmerica'stopdiscusthrowers,stands6feet,3inches(190.5cm)!At6feet,6inches(198cm),and243
pounds(about110kg),LarsReidel,thecurrentmen'sworldchampion,exemplifiestheperfectdiscusbodytype.

Page236

Theprimarymechanicalfactorsindeterminingperformanceinthediscusarethethrower'sabilitiestoexecutea630degreeturnwithprecisionandspeedwhile
keepingthethrowingarmlooseandrelaxedthroughthepointofrelease.ThrowerssuchasJaySilvester,JohnPowell,andMacWilkinshavebeenpioneersin
developingthethrowingtechniquethatisusedbymanyoftoday'ssuccessfulthrowers.Thetechnicalinnovationsofthesegreatthrowersstillserveasmodelsforhow
toturnanddriveoutthebackofthering,pivotinthemiddleofthering,andsetupthereleaseattheendofthethrow.
Technique

Figure15.1
Directionalfocusofcircle,with12o'clockbeing
thedirectionofthethrow.

Thissectionwillcoverthemechanicsusedtothrowthediscusaswellasateachingprogressiontointroducetheeventtothrowersofvaryinglevels.Thiswillbe
followedbyasectionfocusingonsomeofthemostcommontechnicalerrors,andwillincludesomedrillsthatcanhelpcorrecttheseproblems.Alltechnical
descriptionsinthepresentandfollowingsectionswillbefortherighthandedthrower.Fordescriptivepurposes,thedifferentareasofthediscuscirclewillbereferred
tobythehourpositionsonaclock.Inthiscase,thebackoftheringwillbeconsideredthe6o'clockposition,whilethefrontoftheringwillbeconsideredthe12
o'clockposition(seefigure15.1).
BeginningtheThrow
Thethrowerwillbeginthethrowbystandinginthebackofthering,facingat6o'clock,withthefeetapartatroughlyshoulderwidth.Thediscuswillwindbehindthe
thrower'sbackwiththearmsextendingoutata90degreeanglefromthetrunk(seefigure15.2a).Duringthewind,therightfootwillbeflatagainstthe

Figure15.2
Discustechnique:(a)thewind,(b)widelegsweepoftherightlegtounwind,(c)anotherrightlegsweep,
(d)pullingtherightleguptostartthedriveacrossthering.

Page237

ground,whileonlytheballoftheleftfootwillbeincontactwiththeground.Thecenterofmassshouldbelocatedhalfwaybetweentherightandleftlegs,causingthe
thrower'sweighttobeequallydistributedonbothlegs.
Thethrowerwillthenbegintounwindthediscusbyturningthetorsototheleftastheweightshiftsontotheballoftheleftfoot.Atthistimealsotherightfootispicked
upoffthegroundinpreparationforawidelegsweepwhilethethroweristurningontheballoftheleftfoot(seefig15.2b).Asthethrowercontinuestoturnoutthe
backoftheringbypivotingontheballoftheleftfoot,heorshesweepstherightleginawidearcuntilthelefttoeandchestarefacing1o'clock(seefig.15.2c).At
thispoint,itiscriticalthatthethrower'scenterofmassbedirectlyovertheballoftheleftfootandthattheshouldersbekeptlevelwiththegroundtoensuregood
balance.Theleftarmshouldalsobekeptextendedduringtheturnoutthebackoftheringtoslowtheupperbody'srotationsothatthediscuscanbekeptbackasfar
aspossible.
DrivingacrosstheRing
Oncethethrowerhasturnedoutthebackoftheringandthelefttoeandchestarelinedupwiththerightsectorline(i.e.,facing1o'clock),heorshewillbeinposition
todriveacrossthering.Thisdrive,or"sprint,"acrosstheringwillbecausedbydrivingofftheleftlegwhilesimultaneouslypullingtherightlegacrossthebodyasthe
rightkneeispulleduptomakea90degreeanglebetweentherightthighandtorso(seefig.15.2d).Thecombinedactionoftherightandleftlegswillcausethe
throwertodriveacrosstheringwhilegainingrotationalmomentumtocompletetheturninthemiddleofthering.
TurningintheMiddleoftheRing
Whenthethrowerhascompletedthepushoffwiththeleftleg,heorshewillbeinashort"flightphase"whileturninginthemiddleofthering.Whileturningintheair,
thethrowertriestomaintaintherightthighata90degreeanglewiththetorsountiltherightfootcomesbackincontactwiththeground.Whilethisishappening,the
leftlegispulledinclosetotherightleg,inanefforttoconserverotationalmomentum(seefig.15.2e).

Figure15.2(continued)
(e)turninginthecenterofthering,(f)completionoftheflightphasewiththerighttoefacing
between7and9o'clock,(g)startofthedeliveryphase,(h)blockandrelease,and(i)thereverse.

Page238

Theflightphaseiscompletedwhenthethrower'srightfootcomesbackincontactwiththeground.Atthispoint,onlytheballoftherightfootshouldbegroundedand
thetoeshouldbefacinganywherebetween7and9o'clock.Itisalsoimportantthatthethrower'scenterofmassbelocatedovertheballoftherightfootupon
recontactwiththeground(seefig.15.2f,page237).Thearmsshouldberelaxedandstretchedout,withthethrowingarmata90degreeangletothetorso.
Oncetheballoftherightfoothitstheground,itbeginstopivotinacounterclockwisedirection.Asthispivotingmotionisgoingon,theleftfootisbroughtaroundto
thefrontofthering,assoonaspossibleafterthetouchdownoftherightfoot,andplacedonthegroundsothatbothfeetareroughlyalittlemorethanshoulderwidth
apart.Thethrowermustkeepthechestfacingascloseto6o'clockaspossibleuntiltheleftfootcomesincontactwiththeground.Thisensuresthatthediscusis
extendedasfarbehindtherighthipaspossibleformaximumleverage(fig.15.2f,page237).Itisalsoimportantthattheheeloftherightfootbelinedupwiththetoe
oftheleftfootsothatthehipsareabletorotateallthewaythroughduringthedeliveryphase.
TheDeliveryandRelease
Oncebothfeetarebackontheground(doublesupportphase),thedeliveryphasecanbegin.Thedeliveryphaseisinitiatedbythecontinuedpivotoftherightfoot,
whichinturnleadstherighthipaheadofthethrowingshoulderandthrowingarm(fig.15.2g,page237).Thediscusispulledaroundinawideorbitwhilethethrowing
armcontinuestomaintaina90degreeanglewiththetrunk.Asthediscusisbeingpulledaroundfromthe6o'clockpositiontothereleasepointatapproximately2
o'clock,theleftsideofthethrower'sbodyfirmsup,or"blocks,"astherightsideofthebodycontinuesitsrotationalaccelerationofthediscusintotherelease(see
15.2h,page237).Atthepointofrelease,theheadisthrownback,whichallowsthechestandhipstorisetogivelifttothediscus.
TheReverse
Thereverseissometimesusedbythrowerstostopfromfoulingastheyfollowthroughaftertheirrelease.Oncethediscushasbeenreleased,thethrowerwillkickthe
leftlegouttothesideandreplaceitwiththerightleg,causinga"reversal"oftheirbodyposition(seefig.15.2i,page237).Thereversalmaybeaccompaniedbya
loweringofthecenterofmassinanefforttobettercontrolthebodysothatnofouloccurs.
TeachingProgression
Tobegin,thethrowershouldholdthediscusinthepalmofthehandoftheoutstretchednonthrowingarm.Heorshethenplacestherighthandontopofthediscus,
withthefingertipsextendingovertheedgeofthelipofthediscus.Eachfingershouldbespreadapart.Thisgivesthethroweranideaofhowthediscusshouldfeelin
thehand.Oncethethroweriscomfortablewithholdingthediscus,proceedthroughthefollowingdrills.

Page239

PendulumDrill
Next,thethrowershouldholdthediscusinthehandwhilethearmisdanglingstraightdownfromtheshoulder.Thethrowercanthenstartswingingthearmbackand
forthlikeapendulum.Thisshowsthethrowerhowthediscusshouldfeelinthehandwhileitismoving.The"centrifugalforce"generatedbythisswingingmotionwill
helpkeepthediscusinthethrower'shandandshouldreducethethrower'sneedtowanttograspontothediscus.
ReleaseDrill
Aneasywaytoteachtheproperdirectioninwhichtoletgoofthediscusistohavethethrowerholdthediscusbythewaistasdescribedintheabovesection.From
thisposition,thethrowertiltsthehandbackwardandletsthediscusrolloutofthehandandfalltotheground.Whenthishappens,thediscusshouldrollforwardoff
eachfinger,startingwiththepinkieandendingwiththeindexfinger.
DiscusBowlingDrill
Thenextstepinteachingtheproperreleaseistohavethethrowerbowlthediscus.Thisexercisecanbedonewithapartnerwhoshouldstartbystandingroughly10
yardsawayfromthethrowerwhoisabouttobowlthediscus.Thethrowerswillrollthediscusbackandforthtoeachotheronitsedge,justastheywouldrolla
bowlingballdownabowlingalley.Asthethrowersgetmoreproficientatthis,theycanincreasethedistancebetweenthemselvesandworkonreleasingthediscus
withalittlemorepace.
PendulumDrillVariation
Anotherreleasedrillisanadvancedvariationofthependulumdrill(alsocalledtheheightreleasedrill).Thethrowerbeginsbyswingingthediscusfromadanglingarm
asthearmisswingingforward,thethrowerreleasesthediscusoutthefrontofthehand,causingthediscustogostraightupintheair.Thecoachshouldmakesure
thatthediscushasagoodamountofrotationonit,andthatthediscuslandsonitsedgewhenitcomesbacktotheground.
WindUpDrill
Thenextstepintheteachingprogressionhasthethrowerswingthediscusbackandforthinaplanethatisparalleltotheground.Tobeginthisexercise,thethrower
holdsthediscusintheoutstretchedpalmofthenonthrowinghand,whilethethrowinghandisplacedontopofthediscus.Thethrowerswingsthediscusbackward
withanoutstretchedarmandthenswingsthediscusbackintothepalmofthenonthrowinghand.Asthisexerciseisbeingperformed,thethrowershouldmakean
efforttokeepthethrowinghandontopofthediscuswhileswingingthearmandnotturnthediscusoversothehandisunderneaththediscus.Thisshouldberepeated
manytimesinsuccession,withnopausebetweenthedirectionchangesinthethrowingarm.
Oncethethroweriscomfortablewithswingingthediscusbackandforthandisabletodothiswithout"cupping"orgrabbingthediscus,heorsheshouldbereadyto
workonanactualthrow.

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KneelingThrowDrill
Throwingfromakneelingpositionmayseemstrange,butitreducesthepowerthatcanbeachievedbythethrowerbyeliminatingthelegsfromthethrow,whichin
turnwillreducethepossibilityofanerrantthrow.Italsoservestofocusthethrowerontheupperbody'sroleinthethrowingaction.
Tobeginthisdrill,thethrowerassumesakneelingpositiononone(theright)knee,withtheleftfootforwardandtherightkneesupportingthebodyweight.The
throwerthentakesthediscusandswingsitbackasheorsherelaxesandletsthe"centrifugalforce"actingonthediscusstretchoutthethrowingarm.Thecoach
makessurethatthethrowerrotatesthetrunkbackward,alongwiththethrowingarm,sothatthewholeupperbodystaysin"contact"withthediscus.Oncethearm
hasbeenpulledbackasfaraspossible,thethrower"pulls"thediscusthroughbyturningthetrunkandpullingthearmforward.Thereleaseshouldbeflat,andthe
discusshouldlandflatagainstthegroundanywherefrom15to45feetdirectlyinfrontofthethrower.
StandingThrowDrill
Tointroducetheproperpositionforthestandthrow,thecoachshouldhavethethrowerstandinthefrontofthediscusring,facingthewholebodyouttowardthe
centerofthesector.Fromthisposition,thethrowerstepsbackintowardthecenterofthediscusringsothatthefeetarealittlemorethanshoulderwidthapartand
therightheelislinedupwiththelefttoe.Thethrowershouldbendtherightkneeandshifttheweightbackontotheballoftherightfoot.Atthesametime,thethrower
shouldswingthediscusasfarbackbehindthebodyasitwillgo,whichwillusuallybeapositionbackovertheleftheel.Fromthisposition,thethrowerwill
immediatelyinitiatethethrowbypivotingtherightfoot,whichwillcausetherighthipandshouldertorotatethrough.Thisactionwillcausethethrowingarmtobe
whippedaround,andthediscuswillbereleasedasinthepreviouslydescribedreleasedrills.
Thecoachwillalsowanttolookforthefollowingthingswhenthethrowerisperformingthestandingthrow:
Thethrowerpivotsontheballoftherightfootduringthethrow,andfinishesthepivotwiththerightfootpointinginthedirectionofthethrow.
Theleftleg(i.e.,blockleg)straightensouttoformasolidblockasthediscusisbeingswungaroundtobereleased.The"block"iscausedbyasuddendeceleration
oftheleftsideofthebody,whichinturncausesanaccelerationoftherightside,thusacceleratingthediscusasitisreleased.
Theorbitisthepaththatthediscusfollowsasitisbeingthrown.Theorbitofthediscusshouldfollowahighlowhighpattern.Thismeansthatthediscuswillbeat
itshighestpointasitisfullydrawnback(i.e.,whenitisovertheleftheel).Thediscuswillhitthelowestpointinitsorbitwhenitispassingbytherightfoot.Fromthis
pointthediscuswillstarttorisebackuptoitshighpointasthethrowingarmisbroughtaroundtorelease.
Theheadshouldalwaysbefacingstraightawayfromthechestduringthethrow.Makesurethatthethrowerdoesnotturntheheadawayduringtherelease.The
headshouldbethrownbackduringthereleasetoallowthechesttogetupintothethrow.
HalfTurnDrill
Thehalfturndrillteachesthefundamentalsofpivotingontherightfootinthemiddleofthering.Thethrowercanactuallybeginthisdrillwithoutthediscus,tofocushis
or

Page241

herconcentrationonthepivotingactionoftherightfootandtheturningofthebody.Thethrowershouldstartthisdrillwiththerightfootplacedinthecenterofthe
ring,withtheweightbearingdownontheballoftherightfoot.Therightlegshouldbebent,asitisatthebeginningofastandthrow.Thewholebodyshouldbelined
upinapositionsimilartothatatthebeginningofastandthrow,exceptthatthethrowerislineduptothrowoutthebackofthering.
Oncethethroweriscomfortablewiththestartingpositionforthisdrill,heorshebeginsbyrotatingtherighthip,knee,andfootinunisontocausethebodytostart
rotatingaround.Thebodyofthethrowerpivotsasthebodyturns180degreestothestandthrowposition.Atnotimeshouldtheheeloftherightfoottouchthe
ground.Whiletherightfootispivoting,theleftkneeshouldbepulledclosetotherightleg,causingthekneestoalmosttouchtogetherinanefforttoincreasethespeed
ofthebody'srotation.Asthethrowerisfinishingthe180degreeturn,heorsheshootsouttheleftlegintoastraightenedpositionsimilartothatatthebeginningofthe
standthrow.Attheendofthe180degreeturn,thecoachshouldtakenotetoseethatthethrowerhasmaintainedthefollowingpositions:
Thefeetareinheeltoealignment.
Thethrower'sbackisfacingthethrowingsectorandthechestisfacingtowardthebackofthering.
Thethrower'sweightisbalancedovertheballoftherightfoot(i.e.,pivotfoot).
Therightlegisbentandtheleftlegisslightlyflexed.Thethrowershouldbeinapositiontodeliverasolidstandthrow.
Thenextstepisforthethrowertoperformthisdrillwiththediscus.Thethrowerstartsbyswingingthediscusbackward,athiplevel,andthenpushingitforwardas
thehalfturnisinitiated.Asthethrowerstartsthehalfturn,heorshewilldirectthediscusinanupwardpathsothediscusreachesits''highpoint"whenitisclosestto
thefrontofthering.Bydoingthis,thethrowerensuresthatthediscushasestablisheditsproperorbit,withahighpointwhenthediscusisnearthefrontoftheringand
alowpointwhenthediscusispositionedclosetothebackofthering.Theproperorbitenablesthethrowertoreleasethediscusasitisascendingtowardthehigh
pointofitsorbit,whichinturnresultsinaniceparabolicflight.
StepInDrill
Oncethethrowerhasmasteredthehalfturn,heorshecanmoveontothestepindrill.Thisdrillbeginswiththethrowerstandinginthebackoftheringwiththeball
oftheleftfootplacedinsidethebackedgeoftheringandisfacingthefrontofthering,or12O'clock.Tobegin,thethrowersteps,withtherightfoot,intothecenter
ofthediscusringandsettlestheweightontotheballoftherightfoot.Atthispoint,thethrowershouldbeinapositionsimilartothestartingpositionforthehalfturn.
Thethrowerthenproceedstoperformthehalfturnandrelease.Asthedifferentpartsofthestepindrillbecomemorecomfortable,theycanbemoldedintoone
completemovementwithnopausesinbetweenpositions.Thecoachmakessurethattheheeloftherightfootnevertouchesthegroundafterthefootisplacedinthe
middleofthering.Theemphasisofthisdrillshouldbethecontinuedpivotoftherightfoot,andthecoachshouldmakesurethatthethrowerinitiatesthe180degree
turnbypivotingtherightfoot.Thegeneralruleofthumbisthatyoupivottogetintopositiontothrow,notpivotasareactiontothethrow.

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SouthAfricanDrill
TheSouthAfricandrillbeginsjustlikethestepinexceptthatthethrowerdrivestherightlegintothemiddleoftheringasheorshepushesofftheleftlegtogenerate
poweroutthebackofthering.Thisisanexcellentdrillforteachingthethrowertodriveacrosstheringusingthelegdrivefromboththerightandleftlegs.As
throwersperformthisdrill,thecoachwillwanttocheckforthefollowingthings:
Thethrowerkeepstheupperbodyrelaxedasheorsheleadswiththerightlegintothecenterofthering.
Thethrowershouldlandinabalancedpositionontheballoftherightfootnearthecenterofthering.
Thethrowershouldalwaysbeontheballsofthefeetduringthethrow.
Makesurethediscusfollowstheproperorbit.
Thethrowerpushesoffwiththeleftlegoutthebackoftheringasthechestisfacingtherightsectorline.Atthesametime,heorshesweepstherightlegoutward
andthenacrossthebodyasthelegisdriventowardthecenterofthediscusring.
360DegreeTurnDrill
Thisdrillpreparesthethrowertoturnoutthebackofthering.Itbeginswiththethrowerstandingwiththelegsslightlyflexedwhiletheweightisbalancedovertheball
oftheleftfoot.Thefeetwillbeslightlywiderthanshoulderwidthapart,withtheleftlegflexedandtherightlegonlyslightlybent.Fromthispositionthethrowerwill
pivotinacompletecircleontheballoftheleftfootandcometoastopintheoriginalstartingposition.Thecoachshouldmakesurethattherightlegstayswideasthe
turnisbeingperformed.Manybeginnerswillpulltheiranklestogetherinanattempttogainmorerotationalspeed.Thisshouldbediscouraged,forthisisnothowthe
throwerwillturnoutthebackoftheringduringafullthrow.
FullThrowDrill
Whenthethrowerisabletoperformallthesedrills,itshouldbeaneasytransitiontoafullthrow.Ifthethrowerishavingtroublewithacertainpartofthefullthrow,he
orsheshouldgobackandworkonthedrillthatemphasizesthemovementthatiscausingtrouble.Thecoachshouldalsomakesurethatthefollowingtechnical
elementsoccurduringafullthrow:
Oncethethrowerreachesthestandthrowposition,thethrowingarmmakesa90degreeanglewiththetorso.This90degreeanglebetweenthearmandthetorso
shouldbesustainedthroughtherelease.
Therhythmofthethrowisfromslowtofast(i.e.,therewillbeabuildupofrotationalspeedthroughoutthethrow).
CorrectingCommonFaults
Fault:Overrotating.
Cause:Overrotatingoccurswhenthethrowerrotatestoolongontheballoftheleftfootwhenturningoutthebackofthering.Thiswillcausethethrowertodrive

Page243

overtotheleftsideoftheringinsteadofdownthemiddle(seefigure15.3).
Correction:Thiscanbecorrectedbyhavingthethrowerpushofftheleftfootalittleearlierasheorsheturnsintotheentry.

Figure15.3
Overrotating.

Fault:Lockingout.
Cause:Thethrowercan"lockout"thehipsbynothavingtheheeltoealignmentnecessaryforrotatingthehipstobesquarewiththethrowingsector(seefigure15.4).
Thisproblemusuallyoccurswhenthethrowerdoesnotpivotcorrectlyinthecenterofthering.
Correction:The180degreeturndrillwillhelpcorrectanypivotingproblems.

Figure15.4
Lockingout.

Fault:Scooping.
Cause:Scoopingoccurswhenthethrowerreleasesthediscusfromapositionwherethethrowingarmisatlessthana90degreeangletothetorso(seefigure15.5).
Thiscanbecausedbythediscusnotbeingintheproperorbit,whichinturncanbecausedbyoverrotatingoutthebackoftheringorbynotcarryingthediscusinthe
correctposition.
Correction:Throwingtrafficconescanhelpsolvescoopingproblemsbyslowingdownthethrowingarmandmakingthethrowermoreawareoftheorbitalpathof
thethrowinghand.

Figure15.5
(a)Scoopingoccurswhenthethrowerreleasesthediscusatapoint
whenthethrowingarmisatlessthana90degreeangletothetorso.
(b)Thecorrectthrowingpositionwiththearmat90degrees.

