Affiah Analogue Communication PDF

Basic Concepts of
Analogue Communications
A.U Affiah
U.O Nwogu
R.U Ossai
Basic Concepts of Analogue Communications
Preface
Basic Concepts of Analogue Communications is a comprehensive text
designed to cover the essential knowledge base required for the first course in
telecommunications engineering and technology. It provides an introduction
to the fundamentals that underpins the principles of systems covered in the
higher level courses in telecommunications engineering.
This text is easy-to-read, logical, and has a step-by-step primarily intended to
provide undergraduate Electrical/Electronic, computer engineering,
computer science and Physics students with a fairly good exposure to the
basic principles of Analogue Communication. It will also appeal to others
within the telecommunication industry that needs refresh their knowledge of
the Basic Concepts of Analogue Communications. Utmost care has been
taken to ensure that the book adequately covers all the topics included in the
syllabi prescribed for a first course in telecommunications engineering in
Nigerian Tertiary Institutions.
The book is organized into 5 chapters.
Chapter 1 gives an overview of the Structure of Telecommunication
Systems.
Chapter 2 presents the fundamentals of Transducers.
Chapters 3 deal with the Principle of Transmission and Reception of
signals.
Chapter 4 describes Principles of AM & FM Demodulation.
Chapter 5 introduces the architecture and operation of a basic Radio
Receivers.
Care has been taken to make the book error-free; nevertheless, some errors
might have crept into the book. Suggestions/constructive criticisms from the
readers of this book are most welcome. Please send any feedback to
afikana@aol.com.
Authors.
ns
Basic Concepts of Analogue Communications
Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering
CHAPTER ONE
Structure of Telecommunication Systems
1.0 Introduction
Communication is the transfer of information from one place to another. This
should be done as efficiently as possible, with as much fidelity/reliability as
possible and as securely as possible. The word Telecommunication is a
combination of two words... Tele + Communication.The word Tele in Latin
means Distance. Hence Telecommunication is Distance Communication. The
necessity of communication begun as early as the existence of mankind on
this earth. Communication has become the vital tool for mankind to strife
prosperously in this world.
Evolution of the Communication System:
Primitive Sign Language
Pounding Drum
Smoke Signal
Fire Signals
Modern Telegraph
Telephone
Wireless communication
Satellite Communication
The requirements for a complete communication system are:
The Source of the Messages: Messages are the signals you wish to send. The
message itself can be voice, computer data, music, video movie, temperature
reading or alarm information. All these can be considered as Messages. The
Sources of messages can come in many forms. It can be your mouth, a
cassette tape player, a video tape player, a computer, a thermometer or a
security system. These messages are normally converted to electrical signals
and is known as intelligence, information, audio signal or base band signal,
depending on the message itself.
The Modulator and the transmitter: For a message to be able to reach the
required destination is has to be sent out through a transmitter. The message
is converted into electrical signals and is modulator. The process of
modulation is required as the original message or signal is generally of a low
frequency waveform, and therefore has low energy. Thus modulation is the
process of translating the original signal to a higher frequency signals
representing the original. The modulation process is done inside a device
called a Transmitter, whose function is to convert the source signals to signals

suitable for sending out.
The channel: The modulated signal has to be transferred from the transmitter
to the receiver through a medium. The medium is also called the channel. In
communication, channel means a long transmission path. The various
channels available today is cables, radio waves and light waves.
The receiver and the demodulator: Receives the transmitter signal. Selects
the desired signal from many signals (mixed when passing through channel)
and demodulates the signal to obtain a reproduction of the original signal.
The destination of the messages: The signal must arrive at an appropriate
destination. As an example, a computer signal received by your ear is not very
useful. A picture received by a thermometer does not make sense. The
destination device must also decide what to do with the signals, i.e. to just
receive live, to store them or to perhaps re-transmit them to yet another
destination. Successful communication has taken place when the original has
arrived at the destination correctly.
1.1 Historical Background
1.1.1 Telegraph
1844, Samuel Morse, What hath God wrought transmitted by Morse's
electric telegraph Washington D.C ~ Baltimore, Maryland
Morse code: variable-length code (a dot, a dash, a letter space, a word space)
1.1.2 Radio
1864, James Clerk Maxwell Formulated the electromagnetic theory of light,
Predicted the existence of radio waves
1887, Heinrich Hertz- The existence of radio waves was confirmed
experimentally
1894, Oliver Lodge - Demo : wireless communication over a relatively short
distance (150 yards)
1901, Guglielmo Marconi- Demo : wireless communication over a long
distance (1700 miles)
1906, Reginald Fessenden- Conducting the first radio broascast
1918, Edwin H. Armstrong -Invented the superheterodyne radio receiver
1933, Edwin H. Armstrong -Demonstrated another modulation scheme (
Frequency nodulation)
1.1.3 Telephone
1875, Alexander Graham Bell Invented the telephone
1897, A. B. Strowger Devised the autiomatic step-by-step switch
1.1.4 Electronics
1904, John AbbroseEleming Invented the vacuum-tube diode
1906, Lee de Forest Invented the vacuum-tube triode
1948, Walter H. Brattain, William Shockley (Bell Lab.) Invented the transistor
1958, Robert Noyce- The first silicon integrated circuit (IC) produce
1.1.5 Television
1928, Philo T. Farnsworth- First all-electronic television system
1929, Vladimir K. Zworykin -all-electronic television system
1939, BBC - Broadcasting television service on a commercial basis
1.1.6 Digital Communications
1928, Harry Nyquist -The theory of signal transmission in telegraphy
1937, Alex Reeves -Invent pulse-code modulation
1958, (Bell Lab.) -First call through a stored-program system
1960, (Morris, Illinois) -The first commercial telephone service with digital
switching begin.
1962, (Bell Lab.) -The first T-1 carrier system transmission was installed
1943, D. O. North -Matched filter for the optimum detection of a unknown
signal in a additive white noise
1948, Claude Shannon -The theoretical foundation of digital communications
were laid
1.1.7 Computer Networks
1943~1946, (Moore School of Electrical Engineering of the Univ. of
Pennsylvania) -ENIAC : first electronic digital computer
1950s -Computers and terminals started communicating with each other
1965, Robert Lucky -Idea of adaptive equalization
1982, G. Ungerboeck -Efficient modulation techniques
1950~1970 -Various studies were made on computer networks
1971 -Advanced Research Project Agency Network (APRANET) first put into
service
1985 -APRANET was renamed the Internet
1990, Tim Berners-Lee Proposed a hypermedia software interface to internet
(World Wide Web)
1.1.8 Satellite Communications

1945, C. Clark -Studied the use of satellite for communications
1955, John R. Pierce Proposed the use of satellite for communications
1957, (Soviet Union) -Launched Sputnik I
1958, (United States) -Launched Explorer I
1962, (Bell Lab.) -Launched Telstar I
1.1.9 Optical Communications
1966, K.C. Kao, G. A. Hockham Proposed the use of a clad glass fiber as a
dielectric waveguide
1959~1960 -The laser had been invented and developed
1.2 Significance of Human Communication
Communication is the process of exchanging information. The main barriers
are language and distance. Contemporary society's emphasis is now the
accumulation, packaging, and exchange of information.
The methods of Communication are;
1.
Face to face
2.
Signals
3.
Written word (letters)
4.
Electrical innovations: Telegraph, Telephone, Radio, Television,
Internet (computer)
1.3 Modern Electronic Communication Types
Most modern electronic communication methods are instantaneous and
affordable. Electronic communication dates back to the telegraph that used
Morse code to send messages long distances over wires. After that, the
electronics industry added the wired telephone, the wireless radio and
television. Since then, the industry has exploded; consumers now share
information with each other anywhere, anytime and in ways that are as varied
as we are.
Web Pages: World Wide Web users post content on websites for others to
view. The content may be simple text, but it might also contain multimedia files
including images, sounds, videos or streaming content. Unlike many other
forms of electronic communication, most Web content is pulled from the Web
by users who are seeking information, rather than pushed to subscribers.
While not as permanent as traditional media like paper, Web pages can
archive information for extended periods.
Email: Email is a method originally intended to imitate physical mail.

Messages are delivered from one specific address to one or more specific
addresses. Users are alerted to the presence of new messages in their
inboxes by email clients that display the content and offer an opportunity to
reply. Messages are primarily text but may include file attachments of various
types including images and short movies. Unlike instant messages, emails
are generally not expected to be read immediately upon receipt. Most email
readers keep track of conversations that include multiple people through the
use of threads. Thus email is ideally suited for long, involved conversations
between two people or among small groups of people.
Forums: Conversations that go on indefinitely, involve large numbers of
people or need to be archived are not well suited to email. Forums, often
hosted on the Web, provide an alternative that combines many of the aspects
of email and Web pages. They involve discussions around a single, limited
topic but can take place over months or years and involve dozens or even
hundreds of participants. Most use a treelike structure that allows participants
to jump in at whatever level their comments are most appropriate.
Text and Instant Messaging: Text messaging uses cellular airwaves and
protocols to deliver textual messages from one cellular phone to another or
from one phone to a group of other phones. Text messaging is usually
intended as near-instant communication and can be quicker than a phone call
because the sender doesn't have to wait for the recipient to answer before
delivering a message. Because text messaging is informal and easy, it's
sometimes called chatting. Text messaging can also facilitate private
discussions when there is a chance that a phone call could be overheard.
Instant messaging is similar to text messaging but is carried over the Internet
rather than over cell phone airwaves.
Social Networking: Social networking sites facilitate communication among
people with common interests or affiliations. Sites such as Facebook and
Linked in provide places for people to interact, sometimes in real time. Micro
blogging services like Twitter, allow short textual messages of no more than
140 characters to be broadcast to a large audience. Unlike text messages,
which are delivered to only small groups, micro blog posts are intended to be
seen by all of a user's followers. Micro blog users can repost messages that
they want to share with their own followers, so a micro blog post can spread
quickly. A widely reposted message is called a viral post.
Video Chat: Like instant messaging, most video chatting is conducted over
Internet protocols that stream images from one device to another. At times,
nothing beats a face-to-face conversation. Video chats provide immediacy to
a conversation. Because a person's tone is often easier to read when you can
see his face, businesses often use videoconferencing to aid in virtual
meetings.
1.4 Standardization in Telecommunications
Standardization is vital in telecommunications. It allows worldwide
communication because we all speak a standard language.There are
international, regional, and national standardization agencies. There are at
least two international agencies that impact telecommunications. The most
encompassing is the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) based in
Geneva, Switzerland, which has produced more than 1000 standards.
Another is the International Standardization Organization (ISO), which has
issued a number of important data communication standards. Unlike other
standardization entities, the ITU is a treaty organization with more treaty
signatories than the United Nations. Its General Secretariat produces the
Radio Regulations. This document set is the only one that is legally binding on
the nations that have signed the treaty. In addition, two of the ITU's subsidiary
organizations prepare and disseminate documents that are
recommendations, reports, or opinions, and are not legally binding on treaty
signatories. However they serve as worldwide standards. The ITU went
through a reorganization on January 1, 1993. Prior to that the two important
branches were the CCITT, standing for International Consultive Committee
for Telephone and Telegraph, and the CCIR, standing for International
Consultive Committee for Radio. After the reorganization, the CCITT became
the Telecommunication Standardization Sector of the ITU, and the CCIR
became the ITU Radio communication Sector. The former produces ITU-T
Recommendations and the latter produces ITUR Recommendations. The ITU
Radio communications Sector essentially prepares the Radio Regulations for
the General Secretariat.
We note one important regional organization, ETSI, the European
Telecommunication Standardization Institute. For example, it is responsible
for a principal cellular radio Specification GSM or Ground System Mobile (in
the French). Prior to the 1990s, ETSI was the Conference European Post and
Telegraph or CEPT. CEPT produced the European version of digital network
PCM, previously called CEPT30+2 and now called E-1. There are numerous
national standardization organizations. There is the American National
Standards Institute based in New York City that produces a wide range of
standards.
The Electronics Industries Association (EIA) and the Telecommunication

Industry Association (TIA), are both based in Washington, DC, and are
associated one with the other. Both are prolific preparers of
telecommunication standards. The Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers (IEEE) produces the 802 series specifications, which are of
particular interest to enterprise networks. There are the Advanced Television
Systems Committee (ATSC) standards for video compression and the
Society of Cable Telecommunication Engineers that produce CATV (cable
television) standards. Another important group is the Alliance for
Telecommunication Industry Solutions. This group prepares standards
dealing with the North American digital network. Bellcore (Bell
Communications Research) is an excellent source for standards with a North
American flavor.These standards were especially developed for the Regional
Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs). There are also a number of forums. A
forum, in this context, is a group of manufacturers and users that band
together to formulate standards. For example, there is the Frame Relay
Forum, the ATM Forum, and so on. Often these ad hoc industrial standards
are adopted by CCITT, ANSI, and the ISO, among others.
1.5 The Fundamental Model of Communication.
The fundamental model of communications is portrayed in Figure 1.0a. In this
fundamental model, each message-bearing signal, exemplified by s(t), is
analog and is a function of time. A system operates on zero, one, or several
signals to produce more signals or to simply absorb them (Figure1.0b). In
electrical engineering, we represent a system as a box, receiving input signals
(usually coming from the left) and producing from them new output signals.
This graphical representation is known as a block diagram. We denote input
signals by lines having arrows pointing into the box, output signals by arrows
pointing away. As typified by the communications model, how information
flows, how it is corrupted and manipulated, and how it is ultimately received is
summarized by interconnecting block diagrams: The outputs of one or more
systems serve as the inputs to others.
s(t)
Source
x(t)
Transmitter
message
r(t)
Channel
modulated
message
s(t)
Receiver
corrupted
modulated
message
Sink
demodulated
message
(a) The Fundamental Model of Communication.
x(t)
System
y(t)
(a) Definition of a system

Figure 1.0 Communication System Model
In the communications model, the source produces a signal that will be
absorbed by the sink. Examples of time-domain signals produced by a source
are music, speech, and characters typed on a keyboard. Signals can also be
functions of two variables, an image is a signal that depends on two spatial
variables, television pictures (video signals) are functions of two spatial
variables and time. Thus, information sources produce signals. In physical
systems, each signal corresponds to an electrical voltage or current. To be
able to design systems, we must understand electrical science and
technology. However, we first need to understand the big picture to appreciate
the context in which the electrical engineer works.
In communication systems, messages signals produced by sources must be
recast for transmission. The block diagram has the message s(t) passing
through a block labeled transmitter that produces the signal x(t). In the case of
a radio transmitter, it accepts an input audio signal and produces a signal that
physically is an electromagnetic wave radiated by an antenna and
propagating as Maxwell's equations predict. In the case of a computer
network, typed characters are encapsulated in packets, attached with a
destination address, and launched into the Internet. From the communication
systems big picture perspective, the same block diagram applies although
the systems can be very different. In any case, the transmitter should not
operate in such a way that the message s(t) cannot be recovered from x(t). In
the mathematical sense, the inverse system must exist, else the
communication system cannot be considered reliable. (It is ridiculous to
transmit a signal in such a way that no one can recover the original. However,
clever systems exist that transmit signals so that only the in crowd can
recover them. Such cryptographic systems underlie secret communications.)
Transmitted signals next pass through the next stage, the evil channel.
Nothing good happens to a signal in a channel: It can become corrupted by
noise, distorted, and attenuated among many possibilities. The channel
cannot be escaped (the real world is cruel), and transmitter design and
receiver design focus on how best to jointly fend off the channel's effects on
signals. The channel is another system in our block diagram, and produces
r(t), the signal received by the receiver. If the channel were benign (good luck
finding such a channel in the real world), the receiver would serve as the
inverse system to the transmitter, and yield the message with no distortion.
However, because of the channel, the receiver must do its best to produce a
received message s(t) that resembles s(t) as much as possible. Shannon
showed in his 1948 paper that reliable for the moment, takes this word to
mean error-freedigital communication was possible over arbitrarily noisy
channels. It is this result that modern communications systems exploit, and
why many communications systems are going digital. The module on
Information Communication details Shannon's theory of information, and
there we learn of Shannon's result and how to use it.
Finally, the received message is passed to the information sink that somehow
makes use of the message. In the communications model, the source is a
system having no input but producing an output; a sink has an input and no
output.
Understanding signal generation and how systems work amounts to
understanding signals, the nature of the information they represent, how
information is transformed between analog and digital forms, and how
information can be processed by systems operating on information-bearing
signals.
1.6 Telecommunication System Requirements
The first requirement is for the original information energy (such as that of the
human voice, or music, or a telegraph signal) to be converted into electrical
form to produce an electronic information signal. This is achieved by a suitable
transducer, which is a general term given to any device that converts energy
from one form to another when required.
+
+
Line link
originator of
information
Transducer
Amplifier
Amplifier
Transducer
Receiver of
information
Figure 1.1 Basic requirements for a one-way line telecommunication

channel
In a line telecommunication system (Figure 1.1), the electronic signal is
passed to the destination by a wire or cable link, with the energy traveling at a
speed of up to 60 % that of light. At the destination, a second transducer
converts the electronic signal back into the original energy form. The
amplifiers do not change the signal but to increase the power level of signals to
compensate for losses encountered.
10
originator of
Transducer
Amplifier
information
Radio
Radio
transmitter
receiver
Amplifier
Transducer
Receiver of
information
Figure 1.2 Basic requirements for one-way radio telecommunication

channel
For a radio system (Figure 1.2), a transmitter is required at the source to send
the signal over the radio link, and a receiver is needed at the destination to
recover the signal before applying it to the transducer.
1.7 Components of a Communication System
The basic components of a communication system are;
Transmitter
Channel or medium
Receiver
It should be noted that noise degrades or interferes with the transmitted
information. The general model of a communication system is shown in figure
1.3.
Free space (radio),
wire, fiber-optic cable, etc.
Information
or
intelligence
(audio, video,
computer data, etc.)
Transmitter
(TX)
Communications
channel or medium
Receiver
(RX)
Recovered
information and
intelligence
Noise
Figure 1.3 General Component of all communication systems.
Transmitter: The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and
circuits that converts the electrical signal into a signal suitable for transmission
over a given medium. Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers,
tuned circuits and filters, modulators, frequency mixers, frequency
synthesizers, and other circuits.
Communication Channel: The communication channel is the medium by
which the electronic signal is sent from one place to another. Types of media
include
11
Electrical conductors
Optical media
Free space
System-specific media (e.g., water is the medium for sonar).
Receivers: A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that

accepts the transmitted message from the channel and converts it back into a
form understandable by humans. Receivers contain amplifiers, oscillators,
mixers, tuned circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector that recovers
the original intelligence signal from the modulated carrier.
Transceivers: A transceiver is an electronic unit that incorporates circuits that
both send and receive signals.
Examples are: Telephones, Fax machines, Handheld CB radios, Cell phones,
Computer modems etc.
Attenuation: Signal attenuation, or degradation, exists in all media of wireless
transmission. It is proportional to the square of the distance between the
transmitter and receiver.
Noise: Noise is random, undesirable electronic energy that enters the
communication system via the communicating medium and interferes with the
transmitted message.
1.7.1 Communication System Component Sub-units
From the general model in figure 1.3, all communication systems contain
three main sub systems: Transmitter, Channel and the Receiver. The model is
sub-divided into more units as shown in figure 1.4.
Noise n(t)
Information
input m(t)
Signal
processing
Carrier
circuits
s(t)
Transmission
medium
(channel)
r(t)
To information
sink m(t) (user)
Carrier
circuits
Signal
processing
Figure 1.4
Transmitter: The signal-processing block is used for more efficient
transmission.
12
Example: In an analog system, the signal processor may be an analog lowpass filter to restrict the bandwidth of m(t).In a hybrid system, the signal
processor may be an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to produce digital
signals that represent samples of the analog input signal. The transmitter
carrier circuit converts the processed base band signal into a frequency band
that is appropriate for the transmission medium of the channel.
Example: An amplitude modulated (AM) broadcasting station with an
assigned frequency of 850 kHz has a carrier frequency fc=850 kHz. The
mapping of the base band input information waveform m (t) into the band pass
signal s(t) is called modulation. It will be shown that any band pass signal has
the form
s(t) = R(t) cos (ct + (t)
Where = 2f
If R(t)=1 and (t) = 0, s(t) would be a pure sinusoid of frequency f=fc with zero
bandwidth.
Channel: A channel represents the path in which signals travel from
transmitter to receiver. Very general classifications of channels are:
Wire: Twisted-pair telephone line, coaxial cable, waveguide, and fiber-optic
cables.
Wireless: Air vacuum, and seawater.
In general, the channel medium attenuates the signal so that the delivered
information m (t)deteriorated from that of the source. The channel noise may
arise from natural electrical disturbances or from artificial sources.
Receiver: The receiver takes the corrupted signal at the channel output and
converts it to be a base band signal that can be handled by the receiver's base
band processor.
The base band processor cleans up this signal and delivers an estimate of the
source information m(t) to the communication system output. In digital
systems, the measure of signal deterioration is usually taken to be the
probability of bit error P(e) also called Bit Error Rate (BER) of the delivered
data m(t).
In analog systems, the performance measure is usually taken to be the
13
Signal-to-noise Ratio (SNR) at the receiver output.

The basic communication system is always represented using figure 1.5
below with explanations following.
Information
Source and
Input
Transmitter
Channel
Receiver
Output
Transducer
Transducer
Figure 1.5Communications System Diagram

The Information Source can be audio, image, text, data and the input
Transducer Converts source to electric signal using;
Microphone
Camera
Keyboard etc.
Transmitter: Converts electrical signal into form suitable for channel
Modulator
Amplifier
Channel: Medium used to transfer signal from transmitter to receiver. Point to
point or Broadcast
Wire lines
Fiber optic cable
Atmosphere
Often adds noise / weakens & distorts signal
Output Transducer: Converts electric signal to useable form
Speaker
Monitor
1.8 Types of Electronic Communication
Electronic communications are classified according to whether they are
One-way (simplex) or two-way (full duplex or half duplex) transmissions
Analog or digital signals.
Simplex: The simplest method of electronic communication is referred to as
simplex. This type of communication is one-way. Examples are:
Radio
14
TV broadcasting
Beeper (personal receiver)
Half Duplex: The form of two-way communication in which only one party
transmits at a time is known as half duplex. Examples are:
Police, military, etc. radio transmissions
Citizen band (CB)
Family radio
Amateur radio
Full Duplex: Most electronic communication is two-way and is referred to as
duplex. When people can talk and listen simultaneously, it is called full duplex.
The telephone is an example of this type of communication.
1.9 Analogue and Digital
Data (Information) can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to
information that is continuous; digital data refers to information that has
discrete states. Analog data take on continuous values. Digital data take on
discrete values.
Data can be analog or digital, analog data are continuous and take continuous
values while digital data have discrete states and take discrete values.
Signals can be analog or digital, analog signals can have an infinite number of
values in a range; digital signals can have only a limited number of values. See
figure 1.6.
Value
Value
Time
Time
a. Analog signal
b. Digital signal
Figure 1.6 Comparison of analog and digital signals
Analog Signals: An analog signal shown in figure 1.7 is a smoothly and
continuously varying voltage or current. Examples are:
Sine wave
Voice
Video (TV)
15
(a)
(b)
Sync pulse
Sync pulse
Light variation
along one
scan line
of video
(c)
Figure 1.7 Analog signals

(a) Sine wave tone. (b) Voice. (c) Video (TV) signal.
Digital Signals: Digital signals change in steps or in discrete increments. See
figure 1.8.Most digital signals use binary or two-state codes. Examples are:
Telegraph (Morse code)
Continuous wave (CW) code
Serial binary code (used in computers)
Mark
Mark
Mark
Space
Space
Mark = on; Space = off
(a)
Dot
Dot
Dash
The letter R
(b)
+5 V
0V
Figure 1.8 Digital signals

(a) Telegraph (Morse code). (b) Continuous-wave (CW) code. (c) Serial
binary code.
Digital Signals: Many transmissions are of signals that originate in digital form
but must be converted to analog form to match the transmission medium.
Example; Digital data over the telephone network.
Analog signals: are first digitized with an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.
The data can then be transmitted and processed by computers and other
digital circuits.
1.10 Periodic analog signals and non-periodic
In communication systems, we commonly use periodic analog signals and
16
non-periodic digital signals.

Periodic Analog Signals: Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple
or composite. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be
decomposed into simpler signals. A composite periodic analog signal is
composed of multiple sine waves. The Sine Wave is shown in figure 1.9.
Value
Figure 1.9 The Sine wave
Time
1.10.1 Signal Representation

Signals can be represented using their phase, amplitude and frequency.
Figure 1.10 shows two signals having different amplitudes but same phase
and frequency.
Amplitude
Peak amplitude
Time
a. A signal with high peak amplitude
Amplitude
Peak amplitude
Figure 1.10 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
b. A signal with low peak amplitude
but different amplitudes
Time
The frequency and period are the inverse of each other.

f = 1/T and T = 1/f
The frequency and period relationship can be illustrated in table 1.0 below;
Table 1.0 Units of period and frequency
17
Equivalent
Unit
Equivalent
Unit
Seconds (s)
1s
Hertz (Hz)
1 Hz
Milliseconds (ms)
10-3 S
Kilohertz (kHz)
103 Hz
Microseconds (ms)
10-6 S
Megahertz (MHz)
106 Hz
Nanoseconds (ns)
10-9 S
Gigahertz (GHz)
109 Hz
10-12 Swith respect

Terahertz
(THz) Change in
10
Hz
Picoseconds
(ps)rate of change
Frequency
is the
to time.
a short
span of
time means high frequency. Change over a long span of time means low
frequency. See figure 1.11
12
Amplitude
12 periods in 1 s
Frequency is 12 Hz
1s
Time
1
Period:12
(a) signal with a frequency of 12 Hz

Amplitude
6 periods in 1 s
Frequency is 6 Hz
1s
Time
T
Period: 61 s
Figure 1.11 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
(b) signal with a frequency of 6 Hz
but different frequencies
Example1: If the period of a signal is 100ms. Calculate its frequency in
kilohertz?
Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we calculate the frequency from
3
the period (1 Hz = 10 kHz).
-3
100ms = 100 x 10 s
-1
= 10
F = 1/T
18

-1
= 1/10 Hz
= 10Hz
If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero. If a signal changes
instantaneously, its frequency is infinite. The Phase describes the position of
the waveform relative to time 0. See figure 1.12.
Time
a. 0 degrees
1/4 T
Time
b. 90 degrees
0
Time
1 2T
Figure
1.12 Three sine waves with the same
amplitude and c.
frequency,
but different phases
180 degrees
Example 2: A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its
phase in degrees and radians?
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
1/6 x 360 = 60o
= 60 x 2/360 rad
= /3 rad
= 1.046 rad
A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by one single
spike in the frequency domain. See figure 1.13.
19

Amplitude
Frequency: 6 Hz
Peak value: 5 V
Time
(s)
a. A sine wave in the time domain

(peak value: 5 V, frequency: 6 Hz)
Amplitude
Peak value: 5 V
Frequency
(Hz)
9 10 11 12 13 14
Figure 1.13The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

b. The same sine wave in the frequency domain
(peak value: 5 V, frequency: 6 Hz)
A signal with different frequencies can be represented by figure 1.14 below
Frequency
domain
Time
domain
5
5
1s
Time
Frequency
a. A signal with frequency 0

5
5
8
Time
Frequency
1s
b. A signal with frequency 8

5
5
Time
16
Frequency
Figure 1.14 Different 1signals

in the time and frequency domains
s
The frequency domain is more
compact
and useful
c. A signal
with frequency
16when we are dealing with
more than one sine wave. For example, figure 1.15 shows three sine waves,
each with different amplitude and frequency. All can be represented by three
20
spikes in the frequency domain.
Amplitude
Amplitude
15
10
15
10
5
5
Time
0
1s
16
Frequency
b. Frequency-domain representation of
a. Time-domain
of three
Figure
1.15 The representation
time domain
and frequencythedomain
of three sine waves
same three signals
sine waves with frequencies 0.8, and 16
A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in communication systems; we

need to send a composite signal, a signal made of many simple sine waves.
Figure 1.16shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It can be the signal created
by a microphone or a telephone set when a word or two is pronounced. In this
case, the composite signal cannot be periodic; because that implies that we
are repeating the same word or words with exactly the same tone.
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude for sine
wave of frequency f
0
4 kHz Frequency signal
Figure1.16 Time and frequency
domains
f of a nonperiodic
Time
b. Frequency domain
a. Time domain
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest
and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal. See figure 1.17
Amplitude
Amplitude
1000
Bandwidth = 5000 - 1000 = 4000 Hz
5000 Frequency
1000
Bandwidth = 5000 - 1000 = 4000 Hz
5000 Frequency
Figure1.17 Bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

b. Bandwidth
nonperiodicofsignal
a. Bandwidth
of a periodic
signal
According
to Fourier
analysis,
any composite
signal isofa acombination
simple
sine waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. If the
composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of signals with
21
discrete frequencies; if the composite signal is nonperiodic, the

decomposition gives a combination of sine waves with continuous
frequencies. A digital signal is a composite signal with an infinite bandwidth.
Example 3: If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with
frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw
the spectrum, assuming all components have maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fhbe the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then
B = fhfl = 900 100 = 800 Hz
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz shown in
the figure below
Amplitude
10v
Frequency
500 signal
700 is the
300
900signal
An example of a nonperiodic
composite
propagated by an
100
AM radio station. Each AM radio
station
is
assigned
a
10-kHz
bandwidth. The
Bandwidth = 900- 100 = 800Hz
total bandwidth dedicated to AM radio ranges from 530 to 1700 kHz. Another
example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the signal propagated by an FM
radio station. Each FM radio station is assigned a 200-kHz bandwidth. The
total bandwidth dedicated to FM radio ranges from 88 to 108 MHz.
There are many kinds of information sources, which can be categorized into
two distinct message categories, analog and digital.
An analog communication system should deliver this waveform with a
specified degree of fidelity. A digital communication system should deliver
data with a specified degree of accuracy in a specified amount of time.
1.10.2 Comparisons of Digital and Analog Communication Systems

Table 1.2 compares the analogue with digital communication systems.
Table 1.2 Comparing Analogue and Digital Communication Systems.
22
Digital Communication System
Analog Communication System
Disadvantages:
Advantage:
o
inexpensive digital circuits
privacy preserved (data encryption)
expensive analog component: L&C
can merge different data (voice, video and

data) and transmit over a common digital
transmission system
o
o
no privacy
can not merge data from diff. source
no error correction capability
error correction by coding

Advantages:
Disadvantages:
o
o smaller bandwidth
larger bandwidth
problem is relatively
1.11 The
Electromagnetic Spectrum synchronization
easier
difficult
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all types of EM radiation.
Radiation is energy that travels and spreads out as it goes the visible light
that comes from a lamp in your house and the radio waves that come from a
radio station are two types of electromagnetic radiation. The other types of EM
radiation that make up the electromagnetic spectrum are microwaves,
infrared light, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma-rays. See figure 1.18
10
11
12
13
14
X-rays
Gamma rays
Ultraviolet
Visible light
Inrrared
Millimeter
waves,
telemetry
Microwaves
radio
Television
FM radio
AM Radio
Short wave
radio
synchronization problem is relatively
15
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
16
17
10 10
18
Hz
High frequency
Short wavelength
High quantum energy
Low frequency
Long wavelength
Low quantum energy
1.18 The Frequency Spectrum

Vl
c =Figure
c=3 x108m/s
Also commonly
written V = fl
velocity = frequency X wavelength