Training
Trainingforthediscusinvolvesrefiningandimprovingbothphysiologicalandtechnicalelementsthroughouttheseason.Thissectionconcentratesmoreonthe
physiologicalaspectsofdiscustraining,whichwillbeseparatedintothepreparation,precompetition,andcompetitionphases.Physiologically,thediscusthrowerwill
workondevelopingspeed,flexibility,andexplosiveness

Page244

throughacombinationofweighttraining,running,stretching,andplyometrics.Eachofthethreetrainingphasesischaracterizedbyaspecificemphasisonthevolume
andintensityofboththephysicalandtechnicaltraining.Thesephasesalsofollowacertainorderandaredesignedtoallowtheathleteto"peak"formaximum
performanceataspecificpointinthecompetitiveseason.
Table15.1providesgeneralthrowingrangesandrecordsforhighschool,collegiate,andelitediscusthrowers.Youcanmeasureorcomparetheprogressionofyour
ownathletesagainsttheseaverageandrecordthrowsateachlevelofcompetition.
TABLE15.1GENERALTHROWINGRANGESFORDISCUS
AverageDistance(ft./m)

Record(ft.in./m)

Highschool

Women

120170/36.651.8

1884/57.40

Collegiate

140195/42.759.4

2214/67.49

165205/50.362.5
200+/61+

2160/65.84
2520/76.81

Elite:nationalclassworld
class
Men

Highschool(1.5kg)

140200/42.761

2252/68.63

Collegiate

160200/48.861

2200/67.06

185210/56.464
205+/62.5+

2374/72.34
2430/74.07

Elite:nationalclassworld
class

PreparationPhase
Thefirstphaseoftrainingisthepreparationphase,whichmaybeginintheearlyfall(September,October)forthecollegiateoropenathlete,orinthewinter(January,
February)forthehighschoolathlete.Thisphasemayalsovaryinlength,fromfourtosixweeksforsomehighschoolathletestomanymonthsforhigherlevelathletes.
Weighttraininginthisphaseisoflowintensityandhighvolume,withemphasisonbuildinganoverallconditioning"base"fortheathlete.Thisisalsotrueforrunning
workoutsandlowintensityplyometrics.Highintensityplyometrics(e.g.,depthjumps)shouldnotbeintroducedintotheworkoutsuntiltheathleteshaveafairamount
ofconditioningundertheirbelts(fourtosixweeks).
Throwingworkoutsduringthepreparationphasewillconcentrateonestablishinggoodfundamentaltechnique,aswellasaddressinganytechnicalweaknessesan
individualmayhave.Specificdrillsusedtohelpcorrecttechnicalweaknessesareusuallyperformedathighvolumeat7080%intensitytoensurethefocusison
establishingproperneuromuscularpatterns.Throwingdrillscanalsobeperformedwithknockenballs,powerballs,andimplementsofvariousweightstoallowforan
increaseinthevolumeofthrowsandspecificstrengthconditioning.

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PrecompetitionPhase
Thisphaseservesasatransitionalperiodfortrainingasthethrowergetsreadyforthecompetitiveseason.Theprecompetitionphasecanlastanywherefromfour
weekstotwoorthreemonths.Itischaracterizedbyanincreaseintheintensityandadecreaseinvolumeofbothconditioningandthrowing.Weighttraining,during
thisphase,switchesfromanemphasisonoverallbodyconditioningtoanemphasisonOlympicandpowerliftsforexplosivedevelopment.Plyometricsarealso
increasedinintensityandwillbeperformedatthemostintenselevelofanyofthethreetrainingphases.Runningworkoutsshiftfromanemphasisoncardiovascular
conditioningtoquicker,moreexplosiverunningthatconditionsthefasttwitchfibers.
Intermsofthrowing,thereisanincreaseinthenumberoffullthrowstakenwiththediscus,asthetechnicalemphasisshiftsfromcorrectingindividualweaknessesto
developingthrowingrhythm.Notethatthereshouldstillbespecificdrillworkatthistime,isolatingvariousaspectsofthethrowbutasthecompetitionseasonbegins,
workshouldbeginondevelopingafeelforthewholethrow.Throwingintensityrangesfrom70to90%duringthistrainingphase.
CompetitionPhase
Thecompetitionphaseseesintensityinboththrowingandconditioningreachitshighestlevels.Thisisaccompaniedbyadecreaseinthevolumeofthrowstakenand
theamountofconditioningperformed.Weightliftingsessionsareshorterandmoreintense,withfewerrepetitionsperformedperset.Otheraspectsofconditioning,
suchasrunningandspecificconditioningdrills,emphasizedevelopmentofmaximalspeedandexplosiveness.Thenumberofplyometriccontactsbeginstotaperatthis
pointintheseason,sothethrowercanpeakforthemajorcompetitionsthatoccurduringthisphase.
Throwingworkoutsduringthecompetitionphasearegearedtowardgettingthethrowerreadytoperformatthehighestlevel.Muchofthethrowingconsistsoffull
throwstodevelopagoodthrowingrhythmandtofinetunethethrower'stiming.Competitionscanalsobesimulatedinpracticesothatthethrowergetsusedto
throwingat100%intensity.Lightimplementsmayalsobethrownduringthisphasetodevelopthethrower'sspeed,whichisspecifictotheevent.
Forthebestresults,coachesmustputtogetherageneraltrainingplanforthepreparation,precompetitive,andcompetitivephases.Fromthere,weeklyworkoutscan
beplanned.Tables15.2and15.3(seepages246247)aresamplewaystoplanyourpractices.
Competition
Preparingforcompetitionissomethingthatstartslongbeforemeetday.Infact,themoretimethat'sdevotedtophysicalandmentalpreparationpriortothe
competitiveseason,theeasierthebodywilladapttothestressorsofcompetition.Thefollowingarethingstoconsiderwhenprimingathletesforcompetition.
PhysicalPreparationforCompetition
Inpreparationforcompetition,throwerstapertrainingtoresttheirbodiessotheycanreach"peak"performance.Asageneralruleofthumb,thethrowerwillwant

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TABLE15.2GENERALTRAININGPLANFORDISCUS
Typeoftraining

Preparationphase

Precompetitivephase

Weighttraining:
Olympiclifts
Powerlifts
Assistancelifts

Competitivephase

45sets68reps
45sets710reps
3sets10reps

45sets46reps
45sets46reps
3sets10reps

34sets24reps
34sets35reps
3sets810reps
mixedw/light/speedlifts

Plyometrics

Agilitydrills,bounding/
jumpingongrass

Boxbounding,stair
jumps,bounding/
jumpingongrass

Boxbounding,
depthjumps,
hurdlehops

Running

Runstraights/jogturns
Stairruns
6200mat70%
8100mstrides
Hillruns

Stairruns
50100msprints
Hillsprints

2050msprints
Hillsprints
Stairsprints

Throwing

Standthrows:
w/weightedballs,
powerballs,orheavy
discus
Techniquedrills:half
turns,stepins,cone
drills,linedrills,
etc.

Fullthrows:7090%
effortw/regulationor
heavydiscus
Techniquedrills:half
turns,stepins,cone
drills,linedrills,etc.

Fullthrows:80100%
effortw/regulationorlight
discus
Practicecompetitions
Selectedtechniquedrills:
halfturns,stepins,cone
drills,linedrills,etc.

TABLE15.3SAMPLEWORKOUTSFORDISCUS

Preparation

Precompetition

Competition

Monday

Technicaldrills
Cleans
Runhills
Militarypress
Abdominalwork
Light/frontsquat

Fullthrows
Technicaldrills
Backsquat
Hillruns
Weightedballthrows
Militarypress
Abdominalwork

Fullthrows
Backsquat
Inclinebench
Hillsprints
Militarypress
Medicineball
Abdominalwork

Tuesday

Benchpress
Bounding
Medicineball
Legcurls
Legextension
Abdominalwork

Cleans
Bounding
Medicineball
Legcurls
Legextension
Abdominalwork
Pushpress

Cleans
2040msprints
Bartwists
Weightedballthrow
Abdominalwork

Wednesday

Technicaldrills
Snatch
8100mstrides

Fullthrows
Technicaldrills
Benchpress

Fullthrows
Benchpress
Pushpress

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page247

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

Preparation

Precompetition

Competition

Armcurls
Lunges
Abdominalwork

Light/stairs
Bartwists
Armcurls
Lunges
Abdominalwork

Boxjumps
Lunges
Flys
Abdominalwork

Thursday

Inclinebench
Bounding
Stairs
Pushpress
Flys
Abdominalwork

Snatch
Boxjumps
Flys
Frontarmraises
Medicineball
Abdominalwork

Snatch
6100msprints
Legcurls
Legextension
Medicineball
Abdominalwork

Friday

Technicaldrills
Backsquat
8100mstrides
Medicineball
Latpulls
Abdominalwork

Technicaldrills
Inclinebench
Latpulls
850msprints
Abdominalwork

Rest

Saturday

Rest

Restorcompetition

Competition

Sunday

Rest

Rest

Rest

torestthedaybeforeameettorecoverfromtheweek'straining.Inregardto"peaking"formajorcompetitions,thethrower'strainingplanmayrevolvearound
preparingforasinglemajormeetsuchasthestatemeet,orthenationalchampionships.Inthiscase,onemayseethrowerstapertheiramountofweightliftingand
conditioningwhileincreasingtheintensityoftheirthrowingsotheycangetusedtoperformingatmaximaleffort.Peakinginthisfashioncanoccuronlyoneortwotimes
duringaseason,sothrowersshouldhaveagoodideaofwhatmeetstheywanttoemphasize.Thisallowsthemtodeveloptheirtrainingplanforthewholeyear.
PsychologicalPreparation
Psychologicalpreparationleadinguptoacompetitioncantakemanyforms.Onemethodofmentalpreparationistosimulatecompetitionconditionsduringpracticeso
thethrowercangetusedtothestressthatwillbeexperiencedduringcompetition.Anothermethodofpsychologicalpreparationiscalledmentalrehearsal.Thiscanbe
donebyvisualizingkeyaspectsofthethroworbymentallyrehearsingasuccessfulthrowoverandover.Throwersshouldalsodeterminetheiroptimummentalarousal
statetoachievemaximumperformance.Thisarousalstatewillbedifferentforeachperson,andmaybeachievedbymanydifferentmeans(e.g.,listeningtomusic,
quietconcentration,etc.).Afinalconsiderationforboththethrowerandthecoachistohavereasonableexpectationsbasedontheleveloftalentandonthelevelof
training.Boththethrowerandcoachshouldrecognizetheperformancelimitationsofathrowerbasedonexperience,talent,phaseoftraining,andconditionsonmeet
day.

Page248

SuzyPowell'smentalandphysicalpreparationenabledhertoreach
peakperformanceatthe1996TrackandFieldChampionshipsand
Olympictrials.

WarmUp
Whenthewarmupforcompetitionbegins,throwersmustmakesurethattheirwarmupsequencefitsintothetimeallowedthemforwarmup.Althoughindividual
warmuproutinesvaryfromthrowertothrower,everyonemusttakeintoaccountthewindconditions,ringsurface,andnumberofcompetitors.Finally,itisalso
importantthatthrowersdevelopagoodthrowingrhythmduringwarmupsandthattheycarrythisintoactualcompetition.Manythrowerswillwarmuphardandthen
losetheirthrowingrhythmbytryingto"getasafethrow"ontheirfirstattempt.Ifthewarmupisdonecorrectly,thereshouldbenoneedforathrowertobackoffand
getasafeonein.
Summary
Ittakesmanyyearsforathrowertoreachhisorhermaximallevelofperformance.Throwerswillfindthattheirpeakyearsmaybeintheirlate20sandearly30s,due
tothatfactthatonecanmaintainorimprovestrengthlevelsintoone's30s.Italsotakesdiscusthrowersmanyyearstofinetunetheirtechniqueandfigureoutwhat
exactlyworksforthem.Consistencyintrainingwithregardtotechnique,weightlifting,flexibility,plyometrics,andrunningwillleadtosuccessinthisevent.Identifying
thebestcombinationofthesetrainingmethodsalongwithselectingthetechniquethatworksbestforeachindividualwillallowcoachestodeveloptheirdiscus
throwerstotheirfullpotential.

Page249

16
Javelin
C.HarmonBrown
BillWebb
BobSing

Thejavelin,likeallotherthrowingevents,isadynamic,totalbodyactivity.Whileanexplosiveshoulderandarmisanassetforpotentialthrowers,thejavelinrequires
theuseofthelegs,hips,andabdominalmusclestothrowwell.Manyyoungthrowershaveshortenedtheircareerswithelbowandshoulderdamagebyoverusingthe
armswithoutlearningtoeffectivelyusethewholebody.Ratherthanbeinga"throw"whichimpliesapredominantlyarmactivity,thejavelinthrowisanoverarm,whip
andflailmotionthatusestheentirebody.
Anotherfactorthatdistinguishesthejavelinfromotherformsofthrowingistheaerodynamicfeatureofthejavelinitself.Iftheapplicationoftheforcesmadetothe
implementarenotmadesothattheflightofthejavelinfollowsthecorrectflightpath,distanceswillbecutshort.

Page250

Inselectingcandidatesforthejavelin,thecoachhasmorelatitudeinbodybuildthanintheotherthrowingevents,whichrequiregreatersizeandstrength.Successful
javelinathletescancomeinallshapesandsizes.Forexample,championmalethrowershaverangedinsizefromthesmall,dynamicJormaKinnunenat5feet,9inches
(about175cm)and170pounds(about77kg)tothemuscularbodybuilderMarkMurro.WomenathleteshavebeentallandlithelikePetraFelke,orcompactand
muscularlikeFatimaWhitbread.However,successfuljavelinathletesshouldpossessspeed,explosivestrength,goodcoordinationandkinesthetics,overallflexibility,
andafeelforoverarmthrowingthatcanbetransferredtothejavelin.Inscreeningathletesforthejavelin,testssuchastheBAABquadrathlon(30metersprintfrom
standingstart,twohandedoverheadbackwardshotthrow,standinglongjump,andstandingtriplejump),aswellasthesoftballthrowfordistance,areuseful
predictors.
GeneralPrinciples
Thejavelinthrowisessentiallyalinear,speedorientedevent,whoseobjectiveistoimpartmaximalreleasevelocitytotheimplementinordertoachievemaximal
distance.Toattainthisobjective,theathleteandcoachmustfocusonseveralfundamentalprinciples:
Achievethehighestpossiblecontrollablerunwayspeed,andmaintainthisspeedintothefinal"block"stageofthethrowandrelease.
Withdrawthejavelinsoastoalignitandtheshoulderaxisalongthelineofthethrow,whilekeepingthehipsforwardascomfortablyaspossiblesoastomaintain
runningvelocity.
Executethetransitionor"crossover"stepsproperly,soastoallowforcetobegeneratedfromthelegsandtrunk,andallowthecenterofgravitytocontinue
forward.
Developthepropertempoandrhythmfromtheaboveinordertosummatealltheforcesandachieveaforceful"block"oftheleftsideofthebody(assumingaright
handedthrower).
Maintainarelaxedupperbodyandarmaslongaspossibletoallowforadelayed"whipandflail"actionofthethrowingarm.Thethrowingshouldershouldbe
"pretorqued,"withthehandandarmabovetheplaneoftheshoulder,andthetipofthejavelinatchintoeyelevel,sothatthereleaseisanautomaticresponse.
Aerodynamics
Thejavelinisanairfoil,whoseflightiscontrolledbysuchfactorsasreleasevelocityandreleaseangle.Inaddition,winddirectionandspeedalsoplayamajorrolein
determiningtheflightdistance.Thus,thereleaseanglemustbeadjustedforthewind,withaloweranglebeingusedwhenthrowingintothewind.Inpractice,the
optimalreleaseangleisabout353degreesinrelationtothehorizontal.

Page251

Biomechanics
Itisimportantforcoachesandathletestounderstandthetermsthatbiomechanistsandjavelincoachesusetodescribebothjavelinandathletecharacteristicsduring
thethrow.Thesefactorsdeterminetheflightcharacteristicsoftheimplementandthedistanceattained.Manymodernbiomechanicsstudiesarecarriedoutusingthree
dimensionalmethods,whichmaygivedifferentvaluesandinformationthanolder,twodimensionalreports(figure16.1).
Releasevelocitythisisusuallyreportedinmeterspersecond(m/s).Forelitemalesthesevaluesare2830meters/second,andforfemales2526meters/second.
Attitudeangletheangleofthejavelininrelationtothehorizontal.
Angleofreleasetheangleatwhichforceisappliedtothegripofthejavelinatrelease,andwhichfollowscloselythepathofthehand.
Angleofattackthedifferencebetweentheattitudeangleandthereleaseangle.Thisshouldbeascloseto0aspossible,indicatingthattheathleteis''throwing
throughthepoint."
Tumblingangularvelocityameasureoftherotationalforcesappliedtotheshaftofthejavelin,whichcauseittooscillate(vibrate)androtateforward(tumble).

Figure16.1
Biomechanicsofjavelinrelease.

Page252

Technique
Thejavelineventisusuallydividedintoseveralphases:
1.Approach
2.Transition
3.Blockandrelease
4.Followthrough
Approach
Theapproachrunistherunupphasepriortothewithdrawalofthejavelin.Therunupdevelopstotalbodyvelocity,whichistheenergythatmustbetransferredto
thethrowitself.Itshouldadd3040%tothedistancethejavelincanbethrownfromastandingposition.Mostthrowersusea1215steprunup,butsomelarger
athletesfindthat810stepsareadequate.Therunupshouldbeagradualacceleration,reachingthemaximalcontrollablespeedthatcanbemaintainedthroughout
thetransitionandrelease.Theathleteshouldbeasrelaxedaspossibleduringtherun,especiallyintheupperbodyandshoulders.Thejavelinshouldbecarried
comfortablyovertheshoulder.Keepingitlevelortipdownaidsinalignmentduringthewithdrawal,asthereisbettereyehandcoordination.
Transition
Thisphaseisusedtowithdrawthejavelininpreparationforanoptimalupperbodyflailandwhipaction,andtopreparethelowerbodyandtrunkforarapid,
explosivedriveintotheblockandrelease.Thisisusuallyaccomplishedwithafivesteppattern(L,R,L,R,Lfortherighthandedthrowerasinfigure16.2),although
someathletesfinditnecessarytouseasevensteppatterntofeelcomfortablypositionedforthebodytostrikethejavelin.Thosewhousethesevensteprhythmmust
makeaspecialefforttomaintainvelocityintoandthroughtheblockandreleasephase.
Javelinwithdrawalusuallybeginswhentheleftfootlands(L1).Theshouldersturnandthethrowingarmislaidbackwiththepalmup,sothatthearmisabovethe
planeoftheshoulders,withthearmexternallyrotatedattheshoulder(figure

Figure16.2
Approach,transition,andthrowingsteps.Dashedlinesatendrepresentstridelengths.

Page253

16.3ab).This"pretorque"positionpreparestheshoulderandarmforanautomatic,highwhipandflailrelease.Thejavelintipisalignedatthelevelofthechinoreye,
andtheshouldersarekeptlevel.Theshouldersarealignedinthedirectionofthethrow,withtheleftarmswunglongandlowacrossthechesttoaidbalanceduringthe
runningstrides.
Thelegsandhipsareveryactiveduringthisphase,withtheleftlegpullingandpushingthehipsandtrunkforward.Theshoulderturnshoulddictatetheamountofhip
rotationandfootplacement.Additionalsidewardturningofthehipsandfeetwillcausedeceleration,anddefeatthemainobjectiveoftherunupthatis,speedinto
theblock.Thenexttolast(penultimate)stepshouldbeavigorousforwarddriveofftheleftleg.Thispullpushimpulseoftheactiveleftleg(the"impulsestep")aidsin
itsrapidrecoveryandplacestheleftleginafullyextendedpositiontobeabletoblockatfootcontact.Theleftfootshouldbebeyondtherightfootatrightfoot
touchdown.Thisstridedrivesthehipsandtrunkforward,andalsolowersthecenterofgravity.Thetrunkiskepterectinordertomaintainforwardspeedandallow
rapidgroundingoftheleftfoot.Theleftarmisextendedinthethrowingdirection,andtheleftshoulderraisedslightlytoopenthechestandprepareforthehipand
trunkstrike.Theeyesshouldbefocusedonapointabout50metersintothefield.Therightlegisswungforwardwiththekneeflexedandthetoeturnedup.Thisaids
inpullingthehipsforwardduringtheforwarddrivefromtheleftleg.Thebentrightlegisthenthrustbackwardvigorouslyduringgrounding.Thethrowbeginsassoon
astherightfootlands,withthethrowerdrivingforwardofftherightfootagainsttheblockedleftside.Thisisthesocalledsoftstepaction(figure16.3c).
"Layingback"withthetrunktoincreasethe"pulldistance"istobeavoided,asthisslowsforwardspeed,anddelaysgroundingoftheblockingleg.
BlockandRelease
Theblockandreleaseshouldbeconsideredanexplosivecontinuationoftheprecedingphases.Energybuiltupfromtheapproachrunandaproperlyexecuted
transitioncanbeconvertedintomaximalreleasevelocityonlybyavigorouslyandcorrectlyexecutedblockandrelease.Thehipsandtrunkarethrustforwardagainst
astraight,ornearlystraight,leftleg(figure16.3df).Thethrowshouldbeexecuted"fromthegroundup,"withtherighthiprotatingaboutthehipaxis,finishingwiththe
hipsfacinginthedirectionofthethrow.Theleftlegblockandtherightlegdriveforcetherighthiptoacceleraterapidly,stretchingthetrunk.Theleftfootshouldbe
plantedinthethrowingdirection.
Theleftarminitiallyisextendedinthethrowingdirection,tostabilizetheshouldersandpreventprematurerotation("opening").Itisthenbroughtdownrapidlyagainst
theleftside,aspartoftheleftsidedblock.Theleftshouldershouldremainforward("closed")asmuchaspossible.Thisopensthechestandthetorso,whilethe
throwingarmremainsrelaxedandtrailing.
Theseactionscauseaprestretchofthechestandtrunkmuscles,resultinginreflexcontractionofthetrunk,andfinallyaflaillikeactionofthethrowingarm.Theathlete
shouldfinishwiththehips,shoulders,head,andeyesfocusingforwardinthethrowingdirection(figure16.3gh).

Page254

Figure16.3
Transition,block,andrelease.

Page255

FollowThrough
Theathletemustthinkofdrivingthroughtheblock,andnotjusttoit.Thiswillforcethebodyhighupontothelefttoeaftertherelease.Asinglefinalstepshouldbe
usedtocheckfurtherforwardmomentum.
Theapproachrunandstepsshouldbeestablishedsoastoallowseventoeightfeetforthisfollowthrough.Crowdingthefoullineinordertoobtainaddeddistance
willcauseprematuredecelerationandapooreffort.
Training
byBillWebbandBobSing
Thejavelineventbringsintoplaymanyballisticandexplosiveforcesthatplacegreatstressonallthebodysegments,especiallytheknees,lowback,andshoulderand
elbow.Trainingmustbeconsideredasaholisticprogramthatpreparesthebodyandmindtobeabletowithstandthesestresses.Thetrainingprogrammust
encompasstheelementsofspeed,strength,flexibility,techniquedevelopment,ballisticexplosiveness,andmentaltoughnessandaggressiveness.Allofthesefactors
mustbeincludedinthetrainingprogram,withtheemphasisonanyelementorcombinationofelementsvaryingduringthetrainingcycle.Ideally,forthematureathlete,
thetrainingprocessshouldoccurthroughtheentireyear.However,fortheyoungerathlete,especiallyinhighschool,eachphaseofthetrainingcyclemayneedtobe
shortenedtoaccommodateparticipationinothersports,weatherconditionsandavailablefacilities,andthelengthofthepermissibletrainingandcompetitionseason.
Initially,thethrowershouldconcentrateonbuildingasoundstrengthbasetopreventinjurieswhenhardthrowingsessionsbegin.Duringthebeginningphases,bulk
trainingintheformofweightlifting,running,bounding,andvolumethrowing(medicineballsandweightedballs)isthenorm.Asmoothtransitionshouldfollow,moving
towardlessweighttrainingandmoretechniquework.Thentheathleteshouldmovegraduallyintothecompetitiveseason,withtheemphasisshiftingtopower,
technique,andpsychologicalpreparation.
TrainingSeasons
Thetrainingyearisdividedintofourphaseslastingthreemonthseach.Thetimeframeofthesephasescanbealteredaccordingtotheathlete'sschoolyearorwork
schedule.Forstudents,analternativeeightmonthtrainingcycleconsistingoffourtwomonthphasescanbeplanned.
FoundationPhase
ThefoundationphaselastsfromSeptemberthroughNovember.Itisconcernedwithbuildingthestrengthandstaminabaseneededforthedevelopmentofthrowing
power.Properphysicalconditioningisalsoimportanttoreduceinjuries.Abaseofstrength,flexibility,andoverallconditioningisstressed.Thisisaccomplished
throughweighttraining,running,andbasicskilltraining.Bulktraining,involvinghighrepetition,lowresistanceexercises,occursduringthefoundationphase.

Page256

Duringthecompetitiveseason,athletesshouldfocusonperfecting
theirthrowingtechnique.

PowerDevelopmentPhase
ThepowerdevelopmentphaselastsfromDecemberthroughFebruary.Overallpowerdevelopmentisacquiredthroughalternatedayweighttraining,primarilyusing
thepyramidmethodoflifting(i.e.,trainingwithprogressivelyincreasingpoundagewithacorrespondingdecreaseinrepetitions).Powerdevelopmentforthespecific
throwingmotionisimprovedbyquantitythrowingsessionswithoverweightballs,medicineballs,andstubbies(shortjavelinswithsoftrubberendsusedforindoor
training).Distancerunsandsprints(withandwithoutthejavelin),alongwithboundingandjumpingexercises,roundoutthemajorityofthetrainingduringthisphase.
Thispowerdevelopmentphaseisthemostintensiveandtimeconsumingperiodoftheyear.
EarlyCompetitionPhase
TheearlycompetitionphasetakesplacefromMarchthroughMay.Powertrainingcontinuesduringthisphase,buttheloadsaregraduallyreduced.Concentrationon
refiningtechniquebegins.Throwingunderweightimplementshelpsinthedevelopmentoftheexplosiveeffort,asdoesconcentrationonmentalimageryandrehearsal
exercises.Flexibilityexercises,especiallywhenassociatedwithmental(psychological)drills,areverybeneficialtothephysicalandmentalwellbeing,aswellas
performance,oftheathlete.Sprinttrainingandboundingexercisescomposethemajorityoftherunningtraining.Early,smalltrackmeetsareusedtorehearsefor
upcomingmajorcompetitions.
LateCompetitionPhase
ThelatecompetitionphaselastsfromJunethroughAugust.Duringthecompetitivemonths,theemphasisisonthrowing,flexibility,andspeedtraining.Allothertraining
modalitiesareusedtoalesserextent,dependingupontheathlete'scompetitionschedule.Mentalimageryandrehearsalexercises,withthementalemphasisonthe
"relaxedbutexplosive"finaleffort,arepracticedregularlyduringthisphase.
Sampletrainingschedulesareprovidedintables16.1and16.2.Ofcourse,theamountoftimespentoneachactivityshouldvaryaccordingtothetrainingcycle.

Page257

WeightTraining
Thefoundationforjavelinthrowingisthedevelopmentofstrengthandpower,whichisbestmaximizedbyweighttraining.Youandyourathletemustalwaysremember
thatalthoughweighttrainingisimportant,mostimportantisthecorrectapplicationofthesepowergainsintothebiomechanicsofthethrow.
Themajorweighttrainingexercisesaresquats,snatches,powercleans,latpulldowns,pullovers(bentandstraightarm),trunktwists(barbellonshoulders),jerks
fromtherack,andspeedjerks(jumpingjacks).
Otherusefulweightexercisesincludethebenchpress,inclinedpress,deadlift,tricepsextension(Frenchcurls),rowing(standingandbent),shoulderpress(military
press),and"cheat"curls.
TABLE16.1JAVELINTRAININGSCHEDULEFORNONLIFTINGDAYS
Dailypractice

Time(min.)*

1.Warmupjog

2.Generalflexibilityexercises

30

3.Specificflexibilityexercises

10

4.Techniquework:
a.Javelindrills
b.Weightedballs
c.Medicineballs

60120

5.Jumpsandsprints

1020

6.Cooldownjogandstretch

7.Mentaltraining

Nolimit

Everyweekhas2or3nonliftingdays.
*
Variesaccordingtotrainingphase.

TABLE16.2JAVELINTRAININGSCHEDULEFORLIFTINGDAYS
Dailypractice

Time(min.)*

1.Warmupjog

2.Generalflexibilityexercises

30

3.Specificflexibilityexercises

10

4.Briefthrowingsession(optional)

30

5.Hopping,bounding,hurdlejumps,depthjumps
inautumn

1020

6.Weighttraining

60120

7.Cooldownjogandstretch

8.Mentaltraining

Nolimit

Everyweekhas3liftingdays.
*
Variesaccordingtotrainingphase.

Page258

Drills
Thefollowingdrillscanassistinthedevelopmentoftheathlete'stechnicalabilities.Eachofthemcontributestosomeaspectofthethrow.
StandingThrows
Standingthrowswiththejavelin
Standingthrowswithmedicineballs(twohanded)
Standingthrowswithweightedimplements(onehanded,usingweightedballsandstubbies)
Overheadshotputthrows(8and12pound/3.6kgand5.4kg)
ShortApproachThrows
Threestep,fivestep,andsevenstepjavelinthrows
ApproachDrills
Cariocas
Sprintswiththejavelin
Crosssteprunningwiththejavelin
Crossstepdragginga5to10pound(2.25kgto4.5kg)weight
OtherDrills
Verticaljumping
Depthjumping
Boundingexercises
Hoppingoverhurdlesorboxes
Simulationexercisesusingcableorrubbertubing
Pulleyrelatedexercises
Lunges
Axeswings(oneandtwohanded)
Isometricisotonicexercises(ExerGenie)
KeyCoachingPoints
1.Intheacceleration(drivingandjumping)phaseofthethrow,lookforthesetechnicalaspects:
Fullextensionoftheleftlegwhendrivingintothethrow
Aggressiveforwardandupwardrightkneedriveduringthecrossstep(keepingtherighttoeupinanattempttolandontherightmidfootorheel)

Page259

Forward,ratherthanupward,trajectoryofthehips(centerofgravity)intothethrow
Maximumcontrolledhorizontaldistancecoveredinthelasttwosteps
2.Tokeepthetrunkandheaderectandinbalancethroughtherelease,lookforthefollowing:
Chinup,eyesstraightahead
Trunkpositionsimilartothatofatriplejumper,withverylittlelateralorfronttobackdeviation
3.Whencompletingthedeliveryonejavelinlengthfromthefoulline,lookforanaggressivefollowthroughstepthatusesupsixtoeightfeetafterthethrow.
4.Attheinstantoftouchdownwiththerightfootinthethrowingstride,thethrowerassumesapositionofreadiness.Lookfortheseaspects:
Leftheel8to12inchesinfrontoftherightfoot,soitcanberegroundedquicklywithawidebase
Weight(centerofgravity)overorbehindaflexedrightleg
Throwingarmfullyextendedbehind,withthejavelinheldclosetothehead(inthecheektoforeheadarea)
Throwinghandaboutevenwiththemiddleoftheback(asviewedfrombehind)andnotslidingoutastheleftfootisregroundedmaintaining"maximum
controlledtorque/wrap"
5.Withtheleftarmandrightleginitiatingthrow,lookforthefollowing:
Leftarmandshoulderactive,pulledforwardandbackwardinabreaststrokefashionthatstretchestheupperchest,beforetherightarmstrikeoccurs
Righthipandlegactiveinaturningmannerbeforetherightarmstrike
6.Leftsideblockandreleasecompletedinafullfrontalpositionlookfortheseaspects:
Shoulderandhipplanesbothfacingstraightforwardattheinstantofrelease
(Note:Foradditionaldiscussionofoverrotation,seethefollowingsectiononfaultsandcorrections.)
Completeextensionoftheleft(blocking)legoccurringsimultaneouslywiththejavelinrelease
Afterrelease,thehipsandshoulderspassingovertheleftlegandaggressivelyouttowardthefoulline
7.Allthingsbeingequal,animprovementingeneralathleticability(athleticquotient)improvesthethrower'sabilitytocreategreaterforcesduringthethrow,thus
increasingthethrowingdistance.Youandyourathleteshoulddothefollowing:
Periodically(twotofourtimes/year)testvariousrelatedoneandtwohandedthrowswithdifferentweightimplementsormedicineballs.
Periodically(twotofourtimes/year)testvariousrelatedhoppingandboundingtestsoffbothoneandtwolegs.
Periodically(twotofourtimes/year)testvariousstrengthandotherfitnesscomponentstoseewhethercontinuedprogressisbeingmade.

Page260

CorrectingCommonFaults
Fault:Excessiveincreaseintheangleofattackduringthethrow,commonlyreferredtoaslosingthepoint.
Causes:
Droppingthethrowingarmandhandduringthecrossstep,allowingthejavelinpointtoexcessivelyelevate.
Bendingatthewaist.
Bendingtheplantlegduringthethrow.
Discussion:Astheathleteperformsthecrossstep,youwillnotethatthetiprisesupbecausetherear,throwinghanddrops.Theathletemustmaintainahighrear
handandnotallowittodropduringthecrossstep.Also,thehipsmustbehighandsolidlybasedifthethrowinghandistotravelupwardatthesamepositiveangleas
theattackangleofthejavelin.Ifthethrowerinsteadbendsatthewaistandkeepsthehipslowandbehindthetrunk,theforwardmotionofthetrunkgoesdownward
whilethejavelintendstogoup.Theathleteconsequently"pulls"downonthejavelin,causingthejavelintobowandthepointtogoupward.Theathlete'scenterof
gravityalsogoesdowniftheathletebendstheplantlegexcessivelysoheorsheagainpullsdownonthejavelin.
Corrections:Thethrowermustpreventthethrowinghandfromdroppingduringthecrossstepandmustmaintainthepointateyelevel,notlettingitgetaway.Also,
thethrowermustkeepthecenterofgravityupandforwardtoavoidpullingdownonthejavelin.
Fault:Inefficienttransferofthecenterofgravity.
Causes:
Poorcrossstepaction.
Initiatingthethrowbeforetheplantfoothitstheground.
Discussion:Beforetheinitiationofthethrow,therighthipmuststartasfarbehindtheright(drive)footaspossible.Howfarbackthehipsstartisdirectlyrelatedto
thecrossstep.Ifabriskcrossstepiscompleted,theathlete'scenterofgravity(thehips)willbebehindthedrivefootduringthelandingafterthecrossover,often
referredtoastheseatposition.Thethrowerthenmustwaituntiltheplantfootstrikestocompletetheshiftofthecenterofgravityfromthedrivelegontotheplantleg.
Inhis310feet,4inches(94.59m)worldrecordthrow,inthe1976OlympicGamesinMontreal,MiklosNemethutilizedanaggressive,briskcrossstepthatallowed
forthedeepseatpositionthatresultedinanextremelypowerfulhipdriveandastupendoushandspeed.
Acommonmistakeduringthecrossstepisthethrower'sreachingforthegroundwiththedrivelegandlandingwithastraightdriveleg.Inthiscase,thecenterof
gravityishighoverthedriveleg,insteadofbehindittherefore,thereisnoappreciableseatposition.Asaresult,theathleteisunabletodrivetherighthipontothe
plantleg,becausethedrivelegisalreadystraight.Softstepcannotoccur,andtheathleteliterallyfallsontotheplantleginsteadofdrivingintoit.
Theoutsideobservernotesthat(a)thethrowerhasnoseatposition,(b)thethrowergetsoffthedrivelegtoofast,and(c)thedrivefootisliftedoffthegroundina
runningmotionasthejavelinisbeingthrown.Thethrowerreportsmissingthethrow,throwingwiththearmonly,orthethrowhadnothingbehindit.

Page261

Sometimesthethrowerexperiencesasharp,jarringpaininthelowerbackbecauseoftheshockofcrashingdownontotheplantleg.
Corrections:Thesuccessfuljavelinthrowermustdevelopaprofoundappreciationofcrossstepmechanics.Thecrossstepmustbeaggressive,belowtotheground,
andcoveralotofground.Theathletemustwaitforthegroundto''comeup"tohimorhertheathletemustnotreachforthegroundwiththedrivefootduringthe
crossstep.Theupperbodymustbedelayedsothatthecenterofgravitycanbepositionedunderneathandinfrontoftheupperbody,resultingintheseatposition.
Also,theathleteshouldendeavortousethelandingoftheplantfoot(notthedrivefoot)asthefocusoftheexplosiveinitiationofthethrow.
Fault:Decelerationoftherunupduringthetransitionstepsandintothethrowproper.
Causes:
Poorlydevelopedcoordinationandrhythmofthethrower.
Toomuchaccelerationintherunupspeedbeforethetransitionsteps.
Lackofconfidence.
Discussion:Theidealistoaccelerateintothethrow.Anyhintofdecelerationmarkedlyreducesthedistancethrown.Thefinaltwostepsabsolutelymustbethe
quickest.
Corrections:Thethrowermustpracticeaccelerationdrillsgoingintothethrow.Thesedrillsdevelopthecoordination,rhythm,and,ultimately,theconfidence
necessaryforthesuccessfulthrower.Theathletemayhavetoconsciouslyslowtherunupspeedtothenbeabletoacceleratethroughthetransitionsteps.
Fault:Bendingatthewaistduringthethrow.
Causes:
Prematurehaltingofthehips,resultingininefficientaccelerationoftheuppertrunk("rushing"theupperbody).
Inadequatetrunkstrength.
Discussion:Rushingtheupperbody,withsubsequentbendingatthewaist,isacommonerrorusuallyresultingfromthethrower'sattempttothrowhardandfast.The
problemisthatifthehipsaregoingbackwardastheupperbodyisrushingforward,thereisadecreasednetforwardmotion.Therefore,theathleteisthrowingoffan
unstablehipbase(likeshootingarocketoffarowboat),andthefeelingofaccelerationisactuallyanillusion!
Corrections:Thethrowermustlearntorelaxandallowthethrowtohappen.Heorshecanpracticethecorrecthipmotionbymakingsurethatthehipsarehighover
theplantlegduringthrowingdrillsandmedicineballthrows.Oncetheupwardhipmotionhasimproved,thethrowingarmfollowsthepathofleastresistance,andthe
athletefindsiteasiertodeliverthejavelinatthecorrectattackanglebythisformationofasolidtrunkthrowingbase.Improvementoftrunkstrengthwithvariouslifts,
twists,andsitupsisamust.
Fault:Throwingwiththearmbentattheelbow.
Causes:
Armstrikebeforethelowerbodycancompleteitspartinthethrow.
Poorthrowingshoulderflexibility.

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Discussion:Throwingwithabentelbowisgenerallyconsideredevidenceofanearlyarmstrike.ThisfaultisusualinnoviceAmericanthrowersbecauseoftheirinitial
attemptstothrowthespearlikeafootballorabaseball.Inthisrespect,thecorrectjavelinthrowmustbeconsidereda"pull"ratherthanasimplethrow.Theproblem
canbecorrectedifthethrowerstartsthethrowfromasfaraspossibletotherear,allowingthepullingmusclesofthetrunkandshoulder(primarilythelatissimusdorsi)
toparticipateinthethrow.Occasionally,though,athrowercomesalongandthrowsverysuccessfullywithabentarm.
Corrections:Thejavelinthrowermusttraintopullthespearfromasfaraspossibletotherear.Pulleyworkandsimulationexercisesusingrubbertubinghelpdevelop
thepullingmotion.Flexibilityexercisesinvolvingthethrowingshoulderarevitaltocorrectthrowingmotiontheyeasilycorrectabentarmifhinderedshoulder
mechanicsistheproblem(shoulderflexibilityexercisesare,inanycase,amustforalljavelinthrowers).
Fault:Throwingthejavelinlikeadart.
Cause:Literallypushingthejavelinoutlikeadartratherthanpullingthespearfrombehind.
Discussion:Throwingthespearlikeadartisadevelopmentalbadhabitresultingfromanoveremphasisonthrowing"throughthepoint"(applyingallofthe
accumulatedthrowingforcedirectlyintotheshaftofthejavelin)duringearlycoaching.Theathletelearnstodisregardthepullingmotioncompletelyinaneffortto
ensurethatthehandactionrunsstraightdowntheshaft,givingtheobservertheimpressionofadartthrowingmotion.Althoughthrowingthroughthepointisan
admirablequality,itshouldnotbeforcedattheexpenseofthepullingmotion.
Corrections:Thecorrectionsarethesameasthoseforthrowingwithabentarm(thepreviousfault).Theideaandfeelingofpullingthejavelincanbedevelopedwith
simulationtrainingbyusingpulleysandrubbertubingexercises.
Fault:Inefficientblockingofthenonthrowingside.
Causes:
Excessiveflexion(bending)oftheplantleg.
Overrotatingtheshouldersduringthethrow.
Overrotatingthehipsbyputtingtheplantfoottoofartothesideoppositethethrowingarm.
Discussion:Thedistancethejavelinisthrownisdirectlyproportionaltothehorizontalvelocityofthethrowingsidehip,whichisinturndirectlyproportionaltothe
rateofthehorizontaldecelerationoftheotherhip.Thethrowermustblock(stopandstabilize)theoppositesideasquicklyaspossibletomaximizethisthrowingside
acceleration.Iftheoppositesideisnotstabilized,theathletewillexperiencethe"pirouetteeffect,"continuingtospinofftotheoppositeside,andoverrotating.This
overrotationcanbecausedbyanyoneofanumberofmechanisms,orbyacombinationofthem.
Corrections:Theathletemustdevelopafirmoppositesideblockbyconsciouslymakingtheefforttostoptheoppositesideleg,trunk,andshoulder,andaccelerating
thethrowingsidearoundit.Thesensationofthestable,tightoppositesidemustbepursuedeverytimethejavelinisthrown.Also,thethrowermustlearntosquareoff
tothedirectionofthethrowwiththehipsfirst,thentheshoulders.