The reader should
complete the table below;
Speed of light
23
10 10
10 10
10
10
10
10
11
10
12
10
13
10
14
10
X-rays
Gamma rays
Ultraviolet
Visible light
Inrrared
Millimeter
waves,
telemetry
Microwaves
radio
Television
FM radio
AM Radio
Short wave
radio
Today, virtually the entire frequency spectrum between approximately 30 kHz

and 300 MHz has been spoken for. There is tremendous competition for these
frequencies, between companies, individuals, and government services in
individual carriers and between the different nations of the world.
The electromagnetic spectrum is one of our most precious natural resources.
Communication engineering is devoted to making the best use of that finite
spectrum. Great effort goes into developing communication techniques that
minimize the bandwidth required to transmit given information and thus
conserve spectrum space. This provides more room for additional
communication channels and gives other services or users an opportunity to
take advantage of it. See figure 1.19.
15
10
16
17
10
10
18
Hz
\
Wavelength Wavelength
Wavelength
Figure 1.19
The Electromagnetic
Spectrum Showing
wave lengths
Wavelength
about 3 m
is about
or 10 feet
3 football
long.
fields long.
AM Radio
Band
about 3 cm
or 1 inch
long.
Wavelengths
400-700 nm
about
30 x diameter
1.11.1
of hydrogen
atomin the frequency
The Amplitude Modulated (AM) radio carrier frequencies are
range 535-1605 kHz. The frequencies 30-535 kHz are used for maritime
communication and navigation and for aircraft navigation. Carrier frequencies
of 540 to 1600 kHz are assigned at 10 kHz intervals.
24
Frequencies: 500-1500 kHz

1.11.2
Short 600
Wave
Wavelengths:
- 200 m
The frequencies from the top end of the AM band to the bottom of the VHF
-9
television
are generally
called
Quantumband
energies:
2 - 6 x 10
eV the "short wave" range, a historical term.
They are part of the general range referred to as "radio frequencies" or RF.
The range from 1605 kHz to 54 MHz has multiple communication uses.
1,605 kHz - 30 MHZ Amateur radio, government radio, international
shortwave broadcast, fixed and mobile communications.
30-50 MHZ Government and non-government, fixed and mobile. Includes
police, fire, forestry, highway, and railroad services.
50-54 MHZ Amate
The RF frequency range around 40-50 MHz is important as the proton
resonance frequency range used in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
Frequencies: 1.605 - 54 MHZ
Wavelengths: 187 - 5.55 m
-8
-6
Quantum energies: .66 x 10 - .22 x 10 eV
1.11.3
TV and FM Radio Band
The carrier frequencies for VHF television Channels 2-4 cover the frequency
range 54 to 72 MHz. There is a band from 72-76 MHZ which is reserved for
government and non-government services, including a standard aeronautical
beacon at 75 MHz. VHF TV channels 5 and 6 are between 76 and 88 MHz.
The FM radio band is from 88 to 108 MHz between VHF television Channels 6
and 7.Above the FM is a range 108-122 MHz for aeronautical navigation
including localizers, radio ranging and airport control. From 122 to 174 MHz is
another general service band for both government and non-government
signals. It includes fixed and mobile units and amateur broadcast. Channels 7
through 13 span the frequency range 174-216 MHz. 216-470 MHz includes a
number of fixed and mobile communication modes, including some
aeronautical navigation and citizens radio. 470-890 MHz includes UHF
television channels 14 to 83. Frequencies 890-3000 MHz include a variety of
aeronautical and amateur uses, studio-transmitter relays, etc. There are radar
bands 1,300-1,600 MHZ.
25
The FM stations are assigned center frequencies at 200 kHz separation

starting at 88.1 MHz, for a maximum of 100 stations. These FM stations have
a 75 kHz maximum deviation from the center frequency, which leaves 25 kHz
upper and lower "gaurd bands" to minimize interaction with the adjacent
frequency band. Television channels have 5 MHz separation.
The frequency range for mobile cellular telephones is listed as 824.040 848.970 MHZ.
Frequencies: 54-1600 MHZ
Wavelengths: 5.55 m - 0.187 m
-6
-5
Quantum energies: 0.22 x 10 - 0.66 x 10 eV
1.11.4 L-Band for Satellite Communication
The range 390-1550 MHz in the ultrahigh radio frequency range is designated
as the L-Band and is used for a variety of satellite communication purposes.
For example, the Global Positioning System uses two carrier frequencies in
this band for broadcasting navigation data.
1.11.5 Microwaves, Radar
While there are some radar bands from 1,300 to 1,600 MHz, most microwave
applications fall in the range 3,000 to 30,000 MHz (3-30 GHz). Current
microwave ovens operate at a nominal frequency of 2450 MHz, a band
assigned by the FCC. There are also some amateur and radio navigation uses
of the 3-30 GHz range. In interactions with matter, microwave radiation
primarily acts to produce molecular rotation and torsion, and microwave
absorption manifests itself by heat. Molecular structure information can be
obtained from the analysis of molecular rotational spectra, the most precise
way to determine bond lengths and angles of molecules. Microwave radiation
is also used in electron spin resonance spectroscopy.
For microwave ovens and some radar applications, the microwaves are
produced by magnetrons.
Of great astrophysical significance is the 3K background radiation in the
universe, which is in the microwave region. It has recently been mapped with
great precision by the WMAP probe.
Frequencies: 1.6-30 Ghz
Wavelengths: 187 - 10 mm
-5
-3
26
1.11.6
Millimeter Waves, Telemetry
The range 30-300 GHz is used for a variety of experimental, government and
amateur purposes in communication.
Frequencies: 30-300 GHz
Wavelengths: 10 - 1 mm
-3
-2
1.11.7 Infrared
The term "infrared" refers to a broad range of frequencies, beginning at the top
end of those frequencies used for communication and extending up the low
frequency (red) end of the visible spectrum. The wavelength range is from
about 1 millimeter down to 750 nm. The range adjacent to the visible spectrum
is called the "near infrared" and the longer wavelength part is called "far
infrared". In , infrared primarily acts to set molecules into vibration. Infrared
spectrometers are widely used to study the vibrational spectra of molecules.
Infrared does not penetrate the atmosphere well, but astronomy in the infrared
is carried out with the Spitzer Space Telescope.
14
Frequencies: .003 - 4 x 10 Hz
Wavelengths: 1 mm - 750 nm
Quantum energies: 0.0012 - 1.65 eV
1.11.8 Visible Light
The narrow visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponds to the
wavelengths near the maximum of the Sun's radiation curve. In interactions
with matter, visible light primarily acts to elevate electrons to higher energy
levels.
14
Frequencies: 4 - 7.5 x 10 Hz
Wavelengths: 750 - 400 nm
Quantum energies: 1.65 - 3.1 eV
White light may be separated into its spectral colors by dispersion in a prism.
See figure 1.20
27
Radio
Far IR,
Micro- IR
wave
UV
x-ray
Y-ray
Visible
Spectrum
Slit
750 nm
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
400 nm
Figure 1.20 Visible

PrismLight
1.11.9 Ultraviolet
White light
The region just below the visible in wavelength is calledsource
the near ultraviolet. It
is absorbed very strongly by most solid substances, and even absorbed
appreciably by air. The shorter wavelengths reach the ionization energy for
many molecules, so the far ultraviolet has some of the dangers attendant to
other ionizing radiation. The tissue effects of ultraviolet include sunburn, but
can have some therapeutic effects as well. The sun is a strong source of
ultraviolet radiation, but atmospheric absorption eliminates most of the
shorter wavelengths. The eyes are quite susceptible to damage from
ultraviolet radiation. Welders must wear protective eye shields because of the
uv content of welding arcs can inflame the eyes. Snow-blindness is another
example of uvinflamation; the snow reflects uv while most other substances
absorb it strongly.
14
16
Frequencies: 7.5 x 10 - 3 x 10 Hz
Wavelengths: 400 nm - 10 nm
Quantum energies: 3.1 - 124 eV
1.11.10 X-Rays
X-ray was the name given to the highly penetrating rays which emanated
when high energy electrons struck a metal target. Within a short time of their
discovery, they were being used in medical facilities to image broken bones.
We now know that they are high frequency electromagnetic rays which are
produced when the electrons are suddenly decelerated - these rays are called
bremsstrahlung radiation, or "braking radiation". X-rays are also produced
when electrons make transitions between lower atomic energy levels in heavy
elements. X-rays produced in this way have definite energies just like other
line spectra from atomic electrons. They are called characteristic x-rays since
they have energies determined by the atomic energy levels.
In interactions with matter, x-rays are ionizing radiation and produce
physiological effects which are not observed with any exposure of nonionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue.
28
Astronomical observations in the X-ray region of the spectrum are obtained

with the Chandra X-ray Observatory. X-rays are part of the Electromagnetic
spectrum
16
Frequencies: 3 x 10 Hz upward
Wavelengths: 10 nm - > downward
Quantum energies: 124 eV -> upward
1.11.11 Gamma-Rays
The term gamma ray is used to denote electromagnetic radiation from the
nucleus as a part of a radioactive process. The energy of nuclear radiation is
extremely high because such radiation is born in the intense conflict between
the nuclear strong force and the electromagnetic force, the two strongest
basic forces. The gamma ray photon may in fact be identical to an x-ray, since
both are electromagnetic rays; the terms x-ray and gamma rays are
statements about origin rather than implying different kinds of radiation. In ,
gamma rays are ionizing radiation and produce physiological effects which
are not observed with any exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk
of mutations or cancer in tissue.
20
Frequencies: typically >10 Hz

-12
Wavelengths: typically < 10 m
-12
Wavelengths: typically < 10 m
1.12 Radio System Characteristic
When a radio frequency current flows into a transmitting antenna ( aerial ) ,
power is radiated in a number of directions in what is called an electromagnetic wave. The radiated energy (figure1.21) will reach the receiving
station by one or more of five different modes : Surface wave
Sky wave
Space wave
Satellite
Scatter
29

Communication
satellite
Ionnosphere
Sky wave
Figure 1.21Radio propagation methods
Space wave
The surface wave is supported at its lower edge by theSurface

surface
wave of the earth and
is able to follow the curvature
of theEarth
earth as it travels.
The surface wave is
Receiver
Transmitter
aerial
aerial
used for world-wide communications
in the low-frequency
bands and for
broadcasting in the medium frequency (MF) band.
The sky wave is directed upwards from the earth into the ionosphere ( 100 km
or more above ground level ) whence, if certain conditions are satisfied, it will
be returned to earth for reception at the required locality. The sky wave is used
for high frequency radio communications systems, including long-distance
radio-telephony and sound broadcasting.
The space wave generally has two components, one of which travels in a very
nearly straight line between the transmitting and receiving locations, and the
other travels by means of a single reflection from the earth. The space wave is
used for sound and tv broadcasting, for multi-channel telephony systems, and
for various mobile systems, operating in the VHF , UHF ,SHF and higher
bands.
Satellite propagation is a technique that utilizes the ability of a
communications satellite orbiting the earth to receive a signal, amplify, and
then transmit it at a different frequency back towards the earth.
Communication satellites are used to carry multi-channel telephony systems,
television signals, and data, utilizing UHF and SHF bands.
Scatter propagation could be said to be the UHF / SHF equivalent of using sky
wave transmission for long-distance HF radio links. (See figure 1.22). The
radio energy is directed towards part of the troposphere which forwardscatters the signal towards the receiver. (The scattering region of the
troposphere is about 10 km above ground level). Scatter systems operate in
the UHF and SHF bands to provide multi-channel telephony links.
30
High power main

beam
Ionosphere
Low-power forward
scattered beam
Figure 1.22 Scatter propagation

Troposphere
Earth
1.12.1
Radio Frequency Spectrum
Radio waves are measured in units called Hertz (Hz). One cycle of electric
current is equal to one complete radio wave. How many of these waves are
generated in one second determines its frequency. The radio frequency
spectrum has been subdivided into a number of frequency bands; these are
given below:-
Frequency band
Classification
Abbreviation
Below 300 Hz
Extremely low
ELF
300 Hz-3 kHz
Infra low
ILF
3 kHz-30 kHz
Very low
VLF
30 kHz-300 kHz
Low
LF
300 kHz-3 MHz
Medium
MF
3 MHz-30 MHz
High
HF
30 MHz-300 MHz
Very high
VHF
300 MHz-3 GHz
Ultra high
UHF
1.12.2 Information representation
3 GHz-30 GHz
Super high
SHF
Information as discussed in chapter one can be transmitted in a transmission
30 GHz-300
Extremely
high
EHF
medium
as a GHz
representation
of passing
information
to the receiver. The
transmission
medium
be one of the following:
300 GHz-3000
GHz canTremendously
high THF
Telephone wire used by telephone set

Air used by radio transmitter
Optical fiber used as a backbone for various low speed local area networks
Coaxial cable for closed circuit television
31
The signal relies on the variation of physical property such as the voltage level
and current value. These varying physical properties can mathematically be
represented as a function of time. Using Fourier transformation, any
reasonably behaved periodic function can be represented as a summation of
Sines and Cosines.
Where t stands for time,
f = 1/T is the fundamental frequency shown in figure for the waveform being
analyzed,
th
an and bn are the sine and cosine amplitudes of the n harmonic,
g(t) is the original waveform, and
C/2 is the average value of original signal.
The information such as digital data between your PC and modem is a
periodic signal where the period depends on the modem speed. Can you
figure out the transmission period for 2400 bps?
The advantages offered by using Fourier series include:
Any complex real-time signal bandwidth, which is difficult to understand, can
be identified and analyzed in frequency domain in terms of bandwidth, signal
amplitude, frequency and phase.
Signal distortion against frequency spectrum could be shown in frequency
domain. This provides a clear picture against the signal characteristic.
Signal amplification against frequency spectrum could also be analyzed.
1.12.3 Signal analysis
Any Sin or Cos waveforms as given in figure can be measured by three
physical quantities namely Amplitude, Phase, and Frequency:
Amplitude: Absolute measure of the height of the wave in voltage or Peak-toPeak value.
Wavelength: It is a measure of a distance for a periodic cycle.
Phase: Relative measure of the difference in time between waves. The unit is
in either degree or radian.
Frequency: Absolute measure of the number of times a wave repeats per unit
time.
The velocity V of a wave traveling is determined by frequency and wavelength
as given as;
V = fl
where l is the wave length and f is the frequency.
32
The speed is close to light speed in the air and is roughly half the speed for
electronics traveling in copper wire.
You need to find out the distance between these two locations and use the
simple formula time = distance/velocity if you require time.
1.13 Bandwidth
Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a
signal.
Channel bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies required to transmit the
desired information.
In electronic communication, bandwidth is the range of frequencies that

an electronic signal uses on a given transmission medium. This range is also
referred to as the band and bandwidth literally describes the difference
between the highest-frequency signal component and the lowest-frequency
signal component. Since the frequency of a signal is measured in hertz (the
number of cycles of change per second), a given bandwidth is the difference in
hertz between the highest frequency the signal uses and the lowest frequency
it uses. This meaning is the origin of the word bandwidth.
In computer networks, bandwidth is used as a synonym for data

transfer rate, the amount of data that can be carried from one point to another
in a given time period (usually a second). In this usage, bandwidth refers to the
data rate that is supported by the network connection or the interfaces that
connect to the network. This meaning of bandwidth is usually expressed in
bits (of data) per second (bps). In general, a communication link with high
bandwidth is one that may be able to carry enough information to sustain the
succession of images in a video presentation without jitter or buffering caused
by latency. It should be remembered that a communications path usually
consists of a succession of links, each with its own bandwidth. If one link in the
path is much slower than the rest, it is said to be a bottleneck.
When someone talks about how to calculate bandwidth with a

bandwidth test, they are most likely discussing how to determine the highest
possible reliable transmission rate for data transfer. This rate, which may also
be called throughput, can be determined by measuring the time required for a
file to leave its point of origin and successfully download at its destination.
In business, bandwidth is sometimes used as a synonym for capacity or

ability. In this usage, bandwidth may include such things as budget, time,
staffing or knowledge.
Any analogue signal is not formed by a single frequency if it is expanded in
33
terms of Fourier series. In fact, the waveform such as voice produced by

human being consists of waveforms of many different frequencies. The
bandwidth as shown in figure is defined by the difference between the points:
Bandwidth = fh - fl
where fh is the highest frequency and fl is the lowest frequency. Bandwidth
is characterized by medium.
Signal outside the bandwidth will be distorted by the transmission medium.
This explains why digital signals generated by computer output port cannot be
directly sent out across a telephone network, as the network will chop off the
signals over 3400 Hz, which is the upper frequency limit produced by human
being.
Based on the conversion to frequency spectrum, any periodic time varying
signal can be viewed as a series of frequency signals with limited bandwidth.
The bandwidth for a copper signal is around 10 KHz, 350 MHz for coaxial
cable, and 550MHz for single mode optical fiber. Also note that coaxial cable
can carry video signal while telephone wire can support voice and low speed
data.
1.13.1 Communication Channel and Bandwidth
Any communication channel has to be able to transmit information from one
location to another. The method might be analogue such as radio or it might be
digital such as a computer network. Bandwidth is a measure that quantifies
the capability of a communication channel to transmit information.
In the analogue domain, it is measured in 'Hertz' or Cycles Per Second. For
instance a typical PAL television channel has a bandwidth of 8 Megahertz.
Which means all the video and audio signals for a TV channel resides in this
set of frequencies.
In theory you could define the bandwidth of a digital system in terms of
frequency, but it is far more useful to describe bandwidth in terms of bits per
second. After all, you are not particularly interested in the shape of the digital
signal but rather how much information can the network handle. So, digital
networks are measured in Bits Per Second or bps. Generally the wider the
bandwidth the faster it is. It is important to note that it is 'bits' per second not
'byte' which of course is 8 bits Bandwidth and uses.
The reason that bandwidth is so important is that it determines what you can
do in terms of real-time services;
If you only want to send text-only email then a very slow link is fine. For
34
example a 56 Kbps dial-up modem is more than adequate. Indeed, before

broadband became prevalent that is all people had available. The
internet was very much a text-based experience.
If you want to receive a large file such as a high quality 10 Megabyte
image, then 56kbps is far too slow. It would take 1428 seconds or 23
minutes to download (10 million x 8) / 56000
A broadband link is typically around 2 Mbps therefore the same picture file
would only take 40 seconds to download. Having a high bandwidth link makes
it possible to use multimedia services such as
Video: viewing streaming video in real time without hesitation
Audio: such as using VoIP telephone or listening to streamed music.
If the bandwidth is too low for such services, then the only option is to
download the complete audio or video file then play it back offline.
Copper cable: One of the key things that determine bandwidth is the physical
nature of the cable being used.A signal becomes weaker the longer it travels
along a cable, eventually becoming so weak that it is no longer detectable
above natural noise. Therefore the length of cable determines the bandwidth
of the link. For instance the bandwidth of broadband to the home is
determined by the length of copper cable between the house and the nearest
telephone exchange. This consists of a solid copper core surrounded by
insulation which is then surrounded by a copper shielding and finally covered
with a plastic sheath. Coaxial cable is widely used for television wiring as it has
enough bandwidth to handle a television signal over a typical run from
antenna to television.
Twisted pair: In order to gain enough bandwidth another form of copper cable
is used; Namely twisted pair cables. There are 8 colour-coded wires with each
related pair twisted around one another. Twisting it in this way reduces signal
loss over any given length of cable. Notice that there is no copper shielding
surrounding the wires and so this is called 'Unshielded Twisted Pair' or UTP
cable for short. UTP cable is widely used in 100 Mbps and 1 Gbps networks. In
order to guarantee the performance of the cable, standards have been
created such as CAT 5e and CAT 6. A 'Cat 5e' UTP cable is sufficient for
bandwidths up to 1 Gbps for reasonable run lengths. For networks needing to
run up to 10 Gbps then a Cat 6 cable should be used. Of course, this is more
expensive so cable selection should be based on what bandwidth is actually
required.
35
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable: In order to improve performance even more,

shielded twisted pair cable (STP) has copper shielding wrapped around each
twisted pair and another shield wrapped around the whole cable. This reduces
electrical interference and so allows the bandwidth to be higher for any given
length.
Fibre-optic cable: Copper cable is adequate for network cable runs for up to a
100 metres, but above that the signal becomes too weak, therefore an
alternative technology is needed. Fibre-optic cable has an astounding
bandwidth, it is limited more by the electronics either side of the cable than the
bandwidth of the cable itself. For instance in recent experiment, a 160 km
length of high performance fibre-optic cable carried up to 14 Tera bits per
second! Fibre optic cable uses light to transmit information rather than
electrical signals. Unlike copper cable it is not prone to electrical interference.
Fibre optic cable works by a light signal being 'launched' at one end of the
glass thread core. The light is reflected internally down the fibre until it reaches
the other end. Light sensitive electronics then pick up the signal. The
downside of fibre is the cost, it is more expensive that ordinary UTP network
cable therefore it is only cost-effective if there is a very high bandwidth
requirement or if the network has very long cable runs.
Wireless Network: An alternative to setting up a network with copper or fibre
cable is Wireless. Connection between computer and router is achieved using
radio waves. This has the strong advantage of not requiring cables to be laid
through a building. On the other hand radio is very prone to being weakened
by walls and other objects. The bandwidth of a wireless network is lower than
a physical network.
1.14 Baseband and Broadband Transmission
Signals are usually grouped into broadband or baseband depending on the
signal characteristics. Baseband transmission refers to sending the digital
data along the transmission channel by means of voltage fluctuation such as
IEEE 802.3 and IEEE 802.4 and Broadband transmission refers to the
sending of data by modulating with high-frequency carrier wave such as AM or
FM radio.
1.15 Channel capacity
Channel capacity refers to the maximum data rate for a finite bandwidth
transmission medium in the presence of random noise. It is concerned about
36
the quality of a specific communications channel and was identified by

Shannon. The relation is governed by:
Maximum data rate = W x log2(1 + S/N)
Where W is the bandwidth of transmission medium
S/N is the signal to noise power ratio
Maximum data rate is measured in bits/second
Practically, this limit is seldom reached. To increase the transmission rate, the
designer should either increase the signal power or use alternative medium
with higher bandwidth.
The bandwidth for a telephone network is usually restricted between 300Hz to
3400Hz by telephone exchange. As a result, signal that is out of this range
cannot be transmitted over the PSTN. That is to say, if you inject a signal of
10K Hz over the speaker, the remote cannot hear it. For a theoretical
noiseless channel, the maximum data rate that a channel can carry is nW
symbols/per second. A symbol can be n multiple digital levels instead of 0 or 1.
1.16 Decibel
As the signal to power ratio is usually quite significant, a better representation
in communications is used to express the ratio of two values in logarithmic
format. The values can be power, voltage or current. It is not an absolute unit,
just a relative Figure and is expressed in:
dB = 10 log10 P1/P2
Where dB number of decibels
P1 the first value of the power
P2 the second value of the power
It is often used to measure the ratio of signal to noise in a communications
channel due to large quantity of signal power. For example, if the signal power
is 1K Watt and the noise power is 1m Watt, there is no point to have a ratio
written in 1000,000.
37
Self-Test 1
1. Give & explain radio frequency spectrum used for various
communications.
2. Distinguish between analogue and digital signals.
3. Describe the role of medium in a communication system. What is the main
consideration in the selection of medium?
4. What is a communication system? Give a block diagram of communication
system and explain it.
5. Identify the parts X and Y in the following block diagram of a generalised
communication system?
X
Transmitter
Receiver
6. By what percentage will the transmission rang of a T V tower be affected

when the height of the tower is increased by 21 %.
7. Explain Sky wave, space wave and ground wave propagation with suitable
example.
8. State the advantages of the digital transmission, as compared to the
analogue transmission, of information.
9. Describe, using block diagrams, the principles of the transmission and
reception of digital signals.
10.Explain the significance of the number of bits and the bit-rate on the
production of a transmitted signal.
11. Describe what is meant by time-division multiplexing.
12. What is analogue-to-digital conversion?
13. Describe the consequences of digital communication and multiplexing on
worldwide communications.
38
14. Mention the significance of spread spectrum modulation.

15. Explain the following terms;
I. Packet Switching,
ii. Spread Spectrum for Communications,
iii. Distributed Antenna Systems and
iv. Voice over Internet Protocol.
16. Explain briefly types transmission modes.
17. Explain the following;
i. Information representation
ii. Signal analysis
iii. Bandwidth
iv. Channel capacity
v. Decibel
vi. Coding Data in Signals
18. (i) How many dB greater than 4 watts is 64 watts?
(ii)
How many dB greater than 10 watts is 1000 watts?
(iii) How many dB greater than 1 watt is 80 watts?
(iv) How many dB less than 1 watt is 1 milliwatt (0.001 watts)?
(v)
How many dB less than 1 watt is 4 milliwatts (0.004 watts)?
19.
A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60

Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal
contains all frequencies of the same amplitude.
20.
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a

middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two
extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency
domain of the signal.
39
CHAPTER ONE
Structure of Telecommunication Systems
1.0 Introduction
Communication is the transfer of information from one place to another. This
should be done as efficiently as possible, with as much fidelity/reliability as
possible and as securely as possible. The word Telecommunication is a
combination of two words... Tele + Communication.The word Tele in Latin
means Distance. Hence Telecommunication is Distance Communication. The
necessity of communication begun as early as the existence of mankind on
this earth. Communication has become the vital tool for mankind to strife
prosperously in this world.
Evolution of the Communication System:
Primitive Sign Language
Pounding Drum
Smoke Signal
Fire Signals This page is intentionally left blank
Modern Telegraph
Telephone
Wireless communication
Satellite Communication
The requirements for a complete communication system are:
The Source of the Messages: Messages are the signals you wish to send. The
message itself can be voice, computer data, music, video movie, temperature
reading or alarm information. All these can be considered as Messages. The
Sources of messages can come in many forms. It can be your mouth, a
cassette tape player, a video tape player, a computer, a thermometer or a
security system. These messages are normally converted to electrical signals
and is known as intelligence, information, audio signal or base band signal,
depending on the message itself.
The Modulator and the transmitter: For a message to be able to reach the
required destination is has to be sent out through a transmitter. The message
is converted into electrical signals and is modulator. The process of
modulation is required as the original message or signal is generally of a low
frequency waveform, and therefore has low energy. Thus modulation is the
process of translating the original signal to a higher frequency signals
representing the original. The modulation process is done inside a device
40
CHAPTER TWO
Transducers
2.0 Introduction
A transducer is a device that is used to convert a physical quantity into its
corresponding electrical signal. When using transducers to sense changes in
the physical environment, it's very helpful to convert the physical variable
being measured into a corresponding electrical signal. This is because there
is sophisticated technology available to amplify, filter and digitize electrical
signals. Similarly, when attempting to create a stimulus in the physical
environment, it's optimal to process an electrical signal (typically in digital
form, via software) in the desired fashion prior to converting the signal into
energy of a different physical form. For maximum flexibility and capability it's
typically best to sense the environment using the desired input transducer,
then employ an amplifier/conditioner to direct the electrical signal from the
transducer to an analog to digital converter. Once digitized the signal can be
subject to whatever software-based processing. When attempting to
influence the environment, via some type of physical stimulus, it's optimal to
employ software to establish the nature of the stimulus signal and then use a
digital to analog converter to transform the digital -software produced- signal
back into an electrical signal form. Finally, an output transducer can be used
to transform the electrical signal into the desired physical signal.
In most of the electrical systems, the input signal will not be an electrical
signal, but a non-electrical signal. This will have to be converted into its
corresponding electrical signal if its value is to be measured using electrical
methods. The block diagram of a transducer is given in figure 2.0.
INPUT
SENSING ELEMENT
INPUT - Resistance, Capacitance, Inductance, Stress,

Strain, Heat
TRANSDUCTION
ELEMENT
OUTPUT
OUTPUT - Force, Displacement, Pressure, Sound,

Magnetic Flux, Voltage, Current
Figure 2.0 Transducer Block Diagram

A transducer will have basically two main components. They are
Sensing Element: The physical quantity or its rate of change is sensed and
responded to by this part of the transistor.
Transduction Element: The output of the sensing element is passed on to the
41
transduction element. This element is responsible for converting the nonelectrical signal into its proportional electrical signal. There may be cases
when the transduction element performs the action of both transduction and
sensing. The best example of such a transducer is a thermocouple. A
thermocouple is used to generate a voltage corresponding to the heat that is
generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals.
2.1
Transducer Selection and Classification
Selection of Transducer: Selection of a transducer is one of the most

important factors which help in obtaining accurate results. Some of the main
parameters are given below.
Selection depends on the physical quantity to be measured.
Depends on the best transducer principle for the given physical input.
Depends on the order of accuracy to be obtained.
Transducer Classification: Some of the common methods of classifying

transducers are given below.
Based on their application.
Based on the method of converting the non-electric signal into electric

signal.
Based on the output electrical quantity to be produced.
Based on the electrical phenomenon or parameter that may be

changed due to the whole process. Some of the most commonly
electrical quantities in a transducer are resistance, capacitance,
voltage, current or inductance. Thus, during transduction, there may be
changes in resistance, capacitance and induction, which in turn change
the output voltage or current.
Based on whether the transducer is active or passive.
2.2 Input and Output Transducers

A transducer is a physical device which transforms one kind of energy into
another. Most commonly, and in regards to the field of Electrical Engineering,
an input transducer is used to convert various kinds of physical energy (such
as related to pressure, temperature, force, sound and acceleration) into
electrical energy (such as related to electrical current or voltage). An output
transducer operates in reverse, namely it will convert electrical signal energy
into energy in a different physical domain.
42
An example of an input transducer is a microphone. A microphone will convert

received sound pressure waves (acoustical energy) into proportional
electrical energy in the form of a changing potential. An example of an output
transducer is a speaker. A speaker converts a varying electrical current into a
proportionally changing sound pressure wave.
2.3 Active and Passive Transducers
Input transducers, also known as sensors, come in two basic types - active
and passive. An active sensor simply converts the ambient physical variable
monitored directly to a corresponding electrical signal. Examples here
include solar cells, piezo-electric devices and thermocouples. Solar cells or
photo-voltaic devices directly convert absorbed photons to electrons. Piezoelectric sensors convert physical strain directly to electrical charge.
Thermocouples convert heat differentials directly to voltage differentials. A
passive sensor does not directly convert physical energy into electrical
energy. Instead, passive sensors convert the ambient physical variable
monitored into a variable impedance, such as capacitance, inductance or
resistance. In order to produce a corresponding electrical signal, these circuit
elements require activation as part of a energized network. This signal
voltage can be then be amplified and converted into a digital form.
Output transducers, common types including speakers, actuators, LEDs and
Piezo devices, operate by converting electrical signals into corresponding
physical changes. Many output transducers are considered to be passive,
because the driving electrical signal can incorporate sufficient energy to
produce the desired physical change. In the case of speakers, the electrical
signal is an electrical current. The electrical current creates a proportional
electromotive force, via a coil, that acts to push against the magnetic field
established by a permanent magnet. The coil is attached to a flexible
membrane, called a cone, and as the electrical current varies though the coil,
the membrane moves to produce audible sound pressure waves. Many
actuators behave similarly to the speaker. A supplied electrical current acts to
create an electromotive force, via a coil, to push against an existing magnetic
field to effect a physical motion. LEDs operate according to the principle of
electroluminescence whereby electrons are recombined with electron holes
and, in that process, photons are released. Piezo-electric output transducers
respond to the application of external voltage by expanding or contracting
along a specific crystal axis. As the applied voltage changes, the crystal will
physically distort in correspondence.
43
2.4 Transducer Applications