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Thenexttwofaultsincludespecificcorrectionsfortheinefficientblockingofthenonthrowingside.
Fault:Bentplantleg(excessiveflexionoftheplantleg).
Causes:
Toomuchofthehipforcebeingdrivendownintotheplantleginsteadofoverit.
Notproducingenoughpowerinthehipandthighregion.
Discussion:Abentplantlegcausesthelefthiptocontinuetomoveforward,causingenergytobeabsorbed,whichreduceshiptorque.Theaccelerationofthe
throwingsideisdirectlyproportionaltothedecelerationoftheothersideinthecaseofthebentplantleg,theotherside'sdecelerationissluggishandincomplete.The
plantlegshouldbendslightly(30degreesatthemost)beforeitmustquicklystraightenoutattheinstantofrelease.
Corrections:Theathleteshouldtrytothrowhighovertheplantlegratherthandrivedownintoit.Sometimesconcentratingongettingupontothetoesoftheplant
footassoonasthethrowisoffcanhelptheathletegethigher.Quadricepsstrengtheningexercises,includingkneeextensions,squats,andcleans,arehelpfulin
preventingexcessiveflexionoftheplantkneeduringthethrow.Medicineballdrills,withconcentrationonhighrelease,improvethetrunkhipstrengthandassistinthe
developmentoftheoppositesideblock.
Fault:Puttingthefootinthebucket(plantfoot).
Cause:Startingthethrowtooearly,beforetheplantfoothitstheground.
Discussion:Bypointingthefootoutward,awayfromthecenterlineandthethrowingside,thethrowercannoteffectivelyblockthenonthrowingsidehip.Thisaction,
coupledwithputtingthefoottoofarawayfromthemidline,isamistakecommonlycalled"puttingthefootinthebucket."Thisactionresultsfromprematurelystarting
thehipdrivebeforetheplantfootlands,therebyswingingtheplantfoottoofarfromthethrowingside.
Corrections:Thethrowershoulddelaystartingthethrowuntilaftertheplantfoothashittheground.Theplantfootshouldthereforelandinadirectlinewiththe
throw,withthetoespointingstraightforwardinthedirectionofthethrow.
Fault:Wrongmentalattitudeincompetitivesituations.
Causes:
Amentalandphysicaltighteningfeeling,commonlyreferredtoaschoking.
Lackofconfidence.
Discussion:Thenumberofthrowerswhothrowwellinpracticesessionsandpoorlyincompetitionsiscountless.Howmanythrowersthrowwellafterthe
competition,throwingwhatissometimescalledthe"elusivesevenththrow"?
Mentalpreparationisextremelyimportantiftheathleteistoexcelinthejavelinevent.Thethrowermustbeconfidentinhisorhertechnique.Thethrowermustthinkin
apositivemanner.Insteadofworryingaboutmakingmistakesandsomeoneelsewinning,thethrowershouldbefocusingonthethrowathand.
Ifnotthefirstplacewinner,theathleteshouldbeconsoledbyknowingthatheorshehastrainedashardaspossibleforthecompetition.Thethrowermustview
competitionasanopportunityforexpressionofpowerandtheathleticart.
Corrections:Havetheathletepracticerelaxationtechniques(deepbreathingexercises,listeningtomusic,andsoforth)beforeandduringcompetition.Develop

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ritualsthatarefollowedbeforeeverycompetition.Opendiscussionsbetweentheathleteandyouonsuchtopicsasachievement,motivation,andgoalsettingcanhelp
relievetheheavyburdensthattheathleteplacesuponhimorherself.Youshoulddevelopimageryandrehearsaltechniquessotheathletehasamentalpictureofhow
heorsheissupposedtolookandfeelduringagoodthrow.Ifallelsefails,referraltoarecognizedsportspsychologistmayhelp.
Summary
Javelinthrowingisanactionthatdemandsspeed,strength,flexibility,technicalprecision,andmentalaggressiveness.Theseareobviouslynottraitsthataredeveloped
overnight.Acompletetrainingprogramthatencompassestheaboveelementsisnecessaryforachievingsuccess.Whenitcomestimetocompete,theathletewhohas
preparedboththebodyandmindandwhoconstantlystrivesforperfectionwillcomeoutahead.

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17
Hammer
KenBantum

Perhapsthemostintriguingofallthrowingevents,thehammerthrowstandsoutforitsuniqueness.Iknowofnoothereventthatcreatessuchfanaticsandlifelong
devotees,who,oncebittenbythehammer,engageintheneverendingsearchfortheperfectthrowandtheabsolutetechnique.
Successinhammerthrowingisdeterminedbyknowledgeofthebasictechniques,strength,agility,quickness,tirelessdedication,andmentaltoughness.
Thehammerrequiresakinestheticawarenessofbalancewhileturningatahighangularvelocity.Thethrowermustmaintainadelicatebalancetopreventbeingyanked
outofthecirclebythespinning16poundballorfallingbackward,pulledbythebody'sleanthatcounterstheforceoftheball.
Successfulhammerthrowershavecomeinavarietyofsizes.However,thetallerathletewithlongarmshasthedistinctadvantageofalongerradius.Theshorter
athletemustovercomethisdisadvantagebybeingabletocreateahigherrateofangularvelocitythroughstrength,power,andbalance.

Page266

Fundamentals
Thefollowingareafewessentialsabouthammerthrowing.
CommonTerms
Manyofthetermsandcoachingpointsaretraditional.Theyhavebeenpasseddownovermanygenerationsandarestillapplicabletoday.Thefollowingaretermsthat
youmustbefamiliarwith:
AccelerateTomovefaster.
ActiveUsingforce.
AxisofrotationTheaxisaroundwhichthehammersystemrotates.
BlockObstructsmovement.Therearepositiveandnegativeblocksinthrowing.
CentrifugalforceAforcethatappearstocauseabodyorobjectthatistravelingaroundacentertoflyoutwardfromitscircularpath.
CounteringResistingpullofthehammerasitturnsaroundtheaxis.
FlatReferstotheplaneofthehammer,whichishorizontalorparalleltotheground.
HammersystemTheathleteandthehammerasoneunit.
HangCounteringtheballwhentheplanebecomessteep.Thispositionenablesadeepcollapseoftheleftleg.Youareactuallyhangingdownfromtheball.
HeeltoeturnTurningontheheelandtoe.
PostHavingthefootdrivedown,asindrivingapostintotheground.
PushPushingwiththerightarmandhandtocreateawiderotationaroundtheleftside.
RadiusThedistancefromcenterorturningaxis.
ReleaseTheactualthrowingofthehammerbythelowerbodyandback,moresothanbythearms.
SitApositiondonebybendingthekneesandloweringthehipsduringtheturnstocounterthehammerpull.
SkimExecutingahardheelturn,keepingtheballofthefootclosetotheground.
ToeturnTurningcompletelyaround(360degrees)onthetoe.
TriangleTheisoscelestriangleformedbytheshouldersandhands.
Equipment
You'llneedthefollowingequipmenttoperformthedrillsinthischapter.
Shoesflatshoes,preferablyhammershoes
Gloveforlefthand.Fingertipsmustbeexposed.
Implementsheavy,official,light

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Broom(typeusedforsweeping)
Heavyrubberbandsorsurgicaltubing
Longathleticsock
Lightweightindoorshot
Medicineball
Philosophy
Confidenceisthekeytosuccess.
Donotattempttooverpowertheimplement.Learntoappreciatethescienceoftheevent.Followthelearningsequences.Theyarethebuildingblocks.Confidence
comesfromaccomplishingthesesmallfeats.Confidenceallowsthebodytorelaxandperformmoreefficiently.Tensioncausesthebodytobecomerigidand
ineffective.
TeachingProgression
Thefollowingstepswillaidinthedevelopmentofasuccessfulhammerthrower.Allreferencesareforrighthandedthrowers.
AppreciationofRadius
Beforedoinganythrowingatall,performthisexperiment.Taketwoathleticsocks,onecrewandonekneelength.Placethelightweightindoorshotorasimilarlight
weightinoneofthesocks.Windupandreleaseit.Placetheweightintheothersockandrepeatthewindupandrelease.Youwillfindthattheweightgoesfartherin
thelongersock.Thisillustrateshowthelengthoftheradius(effectiveradius)influencesballheadspeed,whichisdirectlyresponsiblefordistance.
Grip
Firstgripwiththelefthand.Allowthehandletorestonthelastdigitsofthefingers.Overlapwiththerighthand(figure17.1).

Figure17.1
Righthandedgrip.

PositioningandCountering
Thefollowingdrillsteachthethroweraboutthesenseofthegripandfeelingthelongradiusofthehammer,aswellasaboutflatplaneandcentrifugalforce.

Page268

WalkAroundDrill
Thearmsareheldinfrontofthebodyinarelaxedmannerwiththefeetfairlyclosetogether.Notethetrianglemadebytheshouldersandhands.Thismustnever
breakdown.Theheadshouldbeback,withtheeyesfocusedontheball.(Lookunderthebottomofeyeglassesorlookcontinuouslyinthedirectionoftheball.)The
throwershouldturncounterclockwiseinplaceusingsmallstepstoinitiatemovementandtostaycentered.Thefasterthethrowerturns,themoreheorshehastoresist
the"centrifugalforce"thatappearstobecreated.Asthethrowerincreasestheturningspeed,heisforcedtositmoreandmoretocounterthepullofthehammer
(figure17.2).

Figure17.2
Walkarounddrill:asthethrower'sturningspeedincreases,heorsheis
forcedtositmoreandmoretocounterthepullofthehammer.

TugofWarDrill
Ifthereisonlyonethrower,thecoachholdsthethrower'shandstoteachcorrectposture.Hipsunderneath,headback,backstraight.Withtwothrowers,youcanadd
alittlefunbyhavingthemshufflequicklyclockwiseandcounterclockwise(figure17.3).

Figure17.3
Tugofwardrill.

Page269

TurningtheRadius
Thefollowingdrillismeanttoteachthrowerstheproperarmandoverallbodypositioninrelationtothehammer'swidearc.
RightHandDrill
Thethrowerassumesthestartingpositionatthebackofthecircle,facing0degrees,inanuprightposturewithfeetslightlylessthanshoulderwidthapart.Knees
shouldbeflexed.Thethrowergraspsthebroombythehandlewiththerighthandandextendsthearmoutinfront.
Thethrowerpivotsontheheeloftheleftfootwhilekeepingtheballofthefootclosetothesurface(skim).Atthesametimethatthethrowerdrivesandpivotstheright
footcounterclockwise,hepushesthebroominawidearc.Thebroomshouldbeparalleltotheground,withmostoftheweighttransferredtotheleftfoot(figure
17.4).Therightkneeshouldbeclosetotheleftkneeandtherighttoebarelyincontactwiththeground.Havethethrowerrepeatthismanytimesuntildone
satisfactorily.
Next,increasetherangeofmotionfrom90degreesto180degrees.Thethrowerinitiatesthesamemovementto90degreeshowever,at90degreeshedrivesthe
rightkneearoundandforwardinasprintingmanner.Thekneewillgoclosetotheleftkneeandbeinapositionsimilartothatofasprinter(kneeforwardwithtoe
down).
Theweightshouldshiftfromtheheeloftheleftfoottotheballtocompletethe180degreeturn.Whentheturniscompleted,thebroomshouldbeat180degrees.It
shouldbeslightlyhigherinplanethanhorizontal.Thoughtheupperbodyremainsupright,theplaneofthemovementforcesthethrowertositbackslightly.Theplane
ofthebroom'smovementalsocausestheleftlegtocollapseaswell.Theathleteshouldrepeatthismovementmanytimes(figure17.5).

Figure17.4
Righthanddrillfinishingpositionafter90degree
rangeofmotion.

Figure17.5
Righthanddrillfinishingpositionafter180degree
rangeofmotion.

Page270

Intheprecedingdrill,
thewidearccreatedbythebroomrepresentsthelongradiuswedesire
themovementoftherightfootissomewhatlikethatofasprinterthefasteryouturn,thehigheryourkneelifts
thefastertheturn,thesteepertheplaneand
thefasteryouturn,themoreyoucollapse.
Whatweshouldknowaboutplaneisthatat0degreesthehammerisatitslowpoint.At180degrees,thehammerisatitshighpoint.At90degreesand270degrees,
thehammerishorizontal.Thearmsshouldneverbemorethanperpendiculartothebodythroughouttheexecutionofthethrow.
Winds
Whenpracticingwinds,throwersmaywanttousethelongsockwithasmallweightinsideinsteadofthehammer.Afterthrowershaveconfidencethattheywillnot
injurethemselves,theyshouldexecutethewindswiththehammer.
OneHandWinds
Thethrowerassumesthecorrectstartingpositionat0degrees,thengraspsthehammerwiththerighthand.Thehammerrestsbehindandtotherightoftherightfoot
("drag"or"pickup"position.)Thethrowerswingsthehammerclockwisesothatthehandleisjustoverhead(figure17.6a).Asitmovesoverhead,thethrowertwists
theshoulderstotherightand"catches"thehammerasitreachesapproximately270degrees.Makesurethethrowerraisestheelbowashighasthetopofthehead,
asthishelpstomakethewindsflat.Inthe"catch"or"pickup''position,thearmshouldbeextended.Thethrowershoulddofivesetsoffiverepetitions,oruntilthe
drillisperformedsatisfactorily.Nowthethrowergraspsthehammerinthelefthandandplacesittotherightoftherightfoot.Asthethrowerswingsthehammertothe
left,hemusttwisttheshouldersagaintotheright.Asthethrowertwiststotheright,heexecutesahighcurlingmotion(figure17.6b).Afterthehammerclearsthetop
ofthehead,thearmisextendedtoward270degrees.Havethethrowerdoanotherfivesetsoffiverepetitions,oruntilyouaresatisfiedwiththeexecution.

Figure17.6
Onehandwinds:(a)clockwiseswingingmotionwiththehandlejust
overhead,(b)addingthecurlingmotion.

Page271

TwoHandWinds
Thethrowerplacesbothhandsonthehandleandassumestheproperstartingposition.Fromthe"drag"position,heexecutesfivesetsoffivewinds,oruntiltheyare
donesatisfactorily.
WalkingDrill
Agooddrilltohelpthethrowergainconfidenceandcontrolofthehammeristhe"walking"drill.Whilewindingthehammeraboutthehead,thethrowerwalksabout
10stepswiththelegsinthedeepflexposition.Afterrestingafewseconds,thethrowerturnsaroundandwalksback,againexecutingthewinds.
Makesurethewindsarewide,flat,andfluidbeforeproceedingtothenextphase.
OneHand,OneTurnThrow
Thethrowerassumesthecorrectstartingposition,withthehammerinthe"drag"position.Takingonefullwind,hesweepsthehammerasdonewiththebroom.Asthe
hammermovesinfront,thethrowersweepsitwideandmakesafullturnto180degrees.Becausetheweightofthehammerisgreaterthanthebroom,thehammer's
pullwillmostlikelycausethethrower'srightfoottocomedownpast180degrees,probablyto270degrees,whichisacceptable.Whentherightfootcomesdown,
thethrowerexecutesadrivepivotcounterclockwise.Thethrowersitsbacktoshifthisweighttotheleftandliftstoreleasethehammer.Thisisdone1015times.For
mostnovicethrowersthisisenoughforoneday.
Thethrowershouldreviewtheprecedingusingthebroomorsockdevice.
OneTurnThrows
Thethrowerassumesthestartingpositionwithbothhandsonthehammer.Howthewindsareinitiatedisanindividualchoice.Sometakethehammerfroma"drag"
position.Someswingitfromtheleft,uptothefrontandbacktotheright,beforewindingoverhead.
Atacontrolledspeed,thethrowertakestwofullwindsaroundthehead,makingsurethewindsareflat,wide,andfluid.Afterthesecondwind,thethrowerexecutesa
turnwhentheballisoutinfront.Thesamefootworkandupperbodyworkdrilledoninpreviouspassagesonturningareexecutedhere.Thethrowershouldpay
particularattentiontothesweepingactionoftherightarmandhand,rememberingthattherightsideofthebodyistheactiveside,whiletheleftsidelendsitselfmoreto
control.
Afterseveralthrowstheathleteshouldhavethesensethatastheballapproaches180degrees,nomoreforcecanbeexertedtoit.Thislessactivephaseiswherehe
catchesuptotheball.Attemptingtoapplycontinuousforcetothehammerwillonlycausetheathletetodragtheballaround.Thisistheolder,lesseffectivemethodof
throwing,outdatedforovertwentyyears.Wenowhaveanactivephaseandapassivephase.Thepassivephaseallowstheathletetocollapsetheleftlegandcreatea
hangfromthehammer.Itisatthistimethethroweremploysaquickrightfootplant.Astherightfoothits,theathleteemploysanexplosiverightfootturnandbacklift
totheleftsideforanexplosiverelease.Plateservingsand/ormedicineballthrowsareappropriatebeforetheathleteattemptstheoneturnthrowandinbetween
throws.Heshouldtakeasmanyas30oneturnthrowsreviewingallaspects.

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TwoTurnThrows
Beforeattemptingthetwoturnthrow,athletesshoulddomultipleturndrillsandotherstoprepareforasuccessfultransitionfromoneturntotwoturnthrows.
180Degreesto180DegreesDrill
Thethrowerholdsabroomatthe180degreeposition,thenexecutesafull360degreeturnbacktothe180degreeposition.Thisdrillencouragesthethrowerto
drivepivotmoreforcefullyandsitbacktocompletetheturnsuccessfully(figure17.7).

Figure17.7
180degreesto180degreesdrill.Thethrower
mustsitbacktocompletetheturnsuccessfully.

Wind/TurnDrill
Ifyouhavealongrunwayordiscuscircle,yourathleteswillreceivemorebenefitfromthisdrillbecausetheywillbeabletodomoreturns.Thethrowerassumesthe
correctstartingposition.Aftertwocontrolledwinds,heexecutesoneturn,thentakesanothertwowinds.Havetheathleterepeatthisasmanytimesasthefacility
permits.Onthelastturn,thethrowerexecutestherelease.
TwoHammer/PipeDrill
Thethrowertakestwohammers,oneineachhand.Holdingthemoutstretchedforward,thethrowerdoesmultipleturns.Hethendoesthesamethingwiththe
hammersoutstretchedfromthesides(figure17.8).Or,takingapipeseventoeightfeetlong,thethrowerplacesitbehindtheneckanddoesmultipleturns(figure
17.9).

Figure17.8
Twohammerdrill:hammersoutstretchedtothesides.

Figure17.9
Pipedrill.

Page273

Theathleteisnowreadyfortwoturnthrowswiththehammer.Thefundamentalsarethesameasforoneturnthrows.Thedifficultycomesfromthetransitionto
anotherturn.Youmayalsofindthatyourthrowersoverturn.Thatisunderstandablethehammer'spullcausesit.However,wedonotwanttogopast270degrees.
Thethrowermustconcentrateongroundingtherightfootmorequicklyashebuildsmorespeedintotheturns.
ThreeTurnThrows
Usesametechniqueastwoturnthrows.Increasedrillworkbecausetransitionismoredifficult.
FourTurnThrows
Thisisforthemoreadvancedthrower,butnottobefeared.Thethrowerwhocanmasterthefourturntechniquemaybeabletogainalittlemorespeed.Mostfour
turnthrowersuseatoeturnfortheirfirstturn.However,thereareseveraltopnotchfourturnthrowerswhoarecapableofexecutingfourheeltoeturns.Forthefour
turntechnique,theathleteslowsdownthewindsandmakessuretheyareveryflat.Theathletealsomaywanttomovetheleftfootto0degreespositiontogainmore
roominthecircle.
Bearinmindthatthelongtimerecordholder,thegreatYuriySyedikh,usesonlythreeturns.Heistremendouslyfastandexplosive.
Training
Thefollowingareimportanttipstorememberwhencreatingatrainingprogram.
Thefocusoftheday'sworkoutshouldbebasedonareviewofthepreviousday'spractice.Thisisagoodtimetousethetrainingdevicestoworkonproperform
andexecution.
KeyCoachingPoints
Becausethehammerismovingrapidlyaround,itmaybedifficulttogettherightfootdown
whenandwherethethrowerwantsit.Remindthrowerstothink,Early!Early!Early!
Thereleaseshouldbethoughtofasanotherturn.Thethrowershouldnotgatherforthe"big
one."
Togettheutmostfromthelegsandbackatthemomentofrelease,thethrowershouldthink
Turn!ratherthan,Explode!or,Stand!Thisthoughtwillhelpthethrowermaintaincenterand
radius.Also,itwillallowthethrowertoachieveaneffectiveblockoverandagainsttheleftleg.
Tokeepthebackagainsttheballandturntherightfootmoreexplosively,thethrowershould
think,Turn!Turn!Turn!Thesecommandscouldbebarkedoutfromthecoach.Theathlete
shouldbarkthemoutmentallyasheexecutesthethrow.
Topreventdraggingthehammer,theathletekeepstheeyesontheball.Tomaintaincorrect
posture,theathletemightimagineheorsheiswearingeyeglassesandislookingunderthelenses
attheball.
Thereleaseangleshouldbebetween42and45degrees.

Page274

Sincewewanttobuildandreinforcegoodmotorpatterns,selectadrillthatisspecificallyrelatedtothisend.Forexample,amedicineballcanbeusedtoworkon
theproperrelease.
Usereasoninsteadofemotioninsomedecisions.Sometimesanathletewillgetfrustratedtryingtoexecuteaphaseofthethrow.Itmaybebesttogotoanother
phase.Onceinawhilethenervoussystemgetsoverlyexcitedoragitated,andthebestthingfortheathletetodoisgetcompletelyawayfromthecircleforawhile.
Generallytheathleteshouldtakeabout30throwsinapracticesession,dependingontheweightoftheimplement.Obviously,taking30throwswiththelightweight
hammerislessstressingthan30throwswiththeoverweighthammer.
Avoidrapidfirethrows.Theathleteshouldtaketimebetweenthrowstocritiquetheprecedingthrowandprepareforthenext.
Iwouldsuggestthatyourathletesworkwiththeheavyimplementsearlyintheseasonandtaperoffasthechampionshipsnear.Atthistime,increasetheamountof
workdonewiththelighthammers.Thisiswhenmaximumspeedandexplosivenessareimportant.
Theentireconditioningprogramshouldbelookedatasatriangle.Wewantourathletestopeakatthechampionshippartoftheseason.Thebaseofourconditioning
programiscomposedofmanycycles.Theearlypartoftheseasonconsistsofmoreconditioningandquantity.Aswegetnearthechampionships,wewantour
athletestobeatmaximumstrengthandexplosiveness.Theprogramshouldbedesignedtoaccomplishthis.(Seetable17.1.)Testbeforeeachcyclefornew
maximums.Structureprogramsbasedontheneedsoftheathlete.Whenallcyclesarecompleted,startoverwithcyclethreeorfour,dependingonthelengthofyour
season.ThisshouldallowyourathletestopeakinMarchandJune.
TABLE17.1SAMPLEWORKOUTSFORHAMMER
Wheretheliftsareheavy,theathleteshouldtaketwotothreedaysofrestinbetween.Increaseresistance
25%eachweek.Usediscretion.
Cycle1:FourWeeks
StrengthTraining
Day

Exercise

Monday

Highpulls
Backsquats
Frontsquats
Hangcleans

Tuesday

Abdominalwork

Wednesday

Benchpress
Latpulldowns
Abdominalwork

Thursday

SameasMonday

Friday

SameasWednesday

SetsReps

Intensity

312
312
312
312

40%ofmax.
30%ofmax.
20%ofmax.
25%ofmax.

210
310

40%ofmax.
40%ofmax.

Page275

Figure17.10
Boxdrill.

The"GeneralConditioning"sectionthatfollowsincludestheboxdrill.Inthisdrill,theathletestartsatonecornerofthebox,whichis20yardsby20yards,markedby
cones.Heperformsadifferentskillateachside.Theskillsperformedarecarioca,backpedal,shuffle,andsprint.Executingthedrillcounterclockwiseandclockwiseis
consideredonerepetition(figure17.10).
GeneralConditioning
Tuesday

Formsprint

10100m

Wednesday

Boxdrill

3reps

Thursday

Run

1/2miletomile

Friday

Boxdrill

3reps

Cycle2:FourWeeks
StrengthTraining
Day

Exercise

SetsReps

Intensity

36
310
38
46

60%ofmax.
60%ofmax.
40%ofmax.
50%ofmax.

Monday

Highpulls
Backsquats
Frontsquats
Hangcleans

Tuesday

Abdominalwork

Wednesday

Benchpress
Latpulldowns
Abdominalwork

Thursday

SameasMon.

Friday

SameasWed.

38
38

60%ofmax.
60%ofmax.

GeneralConditioning
RepeatCycle1,withinclusionofstairhopsonWed.andFri.
Cycle3:FourWeeks
StrengthTraining
Day

Exercise

Monday

Highpulls
Backsquats
Hangcleans

Wednesday

Frontsquats
Latpulldowns
Plateswings
(Simulatehammerrelease)
Russiantwists

(continued)

SetsReps
36
38
44

Intensity
70%ofmax.
70%ofmax.
60%ofmax.

28
28
315

50%ofmax.
60%ofmax.
Lightweightplate

315

Lightweightplate

Page276

(continued)
Cycle3:FourWeeks
Thursday

SameasMonday

Friday

Frontsquats
Latpulldowns

28
28

50%ofmax.
60%ofmax.

GeneralConditioning
Stairboundingreplacesboxdrill,whichshouldbecomealargepartofwarmup.Usea1010yardboxfor
warmups.
Tuesday

Formsprints

10100yd.

Wednesday

Stair/hurdlebounding

Boundup1020stairsanddown,12sets
(510times=1set)or55lowhurdlehops*

Thursday

Run

1/2miletomile

Friday

SameasWednesday

Ifyouarenotabletousehighstairs,goimmediatelytohurdlehops.

Cycle4:FourWeeks
StrengthTraining
Day

Exercise

SetsReps

Monday

Backsquats
Hangcleans*
Hangsnatches*

46
44
53

Wednesday

Frontsquats
Inclinedpress
Latpulldowns
Plateswings
Russiantwists

28
28
28
35
310

Thursday

SameasMonday

Friday

Frontsquats
Inclinedpress
Latpulldowns

Formismostimportanthere.

GeneralConditioning
Tuesday

8060msprints

Wednesday

105hurdlesinlowposition

Thursday

1/2tomilerun

Friday

SameasWednesday

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

28
28
28

Intensity
70%ofmax.
70%ofmax.
40%ofmax.
65%ofmax.
60%ofmax.
60%ofmax.
Increasedweight
Increasedweight

65%ofmax.
60%ofmax.
60%ofmax

Page277

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Cycle5:FourWeeks
StrengthTraining
Day

Exercise

Monday

Backsquats
Frontsquats
Fullsnatches

Wednesday

Powercleans
Benchpress
Latpulldowns
Plateswings
Russiantwists

Thursday

SameasMonday

Friday

Benchpress
LatPulldowns

SetsReps
45
35
28

Intensity
80%ofmax.
70%ofmax.
70%ofmax.

53
28
112
35
310

70%ofmax.
60%ofmax.
60%ofmax.
Increaseweight
Increaseweight

28
112

60%ofmax.
60%ofmax.

GeneralConditioning
SameasCycle4,butraiseheightofhurdles.Forvarietyandforachallenge,dograduatinghurdlesor
pyramidhurdlesonWednesdayandFridayand81030msprintsonTuesday.

Inadditiontostrengthtrainingthroughthemoretraditionalresistanceexercises,theathleteshouldworkwithheavierimplementswithshortwirestobuildstrength
specifictotheevent.Thisisforoffseason,however.Throwingimplements,suchasmedicineballsandthelike,willalsohelp.Newerresistancemachinesareavailable
inmosttrainingfacilitiesthatofferturningresistanceexercises.Hurdlingandhurdlingexercisesandmoderateplyometricscanalsohelp.
Summary
Theteachingprogressioninthischapterallowstheathletetofirstgetahandleonthebasichammerthrowingtechnique.Fromthere,inadditiontoacomprehensive
conditioningprogram,theathletecancontinuetostrivefortechnicalperfection.
Ihavecarefullyomittedcertainterms,liketorqueandlag,astheylendthemselvestoantiquatedtechniquesandconfusion.Therearecertainbasicprinciplesto
successfulthrowing.Weshouldnotbecloudtheeventbyaddingandalludingtotermsthatwillonlyserveasroadblocks.
Positivedirectionandreinforcementofthebasicsaretheonlytruevehiclestosuccess.

Page279

PARTV
RACEWALKINGANDMULTIPLEEVENTS

Page281

18
Racewalking
JeffSalvage
BohdanBolwicaski
GwenRobertson
IanWhatley
GaryWesterfield

Becausethetrainingmethodsofracewalkingaresimilartothoseofrunningandbecauseracewalking'stechniqueissoimportant,thischapterfocusesonthetechnique.
Racewalkingisacontesttocoverasetdistancefasterthantheopposition,whileabidingbytworules(USATF#39and#150).
Racewalkingisauniquesportoftrackandfield.Itcombinesenduranceandtechniqueasthetwokeyingredientsfortheathletetofocuson.Certainlystrengthand
flexibilityarealsoimportantbiomotorabilities.Theracewalkermusthavegreatmentalconcentrationandtenacitytomaintainproperform.

Page282

1.Racewalkingisaprogressionofstepssotakenthatthewalkermakescontactwiththegroundsothatnovisible(tothehumaneye)lossofcontact
occurs.Thismeansthatbeforearacewalkerliftstherearfootofftheground,theleadingfootmustmakecontactwiththeground.Forabriefmomenttheheelofthe
leadingfootandthetoeoftherearfootappeartobeincontactwiththegroundsimultaneously.
2.Theadvancinglegmustbestraightened(i.e.,notbentattheknee)fromthemomentoffirstcontactwiththegrounduntilintheverticalposition.Onfirst
hearingthisrule,beginningwalkersmaythinkthattheymustwalkwiththeirlegsstraightallthetime.Thisisnotthecase.Theonlystipulationisthatwhena
racewalker'sleadfootstrikestheground,hisorherlegshouldbestraight.Itmuststaystraightuntilitpassesunderthebody.Thenitwillhavetobendtoswing
forward.
Properracewalkingtechniqueisbothefficientandlegal.Theprimaryobjectiveistomaintainaconstantvelocityofthebody'scenterofgravitywithoutexcessive
verticalorsidetosidedisplacement.Thevisualimpressionofaneliteracewalkerisofasteadyforwardmotionwithoutexcessivebouncingorsidetosidesway.
Technique
Ourdiscussionofracewalkingtechniquecoverstheactionsofracewalkingfrommostimportantactiontoleastimportant.Themostefficientmotionforeachactionwill
bedescribed,and''WatchFor"sectionswillhighlightcommonmistakesintechnique.
Posture
Theprincipleofgoodracewalkingpostureissimple.Thebodyshouldbestraightandrelaxedthroughouttheentirestride.Thelowerbackisflatthroughoutthestride
withoutforwardorbackwardtiltofthepelvis(figure18.1).
WatchFor:
Bendingforwardatthewaist(seefigure18.2.)Thisstrainsthelowerbackandlimitshipmovement.Maybeduetomuscleweaknessoranimbalanceinthetorso
muscles.

Figure18.1
Properracewalkingposture.

Figure18.2
Incorrectposturebending
forwardatthewaist.

Figure18.3
Incorrectpostureswayback.

Page283

Swayback(seefigure18.3).Thislimitsthehipmotionandmovesthecenterofgravitybackward.Additionally,itshortensthestrideandmayleadtoanillegalstride.
Itmaybeduetoaweaknessortightnessofthelowerbackorabdominalmuscles.
Excessiveforwardorbackwardleanofthewholebody.Thesearepotentiallyinjuriousandreducemechanicalefficiency.
Tomaintainproperposture,aracewalker'sheadshouldbeinaneutralpositionlookingforwarddowntheroad.
WatchFor:
Headpointeddown.Usuallycausedbylackofconcentrationorweakneckmuscles,thismayleadtocrampsintheneckandshoulders.
HipMotion
Themovementofthehipsistheprimarysourceofforwardlocomotionprovidedbythebody.Byrotatingthehipsforward(inatransverseplaneparalleltothe
ground),therearlegispulledofftheground.Thehipsactlikeamotor,acceleratingthekneeandfootforward.Inthelatermovementsoftheswingphase,theknee
reachesapositionforwardofthehip.Atgroundcontact,theheelisslightlyforwardoftheknee.
WatchFor:
Excessivehipdrop.Modernracewalkingtechniquestresseshiprotationwithoutmuchverticalmovementofthehipjoint.
Excessivelateralhipmotion.Ifthehipsmovefromsidetoside,thebody'scenterofgravitywillmovewiththem.Thiswillslowforwardmovementandwasteenergy.
StrideLength
Correcthipactionleadstoincreasedstridelength(seefigure18.4).Thiswillalsoleadtocorrectfootplacementalongastraightline(seefigure18.5a).Insufficienthip
rotationorlimitedflexibilityinthepelvismayleadtofootplacementoneithersideofastraightline(seefigure18.5,bc).

Figure18.4
Correcthipactionleadstoincreasedstride
lengthasseeninthefigureontheright.

Figure18.5
Footplacement:(a)Correctfootplacementalongastraight
line.(b,c)Incorrectfootplacementduetoinsufficienthip
rotationorlackofflexibility.

Page284

Aracewalkershouldnotattempttoincreasestridelengthbyreachingouttoofarinfrontofthebodyusingthefoot,asthiswillcauseoverstriding.Aracewalker
shouldvisualizethehipsleadingthelegsandfeet.Increasingthespeedofthehipswilldirectlyincreasethespeedofthelegs.
Asanindividuallearnstoracewalk,theincreaseduseofthehipswillcausethefeettolandinalmostanexactstraightline.Beaware:ifanonracewalkerattemptsto
mimicthisfootplacementwithoutproperhipmotion,heorshewillplaceanunneededstressacrosstheknee.

Figure18.6
Footplacementofawalkerlandingwith(a)toespointed
in,and(b)toespointedout.

Idealfootplacementhasaracewalker'sfeetpointingstraightahead.Somepeople'sfootplacementwillnaturallypointoutorinbecauseofthewaytheyarebuilt.
Thesewalkersshouldnottrytochangetheirfootplacement.Byusingtheirhipsproperly,theirfootstrikeswilloccurinastraightline,buttheirfeetwillnotbeparallel.
Whilethisislessefficient,forcingthestraighteningoffootplacementmaycausestressonthelegs,feet,andknees.Figure18.6ashowsthefootplacementofawalker
whoislandingwiththetoespointedin,andfigure18.6bshowsthatofawalkerwhoislandingwiththetoespointedout.
KneeAction
Thekneemustbestraightfrommomentofheelcontactuntilthesupportlegisintheverticalposition(seefigure18.7.)Thekneeisflexedintherecoveryswing,since
shortpendulumsswingfaster.Thepointatwhichtherearlegstartstobendvariesfromwalkertowalker.Theoptimumpointforittobenddependsonthestructure,
flexibility,andstrengthoftheathlete.
WatchFor:
Theleadkneeswingingthroughhigh.Thisisoftenduetoahabitcarriedoverfromrunning(seefigure18.8).Thiswastesenergyandmayleadtoillegalstrides.

Figure18.7
Theathleteshouldmaintainastraightkneefrommomentofheelcontactuntilthesupport
legisintheverticalposition.

Page285

Bentkneeonheelcontact.Thisisillegal.Causesareoverstridinginfrontofthebody,inadequatequadricepsstrength,andtightorweakhamstrings.
Theleadkneebendingbeforethelegisverticallyupright.Thisisillegal.Itmaybecausedbytheathletetryingtowalkatspeedsfasterthanhisorherfitnesslevelcan
sustain.
FootAction
Theheelstrikesthegroundfirstwiththetoeselevated,notflatfooted.Oncethefoothasmadecontact,itrollsforward,keepingthetoesoffthegrounduntilthelegis
supportingthebody'sweight.Howlongthetoesarekeptoffthegroundisdirectlyrelatedtothestrengthoftheshin.
Thereisapushoff,withthecalfcausingthefoottorolltovertical,beforeleavingtheground.Thefootoftheswinglegisbroughtforwardcloseto,butnotbrushing,
theground.
WatchFor:
Landingflatfooted,orwiththefootslappingtoosoon.Thishasabrakingeffectthatwastesenergy,shortensthestride,andmaycausethekneetobendearly.Itmay
becausedbyalackofshinstrengthorlackofflexibilityand/orlackofmobilityinthehips.
ArmAction
Thearmactioninracewalkingcanvaryfromathletetoathlete.Theelbowsofaracewalkerarebentatananglebetween90degreesand45degrees.Theelbowangle
mustbefixed,butwiththemusclesrelaxed,throughoutthearmswing.Thearmseachformashortpendulumandwillswingmorequicklythaniftheywereheld
straight.Thearmsaredrivenpredominantlybackwardandforward,notfromsidetoside.
Thehandstraceanarcfromjustbehindthehipatthelevelofthewaistbandtothesternum.Thehandsshouldnotcrossthecenterlineofthebody.Thearmmovement
islowandrelaxed.Thereshouldnotbetensionbetweentheshoulderbladesnorhunchingoftheshouldersattheendofarmswing.

Figure18.8
Swingingtheleadkneethroughtoohighmayleadtoillegalstrides.

Page286

AndrewHermannstrivesfortechnicalprecisionatthe1997
OutdoorTrackandFieldChampionships.

Aracewalker'shandsshouldberelaxed.However,theyshouldnotdangleorflopwiththearmswing.Thewristshouldbestraight,whilethehandshouldbeheldina
loosefistwiththefingertipsfacingthehipsasthearmswingspast.Ifaracewalkerishavingtroubleholdingthehandsinarelaxedmanner,heorsheshouldmakeafist,
holdingitloosely,thenplacethethumbbetweentheindexfingerandmiddlefinger.
WatchFor:
Excessivesidetosidearmswing,whichtendstocausesidetosidemotionofthecenterofgravityandwastesenergy.Thisiscausedbyincorrectmotorskills
learning.
Elbowangletootight(lessthan45degrees.)Thismayleadtoashortenedstrideandabouncingmotionthatwastesenergy.Thistendstogetworseasfatigue
increases.Itiscausedbyincorrectmotorlearningorlossofconcentration.
Elbowangletoolarge,whichleadstoaslowerstriderate.Thisiscausedbyincorrectmotorlearning.
Summary
Racewalkingimprovementcomesthroughthecarefulevaluationoftechnique.Thisnotonlyhelpstheathleteavoidthetendencyforillegalracewalkingmoves,italso
improvestheathlete'swalkingefficiencyand,therefore,herorhischanceforsuccess.
Formoreinformationaboutracewalking,visitwww.racewalk.com,ororder"WalkLikeanAthlete"bycalling1888WALK123.

Page287

19
Heptathlon
CliffRovelto

Theheptathlonisthetestfordeterminingthemostwellroundedfemaletrackandfieldathlete.Theathletecompetesinseveneventsoveratwodayperiod.Onday
one,theathletecompetesinthe100meterhurdles,highjump,shotput,and200meterdash.Daytwoconsistsofthelongjump,javelin,and800meterrun.Forthe
athletetomaximizeherpotentialandachievesuccess,shemustadoptalifestylethatallowshertodeveloppsychologicallyandphysically.Theheptathletemustbe
dedicated,determined,andpossessgreatdesire.Physically,shemustconcurrentlydevelopallthebiomotorabilities:speed,strength,stamina,skill(coordination),and
suppleness.

Page288

HeptathlonCandidates
Potentialcandidatesfortheheptathloncancomefrommanydisciplines.Historicallyspeaking,intheUnitedStatesmostofourathleteshavecomeintotheheptathlon
fromthesprinthurdleand/orjumpdisciplines.Inotherpartsoftheworld,wehaveseenathleteswhowereverystrongthrowersachievegreatsuccessinthe
heptathlon.Ifeelitisamistaketopredeterminethepoolofpotentialheptathletes.JackieJoynerKersee,whoisunquestionablythegreatestheptathleteinhistory,was
knownasagreathurdlerlongjumper,butherheptathlonpersonalrecordsof55feet,3inches(about16.8m)intheshotputand164feet,5inches(about50.1m)in
thejavelinaregreatheptathlonthrowsmarksinanyframeofreference.JaneFrederick,thetenthrankedheptathleteofalltimeandsecondrankedAmericanofall
time,setherpersonalrecordof6803withthrowsof50feet,10inches(about15.5m)and169feet,9inches(about51.7m)again,outstandingmarks.Atthe1997
WorldChampionshipsinAthens,SabineBraun,goldmedalist,andDeniseLewis,silvermedalist,bothearnedover26%oftheirpointtotalsinthetwothrowing
events.Themeanpercentageforpointsearnedfromthrowsforthetop10placersinthismeetwasunder25%.Inshort,outstandingheptathletesareveryproficientin
thethrows.
TrainingPhilosophy
Indevelopingatrainingphilosophy,thecoachmustconsidertheheptathlonscoringtables(seetable19.1),climate,facilities,and,morespecifically,theage
TABLE19.1HEPTATHLONSCORINGTABLESANALYSIS
Thefirsttablegivesaroughguidetothelevelofperformanceathletesareabletoachievebycomparingtheirbest
performancestothoseineachtable.Althoughnotanexactscore,thisabbreviatedtableismoreconvenientthan
lookinguptheresultsoneachevent'scompletescoringtable.
Thesecondtablegivesthecoachthepointvalueforadjustingscoresrelativetotheamountoftimeordistance
indicated.
Points

100m
hurdles

Highjump

500

17.89

4ft.63/4in.

600

16.97

4ft.101/4in.

700

16.12

800

Shotput

200m

Longjump

Javelin

800m

31ft.4in.

29.75

15ft.81/4in.

102ft.5in.

2:46.60

36ft.4in.

28.40

16ft.103/4in. 119ft.7in.

2:37.70

5ft.13/4in.

41ft.31/4
in.

27.14

18ft.1/2in.

136ft.9in.

2:29.47

15.32

5ft.51/4in.

46ft.23/4
in.

25.97

19ft.2in.

153ft.10in.

2:21.77

900

14.56

5ft.81/2in.

51ft.11/2
in.

24.86

20ft.3in.

170ft.9in.

2:14.52

1000

13.85

5ft.111/2in.

56ft.

23.80

21ft.31/4in.

187ft.7in.

2:00.00

Pointvalueadjustmentsresultingfromchangesinperformance
100mhurdles

.10=14pts.

Longjump

5cm=15pts.

Highjump

3cm=39pts.

Javelin

30cm=6pts.

Shotput

30cm=20pts.

800m

1sec.=1214pts.

200m

.10=9pts.