The applications of transducers based on the electric parameter used and the
principle involved is given below.
2.4.1 Passive Type Transducers
Resistance Variation Type
Resistance Strain Gauge The change in value of resistance of metal
semi-conductor due to elongation or compression is known by the
measurement of torque, displacement or force.
Resistance Thermometer The change in resistance of metal wire due
to the change in temperature known by the measurement of
temperature.
Resistance Hygrometer The change in the resistance of conductive
strip due to the change of moisture content is known by the value of its
corresponding humidity.
Hot Wire Meter The change in resistance of a heating element due to
convection cooling of a flow of gas is known by its corresponding gas
flow or pressure.
Photoconductive Cell The change in resistance of a cell due to a
corresponding change in light flux is known by its corresponding light
intensity.
Thermistor The change in resistance of a semi-conductor that has a
negative co-efficient of resistance is known by its corresponding
measure of temperature.
Potentiometer Type The change in resistance of a potentiometer
reading due to the movement of the slider as a part of an external force
applied is known by its corresponding pressure or displacement.
Capacitance Variation Type
Variable Capacitance Pressure Gauge The change in capacitance
due to the change of distance between two parallel plates caused by an
external force is known by its corresponding displacement or pressure.
Dielectric Gauge The change in capacitance due to a change in the
dielectric is known by its corresponding liquid level or thickness.
Capacitor Microphone The change in capacitance due to the variation
in sound pressure on a movable diagram is known by its corresponding
sound.
Inductance Variation Type
Eddy Current Transducer The change in inductance of a coil due to
44
the proximity of an eddy current plate is known by its corresponding

displacement or thickness.
Variable Reluctance Type The variation in reluctance of a magnetic
circuit that occurs due to the change in position of the iron core or coil is
known by its corresponding displacement or pressure.
Proximity Inductance Type The inductance change of an alternating
current excited coil due to the change in the magnetic circuit is known
by its corresponding pressure or displacement.
Differential Transformer The change in differential voltage of 2
secondary windings of a transformer because of the change in position
of the magnetic core is known by its corresponding force, pressure or
displacement.
Magnetostrictive Transducer The change in magnetic properties due
to change in pressure and stress is known by its corresponding sound
value, pressure or force.
Voltage and Current Type

Photo-emissive Cell Electron emission due to light incidence on
photo-emissive surface is known by its corresponding light flux value.
Hall Effect The voltage generated due to magnetic flux across a semiconductor plate with a movement of current through it is known by its
corresponding value of magnetic flux or current.
Ionization Chamber The electron flow variation due to the ionization of
gas caused by radio-active radiation is known by its corresponding
radiation value.
2.4.2 Active Type Transducers
Photo-voltaic Cell The voltage change that occurs across the p-n
junction due to light radiation is known by its corresponding solar cell
value or light intensity.
Thermopile The voltage change developed across a junction of two

dissimilar metals is known by its corresponding value of temperature,
heat or flow.
Piezoelectric Type When an external force is applied on to a quartz
crystal, there will be a change in the voltage generated across the
surface. This change is measured by its corresponding value of sound
or vibration.
Moving Coil Type The change in voltage generated in a magnetic field
can be measured using its corresponding value of vibration or velocity.
45
2.5 Microphones and Speakers

Microphones and speakers appear to be very different kinds of devices; they
are in fact closely related. Speakers and microphones are both transducers
components which transform energy from one type to another. A speaker
turns electrical currents into sound waves; a microphone converts sound into
electrical energy. The main differences between them lie in the way audio
designers have optimized each to perform its particular task efficiently.
Similarities: The dynamic microphone and standard speaker both employ a
moving coil in a magnetic field, producing electrical currents from sound
vibrations or vice-versa. It is possible, although risky, to connect a dynamic
microphone to a speaker output and hear sound from the mic. As the
microphone is not designed to handle electrical inputs, a loud amp setting can
destroy the mic if used in this manner. In the same way, you can connect a
speaker to a microphone input, but because a speaker doesn't make an ideal
mike, you must yell into it to produce a detectable signal. Walkie-talkies and
room intercom systems use a single speaker-microphone device that
performs both functions moderately well.
Differences: Microphones produce a relatively weak output that requires preamplification to bring the signal to a standard line level. Because the signals
are weak, microphone cables have shielding that reduces electrical noise
picked up from fluorescent lights and appliances. A microphone picks up a
wide range of frequencies with great sensitivity. The loudspeaker's purpose is
to fill a room with high-fidelity sound. This means handling large amounts of
power from an amplifier up to several hundred watts for some types of
speakers. To manage the power, the speaker has a robust, heavy design. For
good fidelity, a single speaker cabinet may have two or more separate
speaker drivers, each suited to a particular frequency range; a single speaker
does not have the wide range that a microphone has.
2.5.1 Microphone
A microphone is a device that converts mechanical energy waves or sound
into electrical energy waves or a device that transforms sound pressure into
electrical energy. Speaking into a microphone excites (moves) a diaphragm
that is coupled to a device that creates an electrical current proportional to the
sound waves produced. Microphones are a part of everyday life. They are
used in telephones, transmitters for commercial radio and television
broadcast, amateur radio, baby monitors, tape recorders, motion pictures,
and public address systems. There are many different types of microphones,
46
the design depending upon the application. Sound recording, radio and
television, and motion picture studios use ribbon or condenser type
microphones because of their high quality reproduction of sound. Public
address systems, telephones, and two-way radio communications systems
can use carbon, ceramic, or dynamic microphones because of their versatility
and low cost.
A diaphragm in the microphone moves in and out in accordance with the
compression and rarefaction of the atmosphere caused by sound waves. The
diaphragm is connected to a device that causes current flow in proportion to
the instantaneous pressure delivered to it. In most types of microphone, the
sound pressure acts upon a thin plate or diaphragm, setting it into vibration
and this mechanical motion is then utilized to produce electrical effects. When
you speak or sing into a microphone, the sound waves of your voice produce
vibrations in a diaphragm inside the mike. The symbol used to represent a
microphone in a schematic diagram is shown in figure 2.1. The schematic
symbol identifies neither the type of microphone used nor its characteristics.
Figure 2.1 Microphone Schematic Symbol

The sensitivity or efficiency of a microphone is usually expressed in terms
of the electrical power level which the microphone delivers to a matchedimpedance load compared to the sound level being converted. The sensitivity
is rated in dB and must be as high as possible. A high microphone output
requires less gain in the amplifiers used with the microphone. This keeps the
effects of thermal noise, amplifier hum, and noise pickup at a minimum.
Although they have a variety of basic designs, the chief types are described
below. The various designs are also built to incorporate desired directional
pickup properties
Design
The dynamic or moving-coil microphone consists of a thin plastic diaphragm
attached to a voice coil. The voice coil consists of many turns of very small
diameter insulated copper wire wound on a bobbin. Surrounding the voice coil
is a permanent magnet. Sound causes the diaphragm to vibrate, which
47
causes the voice coil to move on its axis. This movement induces a voltage in
the coil and creates a varying electrical current proportional to the sound to
flow through the coil. This induced current is the audio signal.
The condenser or capacitor microphone consists of two metal plates spaced
slightly apart. These two plates act as a capacitor. A capacitor is a device that
stores an electrical charge. The front plate acts as a diaphragm. As the
diaphragm vibrates, an electrical current is induced to the attached wires
creating an electrical signal between the two plates.
A carbon microphone consists of lightly packed carbon granules in an
enclosure. Electrical contacts are placed on opposite sides of the enclosure. A
thin metal or plastic diaphragm is mounted on one side of the enclosure. As
sound waves hit the diaphragm they compress the carbon granules, changing
its resistance. By running a current through the carbon, the changing
resistance produced by the sound changes the amount of current that flows in
proportion to the sound waves.
The diaphragm of a ribbon microphone uses a thin corrugated aluminum
ribbon about 2 in (50 mm) in length and 0.5 in (2.5 mm) wide suspended in a
strong magnetic field. As sound pressure variations displace the ribbon, it cuts
across the magnetic field. This induces a voltage and produces a current that
is proportional to the sound striking it.
Carbon - Grain Microphone: One of the earliest microphones, and the type
still most generally used in telephone practice, depends for its action on the
fact that the electrical resistance between carbon granules in contact with
each other varies with the contact pressure. Figure 2.2 shows a simplified
sectional view of a single-cell or single-button carbon microphone, as is used
in some telephone sets.
Cathode
discs
Bridge
support
Carbon
granules
Diaphrag
Figure 2.2 Carbon-grain Microphone

A small brass cup contains two polished carbon discs, one fastened solidly in
48
the cup and the other attached to the diaphragm. The space between the
discs is partly filled with carbon granules, and as the diaphragm vibrates in
response to the sound waves striking it, the varying pressure on the granules
causes changes in the electrical resistance between the buttons. The
microphone circuit is shown in the same figure, and from this it is seen that
variation of microphone resistance will alter the current through the
transformer primary, and so will set up induced voltages in the secondary. By
proper choice of diaphragm stiffness and mass, the moving system can be
made to resonate near the m1ddle of the speech range of frequencies. When
this is done, the electrical output is large enough to operate a receiver over a
considerable length of line. Without requiring amplification the frequency
response is then not very uniform, although it is entirely adequate for speech
reproduction. By using a very light diaphragm, tightly stretched, the
frequency response is greatly improved, but at the expense of sensitivity.
Carbon microphones with this type of construction, and having two buttons, of
carbon cells, were used extensively in early broadcast.
Crystal Microphone: Another type of microphone, widely used in publicaddress systems, depends for its action on the piezoelectric effect possessed
by certain crystals, for example Rochelle salt. The term piezoelectric effect
refers to the fact that when pressure is applied on the crystal in the proper
direction, electrical potentials are produced between opposite faces of the
crystal. The sound-cell type of microphone contains an assemblage of small
crystals of this type, so connected that their piezoelectric potentials are in
series. The sound falls on the crystals and vibrates them directly. The
electrical output is quite small, but the frequency range and uniformity of
response are excellent. Since Rochelle salt has the largest voltage output for
a given mechanical stress, it is the most commonly used crystal in
microphones.
Crystal
Sound waves
Sound waves
Crystal
Diaphragm
Output
Voltage
Output
Voltage
Electrodes
Electrodes
Directly actuated type
Diaphragm type
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.3 Crystal microphones.
49
Figure 2.3a is a crystal microphone in which the crystal is mounted so that the
sound waves strike it directly. Figure 1.4b has a diaphragm that is
mechanically linked to the crystal so that the sound waves are indirectly
coupled to the crystal. The crystal microphone has high output impedance,
making it well suited to direct connection to amplifiers.
Dynamic or Moving-Coil Microphone: Several types of microphones
depend for their action upon the voltage induced in a conductor moving in a
magnetic field. The dynamic or moving-coil microphone contains a small coil
attached to a diaphragm, so arranged that when the diaphragm vibrates, the
coil moves back and forth in a radial magnetic field. It thus generates the
output voltage. By careful design of the moving element, and by making use of
air-chamber resonance, it is possible to obtain a nearly uniform response from
40 cycle to 10,000 cycle. A cross section of the Moving-Coil Microphone is
shown in figure 2.4. A coil of fine wire is mounted on the back of the diaphragm
and located in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet.
VOICE COIL
POLE PIECE
MAGNET
DIAPHRAGM
Figure 2.4 Dynamic microphone.

When sound waves strike the diaphragm, the coil moves back and forth
cutting the magnetic lines of force. This induces a voltage into the coil that is
an electrical reproduction of the sound waves. An incidental advantage is that
the output impedance of the microphone is low, and the microphone cable is
less sensitive to hum pickup than in the case of the crystal microphones. The
sensitivity of the dynamic microphone is almost as high as that of the carbon
type. It is lightweight and requires no external voltage. The dynamic
microphone is rugged and can withstand the effects of vibration, temperature,
and moisture. This microphone has a uniform response over a frequency
range that extends from 40 to 15,000 hertz. The impedance is very low
(generally 50 ohms or less). A transformer is required to match its impedance
to that of the input of an audio frequency amplifier.
50
Ribbon Microphone: A type of dynamic microphone that uses a thin

aluminum, duraluminum, or nanofilm ribbon placed between the poles of a
magnet to generate voltages by electromagnetic induction. Ribbon
microphones are typically bidirectional, meaning they pick up sounds equally
well from either side of the microphone. Ribbon microphones consist of a thin
strip of metallic foil suspended in front of a magnetic plate, the construct and
sectional view is shown in figure shown in figure 2.5.
Ribbon
Microphone
Magnets
S
N
Sound Waves
Ribbon
Microphone
output leads
(a) Construction
(b) Sectional view
Figure 2.5The Ribbon (Studio) Microphone
As shown in figure 2.5b, the sound waves cause the foil to vibrate, producing
fluctuations in the electrical current, creating the audio signal. This extremely
sensitive configuration picks up a wide range of frequencies and produces an
extraordinarily rich representation of the original sound. The tradeoff for this
sensitivity is the delicacy of the mechanism. Ribbon microphones are also
sensitive to physical impacts and therefore are not considered portable and
can be easily damaged by power overdrive.
Ribbon microphones are not as commonly used as moving-coil microphones
today. There are some modern manufacturers that currently make ribbon
microphones, but they are primarily regarded as studio microphones. In this
type, the moving element is a very thin and flexible aluminum ribbon, upon
which the sound waves act directly. It vibrates in a transverse magnetic field
and generates an electromotive force on the ribbon. The ribbon impedance is
so low that a small step-up transformer is included in the microphone
51
mounting to raise the impedance to a level suitable for transmission over a

line. Most ribbon microphones respond to air-particle velocity. In the sound
wave, rather than to sound pressure. These are referred to as velocity
microphones. They can be made to have excellent frequency characteristics.
Condenser Microphones: A condenser microphone with components
shown in figure 2.6 operates on a capacitive design. The cartridge from the
condenser microphone utilizes basic transduction principles and will
transform the sound pressure to capacitance variations, which are then
converted to an electrical voltage. This is accomplished by taking a small thin
diaphragm and stretching it a small distance away from a stationary metal
plate, called a back plate. A voltage is applied to the back plate to form a
capacitor. In the presence of oscillating pressure, the diaphragm will move
which changes the gap between the diaphragm and the back plate. This
produces an oscillating voltage from the capacitor, proportional to the original
pressure oscillation.
Protection Grid
Diaphragm
Backplate
Casing
Insulator
Figure 2 6 Microphone Component

The back plate voltage can be generated by two different methods. The first is
an externally polarized microphone design where an external power supply is
used. The power source on this traditional design is 200 volts. The second or
newer design is called a prepolarized microphone design. This modern
design utilizes an electret layer placed on the backplane, which contains
charged particles that supply the polarization. This design, when coupled with
an Integrated Circuit Piezoelectric (ICP) circuit can provide great advantages.
An inexpensive constant current supply can power the unit, instead of the
more expensive externally polarized power supplies. Standard coaxial cables
with BNC or 10-32 connectors can be used, instead of LEMO 7-pin
52
connectors and cables. The coaxial cables can be driven long distances
without degradation of the signal. The modern prepolarized designs are
becoming increasingly popular for laboratory test and measurement, and field
applications, due to their low cost and ease of use.
Microphones Field Types: There are three common application fields for
precision condenser microphones. The first and most common is the free-field
type shown in figure 2.7a. The free-field microphone is most accurate when
measuring sound pressure levels that radiate from a single direction and
o
source, which is pointed directly (0 incidence angle) at the microphone
diaphragm, and operated in an area that minimizes sound reflections. A
freefield microphone is designed to measure the sound pressure at the
diaphragm, as it would appear if the microphone were not present. When a
microphone is placed in a sound field, diffraction effects will alter the sound
pressure when the frequency is high enough so that the wavelengths are
similar in size to the dimension of the microphone. The effect is accounted for
in the design of the microphone and the resulting correction factors are
applied to the actuator response during calibration. These microphones work
best in open areas, where there is no hard or reflective surfaces. Anechoic
chambers or larger open areas are ideal for these Free Field microphones.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.7 Microphones Field Types

The second type is called a Pressure Field. A Pressure Field microphone
shown in figure 2.7b is designed to measure the sound pressure that exists in
front of the diaphragm. It is described to have the same magnitude and phase
at any position in the field. It is usually found in an enclosure, or cavity, which is
small when compared to wavelength. The microphone will include the
measurement changes in the sound field caused by the presence of the
microphone. The sound being measured is typically coming from a single
source. Testing of pressure exerted on walls, exerted on airplane wings, or
inside structures such as tubes, housings or cavities are examples of
Pressure Type microphone applications.
53
The third type is called a Random Incident Microphone. This is also referred to
as a Diffuse Field Type. The Random Incident type of microphone shown in
figure 2.7c is designed to be omni-directional and measure sound pressure
coming from multiple directions, multiple sources and multiple reflections. The
Random Incident type microphone will have typical correction curves for
different angles of incidence. The random incidence microphone will
compensate for its own presence in the field. An average of the net effect of all
the calibrated incidence angles will be taken into account, in order to come up
with a net zero correction factor. When taking sound measurements in a
church or in an area with hard, reflective walls, you would utilize this type of
microphone.
2.5.3 Microphone Calibrations
There are two types of calibration, the constant-pressure or pressure
calibration, and the constant-field or field calibration. The difference between
the two is this: The microphone itself by reason of its presence in the sound
field causes a distortion of the oncoming sound waves, although this effect is
small for some types. Accordingly, a calibration made where the pressure is
uniform over the diaphragm and measured at the diaphragm will not agree
(especially at the higher frequencies) with a calibration made where the sound
is picked up in an unobstructed space some distance from the source.
A thermophone sometimes is used in pressure calibrating microphones. It
consists essentially of an enclosed chamber which can be tightly sealed
against the face of the microphone to be calibrated. There are two very thin
gold-leaf thermal elements near the bottom of the chamber. These are kept
heated by a constant current, upon which an alternating current of the
frequency at which the calibration is desired is superimposed. Gold leaf has
low thermal capacity, and accordingly the impressed alternating current
produces relatively large temperature variations. These in turn cause
expansion and contraction of the surrounding gas, which constitute sound
waves of deter-minable pressure. Calculations for determining this pressure
can be made from the constants and operating data.
Manufacturing Process
While the manufacturing process will vary depending upon the type of
microphone and how it is used, all microphones had three common parts a
capsule containing the microphone element, internal wiring, and housing. The
following process describes the construction of a moving-coil or dynamic
microphone.
54
The case is formed from thin sheet aluminum or mold injected plastic.
The aluminum sheet is placed in the die of a punch press. The die is an
inverted replica of the desired case shape. The hydraulic punch is
release and forces the aluminum into the die. Any excess material is
trimmed and discarded. If the case is to be made of plastic, the plastic
pellets are fed into a hopper and melted. The liquid is poured into an
injection molding machine. The machine feeds the liquid into a closed
mold. Once the mold is filled and the plastic has cooled, the mold is
opened and the plastic case is taken out. If a switch is required, it is
mounted in position in the case and secured with small screws and nuts
or rivets.
The voice coil is made by winding very fine enameled copper wire onto
a plastic bobbin. The wire is secured to the bobbin with glue.
The permanent magnet is made from a neodymium iron boron
compound. It is formed by sintering the powder (the powder is placed in
a high pressure die and heated, the metals combine and becomes a
solid) or by bonding it with plastic binders.
The pre-cut plastic diaphragm is placed in a holding fixture. The voice
coil bobbin is then glued in the exact center of the bobbin. After the glue
has cured (about 24 hours), the assembly is lowered into the
permanent magnet assembly and glued together.
A coaxial audio signal cable is selected and cut to length. Insulation is
stripped from all leads at both ends of the cable. Then, an audio
connector is soldered to one end of the cable. The open end to the cable
is left free.
The open end of the audio cable is inserted through its hole in the
bottom of the case. The cable is pulled out through the top of the case a
sufficient length to allow the wires to be soldered to the switch and voice
coil.
A foam rubber spacer is placed around the voice coil assembly and the
assembly is lowered into the case. It is secured into proper place with a
grille and cap.
The microphone is then packaged and shipped to the distributor.
2.6 Loud Speakers or Reproducers

The loud speaker are transducers that convert electrical signals into sound
without adding or deleting information, with minimum masking by the listening
environment and based upon what is perceptibly significant. A reproducer is a
device for converting electrical energy into sound. As in the case of
55
microphones, this transformation usually involves an intermediate

mechanical motion.
2.6.1 Loudspeaker Principle
The loudspeaker involves electro mechanical processes shown in figure 2.8a,
where the amplified audio signal must move a cone or other mechanical
device to produce sound like the original sound wave shown in figure 2.8b. An
audio signal source such as a microphone or recording produces an electrical
"image" of the sound. That is, it produces an electrical signal that has the
same frequency and harmonic content, and a size that reflects the relative
intensity of the sound as it changes. This sound changes is detected by a loud
speaker that is driven by an amplifier in most cases. Once the amplifier has
made the electrical image large enough, it applies it to the voice coils of the
loudspeaker, making them vibrate with a pattern that follows the
Current
in wire
Magnetic
field
Current away
from viewer
Force on
wire
Paper cone attached to coil

moves air to produce sound
when coil is vibrated by
AC current interacting with
magnetic field.
Current
toward
viewer
Force
on coil
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.8 Loudspeaker principle
(a) A current-carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a magnetic force perpendicular to the
wire. (b) Section of the loud speaker illustrating the electromagnetic operation
variations of the original signal. The voice coil is attached to and drives the
cone of the loudspeaker, which in turn drives the air. This action on the air
produces sound that more-or-less reproduces the sound pressure variations
of the original signal.
2.6.2 Loudspeaker Construction Details
Figure 2.9 shows the constructional details of the speaker as described here;
56
Basket
Voice coil
Cone
Dust
cover
Grill
cloth
Suspension
ring
Figure 2.9 Constructional Details of a loudspeaker

A light voice coil is mounted so that it can move freely inside the magnetic field
of a strong permanent magnet. The speaker cone is attached to the voice coil
and attached with a flexible mounting to the outer ring of the speaker support.
Because there is a definite "home" or equilibrium position for the speaker cone
and there is elasticity of the mounting structure, there is inevitably a free cone
resonant frequency like that of a mass on a spring. The frequency can be
determined by adjusting the mass and stiffness of the cone and voice coil, and
it can be damped and broadened by the nature of the construction, but that
natural mechanical frequency of vibration is always there and enhances the
frequencies in the frequency range near resonance.
Back-to-Front Cancelation: While the front surface of the cone of a
loudspeaker is pushing forward to create a sound wave by increasing air
pressure, the back surface of the cone is lowering the air pressure. Since the
wavelengths of low frequency sound are large compared to the size of the
speaker, and since those low frequencies readily diffract around the speaker
cone, the sound wave from the back of the cone will tend to cancel that from
the front of the cone as shown in figure 2.10.
57
Sound wave from

back of cone tends
to cancel the wave
from the front.
Pressure wave from

back of cone.
Pressure wave from

front of cone.
Figure 2.10 Front-to-back cancellations

For most bass frequencies, the wavelength is so much longer than the
speaker diameter that the phase difference approaches 180, so there is
severe loss of bass from this back-to-front cancelation. This is one of the
reasons why even the best cone-type loudspeaker must have an enclosure to
produce good sound.
Loudspeaker Resonance: Direct-radiating cone-type loudspeakers must be
mounted so that they are free to vibrate. This mounting is elastic, so there is an
inherent resonant frequency of the speaker cone assembly like a mass on a
spring shown in figure 2.11.
Because the speaker cone
is elastically suspended,
it tends to have a resonant
frequency like a mass on
a spring.
The tendency to respond

more to a particular
frequency range is often
called the free-cone
resonance of the speaker.
Loudspeaker
response
Frequency
Figure 2.11 Loudspeaker Resonances

This free cone resonant frequency distorts the sound by responding more
strongly to signals near its natural vibration frequency. This non-uniform
response changes the frequency content in terms of the relative intensities of
the harmonics and thus changes the timbre of the sound. Since the cone is
58
undamped, it tends to produce "ringing" or "hangover" with frequencies near

resonance. If the resonance is in the bass range, the bass will be "boomy".
2.7 External Arrangement and Parts of Speaker Systems
The main parts of a speaker are:
1.
Diaphragm
2.
Dust Cap
3.
Basket or Chassis
4.
Permanent Magnet
5.
Lead Wires
6.
Voice Coil
7.
Spider
Figure 2.12 shows external arrangements and parts which help to structure a
speaker. The two terminals through which we give the electrical signals to
voice coil as input, are directly connected to two ends of the coils.
(a) External structure
(b) Component Parts
Figure 2.12 The Speaker structure and parts

The Spider is made of materials like cotton, connex, flax or mixture of cotton
and connex. Figure 2.13b shows the voice coil which is the heart of a speaker.
It is generally constructed using copper wires or aluminum wires. It acts as an
electromagnet when current passes through it. The voice coil is positioned
between a gap. It is done to allow the movement of voice coil in the fixed region
of permanent magnet's magnetic field.
59
(a) The spider

(b) The Voice Coil
Figure 2.13 The Spider and Voice Coils
The main body which defines the shape of a speaker, also known as Basket
or Frame or Chassis is shown in figure 2.14.
Figure 2.14 The Speaker Frame

All these components makes a synergism to take input as an electrical signal
through lead wires and send output as vibrations in air particles through
diaphragm. Magnets and sound coils play an important role to produce
vibrations exactly equivalent to correspondent electrical signals. When
electrical signals pass through the voice coil, an electromagnetic field is
generated around the coil which interacts with the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet. The positive end of electromagnet is attracted by
negative end of the permanent magnet and negative end of electromagnet is
repelled by negative end of permanent magnet. The electric signal
continuously changes its polarity, thereby changing the direction of the
magnetic field continuously and in result of this, the coil moves back and forth
60
according to the input electrical signal. This coil movement makes moves the
spider and diaphragm which in turn makes vibrations in the surrounding air
particles.
2.8 Types of Speaker Systems
Speaker systems are usually the first choice to be made when planning a
sound system. Important points to consider are the size and purpose of the
room in which the speaker system is to be used, and the interior design. Let us
look at some of the types of speaker systems most commonly used in
commercial facilities, and how they are installed.
2.8.1 Speaker Systems Used In Commercial Installations
The types of speaker systems most commonly used in commercial
installations can be broadly organized into the following three categories.
Surface Mount Speaker Systems: These are usually speaker systems in a
box-type enclosure that are mounted on a wall or ceiling. Surface mounting is
the most basic speaker installation method. Surface mounted speakers are
sometimes used for primary output in small to medium size facilities, or as
secondary support speakers in large halls or event spaces where the main
speakers alone aren't able to provide sufficient intelligibility throughout the
entire listening area (at the back of the hall, for example). They are also
sometimes used to distribute announcements and background music
throughout a facility. Figure 2.15shows an example of a 2-way surface mount
speaker system Yamaha S15W.
Figure 2.15Yamaha S15W; 2-way surface mount speaker system

In product catalogs you'll notice that surface mount speakers are available in
"2-way" and "3-way" variations. This indicates how the overall audio
frequency range is divided up and output via the speaker units. 2-way speaker
systems divide the audio spectrum into two bands that will be separately
output via corresponding speaker units, while 3-way speaker units divide the
audio spectrum into three bands. 2-way types are often chosen for small to
61
medium commercial sound installations.