Page289

(chronologicalandtraining)andindividualstrengthsandweaknessesoftheathletes.Thesefactorshelpdetermineanathlete'spotentialasamultieventcompetitor.I
feelitisintheathlete'sbestinteresttoemphasizeherorhisstrengthsandtoworkoneliminatingweaknessesovertimethroughhertrainingprogram.Thescienceof
coachingempowersuswiththeknowledgeofhowtodevelopthebiomotorabilityareasofspeed,strength,stamina,skill(coordination),andsuppleness(flexibilityand
mobility).Theartofcoachingisidentifyingtheathlete'scurrentstatusofbiomotordevelopmentthroughtestingandevaluationanddevelopingaprescriptionfor
addressingtheathlete'sneeds.Thecoachmustalsoconsiderthecurrentstageofmotorlearningdevelopment.Thecoachmustlookateachathleteindividuallyand
prescribeanappropriatetrainingprogram.
Givenallofthephysicalareastobedevelopedandthetechnicalcomponentstobemastered,itshouldcomeasnosurprisethatthecoachandathletemustacceptthat
thepursuitofheptathlonexcellenceisalongtermproject.Thedevelopmentofbiomotorabilitiesandlearningofmotorskillsshouldfollowaprogressionofgeneralto
specific.Tofacilitateneuromusculardevelopment,thetrainingprogrammustallowfortheeffectiveperiodizationofthebiomotorabilities(seetable19.2).
TABLE19.2THEPERIODIZATIONOFBIOMOTORABILITIESFORTHEHEPTATHLETE

General
preparation

Special
preparation

Precompetitive

Competitive

Speed

Power/speed(3040
m)
Alacticspeed(5060
m)
Glycolyticspeed(40
60m)

Power/speed(3060
m)
Alacticspeed(6080
m)
Glycolyticspeed(60
80m)

Power/speed(3060
m)
Alacticspeed(6080
m)
Glycolyticspeed(60
80m)

Power/speed(3060
m)
Alacticspeed(6080
m)

Strength

Generalstrength
Bodyweightcircuits
Strengthcircuits
Hypertrophy
Maximumstrength
Multiplejumps
Multiplethrows

Generalstrength
Maximumstrength

Maximumstrength
Power

Maximumstrength
Power

Power
Multiplejumps
Multiplethrows
Specialstrength
Specificstrength
Eccentricstrength

Multiplejumps
Multiplethrows
Ballistictraining
Specialstrength
Specificstrength
Eccentricstrength

Multiplejumps
Multiplethrows
Specialstrength
Specificstrength

Skill

Generaldrills

Generaldrills
Specialdrills
Specificdrills

Specialdrills
Specificdrills
Modeling

Specialdrills
Specificdrills
Modeling

Stamina

Extensivetempo:
Aerobiccapacity
Aerobicpower

Extensivetempo:
Aerobicpower

Extensivetempo

Extensivetempo

(continued)

Page290

TABLE19.2THEPERIODIZATIONOFBIOMOTORABILITIESFORTHEHEPTATHLETE(continued)

General
preparation

Intensivetempo:
Aerobicpower

Suppleness

Staticflexibility
Dynamicflexibility
Mobility

Special
preparation

Precompetitive

Competitive

Intensivetempo:
Aerobicpower
Speedendurance
Specialendurance

Intensivetempo

Intensivetempo

Speedendurance
Specialendurance
Lactatetolerance

Speedendurance
Specialendurance
Lactatetolerance

Staticflexibility
Dynamicflexibility
Mobility

Dynamicflexibility
Mobility

Dynamicflexibility
Mobility

Speed
Mostheptathloncoacheswillarguethatspeedisthemostimportantbiomotorability,asitrelatesspecificallytoatleastthreeoftheseveneventsandindirectlytoall
sevenevents.Speedworkisneverabsentfromtheeffectivetrainingprogram.
Strength
Strengthtrainingisalsoveryimportant.Typesofstrengthwork,volumes,andintensitiesvarysignificantlyfromoneprogramtothenext,butitisabiomotorabilitythat
allcoachesaddress.Age,bodytype,andeventstrengthsandweaknesseswillinfluencestrengthtrainingdesign.
Skill
Skillortechnicaltrainingisgreatlyinfluencedbytheathlete'slearningcurvewithrespecttomotorskills.Weknowthatlearningisacontinualprocessandmovesback
andforththroughstages.(SeeMotorLearningsidebar.)Often,theathlete'sinabilitytolearnormasteraskillisduetoaphysicallimitation.Thatis,shemaynotbe
strongenoughorflexibleenoughtogetintoorholdadesiredposition.
MotorLearning
Learningisacontinualprocess.Withrespecttolearningmotorskills,wemovethroughthree
stages:acquisition,refinement,andstabilization.However,wecananddomovebackandforth
betweenthesethreestages.
1.Acquisitionneuromuscularpatternsaredevelopingthemotorprogram.
Ithappensthetapeisbeingfilled.Asteacherswewantittohappencorrectly.
Communicationisverycriticalusegeneralterms,particularlyforathletesofayounger
trainingage.
Usecues(triggerthatfiresgun)thatareappropriatetoeachathleteforexample,in
acquisitionphase,usespatialcuesforexample,wherelimbsareinspace.

Page291

2.Refinementperceptionbeginstodevelopthisiswhatitfeelslike.
Structureiscriticaltheremustbeorganizationandfeedback.
Selfconfidenceimproves.
Anticipationincreasesathletecanaccepttemporalcuesforexample,rhythmand
sequence.
Accuracyimproves.
Automaticresponsesincreaseyouwillseereplicationofdesiredaction.
Bepatientinmovingthroughstages.
3.Stabilizationmotorprogramsaredeveloped.
Good,iflearnedcorrectly!
Selfevaluation.
Alwaysreviewthebasics.
Makesuretheskillisalwaysthereandstored.
Attheelitelevel,athletesarestudentsofthetechnicalaspectstheydonotjustgothrough
themotions.

Stamina
Staminatrainingisnotjustforthe800meters.Theathletemustimproveherworkcapacitytohandleeverincreasingworkloads.The"bigpicture,"ortotalvolumeof
training,mustbetakenintoconsiderationinordertoavoidovertraining.
Suppleness
Supplenessinvolvesstaticflexibilitythegoalshouldbetoimproverangeofmotion.Dynamicflexibilityandgeneralmobilityarealsoimportantintheheptathlete's
trainingprogram.
Basedontheimportanceoftheabovefivetraitsspeed,strength,skill,stamina,andsupplenesstable19.3outlinesacompletetraininginventoryfortheheptathlon.
DesigningaTrainingProgram
Theplanningofthetrainingprogramfortheheptathletecanbeanintimidatingprocess.Ifweascoachesfollowtheprinciplesofperiodization,wecanwithconfidence
greatlysimplifythetask.First,wemustestablishathemefortheyearormacrocycle.Withtheyoungheptathlete,itisrecommendedthatthecoachalternatetraining
emphasisfromphysicaldevelopmenttotechnicaldevelopmentfromyeartoyear.Withthemoreexperiencedheptathlete,youcouldchooseeitherbiomotorabilitiesor
eventsasthethemeforeachyear.Theprocessofdevelopingtheyearlyplanbeginswithestablishinggoalsforthatyear.Thecoachmustdeterminethenumberof
weeksormicrocyclesavailablefortraininganddeterminetheimportanceoftheplannedcompetitions.Thecoachmustworkbackfromthemostimportant
competitionfortheathlete(e.g.,conference,national,international).Obviously,thedevelopmentalleveloftheathletewilldictatethis

Page292
TABLE19.3TRAININGINVENTORYFORTHEHEPTATHLON
Speed
Typeofspeed

Distance

Intensity

Rest(min.)

Totalvolume

Speed/power
Alacticspeed
Glycolyticspeed

3060m
5080m
4080m

90100%
90100%
90100%

48
36
14

300600m
400600m
400600m

Strength
Anatomicaladaptation(general):bodyweightcircuits
Hypertrophy(strengthendurance):highreps
Maximumstrength:med.repsconcentricandeccentric
Power(speedstrength):lowreps
Conversion(elasticequivalent/staticdynamic):power,multiplejumps,multiplethrows,ballistic
training
Special:parachute,harness,hills,multiplethrows,multiplejumps,medicineball
Specific:forexample,hurdletraillegdrillswithresistance
Skill/Coordination
Forexample:Drillsgeneraltospecificforexample,developmentofacceleration
1.sticks
2.resistancestarts
3.crouchresistancestarts
4.resistanceletgos
5.crouchstartswithcommands
Stamina
A.Metabolic(energysystems)
1.Extensivetempo:aerobiccapacity,lessthan70%ofmax.speedeffort
aerobicpower,7080%

2.Intensivetempo:anaerobiccapacity8090%

3.Speedendurance:anaerobicpower,90100%

4.Specialendurance:anaerobicpower90100%

5.Lactatetolerance:90100%fullrecovery

Examples:
continuoustempo35Kruns
31000m(2min.rest)
33200m(13min.rest)

Example:5300m(5min.rest)

Example:2&times(80m100m120m)(510min.rest)

Example:300m200m150m(8min.rest)

Example:2500m(15min.rest)

B.Neuromuscular

Takeintoaccountthetotalvolumeofworkthe''bigpicture"

Suppleness
Staticflexibility
Dynamic/ballisticflexibility
Mobility

Page293

forthecoach.Thenextstepwouldbetodistributethepreparation,competition,andtransitionalperiods.
Recommendedguidelinesformacrocycleplanning:
Approximately6675%ofavailabletimeshouldbespentinpreparationperiod.
Approximately6675%oftimeinpreparationperiodshouldbeingeneralpreparation(trainingtotrain)phase.
Approximately2533%oftimeinpreparationperiodshouldbeinspecialpreparation(preparingtocompete)phase.
Approximately2533%oftotaltimeavailablewillbespentincompetition(trainingtocompete)phase.
Adoubleoreventripleperiodizedmacrocycleispossible.Theaforementionedpercentageguidelinesshouldbeadheredtoregardlessofthetypeofmacrocycle
plan.
Eachcompetitiveperiodshouldbefollowedbyatransitionalperiodtoallowforpsychologicalandphysicalrejuvenation.
Ifthevolumeandintensityofthetrainingloadwerequantifiedandgraphed,theselineswouldcrossinlatespecialpreporearlycompetitionphases.
Typically,athleteswillexperiencegreaterimprovementswithindoubleperiodizedmacrocycleshowever,theywillrealizeevengreaterlongtermimprovementif
singleanddoubleperiodizedmacrocyclesarealternated.
Theplandetailedinfigure19.1isdesignedforthefollowingathleteprofile:
Thisathletehasjustfinishedherbasketballseason,whichbeganinNovember.WeareclassifyingthisfourmonthperiodasGeneralPreparationinnature.
Thisathleteisaseniorinhighschoolwhohasthreeeventsthatshewillprobablyqualifytocompeteinattheindividualstatechampionships.
Thisathletewillnotcompetepastthestatehighschoolheptathlonchampionships.

Figure19.1
Samplemacrocycleofahighschoolheptathlete.

Page294

Thecoachwillthenassignobjectivestothevariousperiods,phases,mesocycles,andmicrocycles.Oncewehavethisblueprint,webegin!Thisplanshouldnotbe
writteninstoneitisonlyaguideline.Thechallengeforcoachesistomakeadjustmentsasneededbecauseofinjury,illness,comprehensionplateaus,andthemyriad
ofobstaclesthatwillarisefromtimetotime.
Afterdevelopingthemacrocycle,specificworkoutsshouldbeputtogetherthatwillallowtheathletestoreachtheirgoalsandobjectivessetforthinthemacrocycle.
Table19.4presentssampleweeklyworkoutsforeachpartoftheseason.
SuccessFactors
Therearenearlyasmanydifferentphilosophiesabouthowtodevelopheptathletesastherearecoaches.Everyathleteandenvironment(geography,facility,climate,
interpersonaldynamicsoftraininggroup,etc.)isdifferent.Itstandstoreason,therefore,thatasuperficialsurveyofprogramswillshowtheirdifferences.However,a
moreindepthanalysiswillrevealthesimilarities,particularlyinprogramsthatconsistentlyproducesuccessfulheptathletes.
RecognizingSimilaritiesbetweenEvents
Duetothenumberoftechnicalcomponentsoftheheptathlon,mostsuccessfulprogramswillidentifythecommonalitiesoftheeventsinvolvedandtraintheirathletes
accordingly.Theeventsthatmakeuptheheptathlonarealsosimilarwithrespecttometabolicandneurophysiologicaldemands.
Fromatechnicalstandpoint,therearenumerouscommonalities.Theabilitytoovercomeinertiathroughefficientapplicationofforceisacriticalskillfortheheptathlete,
asitrelatestovirtuallyeveryevent.Thisabilitytoacceleratecanbeuniversallytrainedusingvariousgeneraldrills.Anotherexampleinvolvesthehighjumpandjavelin
events.Inthesetwoeventstherhythmoftheapproach,themechanicsofthepenultimatestep,andthepostureatthepointofpercussionareallsimilar.Froma
metabolicstandpoint,theimprovementofworkcapacityisimportantfordevelopmentofalltheevents.Fromaneurophysiologicalstandpoint,multiplejumpand
multiplethrowtrainingisspecifictoboththethrowandjumpeventsinthatwearedevelopingasynchronizationoffiringandtheabilitytocreateimpulse.
UsingCompatibleandComplementaryTraining
Anothernoticeabletraitofsuccessfulprogramsistheuseofcompatibleandcomplementarytraining.By"compatible,"wemeanthatthedifferenttrainingcomponents
willworktogetherharmoniously.Byhavingtheathletesperformcertaintrainingcomponentstogether,wecanactuallyenhancethetrainingeffect.Anexampleof
compatibletrainingisperformingmultiplethrowspriortoaccelerationdevelopmentwork.By"complementary,"wemeanthatthedifferenttrainingcomponentscanact
togethertoenhanceaskillortofacilitatethesequencingofactionstocompleteaskill.Anexampleofworksequencethatwouldnotbecomplementaryisdoingan
extensivetempoworkoutpriortodoingaccelerationdevelopmentwork.

Page295
TABLE19.4SAMPLEWORKOUTSFORHEPTATHLON
Alwaysbeginwithawarmupandendwithacooldown.
Day

Generalpreparationphase

Specialpreparationphase

Monday

Hurdledrills
Longjumpdrills
Weighttraining

Multiplethrows
Hurdles
Highjump
Multiplejumps
Weighttraining

Tuesday

Shotputdrills
Extensivetempo
Medicineballcircuit
Abdominalcircuit

Shotput
Medicineball
Intensivetempo
Pillarstrength

Wednesday

Highjumpdrills
Javelindrills
Weighttraining

Longjump
Javelin
Weighttraining

Thursday

Hurdledrills
Longjumpdrills
Pillarstrength

Hurdleacceleration
Shotput
Speedendurance

Friday

Shotput
Extensivetempo
Medicineballcircuit

Multiplejumps
Javelin
Weighttraining

Saturday

Activerest
30min.ofbasketballorvolleyball

Extensivetempo/aerobicpower
Pillarstrength

Sunday

Rest

Rest

Competitionphase(10daysleadingtoandthroughevent)
1

Friday
Starts/acceleration
Specialendurance

Monday
8
Highjump
approaches
46jumps
Shotput
Weight
training

Friday
Heptathlonday1

Saturday
Shotput
Weighttraining

Tuesday
9
Longjump
approaches
34half
approach
jumps
Javelin

Saturday
Heptathlonday2

Sunday
Multiplethrows
Hurdletuneup
Pillarstrength

Wednesday 10
Warmup
only

Sunday
Poolworkout

Thursday
Starts
Approches

Page296

DeDeeNathan'seffectivetrainingprogrampropelledhertosuccessinthe1998GoodwillGames.Hereshe
isshowncompetingintheheptathlonhighjump.

EstablishinganEffectiveTrainingEnvironment
Wealsofindthatmostsuccessfulheptathletesdevelopinenvironmentsthatareremarkablysimilar.Inmostsituationsthereisasinglecoach.Theathleteisnotshuffled
amonganumberofcoaches.Thiscoachcontrolsandmonitorsthetrainingprogram.Itiscertainlyappropriatetodrawonotherexpertise,buttheathletecananswer
toonlyonemaster.Thetrainingplanincludessomesortoftwotofouryearplanthatprovidesdirection.Anotherconstantisthatsuccessfulheptathletes"grewup"in
asystemwheretheywerepermittedtodevelopgenerallybeforetherewasagreatdealofspecialization.Theyparticipatedinothersports,experiencedvariety,and
hadfun.Theseathletesweretaughtmotorskillsproperlyandretainedthemthroughcorrectrepetition.
AnalyzingPointPercentages
Thereisinformationthatcanassistusintheplanningprocess.Inthe1997WorldChampionshipsheldinAthens,Greece,ananalysisofthetop10placersrevealed

Page297

thatonaverage31%oftheirtotalscorewasaccumulatedinthe100meterhurdlesand200meterdash.Theyearned30.2%inthehighandlongjumps.And24.8%
wasearnedintheshotputandjavelinand14%inthe800meterrun.Ifthegoalistocompeteatahighlevel,itmakessensetostriveforthistypeofbalance.Tenth
placeinthismeetwas6253points.Wealsoknowthatforexperiencedheptathletes,onaveragetherewillbea200350pointdifferencebetweentheathlete's
personalrecordscoreandthesumoftheirheptathlonindividualeventpersonalrecords.Thisinformationtellsusthattorankamongthetop10inworldclass
competition,theathletemustownheptathlonpersonalrecordstotalingapproximately6450to6600points.Themoreskewedherpercentagebreakdownsare,the
greatertheriskofinconsistentscores.
RealizingtheLinkbetweenStrengthandSuccess
Recenthistorytellsusthattherearesignificantstrengthdifferencesbetweenthetoprankedheptathletesandthenextlowerrungofathletes.Thisisreflectedbypoorer
throwmarksandinconsistentscores.Theproperperiodizationofstrengthiscriticalfortheheptathlete'ssuccess,inpartbecauseofthethroweventsandalsobecause
ofhormonalconcernsrelatedtothefemaleathlete.(Thelevelsofestrogenandtestosteroneeffectstrengthsignificantly.)
Competition
Meetmanagementbyallathletesisacriticalfactorinthesuccessorlackofsuccessinanyathleticcompetition.Intheheptathlon,theathlete'sabilitytomake
successfultransitionsfromoneeventtothenextisperhapsthemostcriticalfactorin"puttingameettogether."Theathletemustmanagehercurrentstateofbiomotor
developmentandpsychologicalstateofreadinessandmakethemostofthecompetitiveopportunity.Aheptathletehaslimitedopportunitiestoperform,anditis
inexcusabletomakeerrorsofillpreparation.
Premeetpreparationmusttakeintoaccounttapering,blowoutworkouts,technicaltuneups,andmodeling.Therearemanylogisticalissuestravel,diet,hydration,
nutritionalsupplementation,equipment,supportgroup,andsoon.Meetdayconcernsincludewakeup,bothliteralandneuromuscular,andnutritionbefore,during,
andafterthemeet.
Transitions,bothbetweeneventsandbetweenthetwodays,needtobeaddressed.Therearelogistical,psychological,neurophysiological,andmetabolicdemandsto
beconsidered.Theeffectiveplanning,preparation,andcopingforthesetransitionsisabsolutelynecessaryandunfortunatelyoftenoverlooked.Issuessuchasthe
extentofwarmup,"safe"throwsandjumps,andstartingheightneedtobedealtwiththroughoutthecompetition.
Summary
Theheptathlonisawonderfuleventcontestedbysomeofthefinestathletesinallofsport.The"sorority,"ifyouwill,ofparticipantsandcoachesisaspecialgroup.
Thecompetitionitselfisboththerewardandapartofthecontinualdevelopmentalprocess.Thepursuitofheptathlonexcellenceneverends.

Page299

20
Decathlon
HarryMarra

Thedecathlonisprobablythemostcomplexandtimeconsumingcontestintrackandfield,yetallofitsthrowshavesomebasicsimilarities,asdoitsjumps.A
thoroughstudyofthedecathlonasawholeshowsthatitisaseriesofeventsthat,withtheexceptionofthe1500meters,requireshort,explosiveburstsofenergy.The
successofamultieventathleterequiresthatthosesimilaritiesbethestartingpointoftheathlete'straining.Thetruemultieventathletewillfindnoeventtoochallenging.

Page300

TheEvents
FirstDay:

SecondDay:

100MeterDash

110MeterHighHurdles

LongJump

Discus

ShotPut

PoleVault

HighJump

Javelin

00MeterDash

1500MeterRun

CharacteristicsoftheDecathlete
Today'sworldclassdecathletesaresuperiorjumpers,sprinters,andthrowers.Anathletecannotriskhavingaweakeventortwo.Infact,thedecathlonscoringtables
penalizethecompetitorwhohasaweakevent.Thebestdecathletesalwayshavebeenfast,agileathleteswithtremendousexplosivepower.Theyhavehadthe
willpower,persistence,andcompetitivenesstoovercomeallobstacles.Thesecharacteristicsareamustforsuccessattheelitelevel.
Desireisjustasimportantastalent.TheAmericandecathlonchampionssucceededdespitemanyobstacles.BruceJenner(1976championandworldrecordholder)
believesthatallotherthingsbeingequal,thedecathletewhomostwantsvictory(andiswillingtocommithimselftowardthatgoal)willbethebest.Psychological
toughnessandtrainingarecriticalinthesuccessfuldecathlete'sdevelopment.Heneedsasmuchpsychologicalpreparationoffthetrackashedoesphysicaltrainingon
thepracticefield.Theeventisallencompassing.Foranathletetopreparecorrectly,hislifestylemustrevolvearoundhistraining.
Decathlonperformanceshaveimprovedsharplyoverthelastdecade.Studiesofelitedecathlonperformersshowthattheywereneveruntalentedyouthswhobecame
decathletesbecausetheyhadnosinglestrongevent.Nottodiscouragelesstalentedathletes,butthosewhoreachthetoparegenerallyamongthecreamofthecrop
evenasjuniorlevelathletes.
Atthesametime,thechartshowsperformanceimprovementdoesnotcomeinaseriesofbigjumps.Itcomesasregular,smallimprovements,agradualrisein
performanceoverseveralyears(usuallyfourtofiveyearsfromthenationalleveltotheelitelevel).
Fortheyoungathleteatthenationallevel(7500to7800points),verygradualimprovementsinperformancearethenormformostevents,andbalanceacrossthe
eventsisaclearcriterionoflatersuccess.Again,elitedecathleteshavenoweakevents.
Theperformancesofeliteathletesshowthattheeventsthatimprovetheleastarethehighjumpandtheflatruns(100meters,400meters,and1500meters).Thisis
notbecauselittletrainingtimegoesintothoseevents.Rather,theyarethesimplesteventsintermsoftechnique.Theother,technicaleventsyieldlargerpointincreases
astheyaremastered.Still,acoachmustrequireacertainminimallevelofskillineventhesimplesteventsbecausethose(except,again,forthe1500meters)arethe
earliest"bigscore"eventsforjuniors.