Ceiling Speakers: Ceiling speakers are built into the ceiling so that they are
flush with the ceiling surface. This type of installation is ideal in situations
where the speakers are to be hidden so that they won't disrupt the interior
decororation, and is a common choice for distributing background music
(BGM) throughout a facility (see figure 2.16). The broad coverage and relative
lack of directionality of ceiling speakers is an advantage for the latter
application. Ceiling speakers are sometimes used in a supplemental support
role in larger installations, in the same way that surface mount speakers are.
Figure 2.16 Yamaha S5 Ceiling Speaker

Column Speakers: Column speakers consist of numerous speaker units of
the same type arranged vertically in a column-like enclosure. With the
speaker units arranged in this way vertical sound spread toward the floor and
ceiling is reduced, and that can help suppress unwanted reflections. This
arrangement also results in less diffusion of the sound energy and therefore
less loss of output level (see figure 2.17). Column speakers are often used in
churches, gymnasiums, and other facilities where excessive reverberation
might be a problem, as well as in conference rooms and lecture halls where
maximum speech intelligibility is the main goal.
62
Speaker units
Figure 2.17Column Speaker Construction

2.8.2 Specialized Speaker Systems
The speaker systems introduced above are the types most commonly found
in commercial sound installations. Now let's take a look at two more speaker
system types that have even more specialized applications. Subwoofers:
Subwoofers are designed specifically to handle ultra-low frequencies that
cannot be effectively reproduced by standard speaker systems. The low
frequencies output by subwoofers are more felt than heard, and can add
significantly to the perceived power and impact of the sound. Subwoofers are
most commonly used in facilities that cater primarily to music events. See
figure 2.18.
Figure 2.18Yamaha IS1118 A subwoofer

2.8.3 Large Sound Reinforcement Speakers
These types of speakers are necessary to provide the required sound
pressure levels in large-scale installations such as theaters, halls, and
stadiums. Wide range and high output speaker systems, and line arrays that
are basically an evolved type of column speaker are commonly used. See
figure 2.19.
63
Figure 2.19 (left): A large speaker system

(right): A line array speaker system
2.9 Telephone Receivers
A telephone receiver is defined as "a device whereby electric waves produce
substantially equivalent sound waves." A loudspeaker is defined as "a
telephone receiver designed to effectively radiate acoustic power for
reception at a distance.
Any electroacoustic transducer consists of an electric portion and an acoustic
portion, although in some instances these two portions may be common. For
instance, in some crystal microphones the sound waves strike the crystal
(acoustic portion) and the crystal (electric portion) generates electric signals.
Somewhat similarly, the received electric signals cause the iron diaphragm
(electric portion) of the common telephone receiver to move back and forth,
and this iron diaphragm (acoustic portion) thereby radiates sound waves.
The electric portion is the motor element, defined as "that portion of a
telephone receiver which receives power from the electric system and
converts it into mechanical power." The acoustic portion is the acoustic
radiator, defined1 as "that portion of an electroacoustic transducer which
initiates the radiation of sound vibrations." A telephone receiver or
loudspeaker is a reciprocating electric motor loaded with an acoustic radiating
system. The ordinary telephone receiver is the most commonly known
acoustic device. A modified form, the watch-case type used in radio operators'
headsets, is shown in figure 2.20. Two small coils are wound on soft-iron pole
pieces, which are attached to the poles of a permanent magnet. The pole
pieces attract the steel diaphragm with a steady pull caused by the permanent
64
magnet, and with an alternating force set up by the voice currents flowing in
the coils. The diaphragm is set into vibration, and sets up sound waves in the
air in contact with it. The permanent magnet is necessary to avoid distortion in
the output, since the diaphragm would be attracted twice in each cycle if only
the a.c. attraction were present.
Magnet
Diaphragm
Figure 2.20 The Telephone Receiver

The ordinary receiver used with telephone instruments. Telephone receiver is
wound for about 70 ohm resistance, and it has a definite resonance peak near
1,000 cycle, for the sake of sensitivity. By winding with many turns of fine wire,
the sensitivity to weak currents can be greatly increased, and such receivers
are very useful as indicators in a.c. bridges and for radio communication
systems.
2.9.1 Types of Motor Elements
Many motor elements have been developed, and most of them can be
classified under the following headings.
Condenser Motor Element: As is well known, mechanical forces exist
between the plates of a charged capacitor. Thus, if a special capacitor is
constructed with one or more movable plates, if these plates are arranged so
that they will radiate sound effectively, and, if speech or program electric
voltage waves are impressed on the device, sound waves will be radiated.
Condenser receivers and condenser loudspeakers have not been used
extensively. They are more delicate and more expensive, and they require
higher voltages than other types. Also, condenser driving elements require a
65
polarizing direct voltage to prevent the radiation of sounds of twice the

frequency of the received electric signals.
Piezoelectric Motor Element: Electric signals impressed on the crystal
electrodes cause the dimensions of the crystal to change in accordance. The
crystal may radiate the sound waves directly or may be coupled mechanically
to an acoustic radiator, such as a diaphragm or a paper cone. Crystal
telephone receivers are rugged, light in weight, sensitive, and have an
excellent frequency response. The input impedance of one type is about
80,000 ohms at any frequency, and the sensitivity is 1.5 bars per volt at 1000
cycles. Piezoelectric motor elements have been used to a limited extent in
small loudspeakers.
Magnetic Motor Element: This classification includes most of the motor
elements used in modern telephone receivers and loudspeakers. Largely of
historical interest are the induction magnetic motor element and the magnetostriction motor element. Of practical importance is the magnetic-armature
motor element, a device the operation of which involves vibration in some part
of the ferromagnetic circuit. Also of practical importance is the moving-coil
motor element in which the mechanical forces are developed by the
interaction of the field set up by the currents in the conductor and the
polarizing field surrounding it. Advertising literature of the Brush Development
Company.
Magnetic-Armature Motor Element: From the general nature of the definition
previously given, it follows that many magnetic-armature motor elements are
possible. Because of this mode of operation, the device is often called a
balanced-armature motor element. In an early radio loudspeaker known as
the cone loudspeaker the motion of the armature was transmitted to a large
double cone.
Moving-Coil (Electrodynamic or Dynamic) Motor Element: This motor
element is used almost universally in loudspeakers. The moving-coil motor
element consists of a voice coil of a few turns of wire suspended in a very
strong, constant magnetic field. The coil is free to move back and forth axially.
It is attached to a suitable acoustic radiator, such as a paper cone as in the
radio dynamic loudspeaker, or a metal diaphragm, as in the driving unit used
with large horn-type loudspeakers. The signal current variations in the voice
coil react with the constant magnetic field and cause the coil and acoustic
radiator to move and radiate sounds.
66
The strong constant magnetic field is produced by an electromagnet as shown

in Fig. 19, or by a permanent magnet. If an electromagnet produces the field,
the coil is sometimes made of a few turns of fairly heavy wire, and the direct
current is furnished by a storage battery or by rectifiers. Or the coil can be
made of a large number of turns of fine wire, and the exciting current is
furnished by a rectifier supplying, perhaps, 50 milliamperes at several
hundred volts. In many radio receiving sets the loudspeaker field coil also
serves as the inductor, or "choke," in the filter of the power supply.
The impedance of the voice coil in a moving-coil driving unit is very low, a
typical value being 8.8/+25ohms at 1000 cycles, and a direct-current
resistance of 5 ohms. Many moving-coil loudspeakers have an impedancematching transformer mounted on them to increase their impedance so that
they will match amplifiers with high-impedance outputs.
2.9.2 Types of Acoustic Radiators
The acoustic radiator is the portion of a telephone receiver or loudspeaker that
initiates the radiation of sound vibrations. Two types are commonly used: the
small diaphragm and the cone. Fundamentally, they are the same, but
practically they are quite different, particularly in size.
Diaphragms: Diaphragms are used in the receivers of common telephone
sets.. Diaphragms are also used in the moving-coil motor elements for horntype loudspeakers.
Cones: A cone is made of various substances, particularly paper and similar
materials, and sometimes metal.
2.9.3 Dynamic Loudspeakers
This type is used almost exclusively in radio. It consists essentially of a
moving-coil motor element driving a free-edge cone. The cones used are of
various types and shapes and are made so that they move approximately with
piston action.
A dynamic loudspeaker should be mounted in a cabinet or in a baffle if it is to
operate satisfactorily, particularly at low frequencies. When the cone moves
out, a condensation is produced on the front side and a rarefaction occurs on
the rear side. The air accordingly flows around the edge, neutralizing the
pressure difference and hence largely preventing sound radiation at that
frequency. The baffle corrects this by providing a long path from the front of the
diaphragm around to the back, thus preventing neutralization until after
considerable sound has been radiated. The dimensions of the baffle should
67
be such that the shortest air path between the front and the back of the cone is
at least one-fourth the wavelength of the lowest note to be reproduced.
2.9.4 Horn-Type Loudspeakers
Horn-type loudspeakers are used extensively where large audiences are to
be served, as in a large auditorium or in a stadium. These loudspeakers
usually consist of a horn attached to a moving-coil driving unit. The function of
the horn in relation to the diaphragm is much more intimate. It causes an
actual increase in the load on the diaphragm, making it advance against a
greater air pressure, and withdraw from a greater opposing rarefaction.
The Air Chamber: The horn itself is connected acoustically to the diaphragm
by the throat and air chamber as indicated by Fig. 20. This air chamber acts as
an acoustic transformer for, owing to the differences between the area of the
diaphragm and the area of the throat, a small diaphragm velocity gives the air
in the horn a greater velocity and much higher air pressure.
Size of the Horn Mouth: If the area of the horn mouth is not correct, sound
waves of the lower frequencies will not be effectively radiated from the horn
but will be reflected back down the horn.
2.9.5 Hand and Head Receivers
A hand receiver is1 a "telephone receiver designed to be held to the ear by the
hand," and a head receiver is1 a "telephone receiver designed to be held to
the ear by a headband," Because their fundamental principle of operation is
the same, no further distinction will be made between them. For illustrating the
theory of operation, the old-style telephone receiver will be used because of
its simplicity.
The permanent magnet of the receiver of figure 2.21 provides a constant
magnetic field which passes from the north pole, through the magnetic (softiron) pole piece, across the air gap, through the soft-iron diaphragm, across
the air gap, through the pole piece, and to the south magnetic pole. The coils
through which the speech currents flow are placed on the soft-iron pole pieces
and are connected in series so that they aid.
68

SHELL AND CAP
OF HARD RUBBER
FERROTYPE IRON
DIAPHRGM (JAPANNED),
SPECIAL STEEL MAGNET

(WELDED TO U-SHAPE)
CONCEALED TERMINALS
POLE PIECES OF MAGNETIC
IRON (WELDED TO MAGNET)
COILS (REMOVABLE)
BRASS CUP
Figure 2.21 Cross section of a Western Electric telephone receiver.

The necessity for the constant pull on the diaphragm is made clear by figure
2.22. Suppose that one cycle of alternating current passes through the coil in
(a). As the current increases from zero to a positive maximum, the diaphragm
is pulled in to the dotted position. The adjacent air particles on the right of the
diaphragm D will flow in, thus causing a rarefaction. Now as the current dies
out to zero, the diaphragm will return to a position of the zero displacement,
and in so doing the air particles on the right will be compressed and a
condensation will be produced. .
D
+
-
+
-
Sound wave
+
Signal current
(a)
Permanent magnet
+
-
Sound wave
+
Signal current
(b)
Figure 2.22. Illustrating how a double-frequency tone is produced by a

receiver not having a constant pull on the diaphragm.
69
When the current builds up in the negative direction the diaphragm will be
again drawn in, producing another rarefaction; and, when it again dies out to
zero, the diaphragm will return to the position of rest and will produce another
condensation. When one cycle of alternating current flows through the speech
coils, two complete cycles of sound waves are set up. Thus, if a constant pull is
not exerted on a diaphragm, the reproduced sound waves will be twice the
frequency of the speech currents.
If the windings are placed on a permanent magnet, the diaphragm is bowed in
when no current flows, as shown by the full line D. When the current increases
from zero to a positive maximum, the diaphragm is pulled in further to the
dotted position, producing one half of a rarefaction. When the current dies out
to zero the diaphragm returns momentarily to the position shown by the full
line producing one half of a condensation. As the current builds up in the
opposite direction the flux due to this current neutralizes part of the flux from
the permanent magnet and the diaphragm moves to the outward dotted
position, thus causing the other half of the condensation. As the current dies
out to zero, the diaphragm returns momentarily to the full-line position,
causing the other half of the rarefaction. With a constant pull on the
diaphragm, therefore, one cycle of current causes one cycle of sound wave,
and thus the frequency of the sound is the same as that of the exciting current.
2.9.6 Theory of Telephone Receiver Operation
The total magnetic flux crossing the air gaps between the pole pieces and
the iron diaphragm is composed of the constant flux 0 produced by the
magnets, and the variable flux i caused by the voice currents passing
through the coils on the soft-iron pole pieces. That is,
f = f0
f1
(13)
The air gaps tend to keep the total reluctance of the magnetic path
independent of the current intensity, and it can therefore be assumed that the
flux i produced by a sine-wave test current is proportional to the current
intensity, or
fi. =
KI
sin wt.
(14)
Combining equations 13 and 14,
f = f0
+ KI m
sin wt.
(15)
As shown in most textbooks presenting magnetic theory, the force of attraction
70
between two portions of a magnetic circuit separated by an air gap varies as

the flux squared, and it can therefore be written that the force F acting on the
diaphragm is
sin wt. 2
F=
K I f2 = K I (f0 + KI m
F =
K I f02 + 2K2 I k f0 I m sin wt. + K I k 2Im2 sin 2 wt.
(16)
(17)
Since from trigonometry sin t = (1-cos 2t)/2, equation 17 can be written

F = K If02
2K I k f 0Im sin wt.
K I K 2I m2
K I K 2 I m2 cos 2wt.
(18)
+ 2 the forces acting

+
2
Equation 18 is of importance as it indicates
on the receiver
diaphragm. These are:
2
(1) a steady pull K10 produced by the permanent magnets;
(2) a force 2K1K0Im sin t proportional to the product of the strength of the
permanent magnets and the value of the instantaneous current flow;
2 2
(3) a force (K1K Im )/2 which is constant; and
2 2
(4) a force (K1K Im cos 2t)/2 which has a frequency (2t) twice that of the
impressed current.
Thus, part 4 produces a double-frequency sound, causing distortion. An
examination of parts 2 and 4 will show that, for good quality, the flux 0 from the
permanent magnet should be made large so that the magnetic effect of the
speech currents is small in comparison with that of the permanent magnet.
Then, part 2 will be large and the volume will be sufficient, but part 4 will be
small and there will be little distortion.
There is also a force acting due to the eddy currents induced in the diaphragm,
The voice-frequency component of the flux passes through the diaphragm,
and as this flux changes it induces eddy currents. It will now be shown that
these eddy currents cause distortion.
Assume that a sine-wave current i = Im sin t flows through the coils of the
receiver. There is little hysteresis owing to the large air gaps, and therefore the
flux produced is in phase with the current. This varying flux will induce a
voltage in the diaphragm proportional to the rate of change of flux, but lagging
90 behind it. The eddy currents flowing in the diaphragm will be in phase with
the voltage and will accordingly lag 90 behind the currents producing them.
Thus, with respect to the useful current i = Imsint, there will be eddy currents
having the value ie = Ie(m)sin(t-90).
The distorting force acting on the diaphragm because of the reaction of the
eddy currents and the useful voice currents is proportional to the product of
71
the two equations just written. That is,
_ 90 (
F c written
= k [ (in
I mthesin
wt ( (I c ( m ( sin ( wt
( ].
This can be
form
(19)
(20) 20
90 ( . to sin 2t, equation
F c trigonometry
( sin
( (sin
wt _
= k I m I c ( m ((sin
Since from
t)wt
(sin
t - (90))
is equal
becomes
1 k2It Iis twice

Fc =
Therefore,
since
the frequency
of t, the eddy currents(21)
in the
2 wt
m c ( m ( sin
2
diaphragm cause a double-frequency component and thus distort the original
speech sounds. This double-frequency effect can be illustrated by figure 2.21.
The curve I represents the voice currents in the receiver windings, and ie
represents the induced eddy currents and the resulting flux e in the receiver
diaphragm, lagging by approximately 90. Since the force on the diaphragm is
at any instant the product of the current and the flux, this force will be a doublefrequency wave as indicated by the heavy line. Diaphragms of highresistance material tend to prevent large eddy currents and thus minimize this
double-frequency distortion.
i e or f e
F
Figure 2.21 The eddy currents in the diaphragm reacting with the voice
current in the windings produce a double-frequency force F.
The degree of saturation of the receiver diaphragm has an influence on

distortion. Because of hysteresis, if the diaphragm is not operated fairly high
on its magnetization curve, the increase and decrease of flux with current will
not be proportional, and thus the diaphragm will not follow the current
variations. Since the diaphragm is thin, the desired magnetic operating point
is easily reached.
72
The air gaps between the pole pieces and the diaphragm tend to reduce
distortion by making the overall magnetization characteristics approach a
straight line. Then, the rise and fall of flux in the magnetic path will closely
follow current variations instead of following a hysteresis curve.
Direct current passing through the windings of a receiver not designed for it
may cause distortion by opposing the flux from the permanent magnet, and
thus shifting the point of operation to a non-linear portion of the magnetization
curve. Also, direct current in opposing the constant magnetic flux will weaken
the field, making the receiver less sensitive. Furthermore, if the current is
strong enough it may clamp the diaphragm against the pole pieces or even
burn out the windings.
Distortion is also caused by the mechanical resonance of the receiver
diaphragm. This causes a greater response at the resonant frequencies and
causes the diaphragm to tend to continue to vibrate at these frequencies. The
diaphragms of the new telephone receivers are designed to minimize these
effects.
Acoustic distortion of the radiated sound waves is produced by the effects of
the air cavities of the receiver and of the listener's ear.
73
Self-test 2.0
1
Define transducer and Mention the types of transducers give an
example of active transducers.
2.
Mention the basic requirement of transducer.
3.
Which transducer is called as self-generating type transducer?
4.
(i) Explain briefly the active and passive transducer

(ii) Primary and secondary transducers with examples.
5.
State the advantages of transducers
6.
Mention the applications of capacitive and inductive transducers.
7.
Classify electrical transducers and name the parts
8.
What is the function of electrical current transducer, voltage transducer

in control panel?
9.
The carbon-granules microphone works on the principle of change in
10.
The sound cannot be used in a vacuum. As a medium for sound

transmission we use usually air. a) What is the most abundant element
in air? b) Which percentage of this element is present in the air?
11.
Explain briefly the manufacturing process of the microphone
12.
14.
There are three common application fields for precision condenser

microphones. Name and explain them.
Name two types of microphone calibration and explain briefly the
difference between the two.
Explain the Loudspeaker Principle.
15.
What is Back-to-Front Cancellations?
16.
What are the Parts of Speaker Systems?
17.
Name the types of Speaker Systems.
13.
74
18.
Explain the speaker systems used in commercial installations.
19
Define a telephone and mention the types of motor elements
20
Explain the types of acoustic radiators
21.
Explain briefly the dynamic loudspeakers
75
CHAPTER THREE
Amplitude and Frequency Modulation Principles
3.0 Introduction
Audio or low frequency signals cannot be sent over long distances by
radiating it out directly from the aerial. The audio frequencies which lie within
the frequency range of 15 Hertz to 20 Kilohertz have very small signal power
and thus cannot be transmitted via antenna for communication purposes. The
audio signals must be sent along with the high frequency signals for
communication. This can be done by superimposing electrical audio signals
on a high frequency wave called the carrier wave. The carrier wave is
generated from radio-frequency oscillators and is undamped in nature. Thus,
when the audio-frequency signal is superimposed on a carrier wave, the
resulting wave gets all the characteristics of the audio signal. The method of
superimposing an audio signal over the carrier wave is called modulation.
Thus, the audio frequency signal has to be modulated with a radio-frequency
carrier wave. The carrier wave can be produced using any oscillator.
The reason why low frequency signals cannot be transmitted over long
distances through space is listed below:
Short Operating Range: When a wave has a large frequency, the energy
associated with it will also be large. Thus low frequency signals have less
power that does not enable them to travel over long distances.
Poor Radiation Efficiency: The radiation efficiency becomes very poor for low
frequency signals.
Mutual Interference: If all audio frequencies are send continuously from
different sources, they would all get mixed up and cause erroneous
interference air. If modulation is done, each signal will occupy different
frequency levels and can be transmitted simultaneously without any error.
Huge Antenna Requirement: For a effective signal transmission, the sending
and receiving antenna should be at least 1/4th of the wave length of the signal.
Thus, for small frequencies, the antenna will have kilometers of length. But if
the signal has the range of Megahertz frequency, then the antenna size would
be less. The carrier wave cannot be used alone for transmission purposes.
Since its amplitude, frequency, and phase angle are constant with respect to
some preference.
76
3.1
Modulation
The process of loading a carrier wave with information is called modulation

and the circuit arrangement which carries out the task is called a modulator.
The purpose is to vary one of the characteristics (one of the parameters) of the
carrier-wave in accordance with the form of the information signal. The
simplest modulation system switches the carrier on and off in a series of long
and short bursts to form the internationally-accepted Morse code. The
message is spelled out one character at a time; although laborious the code
can be both sent and read by experienced operators as easily as they read the
human voice. Because of the distinctive rhythms of the characters a message
can be read against a background of noise that completely obliterates all other
systems. An early version of this type of modulation was known as interrupted
continuous-wave (I.C.W.) in which the carrier was regularly interrupted by a
buzzer or a tone-wheel mechanism. If the interruptions occurred at audio
frequency then the presence of the carrier appeared as an audible tone at the
output of a simple receiver. A continuous wave (CW) carrier produces only dc
at the receiver output and additional components are necessary to make the
incoming signal audible. CW working is often referred to as carrier-wave
working but the initials stand for continuous-wave as distinct from the
discontinuous wave-trains of the early spark transmitters. To the pedant the
unmodulated wave cannot be a "carrier" but it can be argued that Morse is
indeed a form of modulation because it does produce sidebands. In practice
confusion does not result and the exact meaning of the nomenclature is not
important. There are four basic ways in which a carrier can be modulated:
by variation of the carrier amplitude - amplitude modulation (A.M.)
by variation of the carrier frequency - frequency modulation (F.M.)
by variation of the carrier phase
- phase modulation (Ph.M,)
by pulsing the carrier
- pulse modulation (Pu.M.)
Modulated wave have some fundamental parameters, these parameters for
AM and FM is represented in figure 3.1.
77
peak Amplittude
unmade.
Ef
carrier
Ec
peak
minimum carrier amp. E m in

Peak-to-peak
(a)
ampl.
(p-p)
Carrier Envelope
(ampl.
is Ep - Ec = m.Ec)
Modulating Signal
fm
(b)
Constant-ampl. Carrier
Ec
(C)
fc
Deviation =
=
fmin
fmax
fmin
fmax
- fc
fc
- fmin
fmax
A.M. Modulation Factor

(m)
m
F.M. Modulation Index (m)
Ep
- Ec x 100%
Ec
deviation
mod. freq.
- fc
= -fmax fm
Fig.
(a) Amplititude Modulation
Parameters of a Modulated Wave

(b) Modulating Signal
(c) Frequency Modulation
Figure 3.1 AM/FM Fundamental Parameters
78
3.1.1 Need for Modulation

All audio signals occupy the same frequency band i.e. between 0 and 20 kHz.
Before being broadcast an audio signal (speech or music) must be moved, or
frequency translated to a specific frequency range in order to use the available
frequency spectrum. To do this the audio signal (or modulating signal)
modulates a much higher radio frequency (the carrier frequency). Each audio
signal is assigned a carrier - defining a channel - so that it is possible for the
receiver to discriminate between all the streams of signals coming in.
There are 3 main reasons to modulate a signal on to a high frequency carrier
Audio is in the range approx. 30 - 20000 kHz. If an electromagnetic

signal with a frequency of 30 Hz is transmitted it will have a wavelength
of (speed of light /frequency) = 300,000/30 km = 10,000 km. To pick up
this signal an aerial of size approx. 2,500 km will be required impractical. If this signal is used to modulate a carrier of 1 MHz the
wavelength will be 300,000/1,000,000 km = 300 m, and an aerial of 75
m will suffice. If the carrier is 100 MHz, the wavelength is 3 m and a 750
cm aerial is sufficient.
A large number of radio transmitters are trying to transmit at the same

time. It is necessary for the receiver to pick up only the wanted signal
and to reject the rest. One way to do to this is to assign a carrier with a
known frequency to each transmitter, modulate this carrier with the
signal, and then design the receiver to pick up only that known carrier
frequency and reject the rest, using appropriate filtering methods. Then
the original signal is removed from the received carrier. The same
concept is used in carrying a large number of telephone conversations
over a single pair of wires or optical fibre.
Using appropriate modulation techniques it is possible at the receiver to

remove a lot of the noise and other distortions which the transmission
medium would impose on the signal.
3.1.2 Functions of the Carrier Wave
The main function of the carrier wave is to carry the audio or video signal from
the transmitter to the receiver. The wave that is resulted due to
superimposition of audio signal and carrier wave is called the modulated
wave. The sinusoidal carrier wave can be given by the equation
vc = Vc Sin(ct + ) = Vc Sin(2fct + )
Where Vc is the Maximum Value
fcthe Frequency
the Phase Relation
--------------- 3.1
79
Since the three variables are the amplitude, frequency, and phase angle, the
modulation can be done by varying any one of them.
3.2 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
The method of varying amplitude of a high frequency carrier wave in
accordance with the information to be transmitted, keeping the frequency and
phase of the carrier wave unchanged is called Amplitude Modulation. The
information is considered as the modulating signal and it is superimposed on
the carrier wave by applying both of them to the modulator as shown in figure
3.1.
Modulating Signal
Carrier Wave
Amplitude Modulated Wave
Figure 3.2 Amplitude Modulation

From figure 3.2, the carrier wave has positive and negative half cycles. Both
these cycles are varied according to the information to be sent. The carrier
then consists of sine waves whose amplitudes follow the amplitude variations
of the modulating wave. The carrier is kept in an envelope formed by the
modulating wave.
3.2.1 Analysis of Amplitude Modulation Carrier Wave
Let vc = Vc Sin wct
vm = Vm Sin wmt
Where vcis the Instantaneous value of the carrier
Vcthe Peak value of the carrier
Wcthe Angular velocity of the carrier
vmthe Instantaneous value of the modulating signal
Vmthe Maximum value of the modulating signal
wmthe Angular velocity of the modulating signal
fmthe Modulating signal frequency
80
It must be noted that the phase angle remains constant in this process. Thus it
can be ignored. The amplitude of the carrier wave varies at fm.
The amplitude modulated wave is given by the equation
A = Vc + vm = Vc + Vm Sin wmt = Vc [1+ (Vm/Vc Sin wmt)]
= Vc (1 + mSinwmt)
------------------- 3.2
Where m = Modulation Index given by the ratio of Vm/Vc.
Instantaneous value of amplitude modulated wave is given by the equation
v = A Sin wct = Vc (1 + m Sin wmt) Sin wct
-------------- 3.3
= Vc Sin wct + mVc (Sin wmt Sin wct)
v = Vc Sin wct + [mVc/2 Cos (wc-wm)t mVc/2 Cos (wc + wm)t] ---------- 3.4
Equation 3.4 represents the sum of three sine waves. One with amplitude of
Vc and a frequency of wc/2 , the second one with an amplitude of mVc/2 and
frequency of (wc wm)/2 and the third one with an amplitude of mVc/2 and a
frequency of (wc + wm)/2 .
In practice the angular velocity of the carrier is known to be greater than the
angular velocity of the modulating signal (wc>>wm). Thus, the second and third
cosine equations are more close to the carrier frequency. Equation 3.4 is
represented graphically as shown in figure 3.3.
Vc (1+m sin wmt)

(1+m)Vc
Vc
(1-m)Vc
mVc
Vc ( 1 + m sin Wmt ) sin wet
Time, t
(a) Amplitude Modulated Sinewave with m < 1
81
Relative
Amplitude
Carrier
m
LSB
m/2
wm
(Wc - Wm)
USB
Wc
(Wc + Wm)
(b) Frequency Spectrum of a Sinusoidally

Modulated Wave
Amplitude
Bandwidth required for DSB
Ac
Am
mAc/2
mAc/2
0
Fm
Modulating Signal
m(t)
Fc-Fm
Fc
Carrier
Lower sideband(LSB)
Frequency
Fc+Fm
Upper sideband(LSB)
( c)
3.3 Amplitude Modulation Frequency Spectrum

Frequency Spectrum of AM Wave: The frequency components present in
the AM wave are represented by vertical lines approximately located along the
frequency axis shown in figure 3.3b. This is given by
Lower side frequency = (wc wm)/2
Upper side frequency = (wc +wm)/2
The height of each vertical line is drawn in proportion to its amplitude. Since
the angular velocity of the carrier is greater than the angular velocity of the
modulating signal, the amplitude of side band frequencies can never exceed
half of the carrier amplitude. Thus there will not be any change in the original
frequency, but the side band frequencies (wc wm)/2 and (wc +wm)/2 will be
changed. The former is called the upper side band (USB) frequency and the
latter is known as lower side band (LSB) frequency. Since the signal
frequency wm/2 is present in the side bands, it is clear that the carrier voltage
82
component does not transmit any information. Two side banded frequencies
will be produced when a carrier is amplitude modulated by a single frequency.
That is, an AM wave has a band width from (wc wm)/2 to (wc +wm)/2 , that is,
2wm/2 or twice the signal frequency is produced. When a modulating signal
has more than one frequency, two side band frequencies are produced by
every frequency. Similarly for two frequencies of the modulating signal 2
LSB's and 2 USB's frequencies will be produced. The side bands of
frequencies present above the carrier frequency will be same as the ones
present below. The side band frequencies present above the carrier
frequency is known to be the upper side band and all those below the carrier
frequency belong to the lower side band. The USB frequencies represent the
some of the individual modulating frequencies and the LSB frequencies
represent the difference between the modulating frequency and the carrier
frequency. The total bandwidth is represented in terms of the higher
modulating frequency and is equal to twice this frequency.
3.2.2 Modulation Index (m)
The ratio between the amplitude change of carrier wave to the amplitude of
the normal carrier wave is called modulation index. It is represented by the
letter 'm'.It can also be defined as the range in which the amplitude of the
carrier wave is varied by the modulating signal.
m = Vm/Vc
Percentage modulation,
%m = m*100 = Vm/Vc * 100
---------------------- 3.5
---------------------- 3.6
The percentage modulation lies between 0 and 80%.
Modulated Wave
(Modulation Envelope)
Unmodulated
Carrier
crest
Trough
Vc
Vc
Vc
Vm
Vmin
Vmax
Vmax - Vmin
Vmax Vc = Vm
Vc - Vmin
3.4Amplitude
Modulated
Carrier Wave
Another way of expressing the modulation index is
in terms of the maximum
crest
and minimum values of the amplitude of the modulated carrier wave. This is
shown in the figure 3.4.
83
From figure 3.3,

2 Vin = Vmax Vmin
Vin = (Vmax Vmin)/2
---------------------- 3.7
Vc = Vmax Vin
= Vmax (Vmax-Vmin)/2
=(Vmax + Vmin)/2
---------------------- 3.8
Substituting the values of Vm and Vc in the equation m = Vm/Vc, we get

M = Vmax Vmin/Vmax + Vmin
---------------------- 3.9
The value of 'm' lies between 0 and 0.8. The value of m determines the
strength and the quality of the transmitted signal. In an AM wave, the signal is
contained in the variations of the carrier amplitude. The audio signal
transmitted will be weak if the carrier wave is only modulated to a very small
degree. But if the value of m exceeds unity, the transmitter output produces
erroneous distortion.
3.2.3 Power Relations in an AM wave
A modulated wave has more power than had by the carrier wave before
modulating. The total power components in amplitude modulation can be
written as:
Ptotal= Pcarrier + PLSB + PUSB
---------------------- 3.10
Considering additional resistance like antenna resistance R.
Pcarrier = [(Vc/2)/R] = V C/2R
2
------------------ 3.11
Each side band has a value of m/2 Vc and r.m.s value of mVc/2 2. Hence
power in LSB and USB can be written as
PLSB = PUSB= (mVc/22) /R = m /4*V C/2R = m2/4 Pcarrier------------------ 3.12
2
Ptotal= V C/2R + [m /4*V C/2R] + [m /4*V C/2R]

2
2
= V C/2R (1 + m /2)
2
= Pcarrier(1 + m /2)
---------------------- 3.13
84
If the carrier is simultaneously modulated by several sinusoidal modulating

signals, the total modulation index is given by
Mt = (m1 + m2 + m3 + m4 + ..)
2
---------------------- 3.14
If Ic and It are the r.m.s values of unmodulated current and total modulated
current and R is the resistance through which these current flow, then
2
Ptotal/Pcarrier= (It.R/Ic.R) = (It/Ic)

2
Ptotal/Pcarrier= (1 + m /2)
2
It/Ic = 1 + m /2
---------------------- 3.15
3.2.4 Limitations of Amplitude Modulation
Low Efficiency: Since the useful power that lies in the small bands is
quite small, so the efficiency of AM system is low.
Limited Operating Range: The range of operation is small due to low

efficiency. Thus, transmission of signals is difficult.
Noise in Reception: As the radio receiver finds it difficult to distinguish

between the amplitude variations that represent noise and those with
the signals; heavy noise is prone to occur in its reception.
Poor Audio Quality: To obtain high fidelity reception, all audio

frequencies till 15 kilohertz must be reproduced and this necessitates
the bandwidth of 10 kilohertz to minimize the interference from the
adjacent broadcasting stations. Therefore in AM broadcasting stations
audio quality is known to be poor.
3.2.5 Solved Problems
Question 1: Suppose that on an AM signal, the Vmax p-p value read from the
graticule on the oscilloscope screen is 5.9 divisions and Vminp-p is 1.2 divisions.
a. What is the modulation index?
b. Calculate Vc, Vmand m if the vertical scale is 2 V per division.
Solution
(a)
m[Vmax Vmin/Vmax + Vmin] = 5.9 1.2/5.9 + 1.2 = 0.66
(b)
Vc = Vmax + Vmin/2 = 5.9 + 1.2/2 = 3.55
Using 2V/div. we have,
Vc = 3.55 x 2 = 7.1V
85
Vm = Vmax Vmin/2 = 5.9 1.2/2 = 2.35

Using 2V/div. we have,
Vm = 2.35 x 2 = 4.7V
m = Vm/Vc = 4.7/7.1 = 0.66
Question 2: If the carrier frequency an AM signal is 2.8 MHz (2800 kHz) with a
maximum modulating frequency of 3KHz.Calculate the side band frequencies
and the bandwidth of the signal.
Solution
The side band frequencies are;
fUSB= 2800+ 3 =2803kHz
fLSB= 2800+ 3 =2797 kHz
The bandwidth is;
BW = fUSBfLSB= 2803 2797 = 6 kHz
Question 3:A standard AM broadcast station is allowed to transmit
modulating frequencies up to 5 kHz. If the AM station is transmitting on a
frequency of 980 kHz, compute the maximum and minimum upper and lower
sidebands and the total bandwidth occupied by the AM station.
Solution
fUSB= 980 + 5 = 985kHz
fLSB= 980 5 = 975kHz
BW = fUSBfLSB= 985 975 = 10 kHz
Question 3:An AM transmitter has a carrier power of 30 W. The percentage of
modulation is 85 percent. Calculate (a) the total power and (b) the power in
one sideband.
Solution
2
a. PT = PC(1 + m /2)
2
= 30 [ 1 + 0.85 /2]
= 30(1 + 0.7225/2)
= 30 x1.36125
= 40.8W
b. PSB (both) = PT Pc
= 40.8 30
86
= 10.8W
PSB(single)
= PSB/2
= 10.8/2
= 5.4W
Question 4: The efficiency of a single-tone AM signal is defined as the
percentage of the total power carried by the sidebands that is
= (Psig/PT) x 100%
Where Psig is the power carried by the sidebands and PT is the total power of
the AM signal.
(a) Find for AM modulation index ma=0.5.
(b) Show that for a single-tone AM, max is 33.3% at ma =1.
Solution
2
Pc = Carrier Power = Ac
2 2
Ps = Sideband power = .ma A
2
2
Thus, = Psig/PT= ma /2 + ma
a. For ma = 0.5, = 11.1%
b. max occurs at ma = 1, max = 33.3%
Question 5:The output signal from an AM modulator is:
s(t) = 5cos(1800 t) + 20cos (2000 t) + 5cos (2200 t)
(a) Determine the modulation index.
(b) Determine the ratio of the power in the sidebands to the power in the
carrier.
Solution
a. s(t) = 5 cos (1800t) + 20 cos (2000t) + 5 cos (2200t)
= 20 [1 + cos (200)] cos (2000t)
Thus the modulation index is 0.5.
b. Carrier power = 200
Sideband power = 25
Sideband power to carrier power ratio = 0.125
Question 6:For an amplitude modulated double sideband full carrier
(DSBFC) modulator with a carrier frequency of 100kHz and a maximum
modulating signal of 5kHz, determine (a) the frequency limits for the upper
and lower sidebands, (b) the bandwidth, (c) the upper and lower side
frequencies produced when the modulating signal is a single frequency tone
87
at 3kHz, and (d) sketch the output frequency spectrum.