Page301

Technique
Recognizingandutilizingthesimilaritiesbetweeneventsmakesforefficientandeffectiveworkouts.Thefollowingaresomeofthefundamentalrelationshipsbetween
eventgroups.
Throws
"Balance"isakeyword.Withoutproperbalanceatthestart,andthroughoutdelivery,allotheraspectsofthrowingarenegativelyaffected.Oncebalanceisachieved,
thefollowingaspectsaregermanetosuccessinthethrows:
PositiveAccelerationFollowedbythesequentialdecelerationofbodysegments(blocking).
PostureThecenterofgravity(CG)isfunctionallyloweredthroughankle,knee,andhipflexion,asopposedtotrunkflexion.
AccelerationoftheImplementThroughafullrangeofmotionovertheshortesttimepossible.
PatienceThereisadifferencebetweenbeingquickandbeinginahurry!Remainrhythmicalandpatientatthestartofeacheffort.
RelaxationArelaxedeffortproducesgreaterforceandvelocity.
StartingPositionsFundamentalinallthrowingevents.Anefficientstartingpositionincorporatesallofthepreviouslymentionedparameters(15)andisessentialfor
thecorrectinitiationofmovementpatterns.
Jumps
Thefollowingsimilaritiesdealspecificallywiththeapproachandpreparationfortakeoff
1.ApproachAsuccessfuljumpispredicatedonaconsistent,uniformlyacceleratedapproach.
LengthThelengthoftheapproachisdeterminedbytheaccelerationpatternandwheretheathleteachievesmaximumcontrollablespeed.
StartingPosition
stand/walk/jog
posture/CGdisplacement
relaxation/concentration
RhythmShouldbeconstantthroughouttheapproach.
Rhythm/Posture/TempoFinalsixstrides.
2.PreparationforTakeoff
PenultimateStrideTheCGisloweredasaresultofflexionintheankle,knee,andhipofthesupportleg.
PuntStepAtempochangeattakeoff,whichenablestheathletetocreateliftwithoutsignificantlysacrificingvelocity.

Page302

CenterofGravity(CG)Followingthepenultimatestride,theCGbeginsanupwardtrajectorythroughtakeoff.

DanO'Briencompetinginthedecathlonlongjump
competitionduringthe1998GoodwillGames.

RunningEvents
1.Sprinting
PostureErectandtallfromheadtotoe.Mustbemaintainedthroughouttherun.
TurnoverTominimizereductioninvelocity,youshouldemphasizestridefrequencyoverlengthduringthefinalstagesofsprintraces(keyword"active").
RhythmandRelaxation"Don'tbeinahurry!"Smoothlycompleteallmovementstogeneratemaximumforce.Specialemphasisshouldbeplacedonrhythm
andrelaxationduringthelatterstagesofallsprints.
AccelerationPatternsAccelerationspeedmaintenancedeceleration.Eachsprintencompassesthesephasestovaryingdegrees.Tooptimizeperformance,a
smoothtransitionthrougheachphaseisrequired.Conditioning,running,mechanics,andrelaxationhelpminimizedeceleration.
2.1500Meters:Posture,rhythm,relaxation,andtempo(turnover)areimportantfactorsforsuccessful1500meterrunning.Differencessuchaslowerkneelift,
increasedsurfaceareacontactwiththefoot,shorterstridelength,andmorelimitedarmmovementsarenecessaryforefficientmanagementoftherace.Rhythm,
posture,andtempoareinterdependentandcriticaltothesuccessoftherace.Finalacceleration(finishingsprint)isaddressedbyfirstincreasingtempo(stride
frequency)andultimatelycombiningtempowithstridelength.
Intheprocessofchangingmotorpatterns,onemustacceptthefactthattherewillbeinitialregressioninperformancelevel.Athletesmustbewillingtoremain
motivated,focused,andlookatthe"bigpicture."Eachathletehastheabilitytoimproveuponhisperformance.Keepanopenmind.

Page303

TrainingPhilosophy
Onceanathletemakesacommitmenttothedecathlon,hisgoalsshouldbelongterm.Hecannotrealisticallyhopetomaster10eventsinashorttime.Hemustplanhis
trainingforthefuture,lookingfourtosixyearsdowntheroad.Theaspiringdecathleteshouldfocushisattentionintheearlyyearsonhisweakesteventsandshould
buildhistrainingprogramaroundthem.Forexample,a13footpolevaultermustmastertheeventsothatheightsof16feetandabovebecomepossible.Ofcourse,
onceperformanceinaweakeventisimprovedtoarespectablelevel,theathletemustcontinuetoworkontheevent.
Progress
Basictraininggoalsfortheyoungerathlete(afterreachingasub4:401500meters)mightbeatleast700pointsforeveryoneoftheothernineevents,alongwith800
pointsfortwotofour''specialty"or"highpoint"events.Forthemorematureathlete(intermsoftotalscore),thegoalsshouldrisegraduallyto800pointsperevent,
withsomeeventsrangingtowardthe900pointlevel.Thisapproachhasbeenthemostpopularoneforseveraldecades.
Thethingtostresswithyoungathletesisthatimprovementscomegraduallytheywillnotreachelitestatusovernight.Theeliteathletesaveraged7600pointsatage20.
Infourmoreyearsofcompetitivegrowth,theyreachedameanscoreof8350pointsbetweenages24and25.Mostathletesdidnothaveexplosiveimprovementsin
theirscores,exceptwherestillattainingfullgrowthwasafactor.Indeed,astrikingfactisthatformanyoftheathletes,therewerenoimprovementsinsomeoftheir
highscoringevents.
OrganizingPractices
Themostcommontrainingpatternistopracticetheeventsindividually,mostoftenintheordertheyoccurincompetition.Whenthetrainingsituationsimulatesthe
competitivesituation,theathletelearnshowtoachievethebestresultswithintheframeworkofthedecathlon.Forexample,throwingthediscusafterfirstrunningthe
110meterhurdles,asincompetition,isverydifferentfromthrowingthediscusasafreshevent.Thelegsarefatiguedfromthehurdles,nottomentionfromthefive
eventsofthepreviousday.
Knudson,Freeman,andMasloyskiandDubrogajevhave,however,suggestedchangesinthistrainingpattern.KrzesinskicitesPolishstudiesshowingthatgreater
gainsaremadebymoregeneraltraining,developingthetraitsandskillsthataresharedbyseveralevents,thusmakingmoreefficientuseoftrainingtime.Forexample,
aspectsofspeedtrainingandtechniqueareinvolvedin7ofthe10events.Thestartfromblocksoccursthreetimes.Certaintakeoffpatternsareusedinallthreeofthe
jumps.
RudskiandAptekmanrecommenddividingdecathlontrainingintothreestages.Thefirststage(ages14to17)isthebeginningtrainingstage,stressingthedevelopment
ofendurance(ratherthanspeed),strength,andmobility.Thesecondstage(ages18to20)concentratesondevelopingthespecializedmotorskillstomasterthe
techniqueoftheevents.Thethirdstage(afterage20)isthestageofspecializedtraining,emphasizingdynamictrainingandmakingthetechnicalskillsautomatic.

Page304

Thecompositionofthescoringtablesisamajorfactorinplanningtraining.Decathletesperforminahighlysubjectiveenvironmentthescoringtablesgiveanedgeto
thesprinterjumper.Inworkingwithayoungathlete,youshouldstudythepointtablesandtheathlete'sbestmarksineachevent,thenplanthetraininginrelationtothe
tables,usingtrainingtimemosteffectivelyforpotentialscoringimprovements.
AsSykespointedout,morepointsarelostthanaregainedinamajorcompetition.Forthatreason,themostimportantgoalofayoungathleteshouldbetoimprove
hisperformanceineverylowscoringevent.Afterastableskillbaseisdeveloped,thetablescanberestudiedtoprobeforeventsthatarepotentially"easy"
sometimeseasyrelativetothescoringtable,sometimeseasyrelativetotheathlete'stalents.
Duringthisfocusedtrainingtime,however,theeventsthatdonothaveprioritymustnotbeneglected.Theathletemusttrainasadecathlete,notasaspecialistinone
event.
ConditioningProgram
Thedecathleteshouldnottrainaccordingtotheplansandmethodsofspecialistsintheindividualeventgroups.Thus,thedecathleteshoulddesignaprogramto
improvehisathleticconditioningbyconsideringthatall10eventsshouldbenefit.
Running
Thedecathlonisacontestthatusesshort,explosiveburstsofspeedinnearlyalloftheeventssospeed/formrunningtrainingshouldbeamajorconcerntoyouand
yourdecathlete.However,donotoverlookaerobicconditioningearlyinthedecathlete'scareerandearlyineachtrainingyearsoundconditioningisneededforall
skills.
SprintingMechanics
Propersprintmechanics,alongwiththemovementsthatcanhelpdevelopasprinter'sspeedandexplosiveness,shouldbeworkedonoftenintraining.Forexample,
longjumpapproachworkisanexcellentwaytoreinforcebothsprintmechanicsandspeedwork,whilesimultaneouslyworkingonanothereventbesidessprints.Asa
matterofadaptation,decathletesshouldalwaysdotwoorthreeoftheirwarmupaccelerationsonthelongjumprunwaywhiletheyprepareforthe100meterevent.
Notonlyaretheylooseningupfortherun,butgettingafeelfortheapproachinthejump.Thepolevaultapproachcanbeusedinthesamemanner.
Itisimperativethatthemechanicalefficiencyoftherunnernotbeoverlookedasheworksonspeeddevelopment.Atthesametime,hemustunderstandthatgiventhe
explosivenatureofthedecathlonandthetwoday,10eventprogram,injuriesaresometimesapartofthegame.However,goodperformancemechanicsdecrease
thelikelihoodofseriousinjury.Thedecathletewhoentersthecompetition100%healthyisastepaheadofhiscompetitors.
SpeedEndurance
Speedendurance(400meters)isanotherimportantquality.The400meterdashisakeyeventinmanyways.First,beingingoodshapeforthiseventisamajor

Page305

steptowardbeingingoodshapefortheentiredecathlon.Second,thereisatremendousmentalliftattheendofthefirstdayifadecathletehasrunastrong400meter
dash.Highschoolandcollegedecathletesshouldrunalegonthe1600meterrelayattheendofeachmeettodeveloptheirconditioningandtheirfeelforrunningthe
eventcorrectlyandaggressively.Atleastthreeworkoutsessionsperweekshouldemphasizethe400meterevent.
DistanceRunning
Donottrytodevelopanoutstandingdecathlon1500meterrunnerattheexpenseofhisnineothereventsthiscanbedisastrous.Takealongrangelookattheevent.
Donotexpectayoung4:55/1500meterdecathletetorun4:10thenextyearsuchatimemaybearealisticgoalinfourorfiveyears.Commitmentandwillpowerare
amajorfactorin1500meterperformance,thoughdesirealonewillnotyetproducea4:10.Approachtheeventlogically.Adecathleteshouldnotputinthemileageof
a1500meterspecialist.Developabroadbasedaerobicfoundation,thentrainfortheeventspecifically.AttheendoftheregularMonday,Wednesday,andFriday
sessions,emphasizethe400meterevent.ReserveThursdayforspecific1500meterwork.Asampleworkoutfollows:
Run800metersin2:20,thenrest1minute
Run400metersin72seconds,thenrest1minute
Runahard300metersin45secondsorless
Theacutefatiguefromsuchaworkoutwillbetremendousthedecathletewillbetotallyspent.However,within15minuteshewillhaverecovered.Thisworkout
accomplishestwomajorgoals.First,thedecathlete'slegsarenotheavyandflat,astheywouldbefromexcessivelong,slowdistancework.Second,thedecathlete
experienceshowa1500meterrunwillfeelincompetition.RememberthatthisisThursdayandthedecathleteisgenerallytiredbythistimeoftheweek.
Duringthecompetitivephase,youmustmakesomeadjustmentsintrainingforboththe400metersandthe1500meters.Basicallythesechangesaremadetoincrease
thespeed(tempo)oftherunandexpandtherecoverytimebetweentheworkintervals.Qualityisthekey.Thestrongerthedecathleteisasheentersthecompetitive
season,theeasieritisforhimtocarryhis400meterand1500meterconditioningthroughouttheremainderoftheyear.
StrengthConditioning
Thebottomlineinstrengthconditioningistoapplyittotheevents.Strengthwithoutapplicationisuselesstoadecathlete.Thereshouldbetwotofourstrengthsessions
perweek.Whenthedecathleteispeakingforamajorcompetition,theamountoftimehespendsintheweightroomshoulddecrease.Totalbodystrengthshouldbe
thetrainingfocusfortheyounger,lessexperienceddecathlete.Ashematuresphysically,theliftsshouldbethosethatinvolvespecificgroupsofmuscles(cleans,
squats,andsuch).
Poweristheprimeconcernintheweightroom.Thus,asthecompetitivephasedrawsnear,thedecathleteshouldtrainat9095%ofhismaximumlifts,performing
aboutfourtosixrepetitions.Donotpermitthedecathletetousetheweightroomasatrainingcrutch.Toooftenhemaylosesightofthetechnicalendoftheeventand
trytomastertheskillsimplybygainingstrength.

Page306

Thedecathleteshouldnotoverlookacompleteandthoroughprogramofflexibility.Stretchingatpracticetimeisnotenough.Thedecathleteshouldbeencouragedto
stretchatleasttwiceaday.Anidealtimeforthesecondsessionisintheevening,beforegoingtobed.
TABLE20.1GENERALDECATHLONTRAININGPLAN

Fitnessparameter

%Workload

PhaseI

Generalconditioning
Oct.1throughmidNov.
(6weeks)

Muscularendurance(ME)and
cardiovascular/respiratoryendurance
(CVE)
Muscularstrength(MS,anaerobic)
Neuromuscularconditioning(NM,
technique)

85%

0%
15%

PhaseII(a)
Lategeneralconditioning MEandCVE
MidNov.throughfirst
MS
weekofDec.
NM
(3weeks)

45%
30%
25%

PhaseII(b)
Late,lategeneral
conditioning
EndoffirstweekofDec.
throughJan.1
(3weeks)

MEandCVE
MS
NM

30%
45%
25%

PrecompetitiveseasonJan. MEandCVE
1throughmidMar.(10
MS
weeks)
NM

10%
50%
40%

PhaseIII

PhaseIV(a)
Competitiveseason(Pre MEandCVE
USATFChamp.)MidMar. MS
throughmidJune
NM
(12weeks)

5%
35%
60%

PhaseIV(b)
Competitiveseason(Post
USATFChamp.)MidJune
through
Sept.1
(12weeks)

ThepostUSATFphaseofthecompetitiveseasonshouldbea
microcosmoftheannualtrainingcycle.Thelengthofeach
phaseshouldbedeterminedbythelengthoftimebeforethe
nextdecathlon,andapostUSATFevaluationofperformance
there.

PhaseV
Postcompetitiveseason
September(4weeks)

Thisisaperiodoftimetorecoverbothmentallyand
physicallyfromtheentireseason.(Restand/oractiverest)

Page307
TABLE20.2SAMPLEDECATHLONTRAININGSCHEDULE
SanMateo,California
Decathletes:BrianBrophy,RossKennedy,DarrinSteele
SampleWeek:FallSeason(SeptemberDecember)
1.Weighttrainingschedule:

Mon.P.M.andFri.P.M.fullprogram
Wed.P.M.auxiliaryexercises

2.Medicineballschedule:

EachTues.andSat.A.M.afterweights

3.A.M.runs(lowintensity):

EachA.M.afterhardrunningworkout

4.Runningworkouts:

Tues.sprintmode,grass,fromemphasis
Thurs.speedendurancemode
Sat./Sun.strength,hills,150200mlength,
shortrecovery

5.Technical/eventwork:

Mon.priortoweighttraining(2events
max.)
Tues.priortoruns(oneeventonly)
Wed.nothingtechnical
Thurs.oneeventdryrun,drills
Fri.restdayweightsonlyP.M.
Sat./Sun.dependinguponenergylevels

6.Boundingschedule:

AfterrunsonThurs.and/orSat.

7.Multithrows:

Asneededchangefrommedicineball

8.Flexibility:

23timesdaily,especiallyP.M.beforebed

WeeklyOutline:FallProgram

9A.M.11A.M.

2P.M.6P.M.

Monday

Physicaltherapy
(regenerativethingssuch
aswhirlpoolormassage
treatments)
12events(throwsor
jumps)

Basketballwarmup
Weighttraining
Multithrows
Flexibility

Tuesday

Medicineballthrows
(2025min.routine)

1event
Sprintwork
Flexibility/abdominals

Wednesday

1012min.run
Physicaltherapy

Multithrows
Circuitstyleweighttraining
Flexibility

Thursday

Hurdleflexibilitydrills

1event
SpeedendurancefartlekBounds
Flexibility

Friday

1012min.run
Physicaltherapy

Weighttraining
Flexibility

Saturday

Medicineball
12events
Hillrunning
Flexibility/abdominals

Sunday

Recoveryday:
Swimmingpool
Formrunningdrills
Nonimpactwork

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DesigningaTrainingProgram
Foranyworkouttobesuccessful,coachesmustconsiderthestrengthsandweaknessesofeachathleteandalterthetrainingprogramaccordingly.Tables20.1and
20.2illustrateageneraltrainingplanfordecathletesandadecathlonschedule,respectively.
Competition
Aproperwarmupforthedecathlonisanartform.Thebestathletesfullyunderstandwhattheirbodiesaretellingthem.Thewarmupshouldbeprogrammedtoget
thedecathletereadytocompeteatasuperiorleveleverytime.Thereisnoroomfortheexcuse,"Iwarmeduptoomuch"(ortoolittle).Whenadecathleteiswarming
upforthefirstdayofcompetition,heshouldbespecificallyconcernedwiththe100meterevent.
Stayingwarmbetweeneventsiscritical.Oftenanovicedecathletewillwalkaroundandtalkwithotherdecathletes.Thisisovertiring.Thedecathleteshouldconsider
thewarmupanintegralpartofhistrainingprogram.
Preparationfortheseconddayofcompetitionactuallybeginsattheendofthefirstday.Afull,thoroughcooldownisessentialaftersprintinganallout400meters.A
walkjogofatleastonemileshouldbetheminimumcooldown.Itshouldbedoneassoonaspossibleafterthe400meters.Thedecathleteshouldnotliearoundfora
whilebeforestartinghiscooldown.
Thedecathleteshouldwakeupatleastthreeorfourhoursbeforecompetitionontheseconddayand,ifpossible,takeashortfourtosixminutejogbeforeeatingand
showering.Thisruncanaidhisperformanceinthe110meterhurdlesandgethisbodypreparedfortherigorsoffurthercompetition.
Thethoroughlytrainedandprepareddecathleteshouldbeabletostartthreeorfourdecathlonsperyear.Thenovice,nomatterwhathisabilitylevel,shoulddoatleast
oneperyear.Theexperiencegainedincompetitionisextremelyvaluable.Normallyanathleteshouldnotbeginanotherdecathlonuntilatleastthreeweeksafterthe
previousone.
Whilepreparingforamajorcompetition,theathleteshouldmakethelastweekoneofrestandmentalrehearsal.Forexample,thedecathletemightwarmupeachday
andcheckhisfinalpreparationsfortheevents(suchaslongjumpsteps,highjumpapproach,andblocksetting).Ofcourse,somespecificrunsareneededfor
sharpnessevenwhilehe'sgenerallyrestingforthecompetition.
Agreatwaytoprepareformultieventcompetitionisbyhavingminimeetsofthreetofourevents,suchasthe60meterhurdles,thepolevault,anda1000meterrun.
Theathletecanalsogocompletelythroughthefirstorsecondday'seventsearlyintheseasonasapartofthepreparation.Theseexperiencesareoftremendousvalue.
Whenadecathletecompetesaspartofahighschoolorcollegeteam,heshouldcompeteonlyineventsthatarenotscheduledforthesametime.Heshoulddotwoor
threeeventsthathecanconcentrateon,ratherthananumberofeventsthathavehimrunningallovertheplace.
Summary
Decathletesmusttakepartinatrainingprogramthatdevelopstheirskillsineveryevent.Theycannotaffordtohaveaweakevent.Asuccessfuldecathletemust
containthephysicalandmentalperseverancetotacklesuchagruelingcontest.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chapter1
Bush,J.,andD.Weiskopf.DynamicTrackandField.Boston:Allyn&Bacon,1978.
Carr,G.FundamentalsofTrackandField.Champaign,IL:LeisurePress,1991.
Gambetta,V.,editor.TheAthleticsCongress'sTrackandFieldCoachingManual.Champaign,IL:LeisurePress,1989.
Stolley,S.,andE.Derse.AAF/CIFTrackandFieldCoachingManual.LosAngeles,CA:AmateurAthleticsFoundation,1991.
Thompson,P.IntroductiontoCoachingTheory.London:InternationalAmateurAthleticsFederation,1991.
Chapter8
Cavanaugh,P.R.BiomechanicsofDistanceRunning.Champaign,IL:HumanKinetics,1990.
Daniels,J.RunningFormula.Champaign,IL:HumanKinetics,1998.
Gambetta,V.,editor.TheAthleticsCongress'sTrackandFieldCoachingManual.Champaign,IL:LeisurePress,1981.
Martin,D.,andP.Coe.BetterTrainingforDistanceRunners.Champaign,IL:HumanKinetics,1997.
Stolley,S.,andE.Derse.AAF/CIFCrossCountryCoachingManual.LosAngeles,CA:AmateurAthleticFoundation,1994.
Vigil,J."MethodicalApproachtoTrainingbytheEnergySystems."1984.
Chapter13
Attig,R."PoleVaultTechniqueandTrainingSequence."Track&FieldQuarterlyReview90,no.4(winter1990):29.
Falk,B."TakingtheMysteryOutofFiberglassPoleVaulting:Book4."MFAthleticCompany,1993.
Houvion,M."PerfectingPoleVaultingTechnique."Track&FieldQuarterlyReview8,no.4(winter1985):34.
Kochel,G.TacticalCoachingforthePoleVault.Ames,IA:ChampionshipBooks,1981.
Fraley,B.,andE.Jacoby.TheCompleteBookofJumps.Champaign,IL:HumanKinetics,1995.
Krzesinski,A."MyViewsonPoleVaulting."Track&FieldQuarterlyReview81,no.4(winter1981):42.
Petrov,V."PoleVaultingTechnique."LecturepresentedatEuropeanAthleticsCongress,Birmingham,England,1995.
Ward,J."PlantFoodforThought."PaperpresentedatUSAPoleVaultEliteAthleteClinic,Lawrence,Kansas,1985.
Chapter14
Dunn,G.Jr."DevelpingtheYoungShotPutter."NewStudiesinAthletics,March1990.
Dunn,G.D.,Jr.,andK.McGill.TheThrowsManual.MountainView,CA:TafnewsPress,1991.