Solution
fc = 100kHz
fm = 5kHz
a. Frequency limit for upper and lower side bands.
FLSB = fc fm = 100 5 = 95 kHz 95 100 kHz
fUSB = fc + fm= 100 + 5 = 105 kHz 105 100kHz
b. BW = 2fm= 2 x 5 = 10 kHz
c. fLSB = fc fm = 100 - 3 = 97 kHz
fUSB = fc + fm= 100 3 = 103kHz
Question 7: What is the maximum modulating signal frequency that can be
used with an AM double sideband full carrier system with a bandwidth of 20
kHz.
Solution
BW = 2fm
fm = BW/2
= 20/2
= 10 kHz
Question 8: If a modulated RF wave with an average voltage of 20 volts peak
changes in amplitude plus or minus 5 volts, calculate the minimum and
maximum envelope amplitudes, the modulation coefficient, and the percent
modulation.
Solution
Vmax = Ec + Em
= 20Vp + 5
= 25Vp
Vmin = Ec - Em
= 20Vp 5
= 15Vp
m = Em/Ec
88
= 5/20
= 0.25
%m = 25%
Question 9: A 1 MHz carrier is amplitude modulated by an audio signal which
contains all frequencies in the range 300 Hz to 5 kHz. What are the frequency
bands which are output? What is the output bandwidth? Draw the spectral
diagram of these signals.
Solution
The carrier is 1 MHZ
The Upper Side Band is all frequencies in the range 1,000,300 to 1,005,000
Hz
The Lower Side Band is all frequencies in the range 995,000 to 999, 700 Hz
The Bandwidth is 1,005,000 - 995,000 = 10,000 Hz = 10 kHz.
Question 10: A 1.5 MHz carrier is amplitude modulated by three sinusoidal
signals of frequency 500 Hz, 800 Hz and 1,400 Hz. What are the frequencies
in the AM spectrum?
Solution
Convert all the frequencies to kHz. 1.5 MHz is 1500 kHz. 500 Hz is 0.5 kHz.
800 Hz is 0.800 kHz. 1400 Hz is 1.4 kHz.
The output frequencies are:
1500 kHz,
Or
1500,
1500 0.5 kHz,
1500 0.8 kHz
1500.5, 1499.5,
1500.8, 1499.2,
1500 1.4 kHz

1501.4, 1498.6 kHz
Question 11: An AM signal is represented by the equation

3
6
v = (15 + 3 Sin (2 * 5 * 10 t)) * Sin (2 * 0.5 * 10 t) volts
(i)
What are the values of the carrier and modulating frequencies?
(ii)
What are the amplitudes of the carrier and of the upper and lower
side frequencies?
(iii)
What is the modulation index?
(iv)
What is the bandwidth of this signal?
Solution
This looks the same as Eqn. 3.1 above with:
6
c
(= 2 fc) = 2 * 0.5 * 10
89

3
m
(= 2fm) = 2 * 5 * 10
Vc
= 15 V
Vm
=3V
6
(i) Therefore the carrier frequency fc is 0.5 * 10 = 0.5 MHz
3
and the modulating frequency fm is 5 * 10 = 5 kHz
(iii) The bandwidth
BW = 2 fm = 10 kHz
(ii) The modulation index
m = Vm/Vc = 3/15 = 0.2
The amplitude of each side frequency is
m* Vc /2 = 0.2 * 15 /2 = 1.5 V
Example 12: A transmitter puts out a total power of 25 Watts of 30% AM
signal. How much power is contained in the carrier and each of the
sidebands?
Solution
2
2
Total power = 25 = Pc(1 + m /2 ) = Pc(1 + 0.3m /2) = Pc * 1.045
Therefore the carrier power is Pc = 25/ 1.045 = 23.92 Watts
The total power in the 2 sidebands is 25 - 23.92= 1.08 W
The power in each sideband is 1.08/2 = .54 W
The fraction of the power in the carrier is 23.92/25 = 0.957, or 95.7%
3.3 Frequency Modulation (FM)
Frequency modulation (FM) is a method of impressing data onto an
alternating-current (AC) wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the
wave. This scheme can be used with analog or digital data. When the
instantaneous frequency of a carrier is varied, the instantaneous phase
changes as well. The converse also holds: When the instantaneous phase is
varied, the instantaneous frequency changes. But FM and PM are not exactly
equivalent, especially in analog applications; this is because the relationship
between frequency and phase variations is not linear; that is, frequency and
phase do not vary in direct proportion. While AM is the simplest form of
modulation to envisage, it is also possible to vary the frequency of the signal to
give frequency modulation (FM). It can be seen from Figure 3.5 that the
frequency of the signal varies as the voltage of the modulating signal changes.
The amount by which the signal frequency varies is very important. This is
known as the deviation, and is normally quoted in kilohertz. As an example,
the signal may have a deviation of 3 kHz. In this case, the carrier is made to
move up and down by 3 kHz frequency, and this means that any signal-level
variations will not affect the audio output provided that the signal is of a
sufficient level.
90
Figure 3.5. A frequency modulated signal.

The change in frequency, which is greatly exaggerated here,
is proportional to the amplitude of the signal.
Analog electrical image
of signal to be transmitted.
As a result, this makes FM ideal for mobile or portable applications where

signal levels vary considerably. The other advantage of FM is its resilience to
noise and interference when deviations much greater than the highest
modulating frequency are used. It is for this reason that FM is used for highquality broadcast transmissions where deviations of 75 kHz are typically
used to provide a high level of interference rejection. In view of these
advantages, FM was chosen for use in the first-generation analogue mobile
phone systems.
Higher frequency
shorter period
when signal is
maximum.
Electric
Field
Frequency modulated
electromagnetic
carrier wave.
Time
Lower frequency
Longer period when
signal is at negative
extreme.
3.3.1 Modulation index and deviation ratio

In many instances a figure known as the modulation index is of value and is
used in other calculations. The modulation index is the ratio of the frequency
deviation to the modulating frequency, and will therefore vary according to the
frequency that is modulating the transmitted carrier and the amount of
deviation:
However, when designing a system it is important to know the maximum
permissible values. This is given by the deviation ratio, and is obtained by
inserting the maximum values into the formula for the modulation index:
The diagrams opposite show examples of how the modulation index affects
the FM output, for a simple sinusoidal information signal of fixed frequency.
The carrier signal has a frequency
of ten
times that of the information signal.
Frequency
deviation
M =
Modulation frequency
91
D =
Maximum Frequency deviation

Maximum modulation Frequency
This graph shows the information signal,
Time
This graph shows the unmodulated carrier.
Time
x
As the modulation index increases you should notice
that the peaks of the high
frequency get closer together and low frequency get further apart. For the
This graph shows the frequency modulated
Time
same information signal therefore, the carrier signal has a higher maximum
carrier when the modulation index = 3.
frequency.
x
This graph shows the frequency modulated
3.3.2 Sidebands
Time
carrier when the modulation index = 5.
Any signal that is modulated produces sidebands. In the case of an amplitude
x for frequency modulation the
modulated signal they are easy to determine, but
This graph is
shows
the frequency
modulated carrierThey are dependent upon not only the
situation
not quite
as straightforward.
Time
when the modulation
index
7.
deviation,
but also
the= level
of deviation i.e., the modulation index M. The
total spectrum is an infinite series of discrete spectral components, expressed
by the complex formula:
In this relationship, Jn(M) are Bessel functions of the first kind, c is the angular
frequency of the carrier and is equal to 2, and m is the angular frequency of
the modulating signal. Vcis the voltage of the carrier. It can be seen that the
92
total spectrum consists of the carrier plus an infinite number of sidebands

Spectrum
components
= Vc{J
wct at integral frequencies of the
spreading
out
on either side
of0(M)cos
the carrier
modulating frequency. The relative
levelsw
ofc+the
read from a
+ J1(M)[cos(
wmsidebands
)t - cos(wccan
- wbe
m)t]
table of Bessel functions, or calculated using a suitable computer program.
+ Jlevels
2(M)[cos(wc+ 2wm)t - cos(wc - 2wm)t]
Figure 3-10 shows the relative
to give an indication of the way in which
wcwith
wc - 3of
wmmodulation
+
J
(M)[cos(
+ 3wdifferent
)t]
the levels of the various sidebands
change
values
3
m)t - cos(
index.
+ ...}.
1.0
0.8
Relative amplitude
Figure 3.6. The relative amplitudes of the carrier and the first 10 side
frequency0.6components of a frequency modulated signal for different values
of modulation index.
0.4
It can be 0.2
gathered that for small levels of deviation (that is, what is termed
narrowband
0 FM) the signal consists of the carrier and the two sidebands
spaced at the modulation frequency either side of the carrier. The spectrum
-0.2
appears the same as that of an AM signal. The major difference is that the
-0.4
lower sideband
is out of phase by 180.
As the modulation index increases, other sidebands at twice the modulation
1
5
7
4
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
6
3
0
8
frequency start
to2appear
(Figure
3.7).
M As the index is increased, further
sidebands can also be seen. It is also found that the relative levels of these
sidebands change, some rising in level and others falling as the modulation
index varies.
93
M
Vc
0.5
fm
Figure 3.7. Spectra of frequency-modulated signals with various

values of modulation index for a constant modulation frequency.
2
It can be seen that for small values of the modulation index
M (e.g. M = 0.5),
the signal appears to consist of the carrier and two sidebands. As the
modulation index increases, the number of sidebands increases and the level
of the carrier can be seen to decrease for these values.
4
3.3.3 Bandwidth
It is clearly not acceptable to have a signal that occupies an infinite bandwidth.
Fortunately, for low levels of modulation index all but the first two sidebands
may be ignored. However, as the modulation index increases the sidebands
further out increase in level, and it is often necessary to apply filtering to the
signal. This should not introduce any undue distortion. To achieve this it is
normally necessary to allow a bandwidth equal to twice the maximum
frequency of deviation plus the maximum modulation frequency. In other
words, for a VHF FM broadcast station with a deviation of 75 kHz and a
maximum modulation frequency of 15 kHz, this must be (2 75) + 15 kHz, i.e.
175 kHz. In view of this a total of 200 kHz is usually allowed, enabling stations
to have a small guard band and their centre frequencies on integral numbers
of 100 kHz.
3.3.4 The Theory of Frequency Modulation
Frequency modulation uses the information signal, Vm(t) to vary the carrier
frequency within some small range about its original value. Here are the three
94
signals in mathematical form:
Information: Vm(t)
Carrier: Vc(t) = Vco sin ( 2 fc t + f )

------------------------ 3.16
7FM: VFM (t) = Vco sin (2 [fc + (f/Vmo) Vm (t) ] t + f)

--------------- 3.17
3.3.5 Peak frequency deviation
We have replaced the carrier frequency term, with a time-varying frequency.
We have also introduced a new term: f, the peak frequency deviation. In this
form, you should be able to see that the carrier frequency term: fc + (f/Vmo) Vm
(t) now varies between the extremes of fc - f and fc + f. The interpretation of f
becomes clear: it is the farthest away from the original frequency that the FM
signal can be. Sometimes it is referred to as the "swing" in the frequency.
Frequency deviation (f) is used in FM radio to describe the maximum
instantaneous difference between an FM modulated frequency and the
nominal carrier frequency. The term is sometimes mistakenly used as
synonymous with frequency drift, which is an unintended offset of an oscillator
from its nominal frequency.
The frequency deviation of a radio is of particular importance in relation to
bandwidth, because less deviation means that more channels can fit into the
same amount of frequency spectrum. The FM broadcasting range (88 108
MHz) uses a channel spacing of 200 kHz, with a maximum frequency
deviation of 75 kHz, leaving a 25 kHz buffer above the highest and below the
lowest frequency to reduce interaction with other channels. AM broadcasting
uses a channel spacing of 10 kHz, but with amplitude modulation frequency
deviation is irrelevant.
FM applications use peak deviations of 75 kHz (200 kHz spacing), 5 kHz (25
kHz spacing), 2.25 kHz (12.5 kHz spacing), and 2 kHz (8.33 kHz spacing).
3.3.6 Modulation index of FM
We can also define a modulation index for FM, analogous to AM as
= f/fm,
------------------------ 3.18
Where fm is the maximum modulating frequency used.
The simplest interpretation of the modulation index, , is as a measure of the
peak frequency deviation, f; the maximum deviation of the instantaneous
frequency from the carrier frequency.
In other words, represents a way to express the peak deviation frequency as
a multiple of the maximum modulating frequency, fm,
i.e. f = fm.
------------------------ 3.19
95
If >>1, the modulation is called narrowband FM, and its bandwidth is

approximately 2fm.
If <<1, the modulation is called wideband FM and its bandwidth is
approximately 2f.
While wideband FM uses more bandwidth, it can improve the signal-to-noise
ratio significantly; for example, doubling the value of f, while keeping fm
constant, results in an eight-fold improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio.
For example, suppose in FM radio that the audio signal to be transmitted
ranges from 20 to 15,000 Hz. If the FM system used a maximum modulating
index, b, of 5.0, then the frequency would "swing" by a maximum of 5 x 15 kHz
= 75 kHz above and below the carrier frequency. Here is a simple FM signal in
figure 3.8:
Figure 3.8 Simple FM signal
voltage
Here, the carrier is at 30 Hz, and the modulating frequency is 5 Hz. The
FMthe
Signal
modulation index is about
3, making
peak frequency deviation about 15
1
Hz. That means the frequency will vary somewhere between 15 and 45 Hz.
How fast the cycle is completed
is a function of the modulating frequency.
0.5
0
3.3.7 FM modulated wave
spectrum
The spectrum of the frequency modulation modulated wave occurs above and
-0.5 Fc, and the frequency is the integral multiple of the
below the carrier wave
modulating signal Fm.-1In the spectrum, the modulation signal frequency Fm,
deviation f, and frequency
modulation
index
m
related as follows. (When
0
50
100
150
200are 250
timewave). The spectrum interval is the
the modulating signal is a single sine
modulation signal frequency Fm, and it spreads in an infinite frequency band.
Deviation f is the difference in the center frequency Fc of the carrier wave
and the frequency of the modulation index number from Fc. See figure 3.9.
96
Figure 3.9 Spectrum Interval

The detailed analysis of an FM waveform isD f(m=4)
very complicated and well beyond
the scope of this introductory course, however we will try to simplify things a
D f(m=2)
little so that you get a flavor of what the key differences are. Theoretically, an
FM spectrum has an infinite number of sidebands, spaced at multiples of fi
Fm
above and below the carrier frequency fc. However
the size and significance of
these sidebands is very dependent on the modulation index, m (as a general
rule, any sidebands below 1% of the carrier can be ignored). If <1, then the
Fc
spectrum looks like this:
m=1 m=2
m=3 m=4
FM modulated wave spectrum
Modulation index: m=2
Figure 3.10 Spectrum for <1

From the spectrum in figure 3.10, it can be seen that there are only two
significant sidebands, and thus the spectrum looks very similar to that for an
AM carrier.
If = 1, then the spectrum looks like this:
Amplitude
fc- fi
fc
fc+fi
Frequency
97
Figure 3.11 Spectrum for =1

From the spectrum
Amplitudefigure 3.11 we can see that the number of significant
sidebands has increased to four. If = 3, then the spectrum looks like this:
fc -2fi fc -fi
fc
fc+fi fc+2fi
Frequency
Figure 3.12 Spectrum for =3

From the spectrum figure 3.12 we can see that the number of significant
Amplitude
sidebands has increased to eight. It can be deduced that the number of
significant sidebands in an FM transmission is given by
2(m + 1)
------------------------ 3.20
The implication for the bandwidth of an FM signal should now be coming clear.
The practical bandwidth is going to be given by the number of significant
sidebands multiplied by the width of each
fc sideband (i.e. fi). Frequency
BandwidthFM = 2(m + 1)fi
= 2(fc/fi + 1)fi
= 2(fc + fi) ------------------------ 3.21
The bandwidth of an FM waveform is therefore twice the sum of the frequency
deviation and the maximum frequency in the information.
3.3.8 Carson's rule
A , Carson's rule states that nearly all (~98 percent) of the power of a
frequency-modulated signal lies within a bandwidth BWof
BW = 2(f + fm)
------------------------ 3.22
98
where f, as defined above, is the peak deviation of the instantaneous

frequency f(t)from the center carrier frequency fc.
3.3.9 The required bandwidth for frequency modulated waves
The envelope amplitude of frequency modulated waves is said to be constant,
but this is only when all spectrum components are collected, and actually,
amplitude fluctuation appears due to frequency band restrictions.
The bandwidth B required so that amplitude fluctuation does not become a
problem for demodulation is as follows. f is the maximum frequency shift, m
is the modulation index, and Fm is the modulation signal frequency.
B 2(f + Fm) = 2(m + 1)Fm
------------------------ 3.23
When the maximum frequency of the modulating signal is fixed, a wide

transmission band is required if the modulation index m is high. When the
maximum frequency shift f is fixed, the spectral interval becomes narrow if
the modulation index m is high.
For example, if the occupied band width of FM radio is 200 kHz and the
maximum frequency shift f is 75 kHz, so the maximum frequency Fm and
modulation index m of the modulated wave are as follows.
Fm = B/2 - f = 200/2 - 75 = 25 kHz
m = f/Fm = 75/25 = 3
The modulation index is greater than 1, so it is wideband FM.
3.3.10 Bessel functions
The frequency modulated wave spectrum is a Bessel function of the first kind
The frequency modulated wave spectra appear chaotic and difficult to
analyze theoretically, but the modulation index m of the spectrum is
expressed as a Bessel function of the first kind Jn(m)
For the case of a carrier modulated by a single sine wave, the

resulting frequency spectrum can be calculated using Bessel
functions of the first kind, as a function of the sideband number and
the modulation index. The carrier and sideband amplitudes are
illustrated for different modulation indices of FM signals. For
99
particular values of the modulation index, the carrier amplitude

becomes zero and all the signal power is in the sidebands. See
figure 3.13.
Spectrum fm = Ac
SJ
(m) . cos 2p (Fc + nFm ) t
n=-
Sideband
Modulation
Index Carrier
0.00
1.00
0.36
0.58
0.12
0.6
0.54
0.24
0.03
1.0
0.77
0.44
0.11
0.02
1.6
0.51
0.55
0.23
0.06
2.0
0.22
0.53
2.41
0.52
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
0.01
0.03Bessel Functions Table

0.35 0.13
Figure
3.13
0.43
0.20
0.06
0.02
0.45
0.22
0.07
0.02
0.15 -0.23 -0.24
0.11
0.36
0.36
0.01
3.3.11
FM Performance
-0.25 0.34 0.49 0.31 0.13 0.04 0.01
3.0
Bandwidth: As we have already shown, the bandwidth of a FM signal may be
-0.40 -0.07 0.36 0.43 0.28 0.13 0.05 0.02
4.0
predicted using:
6.0
-0.13 -0.33 0.05 0.36 0.39 0.25 0.13 0.05 0.02
BW = 2 (m + 1) fm 0.19 0.09 0.03 0.01
6.63
0 -0.34 -0.13 0.25 0.40 0.32
2.6
8.0
-0.05
0.50
0.25
0.13 0.06 0.02
Where m is 7.0
the modulation
index
is the
0.16and
0.23 maximum
0.13 0.06 0.02 modulating frequency
0.30 0.00 -0.30 -0.17
0.35 fm
0.34
0.34
0.19
-0.10
-0.11
8.0
0.23
-0.29
0.22 0.13 0.06 0.03
0.32
0.17
used.
0.34
0.05
0.18 0.10 0.05 0.02
-0.24
0 0.27
-0.23 0.03 0.26
8.86 a significantly
FM radio has
larger
bandwidth 0.28
than
AM radio, but the FM radio
-0.09 0.25 0.14 -0.13 -0.27 -0.05 0.25 0.33 0.31 0.21 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01
8.0
band is also larger. The combination keeps the number of available channels
10.0
-0.25 0.04 0.25 0.06 -0.22 -0.23 -0.01 0.22 0.32 0.29 0.21 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01
about the same.
0.05 -0.22 -0.03 0.20 0.13 -0.07 -0.24 -0.17 0.05 0.23 0.30 0.27 0.20 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.01
12.0
The bandwidth of an FM signal has a more complicated dependency than in
the AM case (recall, the bandwidth of AM signals depend only on the
maximum modulation frequency). In FM, both the modulation index and the
100
modulating frequency affect the bandwidth. As the information is made

stronger, the bandwidth also grows.
Efficiency: The efficiency of a signal is the power in the side-bands as a
fraction of the total. In FM signals, because of the considerable side-bands
produced, the efficiency is generally high. Recall that conventional AM is
limited to about 33 % efficiency to prevent distortion in the receiver when the
modulation index was greater than 1. FM has no analogous problem.
The side-band structure is fairly complicated, but it is safe to say that the
efficiency is generally improved by making the modulation index larger (as it
should be). But if you make the modulation index larger, so make the
bandwidth larger (unlike AM) which has its disadvantages. As is typical in
engineering, a compromise between efficiency and performance is struck.
The modulation index is normally limited to a value between 1 and 5,
depending on the application.
Noise: FM systems are far better at rejecting noise than AM systems. Noise
generally is spread uniformly across the spectrum (the so-called white noise,
meaning wide spectrum). The amplitude of the noise varies randomly at these
frequencies. The change in amplitude can actually modulate the signal and be
picked up in the AM system. As a result, AM systems are very sensitive to
random noise. An example might be ignition system noise in your car. Special
filters need to be installed to keep the interference out of your car radio. FM
systems are inherently immune to random noise. In order for the noise to
interfere, it would have to modulate the frequency somehow. But the noise is
distributed uniformly in frequency and varies mostly in amplitude. As a result,
there is virtually no interference picked up in the FM receiver. FM is sometimes
called "static free, referring to its superior immunity to random noise.
3.3.12 Actual Frequency Modulation
There are two ways to generate a frequency modulation signal, direct FM and
indirect FM. With frequency modulation, the information is incorporated in the
frequency, so anonlinear power amplifier can be used which ensures good
electrical efficiency.
Direct FM: With direct FM, the modulating signal is input in a VCO (voltage
control oscillator) which generates a frequency shift proportionally to the
added voltage. The signal input of the VCO has a variable capacitance diode,
and when a modulating signal voltage is applied here, the capacitance of the
variable capacitance diode changes and the oscillation frequency (carrier
frequency) changes.
101
Indirect FM: For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated to

generate a phase-modulated signal. This is used to modulate a crystalcontrolled oscillator, and the result is passed through a frequency multiplier to
give an FM signal.
Narrow Band FM: In narrowband FM, commonly used in two-way wireless
communications, the instantaneous carrier frequency varies by up to 5
kilohertz (kHz, where 1 kHz = 1000 hertz or alternating cycles per second)
above and below the frequency of the carrier with no modulation.
Wide Band FM: The level of deviation is important in many aspects. It
obviously is important in determining the bandwidth of the overall signal. As a
result the deviation used for FM is different between different applications.
Broadcast stations in the VHF portion of the frequency spectrum between
88.5 and 108 MHz use large values of deviation, typically 75 kHz. This is
known as wideband FM (WBFM). These signals are capable of supporting
high quality transmissions, but occupy a large amount of bandwidth. Usually
200 kHz is allowed for each wideband FM transmission. In wideband FM,
used in wireless broadcasting, the instantaneous frequency varies by up to
several megahertz (MHz, where 1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz). When the
instantaneous input wave has positive polarity, the carrier frequency shifts in
one direction; when the instantaneous input wave has negative polarity, the
carrier frequency shifts in the opposite direction. At every instant in time, the
extent of carrier-frequency shift (the deviation) is directly proportional to the
extent to which the signal amplitude is positive or negative.
Analogue FM: For radio communications purposes less bandwidth is used.
Narrowband FM, NBFM often uses deviation figures of around 3 kHz or
possibly slightly more. As quality is not as important for radio communications
applications, the much narrower bandwidth has advantages in terms of radio
spectrum efficiency.
Digital FM: In digital FM, the carrier frequency shifts abruptly, rather than
varying continuously. The number of possible carrier frequency states is
usually a power of 2. If there are only two possible frequency states, the mode
is called frequency-shift keying (FSK). In more complex modes, there can be
four, eight, or more different frequency states. Each specific carrier frequency
represents a specific digital input data state.
3.3.13
Solved Examples on FM
102
Example 13: A very important concept in electronics is modulation. Explain

what "modulation" means, and give one example of it.
Solution
Modulation is the act of impressing information onto an otherwise featureless
stream of matter or energy, usually for the sake of communicating that
information over a long distance. Radio is a very common example of
modulation.
Example 14: A 400 kHz sinusoidal carrier of amplitude 5V is frequency
modulated by a 3 kHz sinusoidal information signal of amplitude 3V. The
behavior of the carrier is governed by the frequency deviation per volt and for
this system is 25 kHz per volt. Describe how the resulting FM signal changes
with time.
Solution
The FM carrier will change in frequency from 400 kHz to 475 kHz to 400 kHz to
325 kHz and back to 400 kHz, 3000 times per second. This is because the
frequency deviation fc = 3 x 25 kHz = 75 kHz. The amplitude of the carrier will
remain fixed at 5 V.
Example 15: A common modulation technique employed in radio
broadcasting is frequency modulation, or FM. Explain how a high-frequency
carrier signal would be modulated by a lower-frequency signal such as in the
case of the two signals shown here in the time domain:
Solution
103

Carrier signal
Modulating signal
Modulated signal
ExampleTime
15: At the heart of an FM transmitter is a circuit called a voltageTime
Time
controlled oscillator, or VCO. Explain
what the purpose of a VCO
is, and how
this directly relates to frequency modulation.
Modulated signal
Solution
A VCO generates an AC output signal whose frequency is proportional to an
externally-supplied input voltage. They are also essential to the function of
phase-locked loops.
Example 16: FM tends to be a far more noise-resistant means of signal
modulation than AM. For instance, the "crackling" form of radio interference
caused by natural lightning or the "buzzing" noise produced by high-voltage
power lines are both
easy to hear on an AM radio, but absent on an FM radio.
Time
Explain why.
Solution
Radio interference manifests itself as additional peaks on the envelope of a
modulated carrier wave. AM reception is based on the extraction of that
envelope from the modulated carrier, and so AM receivers will "pick up"
unwanted noise. FM reception is based on the extraction of information from
changes in frequency, which is largely unaffected by noise.
Example 17: Plot what the frequency spectrum would look like for a pure
(undistorted) 1 MHz sine wave:
104
Solution
Power
Example 18: Find a relation between kp and kf such that the peak phase
deviation of the modulated signal
in both cases are equal.
Frequency (Hz)
1 x 10
1 x 10
1 x 102
1 x 103
1 x 10
1 x 105
1 x 106
1 x 10
1 x 10
1 x 109
1 x 10
10
Solution
The phase deviation in PM modulation is kps(t). Hence the maximum deviation
is kpmax{s(t)} = kp.
For the case of FM modulation after integrating from the signal we reach that
Power
the peak
of that is 1 and hence the peak deviation will be 2kf. So we have to
have 2kf = kp.
Example 19: A C-band satellite link sends a single NTSC-TV signal through a
36 MHz transponder on a C-band GEO satellite. The NTSC video signal is
Frequency (Hz)
modulated onto the carrier using
wideband frequency modulation, and the
bandwidth of the transmitted RF signal is 32 MHz The baseband bandwidth of
the TV signal is 4.2 MHz Calculate the peak frequency deviation of the FM
carrier using Carson's rule.
1 x 10
1 x 101
1 x 102
1 x 10
1 x 10
1 x 105
1 x 106
1 x 10
1 x 10
1 x 109
1 x 10
10
Solution
Carson's rule gives the bandwidth of an FM signal in terms of the peak
frequency
deviation, fpk, and the maximum baseband frequency, fmax.
B = 2 ( fpk + fmax)
Hence the peak frequency deviation can be found as
fpk = B/2 - fmax
For B = 32 MHz and fmax = 4.2 MHz
fpk = 16 4.2 = 11.8 MHz
Example 20: Two NTSC FM-TV signals are transmitted through a 36 MHz
105
bandwidth transponder. The bandwidth of each signal is 16 MHz, calculate the

peak frequency deviation of the FM signal using Carson's rule.
Solution
Carson's Rule gives the bandwidth required for transmission of FM signals as
B = 2 (fpk + fmax)
The maximum baseband frequency for a NTSC TV signal is fmax = 4.2 MHz
Hence the peak frequency deviation is found from
16 MHz = 2 (fpk + 4.2 MHz)
fpk = 8 4.2 = 3.8 MHz
Example 21: An angle-modulated signal with carrier frequency of 100 MHz is
described by the equation s(t) = 10 cos[2fct+ 5 sin(3000t) + 10 sin(2000)]
(a) Find the power of the modulated signal.
(b) Find the frequency deviation.
(c) Find the deviation ratio .
(d) Find the phase deviation .
(e) Estimate the transmission bandwidth BT.
Solution
The signal bandwidth is W = 1000 Hz.
(a) P = 100/2 = 50 W.
b. fi(t) = di(t)/dt
= fc + (1500/2) cos (3000t) + 10000 cos (2000t)
The carrier deviation is (1500/2) cos (3000t) + 10000 cos (2000t)
The two sinusoids will add in phase at some point, and the maximum value of
this expression is (15000/2+10000).
Thus, f=12387.32 Hz.
c. = f/W = 12387.32 /10000 = 12.387
d. The angle (t) = 2fct+ 5 sin(3000t) + 10 sin(2000), the phase deviation is
the maximum value of the angle inside the square brackets, and is given as
= 15 rad.
e. Using Carson's Rule; BT = 2(f + W) = 26774.65 Hz
Example 22: Let m (t) be a periodic triangular wave with period 103 sec. with
m(t) max = m(t)min = 1 volt. Calculate the maximum and minimum value of
4
the instantaneous frequency for FM with kf = 10 Hz/volt
Solution
For FM, fi (t) = fc + kf m (t)
106

3
(fi (t )) min = 100 10 10 = 90 kHz

3
4
(fi (t )) max = 100 10 + 10 = 110 kHz
3.4 Radio Stations
The earliest radio stations were simply radio telegraph systems and did not
carry audio. The first claimed audio transmission that could be termed a
broadcast occurred on Christmas Eve in 1906, and was made by Reginald
Fessenden. While many early experimenters attempted to create systems
similar to radiotelephone devices where only two parties were meant to
communicate, there were others who intended to transmit to larger
audiences. Charles Herrold started broadcasting in California in 1909 and
was carrying audio by the next year.
3.4.1 Types of radio stations
Radio stations are of several types. The best known are the AM and FM
stations, including both commercial and public or nonprofit varieties. Noncommercial college and university radio stations are found throughout the
developed world. Although now being eclipsed by internet-distributed radio,
there are many stations that broadcast, using AM technology, on shortwave
bands, which can be received thousands of miles away, especially at night.
For example, the BBC has a full schedule transmitted via shortwave. These
broadcasts are very sensitive to atmospheric conditions and sunspots.
3.4.2 AM radio stations
AM stations were the earliest broadcasting stations to be developed. AM
refers toamplitude modulation, a mode of broadcasting radio waves by
varying the amplitude of the carrier signal in response to the amplitude of the
signal to be transmitted. One of the advantages of AM is that its
unsophisticated signal can be received (turned into sound) with simple
equipment. If a station is close enough, not even a power source is needed;
building a powerless crystal radio receiver was once a common childhood
project in the developed world. AM broadcasts occur on North American
airwaves in the medium wave frequency range of 530 to 1700 kHz (known as
the "standard broadcast band"). The band was expanded in the 1990s by
adding nine channels from 1620 to 1700 kHz. Channels are spaced every 10
kHz in the Americas, and generally every 9 kHz everywhere else. Many
countries outside of the US use a similar frequency band for AM
transmissions. Europe also uses the long wave band. In response to the
growing popularity of FM radio stations in the late 1980s and early 1990s,
107
some North American stations began broadcasting in AM stereo, though this

never really gained acceptance, mostly because consumers needed to
upgrade their existing radios.
AM radio has three serious shortcomings.
The signal is very subject to interference from various sources, such as
electrical storms (lightning). The degradation of the signal can be
severe.
AM radio is in large part a daylight phenomenon: The AM signals travel
longer distances at night, and while this is a benefit in short wave
broadcasts, in a commercial broadcast environment this means that
power must be reduced at night so as to avoid interference among
signals, at the same time sacrificing listeners who cannot receive the
weaker signals. A few of the older stations obtained frequencies without
any other station in the US; these are called clear channel stations
because there would not be any potential interference. (This is not to be
confused with Clear Channel Communications, which currently owns
many US radio stations.)
AM radio is that it transmits only frequencies up to 5000 Hertz
(cycles):This means that stations can be 10,000 cycles apart - the
difference between 530 Hertz and 540 Hertz, for example. At the time
that AM started, in the 1920s and 1930s, this was more than adequate
fidelity for the microphones, 78 rpm recordings, and load speakers of
the day. However the fidelity of this equipment improved considerably the LP record was introduced in 1948 as a "high fidelity' medium - and
AM radio was by that time too established to make the disrupting
changes necessary to transmit higher fidelity. This would have meant
reallocating frequencies, shutting down some stations so others could
broadcast in higher fidelity. This was technically possible but received
no serious consideration for commercial reasons.
3.5 FM radio stations
FM refers to frequency modulation, and occurs on VHF airwaves everywhere
(except Japan) in the frequency range of 88 to 108 MHz Japan uses the 74 to
90 MHz band. FM stations are much more popular in economically developed
regions, such as Europe and the United States, especially since higher sound
fidelity and stereo broadcasting became common in this format. FM radio was
invented by Edwin Howard Armstrong in the 1930s for the specific purpose of
overcoming the interference (static) problem of AM radio, to which it is in fact
immune. At the same time, greater fidelity was made possible by spacing
stations further apart.
108
3.6 Other radio stations

Apart from the digital and satellite radio stations, many other non-broadcast
types of radio stations exist. These include:
base stations for police, fire and ambulance networks
military base stations
dispatch base stations for taxis, trucks, and couriers
emergency broadcast systems
amateur radio stations
FM radio uses frequency modulation, of course. The frequency band for FM
radio is about 88 to 108 MHz; the information signal is music and voice which
falls in the audio spectrum. The full audio spectrum ranges from 20 to 20,000
Hz, but FM radio limits the upper modulating frequency to 15 kHz (cf. AM radio
which limits the upper frequency to 5 kHz). Although, some of the signal may
be lost above 15 kHz, most people can't hear it anyway, so there is little loss of
fidelity. FM radio maybe appropriately referred to as "high-fidelity."
If FM transmitters use a maximum modulation index of about 5.0, so the
resulting bandwidth is 180 kHz (roughly 0.2 MHz). The FCC assigns stations)
0.2 MHz apart to prevent overlapping signals. If you were to fill up the FM band
with stations, you could get 108 - 88 / .2 = 100 stations, about the same
number as AM radio (107).
FM radio is broadcast in stereo, meaning two channels of information. In
practice, they generate three signals prior to applying the modulation:
The L + R (left + right) signal in the range of 50 to 15,000 Hz.
A 19 kHz pilot carrier.
The L-R signal centered on a 38 kHz pilot carrier (which is suppressed)

that ranges from 23 to 53 kHz.
So, the information signal actually has a maximum modulating frequency of
53 kHz, requiring a reduction in the modulation index to about 1.0 to keep the
total signal bandwidth about 200 kHz.
Station formats: Radio formats differ by country, regulation and markets.
In addition, formats change in popularity as time passes and technology
improves. Originally, one of the most popular formats for radio was
broadcasting program material in real time, known as live broadcasting. As
technology for sound recording improved, an increasing proportion of
broadcast programming used pre-recorded material. A current trend is the
automation of radio stations. Some stations now operate without direct human
intervention by using entirely pre-recorded material sequenced by computer
109
control.
3.7 Broadcast Signals
Radio communication is typically in the form of AM radio or FM Radio
transmissions. The broadcast of a single signal, such as a monophonic audio
signal, can be done by straightforward amplitude modulation or frequency
modulation. More complex transmissions utilize sidebands arising from the
sum and difference frequencies which are produced by superposition of some
signal upon the carrier wave. For example, in FM stereo transmission, the
sum of left and right channels (L+R) is used to frequency modulate the carrier
and a separate subcarrier at 38 kHz is also superimposed on the carrier. That
subcarrier is then modulated with a (L-R) or difference signal so that the
transmitted signal can be separated into left and right channels for stereo
playback. In television transmission, three signals must be sent on the carrier:
the audio, picture intensity, and picture chrominance. This process makes use
of two subcarriers. Other transmissions such as satellite TV and long distance
telephone transmission make use of multiple subcarriers for the broadcast of
multiple signals simultaneously
FM Stereo: Until 1961, all commercial FM broadcast-band transmissions
were monophonic. The FCC authorized stereophonic transmission for the
commercial FM broadcast band. With stereophonic transmission, the
information signal is spatially divided into two 50-Hz to 15-kHz audio channels
(a left and a right). Music that originated on the left side is reproduced only on
the left speaker, and music that originated on the right side is reproduced only
on the right speaker. The main problem with introducing stereophonic
transmission is the compatibility with monophonic receivers. The spectrum
shown in figure 3.14 is the standard spectrum used today. The spectrum
compromises the 50 Hz to 15 kHz stereo channel plus an additional stereo
channel frequency division multiplexed into a composite baseband signal with
a 19 kHz pilot. The three channels are (1) the left (L) plus the right (R) audio
channels, (2) the left plus the inverted right audio channels, and (3) the SCA
subcarrier and its associated sidebands.
110
Figure 3.14
The L + R stereo channel occupies the 0 - 15 kHz passband. The L - R audio
channel amplitude modulates a 38 kHz subcarrier and produces the L - R
stereo channel, which is a double-sideband suppressed carrier that occupies
the 23 - 53 kHz passband, used only for FM stereo transmission. SCA
transmission occupy the 60 - 74 kHz frequency spectrum. Mono receivers can
demodulate the total baseband spectrum but only the 50 - 15 kHz L + R
channel is amplified and fed to all speakers. Stereophonic receivers must
provide additional demodulation of the 23 - 53 kHz L - R stereo channel,
L + R right audio
L - R stereo
separate the left and
channelsSCAand
then feed them to their
channel
Stereo
stereo
channel
channel
respective speakers.
Thepilotprocess
of multiplexing
subcarriertwo audio signals is shown
subcarrier
in figure 3.15.
50
L.R
USB
L.R
LSB
L+R
15k 19k 23k
38k
SCA
53k
60k 6Jk 14k
f (Hz)
Stereo Transmission: Figure 3.16 shows a simplified block diagram for a

stereo FM transmitter. The L and R audio channels are combined in a matrix
network to produce the L + R and the L - R audio channels. The L - R audio
channel modulates a 38 kHz subcarrier and produces a 23 to 53 kHz L - R
stereo channel. Because there is a time delay introduced in the L - R signal
path as it propagates through the balanced modulator, the L + R stereo
channel must be artificially delayed somewhat to maintain phase integrity with
the L - R stereo channel
for demodulation purposes. Also for demodulation
S1 (t)
purposes, a 19 kHz pilot is transmitted rather than the 38 kHz subcarrier
+
because it is considerably more
S the 38 kHz subcarrier in the
S difficult to recover
S2 (t)
+
receiver. The composite
baseband
signal is+ fed
to the FM transmitter, where it
+
modulates the main carrier.
freq.
x2
cos2 P x 19,000t
Figure 3.15 Multplexing stereo signals
111
Stereo Reception: FM stereo receivers are identical to standard FM

receivers up to the output of the audio detector stage. The output of the
discriminator is the total baseband spectrum that was shown in figure 3.14.
Figure 3.17 shows a simplified block
diagram for anL FM
receiver that has both
L + R and L - R
+ R and L - R
Left and right
channels
stereoof
channels
mono and stereo
audio outputs.audio
In the
mono section
the signal processor,
audio channels
to main
FM
the L + R stereo channel, which contains all of the original
information
from
transmitter
both the L and R audio channels, is simply filtered, amplified and the fed to
composite
both the L and R speakers. In the stereo section of the signal
processor, the
baseband
Linear
baseband
signal
is fed into the
stereo
the L and R audio
Delaywhere
L+R
L + R demodulator
Delay
L+R
L channel
in
Preemphasis
combining
network 50 Hz - 15 kHz
adder 50 Hz - 15 kHz
network
channels are separated and then
fed to their
respective speakers.
The L + R
60-7 4 kHz
L - R19 kHz
L-R
L - R sideband
and L R-channel
R stereo
channels and
the
pilot
are separated from the
Balanced
Preemphasis
in
adder 50 Hz - 15 kHz
kHz
19 kHzwith a highcomposite baseband signal with filters.
The modulator
19 kHz23-53
pilot
is filtered
pilot
Matrix
38 kHzand the fed to the L - R
Q bandpass filter, multiplied
by 2, amplified
network
demodulator. The L + R stereo channel is filtered
off by a low-pass
19 kHz filter with an
x2
oscillator
multiplier
upper cutoff frequency of 15 kHz. The L - R double-sideband signal is
separated with a broadly tuned bandpass filter and then mixed with the
recovered 38 kHzFigure
carrier3.17
in a balanced
produce
Stereo FMmodulator
transmittertousing
FDMthe L - R audio
information. The matrix network combines the L + R and L - R signals in such a
way as to separate the L and R audio information signals, which are fed to their
respective de-emphasis networks and speakers.
112
From FM
receiver
Mono receiver
composite
The block diagram
for the stereo matrix decoder if shown in figure 3.18. The L L+R
baseband
Frequency
Speakerfrom
Deemphasis
R audio
channel is added directly
to the L + R audio channel. The output
discriminator
(L + R)
network
the adder is
Audio
channels
Stereo receiver
Low-pass
filter and
time delay
L+R
Bandpass
filter
23-53 kHz
L-R
Matrix network
(stereo decoder)
L speaker
R
The L - R audio channel is inverted and then added to the
L + R audio channel.
L-R
Audio channels
Audio
The output from the adder is
channels
19 kHz
bandpass
filter
Sidebands
19kHz
pilot
Balanced
product
detector
R speaker
Amplifier
38 kHz
and x 2
subcarrier
multiplier
Figure 3.18 FM stereo and mono receiver
(L + R) + (L - R)
2L
(L + R) - (L - R)
3.8 Applications of Frequency Modulation
Frequency modulation is used mainly
2R for transmissions above 25 megahertz
(MHZ). Typical uses are in broadcasting, television sound, mobile radio
telephony, radio paging systems, space telemetry, intercity microwave
113
relaying of all classes of public traffic including voice channels, teleprinting,

facsimile,
network programs,
television and computer data,
Stereobroadcast
channels
Audioand
channels
and intercontinental telecommunications via satellite. Frequency modulation
network
is used for bothMatrix
analog
and digital communications, and phase modulation as
L
+
R
Audio
2L
2L
Deemphasis
well as frequency +modulation
is employed.
L speaker
Adder
+
network
amplifier
FM broadcasting: The frequency band 88 108 MHz is allocated to FM

broadcasting in a large part of the world by international agreement. For a
2R
Audio
Deemphasis
2R
+
R speaker for
Adder
channel
channels
amplifier
network are 100 allocatable
L - R spacing - of 200 kHz, there
transmission of an audio range of 50 15,000 Hz, with a frequency-deviation
ratio of 5. This means that there are five significant sidebands above and
Stereo
matrix network
decoder of 75 kHz, and the
below the carrier, the 3.18
carrier
is deviated
a maximum
emitted spectrum is twice this value. Because of the relatively small signal
power in the modulating frequencies above 4 kHz, the received signal-tonoise ratio is improved substantially by pre-emphasis of the audio signal in
transmission, necessitating complementary de-emphasis in the receiver to
restore natural program balance. In fact, pre-emphasis produces a sort of
hybrid form of modulation, being pure frequency modulation at the lowest
audio frequencies, and gradually changing to phase modulation at the
highest. See also Frequency modulation.
FM mobile transmission: Millions of land, maritime, and aeronautical mobile
FM transceivers are employed by police, firemen, public safety agencies,
industrial and commercial enterprises, private citizens, and radio amateurs
who desire the benefits of enroute telephony. The intensity of such usage has
grown exponentially, mainly because of the availability of reliable, small, lowpower-consumption solid-state equipments that are economical, and also
because of the public realization of the benefits of having such
communications.
Radio relaying: Frequency modulation is used for microwave radio relaying
over land, over water, and to great distances using satellites, sometimes
carrying thousands of simultaneous telephone conversations or several
television channels.
The advent of requirements for short-haul services, local distribution networks
within cities, television relay, and a wide variety of optical communication
services including high-speed computer communications, electronic mail,
data transmission, and other services, where it may be cost-effective to avoid
the local telephone loop, presents another application for FM radio relaying.
Telegraphy: Telegraphy, including teleprinting and binary digital data
114
transmission, is based on shifting the carrier frequency or its phase between

two limiting values, one of which represents a mark signal and the other a
space signal. This frequency shift (or phase shift) is a form of FM signaling
used over a wire, cable, or radio.
Facsimile: Black-and-white images (line drawings and typed copy) can be
transmitted by employing the principles used in FM telegraphy; one limit
frequency corresponds to black, and the other to white, on the image to be
transmitted. A continuous gray scale can be transmitted and recorded if,
instead of just two frequencies, a continuous frequency shift is employed
between some low frequency (say, 1500 Hz) and some higher frequency (say,
2700 Hz), the exact frequency at any instant being proportional to the gray
level of the image. See also facsimile.
Telemetry: Frequency modulation is the preferred method for transmission of
information or data from a remote or inaccessible location such as a rocket
vehicle in flight. Each condition to be remotely observed actuates one sub
channel, which, when multiplexed with other channels reporting other status
conditions, modulates the radio carrier by frequency modulation.
3.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Frequency Modulation (FM) over

Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Advantages
Amplitude of FM wave is independent of depth of modulation (In AM, it is
dependent on depth of modulation).
In FM, Transmitted power remains same. Bandwidth increases for increase in
modulation index (In AM, transmitted power increases with increase in
modulation index).
FM is immune to noise than AM (SNR is high).
Noise is lesser for increased frequency deviation.
Adjacent channel interference is less in FM than AM (as there are guard
bands between FM stations).
FM operates at upper VHF and UHF.
Disadvantages
Wider channel -> 7 to 15 times larger than AM.
115
FM transmitter and receiver equipment are complex and expensive.

Line of sight -> area of reception is smaller than AM.
116
Self test 3.0

1a
Define modulation.
b.
What are the degrees of modulation?
2.
Explain why modulation is necessary or desirable.
3.
Name the circuit that causes one signal to modulate another, and give
the names of the two signals applied to this circuit.
4.
In AM, how does the carrier vary in accordance with the information
signal?
5.
True or false? The carrier
6.
Describe what is meant by the modulation of a wave.
7.
Sketch and analyze graphs of the power spectrum of a carrier wave that
is amplitude-modulated by a single-frequency signal.
8.
Define the sideband frequencies
9.
Give the formula for modulation index and explain its terms.
10.
An AM wave displayed on an oscilloscope has values of and as read

from the graticule. What is the percentage of modulation?
11.
What is the ideal percentage of modulation for maximum amplitude of

information transmission?
12.
To achieve 75 percent modulation of a carrier of what amplitude of the

modulating signal is needed?
13.
The maximum peak-to-peak value of an AM wave is 45 V. The peak-topeak value of the modulating signal is 20 V. What is the
percentage of modulation?
13.
What is the mathematical relationship of the carrier and modulating

signal voltages when over modulation occurs?
117
15.
An AM radio transmitter operating on 3.9 MHz is modulated by

frequencies up to 4 kHz. What are the maximum upper and lower side
frequencies? What is the total bandwidth of the AM signal?
16.
What is the bandwidth of an AM signal whose carrier is
17.
1 MHz modulated by a 1.5-kHz square wave with significant harmonics

up to the fifth? Calculate all the upper and lower sidebands produced.
18.
How much power appears in one sideband of an AM signal of a 5-kW

transmitter modulated by 80 percent?
19.
What is the total power supplied by an AM transmitter with a carrier

power of 2500 W and modulation of 77 percent?
20.
Distinguish between a carrier wave and a signal wave.
21.
Sketch graphs of the power spectrum of a carrier wave that is

amplitude-modulated by a single frequency signal.
22.
Explain what is meant by sideband frequencies and bandwidth.
23.
Explain the relationship between sideband frequencies and bandwidth.
Self-test 3.1
1.
A 400 kHz sinusoidal carrier of amplitude 5V is frequency modulated by
a 3 kHz sinusoidal information signal of amplitude 3V. The behaviour of
the carrier is governed by the frequency deviation per volt and for this
system is 25 kHz per volt. Describe how the resulting FM signal
changes with time.
2.
A 10 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a pure signal tone of f

requency 8 kHz. The frequency deviation is 32 kHz. Calculate the
bandwidth of the resulting FM waveform.
3.
Suggest why it would not be sensible for long-wave radio transmitters

operating in the range 140 kHz to 280 kHz to use FM.
4.
An audio signal, with a base band of 200 Hz to 4 kHz, frequency

modulates a carrier of frequency 50 MHz The frequency deviation per
118
volt is 10 kHz V-1 and the maximum audio voltage it can transmit is 3V.
Calculate the frequency deviation and the bandwidth of the FM signal.
5.
The diagram below shows an FM carrier modulated by a pure tone

(sinusoidal wave). Calculate the carrier frequency and the pure tone
frequency.
Voltage (V)
10
11 12 13
14
15
16 17
18 19
20 21
Time
(ms)
6.
A 24 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a pure signal tone of

frequency 12 kHz. The frequency deviation is 56 kHz. Calculate the
bandwidth of the resulting FM waveform
7.
Suggest why it would not be very sensible for medium-wave radio

transmitters operating in the range 600 kHz to 1600 kHz to use FM.
8.
An audio signal, with a base band of 200 Hz to 12 kHz, frequency

modulates a carrier of frequency 50 MHz The frequency deviation per
volt is 15 kHz V-1 and the maximum audio voltage it can transmit is 7 V.
Calculate the frequency deviation and the bandwidth of the FM signal.
9.
The diagram below shows an FM carrier modulated by a pure tone

(sinusoidal wave). Calculate the carrier frequency and the pure tone
frequency.
119
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Time (ms)
10.
One input to an amplitude modulated double sideband full carrier

modulator is an 800 kHz carrier with amplitude of 40V peak. The second
input is a 25 kHz modulating signal whose amplitude is sufficient to
produce a plus and minus 10V change in the amplitude of the envelope.
Calculate the following:
a)
Upper and lower side frequencies
b)
Modulation coefficient and percent modulation
c)
Maximum and minimum positive peak amplitudes of the
envelope
d)
Draw the output frequency spectrum
e)
Draw the envelope and label
11.
For a modulation coefficient of m = 0.2 and an unmodulated carrier

power of 1000 watts calculate,
(a) the total sideband power,
(b) the upper and lower sideband power,
(c) the modulated carrier power, and
(d) the total transmitted power.
12.
Determine the maximum upper, lower, and total sideband power for an
unmodulated carrier power of 2000 watts. Determine the maximum
total transmitted power for an AM system.
13.
If a 100 kHz signal and a 30 kHz signal are applied to a balanced

modulator, what frequencies will appear on the output?
14.
If a 1000 kHz signal and a 3 kHz signal are applied to a standard

amplitude modulator, what frequencies will appear on the output?
120
15
A 150 MHz signal is modulated between 149.9 MHz and 150.1 MHz to
carry a signal ranging from 100 Hz to 20 kHz. Calculate:
(a)
The peak frequency deviation
(b)
The modulation index
(c)
The band width.
16.
If the amplitude of a signal of frequency 500 kHz is modulated by a

frequency of 15 kHz, what will the frequency of the sidebands be?
17.
An AM signal has a carrier frequency of 1530 kHz and an amplitude of

10 Vpeak The carrier is modulated by a sine wave with a frequency of 1
kHz and a peak voltage of 2.5 V. Give the equation for the resulting AM
signal 'and calculate the modulation index.
18.
For an AM DSBFC transmitter with an unmodulated carrier power, Pc =

500 W that is modulated simultaneously by four tones, m1 = 0.1, m2 =
0.2, m3 = 0.4 and m4= 0.5, determine
a)
the total modulation index
b)
the total sideband power
c)
the total transmitted power
19.
Consider the following modulation system:

M(t)
Cos(2pfct)
Xc(t)
Assume that a tone message, m(t) = 2cos(20nt) is transmitted using

this modulation system with fc = 500Hz.
a)
Assume that A=2.
i.
What type of modulation does this correspond to?
ii.
What is the power efficiency of this system?
iii.
Sketch the output signal.
iv.
Sketch the spectrum of the output signal.
b)
Assume that A= 0
i.
ii.
What is the power efficiency of this system?
iii.
Sketch the output signal.
iv.
Sketch the spectrum of the output signal.
121
c)
i.
ii.
iii.
Assume that A= 0
How would you modify the given modulation system such that
the output signal is xc (t) = cos (980t)?
Hint: You might need to add an additional component to the
given system.
State one advantage and one disadvantage of this modulation
system compared to the one in part (a).
3.2
1.
What is the generation of FM wave by indirect method called?
2.
What is a frequency multiplier?
3.
What is the oscillator whose frequency is controlled by the modulating

signal Called?
4.
How can FM be generated?
5.
Name a device whose output voltage is proportional to the

instantaneous frequency of the FM wave applied to its input.
6.
How can a VCO be implemented by using a sinusoidal oscillator?
7.
Explain how a VCO is used as a frequency modulator.
8.
How does an FM signal differ from an AM signal?
9.
Define guard band?
10.
Explain the necessity of De-emphasis and pre-emphasis in FM. Write a

note on zero crossing detector
11.
Explain any one method of F.M generation. Define modulation index for
F.M. State Carson's rule for the bandwidth of the F.M wave.
12.
In an F.M system, the frequency deviation is 6 kHz. When a modulating

signal with amplitude 4 volts and frequency 600HZ, modulates
the carrier.
122
13.
Determine the modulation index, mf and frequency deviation f if its

amplitude is increased to 8 volts at the same frequency 600HZ and its
amplitude is increased to 12 volts while modulating signal frequency is
decreased to 400HZ.
14.
How is FM superior to AM with reference to noise?
15.
Draw the circuit and explain FM demodulation by ration detector.
16.
An FM signal is 10 sin (16 x106t + 20 sin 2 x103 t). Find the

modulation index and power of FM signal.
17.
An FM signal is given by s (t) = 2 cos 20000 t + cos 2000 t + 3 cos

40000 t. Determine the bandwidth and b assuming K f =104 Hz/volt.
18.
A modulating signal 5 cos 30000 t angle modulates a carrier A cos

2fct. Assume Kd =Kp = 15 KHz/volt. Determine the modulation index
and bandwidth for FM
19.
Give and explain 3 areas of applications where standard FM

transmission is needed?
21.
In a FM system the frequency deviation constant is 1 KHz/v. A

sinusoidal modulating signal of amplitude 15 V and frequency 3 MHz is
applied. Calculate (i) Peak frequency deviation (ii) Modulating index.
21.
Describe the nature of amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency

modulation (FM).
22.
Describe the relative advantages and disadvantages of AM and FM for

radio transmission and reception.
23.
Distinguish between envelop detection and synchronous detection

methods.
Self-test 3.3
1.
A high-quality FM radio station has a frequency deviation of 75 kHz and
contains audio signals varying from 50 Hz to 15 kHz. What is the
modulation index and the bandwidth of the FM transmissions?
123
2.
An FM radio station has a frequency deviation of 75 kHz and contains

audio signals varying from 1 00 Hz to 12 kHz. For the FM transmissions,
calculate:
(a)
The modulation index;
(b)
The bandwidth.
3.
Determine the peak frequency deviation and modulation index for a

frequency modulator with a deviation sensitivity of 10 kHz/V and a
modulating signal of 5cos(2rt(2500)t).
4.
An FM signal is defined by the equation eFM = 50sin (95 x10 t +

10sin5000t) v.
Find the carrier frequency.
Find the modulation frequency.
Find the modulation index.
Calculate the frequency deviation.
a)
b)
c)
d)
5.
Determine the practical band Width of an FM signal modulated by a 15kHz tone whose frequency deviation is 45 kHz. What is the approximate
bandwidth for this system using Carson's formula?
6.
When the modulating frequency in an FM system is 500 Hz and the

modulating voltage is 2.6 V, the modulation index is 40. Find the
maximum deviation. What is the modulation index when the modulating
frequency is raised to 800 Hz and the modulating voltage is
simultaneously reduced to 1.3 V?
7.
The audio section of a TV transmission employs frequency modulation

with a maximum allowable deviation of 25 kHz. Find the deviation ratio if
the highest intelligence frequency it can handle is 15 kHz.
8.
What is the modulation index of an FM transmitter whose frequency

deviation is 50 kHz while its audio frequency is 10 kHz?
9.
What is the approximate frequency of the modulating signal having a

bandwidth of 15 kHz and a frequency deviation of 6 kHz?
10.
What is the deviation ratio of an FM signal if the maximum allowable

deviation is 12 kHz and the maximum intelligence frequency is 4 kHz?
124
11.
Outline the significance of bandwidth in the transmission of a radio

station broadcast. What would happen, in practice, if the bandwidth
allotted to a particular radio station were to be reduced to, say, half its
original size?
12.
State and explain three advantages of frequency modulation over

amplitude modulation in radio transmissions.
13.
An FM radio station has a frequency deviation of 75 kHz and contains

audio signals varying from 1 00 Hz to 12 kHz. For the FM transmissions,
calculate:
(a)
The modulation index;
(b)
The bandwidth.
14.
The frequency modulated voltage wave is given by the equation : e = 12

cos (6 108t + 5 sin 1250 t). Find
(I) carrier frequency
(ii) signal frequency
(iii) modulation index
(iv) maximum frequency deviation
(v) power dissipated by the FM wave in 10-ohm resistor.
15.
A 25 MHz carrier is modulated by a 400 Hz audio sine wave. If the

carrier voltage is 4V and the maximum frequency deviation is 10 kHz,
write down the voltage equation of the FM wave.
16.
The carrier frequency in an FM modulator is 1000 kHz. If the modulating

frequency is 15 kHz, what are the first three upper sideband and lower
sideband frequencies?
17.
A FM modulator is used to transmit a tone message with amplitude of 4

Volts and frequency of20 Hz. The frequency deviation constant for the
modulator is 25HzN, and the carrier wave has amplitude 10 Volts and
frequency 2000 Hz.
a)
What's the power of the FM modulated signal?
b)
What's the approximate bandwidth of the FM modulated signal
using Carson's rule?
c)
The output of the FM modulator is passed through a bandpass
filter centered at 2000Hz. What should be the bandwidth of the
filter such that 90% of the power in the modulated signal passes
125
d)
e)
f)
g)
through?
How would your answer to part
change if the amplitude of the message is doubled?
How would your answer to part
change if the frequency of the carrier is doubled?
126
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127
CHAPTER FOUR
Principles of AM & FM Demodulation
4.0 Introduction
A radio receiver may be defined as a device for reproducing in the form of
useful output the intelligence conveyed by radio waves applied to it. Usually
an antenna is a necessary adjunct to the receiver. The first radio receivers
were crystal sets, and became available in the 1920's with the opening of
Marconi's first broadcast station in Chelmsford.
A crystal set does not have a battery. It runs completely from the energy
extracted from radio waves it picks up from the antenna. A resonant LC (or
tuned) circuit coupled to a large aerial or antenna was used. Many amateur
experimenters constructed crystal sets, often with the tuner inductor coil
wound on a tubular box or a drinking glass. At this time the semiconductor
diode had not been invented, so extracting the audible modulation signal from
the transmission relied on the non-linear electrical properties of the 'crystal',
typically a piece of coke or galena. In early sets a "cat's whiskers" - a fine
piece of wire - was adjusted by trial and error to make a suitable contact with
the crystal.
There were many limitations to the crystal set: it needed a big aerial (antenna),
an earth connection, the clumsy cat's whisker, and the weak signal could only
be listened to by one person at a time with headphones. Very quickly the
crystal set began to be replaced by valve radios with loudspeakers, powered
by batteries.
In World War II, crystal sets were used by prisoners of war in prison camps to
listen to news from home. Much ingenuity went into improvising the necessary
components.
4.1 AM and FM Radio Frequencies
The Amplitude Modulated (AM radio) carrier frequencies are in the frequency
range 535-1605 kHz. Carrier frequencies of 540 to 1600 kHz are assigned at
10 kHz intervals. The FM radio band is from 88 to 108 MHz between VHF
television Channels 6 and 7. The FM stations are assigned center frequencies
at 200 kHz separation starting at 88.1 MHz, for a maximum of 100 stations.
These FM stations have a 75 kHz maximum deviation from the center
frequency, which leaves 25 kHz upper and lower "gaurd bands" to minimize
interaction with the adjacent frequency band. See figure 4.1.
128
200 kHz bandwidth from

88, 1-108.1 Mhz for
100 possible bands
10 KHz bandwidth from

540- 1600 KHz for
106 possible bands
10
10
Microwaves
VHF TV
Channels 2-6
FM Radio
Radio
Shot wave
AM Radio
10
VHF TV
Channels 7-13
FM
AM
10
Frequency in Hz
Figure 4.1 Radio Frequencies