Page310

Judge,L.W."CoachingYoungShotPuttersDetecting,CorrectingTechnicalFlaws."AmericanAthletics,Winter1992.
Lasosrsa,R."GlideShotPutTeachingProgression."USATFMen&Women'sDevelopmentSuperClinicNotes,1996.
Jarver,J.,editor,TheThrows,3ded.LosAltos,CA:TafnewsPress,1985.
Stolley,S.,andE.Derse.AAF/CIFTrackandFieldCoachingManual.LosAngeles,CA:AmateurAthleticsFoundation,1991.
Venegas,A."UCLAShotPutDiscusConditioningProgram."XIInternationalTrack&FieldCoachesAssociationCongress,Barcelona,Spain,December1988.
Chapter15
Arbeit,E.,K.Bartoneitz,andL.Hillebrand."DifferencesinThrowingTechniqueintheDiscusforMenandWomen."InTheThrows:OfficialReport,Federation
ofEuropeanTrackCoaches,editedbyJ.BoteandJ.L.Gastaldello,7581.Paris:L'AmicaledesEntraineursFrancaisD'Athletisme,1987.
Jarver,J."DiscusFundamentalsfortheNovice."InTheThrows,3ded.,editedbyJ.Jarver,8288.LosAltos,CA:TafnewsPress,1985.
Tidow,G."ModelTechniqueAnalysisSheetsPartIX:TheDiscusThrow."NewStudiesinAthletics9,no.3(1994):4768.
Venegas,A."UCLAShotPutDiscusConditioningProgram."Track&FieldQuarterlyReview89,no.3(fall1989):68.
Vrabel,J."ProblemsofTechniqueofAdvancedDiscusThrowers."InTheThrows:OfficialReport,FederationofEuropeanTrackCoaches,editedbyJ.Bote
andJ.L.Gastaldello,91103.Paris:L'AmicaledesEntraineursFrancaisD'Athletisme,1987.
Ward,P."TheDiscus."InTheAthleticsCongress'sTrackandFieldCoachingManual,editedbyV.Gambetta,11731.Champaign,IL:LeisurePress,1981.
Wilkins,M."TechniqueConditioningDrillsfortheDiscus."InTheThrows:OfficialReport,FederationofEuropeanTrackCoaches,editedbyJ.BoteandJ.L.
Gastaldello,8389.Paris:L'AmicaledesEntraineursFrancaisD'Athletisme,1987.
Woicik,M."TheDiscus."InTheThrows,3ded.,editedbyJ.Jarver,9397.LosAltos,CA:TafnewsPress,1985.
Yingbo,Z."PreCompetitionPreparationforThrowers."NewStudiesinAthletics9,no.1(1994):4345.
Chapter16
Brown,C.H."JavelinThrowing,BritishStyle."TrackTechnique120(1992):382426.
.Lettertotheeditor.TrackTechnique123(1993):3939.
Brown,C.H.,andJ.Stevenson."TheBiodynamicsofJavelinRelease."TrackTechnique128(1994):408788,4101.
Komi,P.,A.Mero,andT.Korjus."3DKinematicsofOlympicJavelinThrowers."ReporttotheIOCMedicalCommission,SubcommissionforBiomechanicsand
SportPhysiology,1993.
Lawler,P."TheJavelinThrowThePast,PresentandFuture."NewStudiesinAthletics8no.3:1523.
Naclerio,T.TheTeachingProgressionsoftheShotPut,Discus,andJavelin.Rockaway,NJ:T.Naclerio,1988.
Ogiolda,P."TheJavelinThrowandtheRoleofSpeedinThrowingEvents."NewStudiesinAthletics8,no.3:713.
Paish,W."TheTrainingofPower."TrackTechnique120:382729.
Shannon,K.,C.H.Brown,andJ.Donins."TheJavelinThrow."TheAthleticsCongress'sTrackandFieldCoachingManual,1sted.,editedbyV.Gambetta,
13341.Champaign,IL:LeisurePress,1981.
Webb,B.,andB.F.Sing."TheJavelin."InTheAthleticsCongress'sTrackandFieldCoachingManual,2ded.,editedbyV.Gambetta,18999.Champaign,IL:
LeisurePress,1989

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Chapter17
Connolly,H."WhatMakesSyedikh'sTechniqueSoEffective."TrackandFieldTechnique102(Winter1988):260.
Dunn,G.D.,Jr.,andK.McGill.TheThrowsManual.MountainView,CA:TafnewsPress,1991.
Gambetta,V.,editor.TheAthleticsCongress'sTrackandFieldCoachingManual.Champaign,IL:LeisurePress,1981.
Kohlhepp,T.,editor.USAThrower(Multiplearticlesontopnationalandinternationalthrowersandcoaches).
McGill,K."Hammer."Track&FieldQuarterlyReview89,no.3(fall1989).
Payne,H."TheMechanicsofHammerThrowing."ConferenceproceedingsfromTechniquesinAthleticsfirstinternationalconference,Vol.1.Cologne,Germany:
DeutscheSporthochschule,1990.146197.
Chapter19
Bompa,T.O.TheoryandMethodologyofTraining.Dubuque,IA:Kendall/Hunt,1983.
.PeriodizationofStrength:TheNewWaveinStrengthTraining.Toronto,Ont.:Veritas,1993.
Myers,B."TheHeptathlon."InTheAthleticsCongress'sTrackandFieldCoachingManual,editedbyV.Gambetta,20918.Champaign,IL:LeisurePress,
1989.
Schmolinsky,G.,editor.TrackandField.2ded.Berlin:Sportverlag,1983.
Chapter20
Dick,F.W."JumpsandtheCombinedEvents."Track&FieldQuarterlyReview86(summer1986):5054.
Freeman,W.H."AnAnalysisofEliteDecathlonPerformances."Track&FieldQuarterlyReview79(summer1979):4952.
."DecathlonPerformanceSuccess:ProgressandAgeFactors."TrackTechnique96(1986):305052.
Henson,P.L."CoachingAthletesforMultipleEvents."Track&FieldQuarterlyReview86(summer1986):4849.
Jenner,B."BruceJennerontheDecathlon."Track&FieldQuarterlyReview86(summer1986):2629.
Knudson,L."InternationalCombinedEventsCongress(SummaryofPresentations)."Track&FieldQuarterlyReview79(summer1979):63.
Krzesinski,A."TheSpecificFeaturesoftheDecathlon."TrackTechnique89(1984):282830.
Masloyski,E.,andI.Dubrogajev."TheOrderofEventsinTraining(Decathlon)."Track&FieldQuarterlyReview79(summer1979):19.
Rudski,A.,andB.Aptekman."StagesintheTrainingofDecathloners."Track&FieldQuarterlyReview86(summer1986):1617.
Sykes,R.C."Balance:TheDecathlonKeyword."TrackTechnique45(1971):144243.
Tolsma,B."AScientificViewofDecathlonTraining."InProceedingsoftheInternationalTrackandFieldCoachesAssociationIXCongress,editedbyG.W.
Dales,12124.Kalamazoo,MI:NCAADivisionITrackCoachesAssociation,1984.
Yang,C.K."DecathlonTraininginPreparationforCompetition."Track&FieldQuarterlyReview87(spring1987):5758.
Zarnowski,C.F.TheDecathlon.Champaign,IL:LeisurePress,1989.
.ABasicGuidetotheDecathlon.Glendale,CA:GriffinPublishers(USOCSeries),1996.

Page312

ABOUTUSATRACK&FIELD
USATrack&Field(USATF)isthenationalgoverningbodyfortrackandfield,longdistancerunning,racewalkingandcrosscountry.ItistheUnitedStates'
memberoftheInternationalAmateurAthleticFederation,theworldgoverningbodyforAthletics,aswellasaGroupAmemberoftheU.S.OlympicCommittee.
Throughtheirnationwidemembershipofmorethan2500clubs,schools,colleges,universities,andotherorganizationsinterestedintrackandfield,longdistance
running,andracewalking,USATFpromotesprogramsoftrainingandcompetitionformenandwomenandboysandgirlsofallagesprotectstheinterestsand
eligibilityofitssome125,000memberathletesandestablishesandmaintainsthesports'rulesofcompetition.TheUSATFiscomprisedof56memberAssociations.
USATrack&Field'smissionistocontinueitsleadershiproleastheworld'spreeminentnationalgoverningbodyinAthleticsfromthegrassrootstotheelitelevel.It
willprovideopportunitiesforathletesofallagestopursueexcellenceinlongdistancerunning,racewalking,andtrackandfieldintheUSA.USATrack&Fieldis
locatedinIndianapolis,Indiana.

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ABOUTTHECONTRIBUTORS
ThecontributingauthorsofUSATrack&FieldCoachingManualareamongthebestcoachesandexpertsinthesportoftrackandfield.Thisuniquecollectionof
elitetrackandfieldexpertssharethetrainingmethodsandcoachingphilosophiestheyhaveusedtotrainnational,world,andOlympicchampions.Thelistof
contributorsincludesthefollowing:
JosephL.Rogers(OrganizingaSuccessfulProgram),HeadTrackandCrossCountryCoachatBallStateUniversityandformerchairoftheUSATFCoaches
EducationCommittee,contributeshisexpertiseintheorganizationofasuccessfulprogramandservesaseditorofthemanual.Hehasbeencoachingsince1965and
atBallStateinNCAADivisionIsince1984.Hehascoached22NAIAAllAmericansandthreeNCAAIAllAmericans.
PhilHenson(PredictiveTestingofAthletes),investigatoroftrackandfieldtalentidentification,hasbeencoachingtrackandfieldfor25yearsatthejuniorhigh,high
school,anduniversitylevel.HealsowasformercommissioneroftheU.S.OlympicFestivalfrom1983to1995andCompetitionManagerofthe1996Olympic
Games.
PaulTurner(PredictiveTestingofAthletes),AssistantTrackandFieldCoachatHarvardUniversity,has17yearsofDivisionIcoachingexperience.Hebringsto
themanualexperienceinthepracticalapplicationoftalentidentificationandhumanperformance.
CurtisFrye(100and200Meters),coachofAllenJohnson(1996goldmedalist)and30NCAAchampionships,wasnamedthe1999WorldChampionship
Coach.HecurrentlyistheHeadTrackandFieldandCrossCountryCoachattheUniversityofSouthCarolina.
ClydeHart(400Meters),headtrackandfieldcoachatBaylorUniversity,isaworldrenowned400metercoachwhohastrainedmanyworldandOlympic
champions,includingworldrecordholderMichaelJohnson.
RalphLindeman(100and110MeterHurdles),HeadTrackandFieldCoachattheU.S.AirForceAcademy,hasbeenontheNCAATrack&FieldRules
Committeesince1996andChairmanoftheUSATrack&Field'sMen'sDevelopment/HurdleSubcommitteesince1992.HewastheHeadCoachoftheUSAMen's
teamatthe1999PanAmericanGamesinWinnipegandonthecoachingstaffoftheUSAMen'steamatthe1992WorldJuniorChampionshipsinSeoul,Korea.
JohnMillar(100and110MeterHurdles),AssistantTrackCoach/SpeedCoachattheUniversityofNotreDame,hasalistofaccomplishmentsthatinclude
HeadCoachofU.S.NationalTeamatthe1999WorldIndoorChampionships,Women's

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HurdlesCoordinatorforUSATrack&Field,AssistantCoachoftheU.S.PanAmericanJuniorTeamin1993,andCoachofthe1984goldMedalistin100m
hurdles,BenitaFitzgerald.
GaryWinckler(400MeterHurdles)iscurrentlytheHeadWomen'sTrack&FieldandCrossCountrycoachattheUniversityofIllinois.HehasbeennamedBig
TenCoachoftheYearfivetimes(1988,1989,1992,1993,and1995).Alongwithhismanyaccomplishments,hehascoachedthreeNCAAI400meterhurdle
champions,four400meterhurdleOlympians,andseven400meterhurdlesAllAmericans.
MikePoehlein(800MeterstoMile)hasbeentheHeadTrackandFieldandCrossCountryCoachforPurdueUniversityfortwentyfiveyears.HewasHead
CoachfortheU.S.teamintheJuniorPanAmericanGamesin1997andwasnamedBigTenCrossCountryCoachoftheYearin1995.From1989to1997,healso
traveledtoEuropewiththeMen'sMiddleDistanceOlympicDevelopmentforsummercompetition.
LanceHarter(3000to10,000Meters)iscurrentlyHeadWomen'sTrack&FieldCoachattheUniversityofArkansas.HarterwasselectedtocoachtheU.S.
women'steamatthe1999WorldOutdoorChampionships.HealsowasTeamUSAwomen'scoachatthe1987WorldChampionshipsinWarsaw,Polandleading
thesquadtoateamtitle,aswellascoachingthe1984U.S.teamattheWorldIndoorTrackandFieldChampionshipsinParis,France.
HarryGroves(3000to10,000Meters)iscurrentlyHeadMen'sTrackandFieldandCrossCountryCoachatPennStateUniversity.HewasHeadCoachofthe
USATeamatthe1989WorldCup,aswellasHeadCoachattheWorldChampionshipsin1995,Gothenberg,Sweden.HealsowasAssistantOlympicCoachin
1992.Hehascoached11Americanrecordholders,19nationalchampions,and13Olympians.
RobJohnson(Relays),HeadTrackandFieldCoachatWabashCollege,willbeoneoffiveassistantcoachesfortheUSATrackandFieldTeamatthe2000
OlympicGames.SomeofhisaccomplishmentsincludelongtimeworkwiththeOlympicDevelopmentCommitteeandtwoU.S.JuniorNationalTeams,oneofwhich
broketwoworldrecords,aswellasheadtrackcoachfortheNorthTeamatthe1983OlympicSportsFestivalinColoradoSpringsandassistantcoachatthe
NationalSportsFestivalinNewYork.
KarenDennis(Relays),HeadCoachforthe2000OlympicsUSATrackandFieldteam,currentlycoachesattheUniversityofNevadainLasVegas.Shehas
coachedmanyoutstandingathletes,includingJudiBrownKing,1984Olympicsilvermedalistinthe400meterhurdles12timeBigTenchampionsprinterCheryl
GilliamthreetimeAllAmericanand13timeBigTenchampionOdessaSmallsandcrosscountryAllAmerican,10,000meterAllAmerican,andBigTenchampion
MaryShea.
KyleTellez(LongJump),AssistantCoachattheUniversityofHouston,hascoachedNCAAAllAmericansJohnDavis,NathanLabus,andEdwinaAmmonds.
KathyJames(LongJump),formerlytheAssistantTrackandFieldCoachattheUniversityofTexas,wastheUSATrackandFieldWomen'sDevelopment
CoordinatorforLongJumpandTripleJumpfrom1990to1995.Shealsowasinvolved

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withtheOlympicSportsandFestivalTeamsfortheSouthin1990and1991.In1991,shetraveledwiththeU.S.JuniorNationalTeam.
DeanHayes(TripleJump),HeadTrackandFieldCoachatMiddleTennesseeStateUniversity,hascoachedseveralAllAmericansandthreeOlympians.These
OlympiansincludeTommyHaynesandRayfielDupreeinthetriplejumpandBrianOldfieldinshotput.Hiscoachingaccomplishmentsalsoincludeheadcoachofthe
U.S.teamthatcompetedintheWorldUniversityGamesin1985,coachfortheU.S.teamatthe1988OlympicGames,headcoachofthe1990GoodwillGames,
headcoachoftheU.S.teamthatcompetedintheWorldCupin1994,andheadcoachofthe1997WorldChampionshipteam.
SueHumphrey(HighJump),USATFWomen'sDevelopmentChairman,hasbeennamedtheNikeEliteCoachoftheYear.ShewasanOlympicCoachin1992
and1996.SomeofheradditionalaccomplishmentsincludeUSANationalTeamCoachsince1974,HeadPanAmGamesCoach1987,HeadWorldCupCoachin
1985andHeadOlympicManagerin1992.
DougNordquist(HighJump)isaformerUSAOutdoorHighJump(7'8'')Champion.Hewasfifthplaceonthe1984OlympicTeam,the1986Goodwill
Champion,andatwotimeNationalChampion.HecurrentlybelongstotheUSATFHighJumpDevelopmentteam.
JimBemiller(PoleVault),PoleVaultCoachattheUniversityofTennessee,hascoachedfiveNCAAtitlewinnersandseventeenNCAAAllAmericans.
BillGodina(ShotPut),authoroftheUSATFInstructorTrainingCourse,alsowasthecoachofthe1990JuniorNationalDiscusChampion.Hebelongstothe
USATFCoachingEducationProgramandcoachesthrowsforCheyenneCentralHighSchoolinCheyenne,Wyoming.
RonBackes(ShotPut)iscurrentlyAssistantTrackCoach(throws)atOhioStateUniversity.Hewasashotputcompetitorinthe1992SummerOlympicsaswell
asU.S.IndoorShotPutChampionin1991andU.S.OutdoorShotPutChampionin1987,1988,1991,and1992.
DonBabbitt(Discus)throwsandMultiEventsCoachattheUniversityofGeorgiahascoached45NCAAqualifiers,45AllAmericans,and15NCAA
Champions.OneofhisoutstandingperformersincludesJanetHill,whostillholdstheNCAADivisionIIdiscusthrowrecordsheisathreetimequalifierfortheU.S.
OlympicTrialsandwasrankedsixthintheUnitedStatesin1993.
C.HarmonBrown(Javelin)hascoachednumerousAllAmericansandthreeOlympiansinthrowingevents.HecurrentlyisthethrowscoachforMillbraeLions
TrackClub,CaliforniaStateUniversity,Hayward,andSanFranciscoStateUniversity.Hehascoachedattheclub,highschool,collegiate,andnationaland
internationallevelssince1953.
BillWebb(Javelin),HeadCoachattheUniversityofTennessee,hascoached10NCAAChampions,49DivisionIAllAmericans,51DivisionIIAllAmericans,
35SECChampionsandatotalof24OlympicTrialscompetitors.IncludedintheseoutstandingathletesisTomPetranoff,formerworldrecordholderinthejavelin,
andBobRoggy,apastAmericanrecordholder.
BobSing(Javelin)iscurrentlypracticingasanEmergency,Family,andSportsphysician.HeauthoredthebookDynamicsoftheJavelinThrow,1984.Hewasa

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DivisionIIINCAAChampionin1974andafinalistinthe1980U.S.OlympicTrials.
KenBantum(Hammer),formerNCAAandUSATrackandFieldShotPutchampionandOlympian,formerlysharedhistalentatSaintJohn'sUniversityasthe
ThrowsCoach.Hehascoachedathletesto10NationalChampionships,andindoorsandoutAmericanrecordholdingathleteshavecompetedinthePanAmerican
Games,WorldGames,andOlympicGamesinHammerThrow.
JeffSalvage(Racewalking)holdsthepositionofU.S.JuniorNationalRacewalkCoordinator.Healsoisthecoachofnationalclassracewalkers.Heisaformer
internationalracewalkingcompetitorhimselfandhasbeenthedirectorofracewalksatthePennRelays.
BohdanBolwicaski(Racewalking)wastheformercoachinresidenceattheArcoTrainingCenterandaformerOlympicracewalker.
GwenRobertson(Racewalking)iscurrentlyHeadGirlsandBoysTrackCoachatIssaquahHighSchoolinWashington.SheistheNationalTeamCoordinatorand
aformerNationalTeamracewalkingmember.
IanWhatley(Racewalking)istheUSATrack&FieldSportsandSciencesSubcommitteeChair.HehascompetedinthreeU.S.Olympictrialsandhascompeted
internationallyinracewalking.Hecurrentlyisanadvancedconceptsandresearchanddesignconsultantinthesportinggoodsindustry.
GaryWesterfield(Racewalking)iscurrentlyontheIAAFracewalkJudgesPanel.Atthistime,heisoneofonlythreecertifiedjudgesintheU.S.andoneofonly
60aroundtheworld.HeisthecoachofnationalclassracewalkersandcoachesBoy'sTrackandFieldatSmithtownHighschoolinNewYork.Formerly,hewasthe
TACNationalTeamCoordinatorforracewalking.
CliffRovelto(Heptathlon),HeadTrackandFieldCoachatKansasStateUniversity,hascoachedtwoOlympians,threeNCAAChampions,and59NCAAAll
Americans.TheseincludeNicoleGreen,NCAAoutdoor400meterchampionPercellGaskins,1993NCAAindoorhighjumpchampionConnieTeaberry,sixtime
AllAmericanhighjumperandCliftonEtheridge,sixtimeBigEighthorizontaljumptitlewinner.
HarryMarra(Decathlon)iscurrentlythecoachoftheUSANationalDecathlonTeam.Sinceitsfoundingin1990,theNationalTeamnowholdseverypossible
WorldRecordindecathloncompetition.MarrahasbeennamedascoachfortheOlympicFestival(1981and1982)andthreetimescoachfortheUSADecathlon
TeamthatcompetedagainsttheGermans,Russians,andCanadians.HehasrecentlybeennamedasAssistantCoachforthe1999PanAmericanGames.Brian
Brophy,Marra'scurrenttopdecathlete,madetheUSAWorldChampionshipTeam,Gothenborg,Sweden,1995,wasthirdatthe1998USANational
Championships,andrepresentedtheU.S.atthe1998GoodwillGames.