The bandwidth assigned to each FM station is sufficiently wide to broadcast
high-fidelity, stereo signals. The carrier frequency is directly modulated with
the sum of the left and right channel audio signals. A 38 kHz subcarrier also
modulates the carrier, and that subcarrier is modulated with the difference, LR , of the audio signals. The FM tuner then decodes this signal and separates
the Left and Right audio channels. See figure 4.2.
L+R
Channels
Pilot
15 19 23
L-R channels with

38KHz subcarrier
supressed
38
Frequencies reserved
for commercial- free
background music
53
75
Frequency (Khz) relative to band center frequency

Figure 4.2 Left and Right Audio Channels illustration
129
4.2 Heterodyne Principle

Heterodyning is a method for transferring a broadcast signal from its carrier to
a fixed local intermediate frequency in the receiver so that most of the receiver
does not have to be re-tuned when you change channels. The interference of
any two waves will produce a beat frequency, and this technique provides for
the tuning of a radio by forcing it to produce a specific beat frequency called
the "intermediate frequency" or IF. Heterodyning is used in the AM radio
receiver and played a big part in making AM radio practical for mass
communication.
Amplitude
Modulated
Carrier
f
Original signal
Signal on original
carrier by
amplitude modulation
Signal on intermediate
frequency carrier produced
by the mixing process.
f
beat
= f - f
2
1
Mixer
f2
Mixer produces
Beat frequency
Local oscillator
Sine wave
Difference frequency
Carrier which retains
The modulating signal.
Figure 4.3 Heterodyning Illustration

An electromagnetic carrier wave which is carrying a signal by means of
amplitude modulation or frequency modulation can transfer that signal to a
carrier of different frequency by means of heterodyning. This transfer is
accomplished by mixing the original modulated carrier with a sine wave of
another frequency as illustrated in figure 4.3. This process produces a beat
frequency equal to the difference between the frequencies, and this difference
frequency constitutes a third carrier which will be modulated by the original
signal.
Heterodyning is extremely important in radio transmission, in fact, the
development of heterodyning schemes was one of the major developments
which led to mass communication by radio. By fixing the beat frequency
between the incoming carrier and the local oscillator to a fixed intermediate
frequency (IF), most of a radio receiver can be constructed so that it can be
130
used by any incoming radio signal. When the input radio frequency amplifier is
tuned to the station's carrier frequency, the local oscillator is tuned along with it
to produce a beat frequency equal to the fixed IF frequency. We now take for
granted that one radio receiver can be tuned to any of the locally broadcast
radio stations, but if it were not for heterodyning, you would have to have one
receiver for each broadcast station.
4.3 Beats
Beats are caused by the interference of two waves at the same point in space.
This plot of the variation of resultant amplitude with time shows the periodic
increase and decrease for two sine waves. When two sound waves of
different frequency approach your ear, the alternating constructive and
destructive interference causes the sound to be alternatively soft and loud - a
phenomenon which is called "beating" or producing beats. The beat
frequency (the number of beats per second) is equal to the absolute value of
the difference in frequency of the two waves shown in figure 4.4.Arising from
simple interference, the applications of beats are extremely far ranging.
Pinna
345 m/s
f1
C
f2
345 m/s
C constructive interference
D Destructive interference
Auditory
canal
f beat = f 2 - f 1
Figure 4.4 Interference of two waves at the same point in space

When you superimpose two sine waves of different frequencies, you get
components at the sum and difference of the two frequencies. This can be
shown by using a sum rule from trigonometry. For equal amplitude sine waves
A cos 2pf1t + A cos 2pf2t = 2A cos 2p
f1 - f2 COS p f1 + f 2
t
t
2
2
2
131
signal - each sideband is a mirror image of the other. See figure 4.5.
Amplitude
Carrier
Lower sideband
Upper sideband
Bandwidth is twice the

maximum audio frequency
Frequency
Figure 4.5 Spectrum of an amplitude modulated, AM signal

Within the overall AM signal the carrier possess the majority of the power - a
fully modulated, i.e. 100% modulation - AM signal has sidebands which have
25% that of the main carrier.
When demodulating a signal, two basic steps may be considered:
Create baseband signal: The main element of AM demodulation is to

create the baseband signal. This can be achieved in a number of ways one of the easiest is to use a simple diode and rectify the signal. This
leaves elements of the original RF signal. When other forms of
demodulation are used, they too leave some elements of an RF signal.
Filter: The filtering removes any unwanted high frequency elements

from the demodulation process. The audio can then be presented to
further stages for audio amplification, etc.
The AM demodulation process is outlined in figure 4.6. This particular
example applies particularly to a diode detector.
Radio frequency
Signal
Rectified signal
Demodulated signal
Figure 4.6 Basics of AM demodulation / detection

4.5.1 Types of AM demodulator
There are a number of ways in which an AM signal can be demodulated. There
is a balance that needs to be made of the performance of the circuit that is
132
The first term gives the phenomenon of beats with a beat frequency equal to
the difference between the frequencies mixed. The beat frequency is given by
beat
1 - 2
Since the first term above drives the output to zero (or a minimum for unequal
amplitudes) at this beat frequency. Both the sum and difference frequencies
are exploited in radio communication, forming the upper and lower sidebands
and determining the transmitted bandwidth.
When you say that the beat frequency is f1-f2 rather than (f1-f2)/2, that requires
some explanation. For the difference frequency you can just say that you get a
minimum when the modulating term reaches zero, which it does twice per
cycle, so that the number of minima per second is f1-f2.
4.4 AM Demodulationand Detection
Demodulation is the act of extracting the original information-bearing signal
from a modulated carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit (or
computer program in a software defined radio) that is used to recover the
information content from the modulated carrier wave.There are several ways
of demodulation depending on how parameters of the base-band signal are
transmitted in the carrier signal, such as amplitude, frequency or phase. For
example, for a signal modulated with a linear modulation, like AM (Amplitude
Modulated), we can use a synchronous detector. On the other hand, for a
signal modulated with an angular modulation, we must use an FM (Frequency
Modulation) demodulator or a PM (Phase Modulation) demodulator. Different
kinds of circuits perform these functions.
There are two basic types of AM detection, coherent and non-coherent. Of
these two, the non-coherent is the simpler method.Non-coherent detection
does not rely on regenerating the carrier signal. The information or modulation
envelope can be removed or detected by a diode followed by an audio filter.
Coherent detection relies on regenerating the carrier and mixing it with the AM
signal. This creates sum and difference frequencies. The difference
frequency corresponds to the original modulation signal.Both of these
detection techniques have certain drawbacks. Consequently, most radio
receivers use a combination of both.
4.5 AM demodulation or detection process
An AM signal consists of a carrier which acts as the reference. Any modulation
that is applied then appears as sidebands which stretch out either side of the
133
required against the complexity, and hence the cost that can be tolerated.
The major types of AM demodulator are:
Diode AM detector: This is by far the simplest form of AM demodulator

or detector, requiring just a semiconductor (or other form) of diode
along with a capacitor to remove the high frequency components. It
suffers from a number of disadvantages, but its performance is more
than adequate for most applications including broadcast receivers
where cost is a significant driver.
Synchronous AM detector: This form of AM detector offers a higher

level of performance, but at the cost of considerably the use of
considerably more components. This means that it is only used in
receivers where the levels of performance are paramount and can
justify the additional component costs.
Both types of detector are widely used, although the diode detector is far more
common in view of its simplicity and the fact that it is quite adequate for
broadcast applications where performance is not normally an issue.
4.5.2 The Envelop Detector
There are different ways to demodulate an AM signal and recover the
transmitted waveform. Probably the simplest way is to use an envelope
detector. The Envelope detector circuit shown in figure 4.7 uses a diode, a
capacitor and a resistor and it is just like a half wave rectifier followed by a lowpass filter. It is a linear detector which takes high frequency RF signal as input
and gives an output which is the envelope of the input signal. A diode detector
is a type of envelope detector and is used for the detection of AM signal.
Input
Output
(Amplitude modulated signal)
(Envelope of the input)
Figure 4.7 The Envelop Detector

The envelope detector recovers the transmitted signal riding on the carrier by
extracting the envelope of the received signal. The structure of a typical
envelope detector receiver is shown in figure 4.8 with 4 major parts
1. The tuned tank
2. The RF amplifier
3. The envelope detector
4. The audio amplifierFigure 4.7 The Envelop Detector
134
The envelope detector recovers the transmitted signal riding on the carrier by
extracting the envelope of the received signal. The structure of a typical
envelope detector receiver is shown in figure 4.8 with 4 major parts
1. The tuned tank
2. The RF amplifier
3. The envelope detector
4. The audio amplifier
RF
Tuned
Filter
Amplifier
Audio
Peak
Detector
Amplifier
Figure 4.8 Structure of a typical AM receiver

The envelope detector that you will use in this experiment is referred to as the
peak envelope detector. It consists of a diode and an RC circuit. This cheap,
easy to build detector is one of the main reasons of popularity of AM in early
radios. The receiver will be quite inexpensive and thus affordable to a larger
number of people. The structure of the peak detector is shown in figure 4.9.
Envelope
D1
Detected Envelope
V out
C
Figure 4.9 left: The peak envelope detector circuit.

right: An AM signal, its envelope (dashed) and its envelope
detected by the circuit on the left (heavy solid). Note the ripples.
Assuming that the diode is ideal and that the initial transient response is
passed, this is how the detector essentially works: Assume that the carrier is
at one of its peaks (note that the peak magnitude is controlled by the
135
modulating audio signal). At this point, since we assumed the transient is

passed, capacitor C is charged all the way up to the voltage magnitude of
current peak, so the diode is off (the voltage drop the diode is zero). So the RC
circuit will now consist of a capacitor charged to an initial voltage. Hence, the
capacitor's voltage will start to decrease exponentially. The diode will remain
off till the input signal to the detector becomes greater than the capacitor
voltage. At this point the diode will start conducting and the capacitor voltage
follows the input voltage till the next peak (Fig. 4.9).
The choice of the value of resistor R is crucial for the desired performance of
the detector. If R is chosen very small, the capacitor will fully discharge thus
there will be bigger ripples in the detected envelope. On the other hand if R is
chosen very large, another phenomenon called failure to follow distortion
occurs. This is best shown in figure 4.10.
Detected
Missed
Envelope
Peak
Figure 4.10 Failure to follow distortion.

The time constant of the RC circuit has been very large,
so two peaks have been missed and the detected envelope is distorted.
As you can see, the capacitor discharges so slowly that its voltage remains
greater than a number peaks in the input signal. So, the circuit misses on a few
peaks and thus outputs a distorted detected envelope. Practically, to avoid
these problems, the value of R should be chosen such that it will meet the
following criterion:
2Pfm < 1/RC = 2Pfi
-------------------- 4.1
Where fc, is the carrier frequency and fm is the highest frequency present in the
136
modulating audio signal.

-1/fcRC
The ripple can be approximated by Vr = Vp (1 e
), where Vp is the peak
value of the input voltage.
4.5.3 Diode detector advantages & disadvantages
The diode detector is widely sued, but it has several advantages and
disadvantages:
Diode detector advantages
Simplicity: The diode detector is very simple and is easy to construct. The
circuit six very straightforward, consisting of a very few components.
Low cost: Requiring so few components, and the fact that he components
are not specialized, this form of detector is very cheap. Accordingly it is widely
used in AM domestic radios.
Diode detector disadvantages
Although the diode detector is able to operate in a reasonably
linear fashion over a reasonable range, outside this range high levels of
distortion are introduced, and even within the more linear range, distortion
levels are not particularly low. It is adequate for small low cost radios.
Selective fading: These detectors are susceptible to the effects of selective
fading experienced on short wave broadcast transmissions. Here the
ionospheric propagation may be such that certain small bands of the signal
are removed. Under normal circumstances signals received via the
ionosphere reach the receiver via a number of different paths. The overall
signal is a combination of the signals received via each path and as a result
they will combine with each other, sometimes constructively to increase the
overall signal level and sometimes destructively to reduce it. It is found that
when the path lengths are considerably different this combination process
can mean that small portions of the signal are reduced in strength. An AM
signal consists of a carrier with two sidebands
Insensitive:
Semiconductor diodes have a certain turn-on voltage.
Accordingly the voltage has to reach a certain level before the diode is able to
operate reasonably efficiently.
Distortion:
4.5.4 Synchronous Detector

In a synchronous or coherent detector, the incoming AM signal is mixed
with the original carrier frequency. See figure 4.11.
137

Before the diode
After the Diode
Audio
AM
LFF
Sin wct
Figure 4.11 Synchronous Detector with the waveforms before and
after the Diode
A synchronous detector is one where the difference frequency between the
two inputs is zero Hz. Of in other words, the two input frequencies are the
same. Recall that the AM input is mathematically defined by:
sin (wc
2
Carrier
wm
Lower Sideband
sin ( wc
+ wm t
(
eam = sin wct +
Upper Sideband
At the multiplier output, we obtain:

m
2
sin wm t
Original Modulation Signal
1
2
sin 2wct
m
4
(
sin 2wc
m
(
wm t +
sin 2wc
4
(
xsin wct =
+ wm t ------- 4.2
(
mixer out = e am
AM signal centered at 2 times the carrier frequency
The high frequency component can be filtered off leaving only the original
modulation signal. This technique has one serious drawback. The problem is how to
create the exact carrier frequency. If the frequency is not exact, the entire baseband
signal will be shifted by the difference. A shift of only 50 Hz will make the human
voice unrecognizable. Most radio receivers use an oscillator to create a fixed
intermediate frequency. This is then followed by an envelope detector or a fixed
frequency PLL.
4.5.5 Advantages and disadvantages of AM synchronous demodulation
There is a balance to be made between utilizing a simple diode detector and a
synchronous detector. It is not always viable to incorporate an AM synchronous
demodulator into a new design. Other formats may be more suitable. The
advantages and disadvantages of a synchronous AM detector compared to a simple
diode detector are tabulated below:
138
Advantages
Disadvantages
1. Increased linearity - lower

levels of distortion.
2. Considerably less affected
by selective fading
experienced on the medium
and short wave bands.
3. Improved sensitivity.
4. Improved signal to noise
ratio.
4.6 FM Signal
Demodulation
1. Considerable additional
complexity, although this is
not such an important
consideration if the
synchronous detector can
be included in an IC.
In FM system, the process of demodulation is also known as conversion or

detection. An ideal Frequency Modulated (FM) signal discriminator's output is
proportional to the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal. In FM signal
demodulation, the basic techniques are:
FM to AM conversion
Zero-crossing demodulation
Quadrature demodulation
FM to AM Conversion: FM to AM Conversion, which is also known as slope
detection, is shown in Figure 4.12. In this method, the input FM signal is
converted to an AM signal by the differentiator. Then an AM demodulation
method is used to demodulate the converted signal. Envelope demodulation
methods are commonly used in the AM signal demodulation. Thus two FM to
AM conversion methods are FM to AM conversion with Hilbert transform and
FM to AM conversion using filter.
Audio signal
Input
xFM (t )
d
dt
Envelope
detector
Removing
DC
Output
Figure 4.12 Block diagram of FM to AM conversion

Slope Detector: Any filter (low-pass, high-pass, and band-pass) can be
turned into an FM detector. The FM signal is chosen to be in the cutoff region
of the filter (Figure 4.13) and therefore any frequency deviation is translated
into an amplitude variation. The filter is then followed by an AM detector and
the modulation signal is recovered. While this is the simplest technique
139
available, it is non-linear since a first order low-pass filter response falls as 1/

and this result in second and third-order frequency components. For
example, let us operate a low-pass filter
dB
dB
w1
w1
amplitude
amplitude
modulation
Modulation
w
frequency
modulation
w0
w0 frequency
modulation
AM
FM+ AM
Filter
Noise
Slope
Modulation
AM
Noise
Envelope
Signal
detector
Figure 4.13 FM Detection Using a Slope Detector

(With a corner frequency 1) at 0 and take a frequency deviation of. The filter
response is therefore:
----------- 4.3
w1
1
Vo
1
w >> w1
= H (w) =
=
w1
w1
jw
w
V
jw
1
+
i
and for = w + dw
0
------------------ 4.4
dw
w1
w1
Vo
dw 2 dw 3 . . .
H (w) =
1
=
+
w0 +and
w0 fixed.w0
w0
w0 +
dw are
Vi equation 4.4
For
0
1
The peak of the envelope occurs for a negative and is
------------------- 4.5
(w (1 + dw
(
Vi
w0
w0
The minimum of the envelope occurs for a positive and is shown in figure
4.14.
140
FM
AM
Filter
(1 +Dw / w o) (1 + m)
Lower frequencies
(Dw is negative)
(1 - Dw / w ) (1 - m)
Higher frequencies
Figure 4.14 FM to AMoconversion by

(Dw filter
is positive)
This technique is valid only for a small frequency deviation and does not have
any rejection of unwanted AM signals (noise).If a high pass filter is used, the
demodulation process is much more linear but still suffers from having no
rejection to AM noise.
Zero-Crossing Demodulation: The zero-cross detector is used to find
positive zero-cross points. When the amplitude of the input signal is changed
from negative to positive, an impulse is generated at the zero-cross point.
Then the pulse generator converts the impulse chain into a pulse chain. In the
pulse chain, the width and amplitude of each pulse are and A respectively.
Assume the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal is
f = fcc + f.m (t)
------------ 4.6
where fc is the carrier frequency, Df is the maximum frequency deviation and

m(t) is the massage signal. And
T = 1/f
Thus, the output of the low-pass filter is
T
A.
T
= AT
----------------- 4.7
= AT . [c + D . m (t)]
where the DC component is At. fc, the demodulated signal is AtDf .m(t).
= AT c + AT D m (t)
FM Signal
Zero-cross(a)
Detector
Pulse
Block
diagram Low-pass
Generator
Filter
Demodulated
Signal
141

Message signal
1
0
-1
0.23
0.24
O.25
0.26
1
0
-1
0.23
1
0.5
0.24
O.25
0.26
0.24
O.25
0.26
0.24
O.25
0.26
0
0.23
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.3
0.31
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.3
0.31
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.3
0.31
0.27
0.28
Modulated signal
0.29
0.3
0.31
Frequency Modulated Signal
Zero-crossing Points
Pulse
0.5
0
0.23
-1
0.23
0.28
0.26
0.27
0.3
(b) Process
0.29
0.24
O.25
Time (s)
Figure 4.15 Zero-crossing demodulation
0.31
Figure 4.15 shows the process of zero-crossing demodulation. A 25 Hz

sinusoidal wave is used as the message signal, the carrier is a 300 Hz
sinusoidal wave. The maximum frequency deviation is 20 Hz. At first, the
carrier is frequency modulated by the message signal. Then the zero-cross
detector outputs the positive zero-crossing points of the FM signal, shown as
triangular wave. After that, the pulse generator converts every zerocrossingpoint to a pulse with fixed width and amplitude, shown as rectangular
wave. After the low-pass filtering, the message signal is recovered.
4.6.1 Quadrature Demodulation in FM System
There is one difference between the quadrature demodulation method in AM
signal demodulation and the one in FM signal demodulation. In AM signal
demodulation, quadrature demodulation is used to extract the amplitude
information of the message signal from the AM signal.
Low-pass
I(t)
Filter
Demodulated
FM Signal
COS( 2 ^ Ct)
arctan(Q/I)
Low-pass
-
Defferentiator
-1
Signal
Q(t)
Filter
Figure 4.16 Block

of quadrature demodulation for FM signal
sin (2diagram
p t)
o
In FM signal demodulation, quadrature demodulation is used to extract the

signal information from the FM signal, and then the angle information is
142
converted to message signal.As in Figure 4.16, the arctan(Q/I) module is

used to obtain the phase information of the modulated signal. Then the
differentiator outputs the instantaneous frequency of the modulated signal.
Thus the FM signal is demodulated.
4.6.2 Phase locked loop, PLL FM
Phase locked loop, PLL FM demodulator or detector is a form of FM
demodulator that has gained widespread acceptance in recent years. PLL FM
detectors can easily be made from the variety of phase locked loop integrated
circuits that are available, and as a result, PLL FM demodulators are found in
many types of radio equipment ranging from broadcast receivers to high
performance communications equipment. The PLL is an electronic feedback
control system, as illustrated by the block diagram in figure4.17, of locking the
output and input signals in good agreements in both frequency and phase. In
radio communication, if a carrier frequency drifts due to transmission, the PLL
in receiver circuit will track the carrier frequency automatically.
Signal
Input
Vi
Phase
detector
Vd
Kd
Vo
Amplifier
Low-pass
filter
Ka
Signal
Output
VCO
Ko
Figure 4.17 PLL block
diagram
In general, a PLL circuit includes the following sections:

1.
Phase Detector (PD)
2.
Low Pass Filter (LPF)
3.
Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
The phase detector within the PLL locks at its two inputs and develops an
output that is zero if these two input frequencies are identical. If the two input
frequencies are not identical, then the output of detector, when passed
through the low-pass filter removing the ac components, is a dc level applied
to the VCO input. This action closes the feedback loop since the dc level
applied to the VCO input changes the VCO output frequency in an attempt to
make it exactly match the input frequency. If the VCO output frequency equals
the inputfrequency, the PLL has achieved lock, and the control voltage will be
143
zero for as long as the PLL input frequency remains constant. The parameters
of PLL shown in Fig. 8-1 are as follows:
Kd = phase detector gain in volts/radian
Ka = amplifier gain in volt/volt
Ko = VCO gain in kHz/volt
KL = KdKaKo = closed loop gain in kHz/volt
Input A
XOR
Input B
Output
A
Input
B
Output
(b)
(a)
(C)
Output
dc level
(V)
90
180
270
360
Input phase
difference
(degree)
(d)
Figure 4.18 Phase detection

A better understanding of the operation of phase detector may be obtained by
considering that the simple Exculsive - OR (XOR) gate is used as a phase
detector. The XOR gate can be thought of as an inequality detector which
compares the inputs and produces a pulse output when these inputs are
unequal. The width of the output pulse is proportional to the phase error of the
input signals. As shown in figure 4.18, the width of the output pulse of (b) is
larger than that of (a) and is smaller than that of (c). When the output of phase
detector is applied to the input of low-pass filter, the output of low-pass filter
should be a dclevel that is directly proportional to the pulse width. In other
words, the output dc level is proportional to the phase error of input signals.
Figure 4.18(d) shows the relationship between the input phase error and the
output dc level.
144
Self-test 4
1.
Explain the envelope detector with a circuit diagram and waveforms.
2.
What is Amplitude modulation? Show that a nonlinear device can be

used for generating AM signal. What are its limitations?
3.
Draw a diode detection circuit and explain the limitations.
4.
What are the types of AM modulators?
5.
Compare linear and non-linear modulators.
6.
a)
What are the two methods of producing an FM wave?

What is zero crossing detectors? Explain how it works and can be used
as an FM demodulator?
7.
What are the types of FM detectors?
8.
What are the types of phase discriminator?
9.
What is the necessity of limiter in FM receivers?
10.
Explain the method of FM demodulator.
11.
List the three basic components in a phase-locked loop.
12.
What is another circuit used in some PLLs other than the three listed in
Question 1?
13.
What is the basic function of a PLL?
14.
What is the difference between the lock range and the capture range of
a PLL?
15.
Basically, how does a PLL track the incoming frequency?
16.
Label each block in the PLL diagram in the figure below.
145
17
A PLL is locked onto an incoming signal with a frequency of 1 MHz at a

o
o
phase angle of 50 . The VCO signal is at a phase angle of 20 .The peak
amplitude of the incoming signal is 0.5 V and that of the VCO output
signal is 0.7 V.
(a)
What is the VCO frequency?
(b)
What is the value of the control voltage being fed back to the
VCO at this point?
18.
The output frequency of a certain VCO changes from 50 kHz to 65 kHz

when the control voltage increases from 0.5 V to 1 V. What is the
conversion gain, K?
19.
Explain the following terms with diagrams;

i. Heterodyning
ii. Beats
146
CHAPTER FIVE
Radio Receivers
5.0 Introduction
In radio communication systems, the transmitted signal is very weak when it
reaches the receiver, particularly when it has traveled over a long distance.
The signal has also picked up noise of various kinds. Receivers must provide
the sensitivity and selectivity that permit full recovery of the original signal. The
radio receiver best suited to this task is known as the superheterodyne
receiver. A communication receiver must be able to identify and select a
desired signal from the thousands of others present in the frequency spectrum
(selectivity) and to provide sufficient amplification to recover the modulating
signal (sensitivity). A receiver with good selectivity will isolate the desired
signal and greatly attenuate other signals. A receiver with good sensitivity
involves high circuit gain.
Selectivity (Q) and Bandwidth (BW): Selectivity in a receiver is obtained by
using tuned circuits and/or filters. LC tuned circuits provide initial selectivity.
Filters provide additional selectivity. By controlling the Q of a resonant circuit,
you can set the desired selectivity.
The optimum bandwidth is one that is wide enough to pass the signal and its
sidebands but narrow enough to eliminate signals on adjacent frequencies.
0
-3 oB
ow - 1
o
2
BW = 12- 11
11
11
12
Frequency
Figure 5.1 Selectivity curve of a tuned circuit

Selectivity (Shape Factor): The sides of a tuned circuit response curve are
known as skirts. The steepness of the skirts, or the skirt selectivity, of a
147
receiver is expressed as the shape factor, the ratio of the 60-dB down
bandwidth to the 6-dB down bandwidth. The lower the shape factor, the
steeper the skirts and the better the selectivity. See figure 5.1.
Sensitivity: A communication receiver's sensitivity, or ability to pick up weak
signals, is a function of overall gain, the factor by which an input signal is
multiplied to produce the output signal. The higher the gain of a receiver, the
better its sensitivity. The more gain that a receiver has, the smaller the input
signal necessary to produce a desired level of output. High gain in receivers is
obtained by using multiple amplification stages. Another factor that affects the
sensitivity of a receiver is the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (SNR). One method of
expressing the sensitivity of a receiver is to establish the minimum discernible
signal (MDS). The MDS is the input signal level that is approximately equal to
the average internally generated noise value. This noise value is called the
noise floor of the receiver. MDS is the amount of signal that would produce the
same audio power output as the noise floor signal. See figure 5.2.
Signal voltage or power amplitude
(dB or dBm)
Doslrod signal
(good S/N)
MDS
(Poor S/N)
Noise
Noise
floor
Frequency
Figure 5.2 Illustrating noise, MDS, and receiver sensitivity

5.1 Basic Receiver Configuration
The simplest radio receiver is a crystal set consisting of a tuned circuit, a diode
(crystal) detector, and earphones shown in figure 5.3. The tuned circuit
provides the selectivity. The diode and a capacitor serve as an AM
demodulator. The earphones reproduce the recovered audio signal.
148
T1
Headphones
Primary
C1
C2
Secondary
Figure 5.3The simplest receiver a crystal set

5.2 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
In the tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver sensitivity is improved by adding a
number of stages of RF amplification between the antenna and detector,
followed by stages of audio amplification. The RF amplifier stages increase
the gain before it is applied to the detector. The recovered signal is amplified
further by audio amplifiers, which provide sufficient gain to operate a
loudspeaker. See figure 5.4.
All LC circuits are tuned to
the same signal frequency
Response of one tune day

Two tuned circuits
RF amplifier
Audio amplifier
Three tuned circuits
Detector
Four tuned circuits

Speaker
Filter
Tuning capacitors mechanically ganged
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.4 Tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver (a) Schematic Diagram,
(b) Effectof cascading tuned circuits on selectivity
Many RF amplifiers use multiple tuned circuits. Whenever resonant LC
circuits tuned to the same frequency are cascaded, overall selectivity is
improved. The greater the number of tuned stages cascaded, the narrower
the bandwidth and the steeper the skirts. The main problem with TRF
receivers is tracking the tuned circuits. In a receiver, the tuned circuits must be
made variable so that they can be set to the frequency of the desired signal.
Another problem with TRF receivers is that selectivity varies with frequency.
149
5.3 Superheterodyne Receiver.

The shortcomings of straight radio receiver were overcome by the invention of
superheterodyne receiver by Reginald Fessenden (1901), Edwin Armstrong
(1917). Hetero-dyne (from Greek) means different power. Heterodyne refers
to a beat or difference frequency (IF) produced when two or more RF signals
are fed to a nonlinear device (mixer). a single-tone signal (from LO) is mixed
with the received RF signal to produce a lower-frequency version of the signal
(the IF). It uses fixed filters while tuning the LO and has a main problem of
image interference.
The essential idea of the superheterodyne receiver is to change the radio
frequency of the signal to a lower, fixed value, where the amplifying circuits
can be designed to have great stability and gain, and proper selectivity and
fidelity. These circuits constitute the intermediate frequency (I.F.) amplifier.
They operate at a frequency above (super) audibility; say at 455,000 cycles
per second. The change of frequency just before the I.F. amplifier is
accomplished by a beat or heterodyne circuit, called a frequency-converter.
This contains a local-oscillator and the first-detector or mixer. The sequence
of circuits in a "superhet" is shown in figure 5.5. The R.F. amplifier ahead of the
converter is sometimes called the preselector.
Ant.
R. F.
Amplifier
Gnd.
Weak signal
picked up
by Antenna
These two
voltages
combine at
the input of
the first detector
First
Detector
Intermediate
Amplifier
Second
Detector
Audio
Amplifier
LS
Local
Oscillator
Tuned and
amplified by
R.F. Amplifier
Beat frequency
Audio
amplified by
frequency
interned.
freq.
Beat frequency
output from
Amplifier
output from
second
First Detector
detector
A.C, voltage from

local oscilator
Audio voltages
amplified by
Audio Amplifier
Loud speaker changes audio

currents into sound
Figure 5.5 Superheterodyne reception of phone signals

At present, all modern receivers utilize the superheterodyne circuit. In this
type of radio receiver, the selected radio frequency is converted to a fixed
lower value, called intermediate frequency (IF). This is achieved by a special
150
electronic circuit called mixer circuit. There is a local oscillator in the radio
receiver itself. This oscillator produces high frequency waves. The selected
radio frequency is mixed with the high frequency wave by the mixer circuit. In
this process, beats are produced and the mixer produces a frequency equal to
the difference between local oscillator and radio wave frequency. The circuit is
so designed that oscillator always produces a frequency 455 kHz above the
selected radio frequency. Therefore, the mixer will always produce an
intermediate frequency of 455 kHz regardless of the station to which the
receiver is tuned. For instance, if 600 kHz station is tuned, then local oscillator
will produce a frequency of 1055 kHz. Consequently, the output from the mixer
will have a frequency of 455 kHz. Figure 5.6 shows the superheterodyne
principle with a block diagram. The selected radio frequency f1 is mixed with a
frequency f2 from a local oscillator. The output from the mixer is a difference
(i.e. f2 f1) and is always 455 kHz regardless of the station to which the receiver
is tuned.
AERIAL
R.F AMPLIFIER
MIXER
2-1- 455kHz
2
OWSCILLATOR
Figure 5. 6 Superheterodyne Principle

The production of fixed intermediate frequency (455 kHz) is the salient feature
of superheterodyne circuit. At this fixed intermediate frequency, the amplifier
circuits operate with maximum stability, selectivity and sensitivity. As the
conversion of incoming radio frequency to the intermediate frequency is
achieved by heterodyning or beating the local oscillator against radio
frequency, therefore, this circuit is called superheterodyne circuit.
5.3.1 Stages of Superheterodyne Radio Receiver
The superheterodyne receiver convert all incoming signals to a lower
frequency, known as the intermediate frequency (IF), at which a single set of
amplifiers is used to provide a fixed level of sensitivity and selectivity. See
figure 5.7. Gain and selectivity are obtained in the IF amplifiers. The key circuit
is the mixer, which acts like a simple amplitude modulator to produce sum and
151
difference frequencies. The incoming signal is mixed with a local oscillator

signal.
Antenna
IF amplifiers
RF amplify
Mixer
Demodulator
Selective
filter
AGC
Local oscillator
Or
frequency synthesizer
Speaker Audio amplifier
Figure 5.7 Block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver.

RF Amplifier: The antenna picks up the weak radio signal and feeds it to the
RF amplifier, also called a low-noise amplifier (LNA). RF amplifiers provide
some initial gain and selectivity and are sometimes called preselectors. Tuned
circuits help select the frequency range in which the signal resides. RF
amplifiers minimize oscillator radiation. Bipolar and FETs can be used as RF
amplifiers.
Mixers and Local Oscillators: The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the
input of the mixer. The mixer also receives an input from a local oscillator or
frequency synthesizer. The mixer output is the input signal, the local oscillator
signal, and the sum and difference frequencies of these signals. A tuned
circuit at the output of the mixer selects the difference frequency or
intermediate frequency (IF). The intermediate frequency is the difference
between oscillator frequency and radio frequency i.e.
I.F. = Oscillator frequency - Radio frequency.
The local oscillator is made tunable so that its frequency can be adjusted over
a relatively wide range.
IF Amplifiers: The output of the mixer is an IF signal containing the same
modulation that appeared on the input RF signal. The signal is amplified by
one or more IF amplifier stages and most of the gain is obtained in these
152
stages. Selective tuned circuits provide fixed selectivity. Since the

intermediate frequency is usually lower than the input frequency, IF amplifiers
are easier to design and good selectivity is easier to obtain.
Demodulators: The highly amplified IF signal is finally applied to the
demodulator, which recovers the original modulating information. The
demodulator may be a diode detector (for AM), a quadrature detector (for FM),
or a product detector (for SSB). The output of the demodulator is then usually
fed to an audio amplifier.
Automatic Gain Control: The output of a demodulator is usually the original
modulating signal, the amplitude of which is directly proportional to the
amplitude of the received signal. The recovered signal, which is usually ac, is
rectified and filtered into a dc voltage by a circuit known as the automatic gain
control (AGC) circuit. This dc voltage is fed back to the IF amplifiers, and
sometimes the RF amplifier, to control receiver gain. AGC circuits help
maintain a constant output level over a wide range of RF input signal levels.
The amplitude of the RF signal at the antenna of a receiver can range from a
fraction of a microvolt to thousands of microvolts; this wide signal range is
known as the dynamic range. Typically, receivers are designed with very high
gain so that weak signals can be reliably received. However, applying a very
high-amplitude signal to a receiver causes the circuits to be over driven,
producing distortion and reducing intelligibility. With AGC, the overall gain of
the receiver is automat.
5.3.2 Frequency Conversion
Frequency conversion is the process of translating a modulated signal to a
higher or lower frequency while retaining all the originally transmitted
information. In radio receivers, high-frequency signals are converted to a
lower, intermediate frequency. This is called down conversion. In satellite
communications, the original signal is generated at a lower frequency and
then converted to a higher frequency. This is called up conversion.
Mixers: Mixers are used for frequency conversion and are critical components
in modern radio frequency (RF) systems. A mixer converts RF power at one
frequency into power at another frequency to make signal processing easier
and also inexpensive. A fundamental reason for frequency conversion is to
allow amplification of the received signal at a frequency other than the RF, or
the audio, frequency.
The ideal mixer, represented by figure 5.8, is a device which multiplies two
153
input signals.
f 1 +f 2
f1-f 2
Mixer
RF
f1
IF
f2
LO
Figure 5.8 The ideal Mixer
If the inputs are sinusoids, the ideal mixer output is the sum and difference
frequencies given by
V o = [ A1 COS(v1t ([[A2 COS(v2 t ([ =
A1 A2
[COS(v
(t + COS(v
+ v2 (t [
Typically, either the sum, or the difference, frequency is removed with a filter.
Mixing Principles: Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude modulation
carried out by a mixer circuit or converter. The function performed by the mixer
is called heterodyning. Mixers accept two inputs: The signal to be translated to
another frequency is applied to one input, and the sine wave from a local
oscillator is applied to the other input. Like an amplitude modulator, a mixer
essentially performs a mathematical multiplication of its two input signals. The
oscillator is the carrier, and the signal to be translated is the modulating signal.
The output contains not only the carrier signal but also sidebands formed
when the local oscillator and input signal are mixed. See figure 5.9.
154
Input
signal
fs
Mixer output: f 0 + fs
f 0 - fs
f 0*
Mixer
fs *
Tuned
circuit
or
filter
fO + f
Or
fO - f
Intermediate
frequency
(IF)
f0
LO local Oscillation
May or may not be in the output depending
upon the type of mixer.
Figure 5.9 Concept of a mixer.
Local Oscillator and Frequency Synthesizers: The local oscillator signal

for the mixer comes from either a conventional LC tuned oscillator or a
frequency synthesizer. The simpler continuously tuned receivers use an LC
oscillator. Channelized receivers use frequency synthesizers.
A local oscillator is sometimes referred to as a variable- frequency oscillator,
or VFO shown in figure 5.10. An amplifier (e.g. FET) is connected as a Colpitts
oscillator. Feedback is developed by a voltage divider made up of capacitors.
The frequency is set by a parallel tuned circuit. The output is taken across an
RFC and it is buffered by a direct-coupled emitter follower.
-V
R1
D1
C1
R3
C4
C2
O1
C2
L1
C1
R2
O2
C1
C1
C1
RFC
To manner
Main tuning
Figure 5.10 A VFO for receiver local oscillator service.

Most new receiver designs incorporate frequency synthesizers for the local
oscillator, which provides some important benefits over simple VFO designs.
The synthesizer is usually of the phase-locked loop (PLL) design and the
155
output is locked to a crystal oscillator reference which provides high stability.

Tuning is accomplished by changing the frequency division factor in the PLL,
resulting in incremental rather than continuous frequency changes. See figure
5.11.
Optional frequency multiplier
Frequency
multiplier
Phase
detector
XTAL
reference
oscillator
XTAL
3 KHz
LPF
loop
+
100
30 HHz
30 kHz
Vancine
modulus
VFO
Local
oscillator
signal
to minor
in receiver
8.04-MHZ
minor
144.04 MHZ
frequency divider
+ 268
Dinary inputs
from tuning
circuits
137 MHz
Frequency
multiplier
x4
XTAL
oscillator
34.25 MHz
Figure 5.11A frequency synthesizer used as a receiver XTAL

local oscillator
5.3.3 Intermediate Frequency and Images
The primary objective of an IF stage is to obtain good selectivity. Narrow-band
selectivity is best obtained at lower frequencies. At low frequencies, circuits
are more stable with high gain. At low frequencies, image interference is
possible. An image is an RF signal two times the IF above or below the
incoming frequency shown in figure 5.12a. At higher frequencies, circuit
layouts must take into account stray inductances and capacitances. At higher
frequencies, there is a need for shielding.
156

Desired
signal
Local
Oscillator
Desired
Signal
Image
Image
fI = fS - 2fIF
fS
fIF
fIF
2fIF
2fIF
Image
fS
fi = fS + 2fIF
f0
f1
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.12 Intermediate Frequency and Images
(a) Relationship of the signal and image frequencies, (b) Signal, local oscillator, and image
frequencies in a superheterodyne
To reduce image interference, high-Q tuned circuits should be used ahead of

the mixer or RF amplifier. The IF is made as high as possible for effective
elimination of the image problem, yet low enough to prevent design problems.
In most receivers the IF varies in proportion to the frequencies that must be
covered. See figure 5.13.
BW - 2.5 MHz
BW - 1.25 MHz
fo
f2
f1
0dB
f1
f2
-3dB
Q - 10
Q - 20
24
23.5
23.75
24.5
25
25.5
f2
fo
Frequency (MHz)
26
f1
26.5
26.25
Figure 5.13 A low IF compared to the signal frequency with low-Q tuned
circuits causes images to pass and interfere
Frequency Changers: The combination of a mixer and local oscillator
constitute the frequency changer. Both of them provide 'heterodyne' function,
where the incoming signal is converted to a predetermined fixed frequency
called the intermediate frequency. This intermediate frequency is lower than
the incoming carrier frequency. The result of heterodyning is
fIF = fo - fm
157
Since the output of the frequency changer is neither the original input
frequency nor the output baseband frequency, it is called intermediate
frequency. Sometimes the frequency changer circuits are referred to as first
detector. In case of double frequency conversion, the demodulator becomes
the third detector.
IF Section: Intermediate Frequency (lF) amplifiers are tuned voltage
amplifiers that are operated in Class A with a fixed resonant load. The IF
section has the bandwidth corresponding to the required signal that the
receiver is intended to handle. This section provides most of the amplification
and selectivity of the receiver.
The intermediate frequency of a receiver is always a compromise between
various factors as described below:
If the intermediate frequency is made too high, adjacent channel
rejection as well as selectivity becomes poor.
A high value of intermediate frequency makes the difference between
signal and local oscillator frequency large and as a result, tracking
becomes difficult.
If the intermediate frequency is lowered, the difference between a
signal frequency and its image frequency is reduced; this results in a
poorer image signal rejection. Thus, intermediate frequency must be
made high if image signals are to be completely rejected.
A low intermediate frequency makes the selectivity sharp, thereby
increasing the adjacent channel rejection. Too low an IF makes the
selectivity too sharp that may result in cutting off side bands. To avoid
this, magnification factor Q of the IF circuits has to be lowered which
results in low-stage gain of IF circuits.
If a low If is to be used then a high stability of the local oscillator
frequency must be maintained because any drift in the local oscillator
frequency results in large percentage
IF drift.
The IF of a receiver should be selected as to be lower than the lowest
signal frequency to be received by the receiver otherwise signal
frequencies close to the intermediate frequency will be difficult to
receive and heterodyne whistles will be heard in the receiver output.
Image Frequency: An image frequency is any frequency other than the
selected radio frequency carrier that, if allowed to enter and mix with the local
oscillator, will produce a cross-product frequency that is equal to the
intermediate frequency. An image frequency is equivalent to a second radio
158
frequency that will produce an IF that will interfere with the IF from the desired
radio frequency. Once an image frequency has been mixed to IF, it cannot be
filtered out or suppressed. If the selected RF carrier and its image frequency
enter a receiver at the same time, they both mix with the local oscillator
frequency and produce difference frequencies that are equal to the lf.
Consequently, two different stations are received and demodulated
simultaneously, producing two sets of frequencies. For a radio frequency to
produce a cross product equal to the IF, it must be replaced from the local
oscillator frequency by a value equal to the IF. With high s ide injection, the
selected RF is below the local oscillator by an amount equal to the lf.
Therefore, the image frequency is the radio frequency that is located in the IF
frequency above the local oscillator. Mathematically, for high side injection the
image frequency (fim) is
fim = fc +fIF
Because the desired RF equals the local oscillator frequency minus IF,
fim = fRF +fIF
For a superheterodyne receiver using high side injection, the frequency
spectrum is shown in figure 5.14.
2 fIF
fIF
fIF
Frequency
IF
RF
LO
Image
Figure5.14 Frequency spectrum with image frequency

From the above figure, it is noted that the higher the IF, the farther away in the
frequency spectrum the image frequency is from the desired RF. Therefore,
for better image- frequency rejection, a high intermediate frequency is
preferred. However, the higher the IF, the more difficult it is to build stable
159
amplifiers with high gain. Therefore, there is trade off when selecting the IF for
a radio receiver between image frequency rejection and IF gain and stability.
Image Frequency Rejection Ratio (IFRR): The image frequency rejection
ratio (IFRR) is a numerical measure of the ability of a preselector to reject the
image frequency. For a single tuned preselector, the ratio of its gain at the
desired RF to the gain at the image frequency is the IFRR. Mathematically,
IFRR is,
2 2
IFRR = v (1 + Q )
Where,
= {fim/fRF} {fRF/fim}
If there is more than one tuned circuit in the front end of a receiver, the total
IFRR is simply the product of the two ratios. Once an image frequency has
been down converted to IF, it cannot be removed. Therefore to reject the
image frequency, it has to be blocked prior to the mixer/converter stage.
Image frequency rejection is the primary purpose for the RF preselector. If the
bandwidth is sufficiently low, the image frequency is prevented from entering
the receiver. The ratio of the RF to the IF is also an important consideration for
image frequency rejection. The closer the RF is to the IF, the closer the RF is to
the image frequency.
5.3.4 Advantages of the Superheterodyne Circuit
High R.F. amplification. The superheterodyne principle makes it
possible to produce an intermediate frequency (i.e. 455 kHz) which is
much less than the radio frequency. R.F. amplification at low
frequencies is more stable since feedback through stray and
inter-electrode capacitance is reduced.
Improved selectivity. Losses in the tuned circuits are lower at
intermediate frequency. Therefore, the quality factor Q of the tuned
circuits is increased. This makes the amplifier circuits to operate with
maximum selectivity.
Lower cost. In a superheterodyne circuit, a fixed intermediate
frequency is obtained regardless of the radio wave selected. This
permits the use of fixed R.F. amplifiers. The superheterodyne receiver
is thus cheaper than other radio receivers.
5.4 Dual-conversion Receiver
A superheterodyne receiver in which there are successive frequency
160
conversions utilizing two local oscillators, and thus having two intermediate
frequencies shown in figure 5.15. The first intermediate frequency is higher,
for adequate image rejection, while the lower second intermediate frequency
provides high selectivity and gain. Also called dual-conversion
superheterodyne receiver, double-conversion receiver, double-conversion
superheterodyne receiver, double superheterodyne receiver, or tripledetection receiver.
100 MHz
RF amplifier
First
mixer
First IF
10.7 MHz
110.7 MHz
Second
Mixer
Second IF
IF amplifier
455 KHz
11.155 MHz
Tunable
Second
First
Or
LO
LO
synthesized
Figure 5.15XTAL
Dual-conversion
Denodulator
Original
signal
Recovered
modulating
signal
superheterodyne
Another way to obtain selectivity while eliminating the image problem is to use
a dual-conversion superheterodyne receiver. A typical receiver uses two
mixers and local oscillators, so it has two IFs. The first mixer converts the
incoming signal to a high intermediate frequency to eliminate the images. The
second mixer converts that IF down to a much lower frequency, where good
selectivity is easier to obtain.
FM radios, which tune over 88 - 108 MHz, usually do not use a 455 KHz IF
frequency since the image frequency would be only 910 KHz from the desired
FM station. It would be difficult to design a tuned RF amplifier in the 88 - 108
MHz range that rejected a station only 910 KHz away from the desired signal
since 910 KHz is only about 1% different in frequency than the desired FM
station. An IF of 10.7 MHz is normally used in FM radios to allow adequate
image rejection to be achieved by the tuned RF amplifier in the 88 - 108 MHz
band with reduced selectivity because of the higher IF bandwidth associated
with a 10.7 MHz IF filter. The double conversion receiver of figure 4 is
appropriate for VHF narrowband AM or FM operation and uses a 10.7 MHz 1st
IF for good image rejection, and a 455 KHz 2nd IF for good selectivity.
161

Tuned RF amplifier
RF input
IF output
1st IF bandpass,
10.7 MHz
2nd IF bandpass,
455 MHz
2nd LO,
11.155 MHz
Tuned LO
Figure 5.16 Double conversion superheterodyne with

good image rejection and selectivity
The double conversion receiver in figure 5.17 does not require a tunable RF
stage to track the tunable LO because the first IF of 830 MHz causes the
image frequencies to be outside the bandpass of the 0-30 MHz input filter.
This technique of commonly used in communication grade receivers, CATV
tuners, and spectrum analyzers.
RF input
0-400 MHZ
lowpass
filter
Image frequencies
are above 400 MHZ
and are eliminated by
the fixed lowpass filter
60-66 MHz,
CH 3
IF
bandpass,611
MHz
Tuned LO
665-1211 MHz
Possible problem frequencies

Input frequency
Attenuation (assuming SRA-200 mixer)
59 dB
2RF 2 = RF
69 dB
3RF 3 = RF
> 73 dB
4RF 4 = RF
Figure 5.17 Double conversion
and so on.
2nd LO fined
at 674 MHz
receiver.
This eliminates the need for simultaneously tuned RF and LO
The direct conversion receiver of figure 6 suffers from several disadvantages.

It does not have an intermediate frequency (IF) stage. The purpose of an IF
stage is to allow additional amplification at a non-harmonically related
frequency that will not feed back into the RF input and cause oscillation. The
gain of the direction conversion receiver is therefore limited to the gain of any
RF amplifiers preceding the mixer, and any audio amplifiers following the
162
mixer. AM and SSB can be demodulated, but not FM. There is usually
significant LO feed-through at the desired frequency which can cause
undesired beats in the audio output for AM signals
5.5 Direct-conversion (zero-IF) Receiver
A special version of the superheterodyne is known as the direct conversion
(DC) or zero IF (ZIF) receiver shown in figure 5.18. DC receivers convert the
incoming signal directly to baseband without converting to an IF. They perform
demodulation as part of the translation. The low-noise amplifier (LNA) boosts
the signal before the mixer. The local oscillator (LO) frequency is set to the
frequency of the incoming signal. Baseband output is passed via a low-pass
filter (LPF).
LNA
Mixer
LPF
fs
Demodulated
baseband output:
fLO
LO
f
= f
FigureLO5.18s Direct-conversion (zero-IF) receiver.

Advantages:
No separate IF filter is needed.
No separate detector circuit is needed.
In transceivers that use half duplex and in which the transmitter and
receiver are on the same frequency, only one PLL frequency
synthesizer voltage- controlled oscillator is needed.
There is no image problem.

Disadvantages:
In designs with no RF amplifier (LNA), the LO signal can leak through

the mixer to the antenna and radiate.
An undesired dc offset can develop in the output.
The ZIF receiver can be used only with CW, AM, SSB, or DSB. It cannot
recognize phase or frequency variations.
5.6 FM Receiver
163
The FM receiver is more complicated and, therefore, more expensive than the
normal AM receiver. An FM receiver also uses superheterodyne principle. The
FM broadcast signals lie in the frequency range between 88 MHz and 108
MHz. The IF (intermediate frequency) of an FM receiver is 10.7 MHz; much
higher than the IF value of 455 kHz in AM receivers. Figure5.19 shows the
block diagram of an FM receiver.
Speaker
AF
Amplifier
Antenna
2 mv
88 to 108 MHz
R.F
Amplifier
Mixer
200mv
IF
Amplifier
Limiter
2V
FM
Detector
10.7MHz
Local
Oscillator
R.F Tuner
Figure 5.19 FM Receiver

5.6.1 Sections of The FM receiver
R.F. Tuner: The FM signals are in the frequency range of 88 to 108 MHz The
weak FM signal (say 2 V) is picked up by the antenna and is fed to the
R.F. tuner. The R.F. tuner consists of (i) R.F. amplifier (ii) Mixer and (iii) local
oscillator. The R.F. amplifier amplifies the selected FM signal (to 200 V
in the present case). The output from the RF amplifier is fed to the mixer
stage where it is combined with the output signal from a local oscillator. The
two frequencies beat together and produce an intermediate frequency (IF).
The intermediate frequency (IF) is equal to the difference between oscillator
frequency and the RF frequency. The IF is always 10.7 MHz (Recall IF in AM
receiver is 455 kHz) regardless of the frequency to which the FM receiver is
tuned.
IF Amplifier Stage: The output signal from the mixer always has a frequency of
10.7 MHz and is fed to the IF amplifiers. Since IF amplifiers are tuned to IF (=
10.7 MHz), they render nice amplification. Note that bandwidth of IF an
164
amplifier is about 200 kHz or 0.2 MHzThe IF gain is very large (assumed
10,000 in this case) so that output is 2V.
Limiter Stage: The output from IF stage is fed to the limiter. This circuit is an IF
amplifier tuned to 10.7 MHz but its main function is to remove AM interference
from the FM signal. Figure5.20 shows how the limiter removes AM
interference from the FM signal.
INPUT
LIMITER
OUTPUT
Figure 5.20 The Limiter

The input is an FM signal, but it has different amplitude levels because of AM
interference has been added. However, the limiter circuit keeps the output
level constant for different input levels.
FM Detector: After the removal of amplitude modulation from the FM signal by
the limiter, the IF signal drives the input of the FM detector. An FM detector is a
circuit that converts frequency variations to amplitude variations. The FM
detector is also called a discriminator because it can distinguish between
different frequencies in the input to provide different output voltages. The
resultant amplitude modulated signal is then rectified and amplified for
feeding to speaker for sound reproduction.
5.7 Practical Radio Receivers Block Diagram
5.7.1 The Superheterodyne AM Receiver
A block diagram of a superheterodyne AM receiver is shown in figure 5.21.
The receiver shown consists of an antenna, an RF (radio frequency) amplifier,
a mixer, a local oscillator (LO), an IF (intermediate frequency) amplifier, a
detector, an audio amplifier, a power amplifier, and a speaker.
165
Speaker
RF
Amplifier
Mixer
IF
Detector
amplifier
Audio and
power
amplifiers
AGC
Local
Gang tuned
Oscillator
Figure 5.21 Superheterodyne AM receiver block diagram.

Antenna: The antenna picks up all radiated signals and feeds them into the RF
amplifier. These signals are very small (usually only a few microvolts).
RF Amplifier: This circuit can be adjusted (tuned) to select and amplify any
carrier frequency within the AM broadcast band. Only the selected frequency
and its two side bands pass through the amplifier. (Some AM receivers do not
have a separate RF amplifier stage.)
Local Oscillator: This circuit generates a steady sine wave at a frequency 455
kHz above the selected RF frequency.
Mixer: This circuit accepts two inputs, the amplitude modulated RF signal
from the output of the RF amplifier (or the antenna when there is no RF
amplifier) and the sinusoidal output of the local oscillator (LO). These two
signals are then mixed by a nonlinear process called heterodyning to
produce sum and difference frequencies. For example, if the RF carrier has a
frequency of 1000 kHz, the LO frequency is 1455 kHz and the sum and
difference frequencies out of the mixer are 2455 kHz and 455 kHz,
respectively. The difference frequency is always 455 kHz no matter what the
RF carrier frequency.
IF Amplifier: The input to the IF amplifier is the 455 kHz AM signal, a replica of
the original AM carrier signal except that the frequency has been lowered to
455 kHz. The IF amplifier significantly increases the level of this signal. The
advantage of the IF stage is that it can be designed for a single frequency,
simplifying the receiver.
Detector: This circuit recovers the modulating signal (audio signal) from the
166
455 kHz intermediate frequency (IF). At this point the IF is no longer needed,
so the output of the detector consists of only the audio signal.
Audio and Power Amplifiers: This circuit amplifies the detected audio signal
and drives the speaker to produce sound.
AGC: The automatic gain control (AGC) provides a dc level out of the detector
that is proportional to the strength of the received signal. This level is fed back
to the IF amplifier, and sometimes to the mixer and RF amplifier, to adjust the
gains so as to maintain constant signal levels throughout the system over a
wide range of incoming carrier signal strengths.
Figure 5.22 shows the signal flow through an AM superheterodyne receiver.
The receiver can be tuned to accept any frequency in the AM band. The RF
amplifier, mixer, and local oscillator are tuned simultaneously so that the LO
frequency is always 455 kHz above the incoming RF signal frequency. This is
called gang tuning.
540 kHz=1640 kHz

electromagnetic waves
Audio modulated
carrier / c
RF
amplifier
Mixer
455 kHz
modulated IF
455 kHz modulated

IF amplified
RF
amplifier
Amplified
audio
Audio and
power
Detector
amplifier
Audio
Sound
waves
Tuned to / c
Local
oscillator,
LO
/ c + 455 kHz
Figure 5.22 Illustration of signal flow through an AM receiver.

5.7.2 The Superheterodyne FM Receiver
The FM receiver is similar to the AM receiver in many ways, but there are
several differences. A block diagram of a superheterodyne FM receiver is
shown in figure 5.23 which includes an RF amplifier, mixer, local oscillator, and
IF amplifier just as in the AM receiver. These circuits operate at higher
frequencies than in a commercial AM system. A significant difference in FM is
the way the audio signal must be recovered from the modulated IF. This is
accomplished by the limiter, discriminator, and de-emphasis network.
167
RF
amplifier
Mixer
IF
amplifier
Limiter
Disseminator
(Detector)
AGC
Dc-emphasis
network
Audio and power

amplifier
Local
Gang tuned
Oscillator
Figure 5.23 Superheterodyne FM receiver block diagram.

RF Amplifier: This circuit must be capable of amplifying any frequency
between 88 MHz and 108 MHz It is highly selective so that it passes only the
selected carrier frequency and significant side-band frequencies that contain
the audio.
Local Oscillator: This circuit produces a sine wave at a frequency 10.7 MHz
above the selected RF frequency.
Mixer: This circuit performs the same function as in the AM receiver, except
that its output is a 10.7 MHz FM signal regardless of the RF carrier frequency.
IF Amplifier: This circuit amplifies the 10.7 MHz FM signal.
Limiter: The limiter removes any unwanted variations in the amplitude of the
FM signal as it comes out of the IF amplifier and produces a constant
amplitude FM output at the10.7 MHz intermediate frequency.
Discriminator: This circuit performs the equivalent function of the detector in
an AM system and is sometimes called a detector rather than a discriminator.
The discriminator recovers the audio from the FM signal.
De-emphasis Network: For certain reasons, the higher modulating
frequencies are amplified more than the lower frequencies at the transmitting
end of an FM system by a process called preemphasis. The de-emphasis
circuit in the FM receiver brings the high-frequency audio signals back to the
proper amplitude relationship with the lower frequencies.
Audio and Power Amplifiers: This circuit is the same as in the AM system and
168
can be shared when there is a dual AM/FM configuration.

Figure 5.24 depicts the signal flow through an FM receiver.
88 MHZ - 108 MHz

electromagnetic
waves
10.7 MHz FM
FM /c
RF
amplifier
Mixer
10.7 MHz
Amplified FM
IF
amplifier
10.7 MHZ
limited FM
Limiter
Discriminator
Audio
fc + 10.7 MHz
Local
oscillator
De-emphasis
network
Audio and
power
amplifiers
Compensated
audio
Amplified
audio
Sound
Figure5.24 Example of signal flow through an FM receiver.

5.8 Difference Between FM and AM Receivers
Both FM and AM receivers employ superheterodyne principle. However, the
following are the points of differences between the two types of receivers.
An FM receiver has two additional stages viz. limiter and discriminator,

which are quite different from an AM receiver.
FM broadcast signals lie in the frequency range between 88 and 108

MHz whereas AM broadcast signals lie in the frequency range from 540
kHz to 1600 kHz.
FM receivers are free from interference and this means that much
weaker signals can be successfully handled.
FM bandwidth is about 200 kHz compared to 10 kHz bandwidth for AM.
The IF for FM receivers is 10.7 MHz whereas IF for AM receivers it is

455 kHz.
5.9 Solved Examples
Example 5.1: An AM standard broadcast receiver is to be designed having an
intermediate frequency of 455 kHz. Calculate the required frequency that the
local oscillator should be at when the receiver is tuned to 540 kHz if the local
oscillator tracks above the frequency of the received signal.
Solution
169
The intermediate frequency is generated by producing a difference frequency

between the earlier and the local oscillator.
fIF = fo - fm
Or
fIF = fm- fo
To find the local oscillator frequency,
fo = fIF + fm
3
= (455 X 10 ) + (540 X 10 ) = 995 kHz

Example 5.2: An AM superheterodyne receiver uses high side injection and
has a carrier frequency of 1355 kHz. Determine the IF carrier, USB and LSB
for an RF wave that is made up of a carrier frequency of 900 kHz, USB of 905
kHz and LSB of 895 kHz.
Solution
fIF = fc+ fRF
3
3
= 1355 X 10 -900 X 10 = 455 kHz
The upper and lower IFs are
fIF(USF) = fc-fRF(LSF)
= 1355 X 103 -895 X 103 = 460 kHz
fIF(LSF) = fc-fRF(USF)
= 1355 X J03 - 905 X J03 =450 kHz
Example 5.3:An AM superheterodyne receiver has IF of 455 kHz, RF of 600
kHz and local oscillator frequency of 1055 kHz. Determine the image
frequency and IFRR for a preselector Q of 100.
Solution
To find the image frequency:
fim = fc+ fIF
3
3
= LOSS x 10 + 455 x 10 = 1510 kHz
Or
fim = fRF + 2fIF
3
3
= 600x 10 +2(455x 10 ) = 1510 kHz
To find the 1FRR:
170
= 1510 x 10 /600 x 10 - 600 x 10 / 1510 x 10

= 2.51 -0.397
= 2.113
3
IFRR = v [I + (100) (2.113) ]

=211.3
Example 5.4: A receiver using high side injection has an RF carrier of 27M Hz
and an IF centre .frequency of455 kHz. Determine the local oscillator
frequency, image frequency IFRR for a preselector Q of 100 and preselector
Q required to achieve the same IFRR as that achieved for an RF carrier of600
kHz.
Solution
To find the local oscillator frequency:
fc = fRF + f1F
= 27 x 106 + 455 x 103 = 27.455 MHz
To find the image frequency:
fim = fc + fIF
= 27.455 X 106 + 455 X 103
= 27.91 MHz
To find the IFRR:
6
6
6
6
= 27.91 x 10 /27 x 10 - 27 x 10 / 27.91 x 10
IFRR = v [I + (100)2 (0.066)2]
= 6.71
To find the preselector Q:
Q = [(IFRR2 1)/2]
= 3167
Example 5.5:
Calculate the image frequency rejection of a double
superheterodyne receiver which has a first IF at 2 M Hz and a second IF at 200
kHz. An RF amplifier is tuned to the circuit which has Q = 75 and which is
turned 1030 MHz
Solution
fIF1 = 2 MHz
171
fIF2 = 200 MHz

2 2
IFRR = v(1 + Q p )
1 = (fim/fRF) (fRF/fim)
6
6
6
6
= (34 x 10 /30 x 10 ) (30 x 10 /34 x 10 )
= 0.251
6
6
6
6
2= (2.4 x 10 /2 x 10 ) (2 x 10 /2.4 x 10 )
= 0.366
IFRR = v[I + (75 )2 (0.2512 + 0.3662 )]
= 33.257
5.10 Classification of Radio Emissions
Table 5.1 shows the codes used to designate the many types of signals that
can be transmitted by radio and wire. The basic code is made up of a capital
letter and a number, and lowercase subscript letters are used for more specific
definitions. For example, a basic AM voice signal such as that heard on the AM
broadcast band or on a CB or aircraft radio has the code A3. All the variations
of AM using voice or video intelligence have the A3 designation, but subscript
letters are used to distinguish them. Examples of codes designating signals
described in this chapter are as follows:
DSB two sidebands, full carrier = A3
DSB two sidebands, suppressed carrier = A3b
SSB single sideband, suppressed carrier = A3j
SSB single sideband, 10 percent pilot carrier = A3a
Vestigial sideband TV = A3c
OOK and ASK = A1
Note that there are special designations for fax and pulse transmissions, and
that the number 9 covers any special modulation or techniques not covered
elsewhere. When a number precedes the letter code, the number refers to
bandwidth in kilohertz. For example, the designation 10A3 refers to a 10-kHz
bandwidth voice AM signal. The designation 20A3h refers to an AM SSB
signal with full carrier and message frequency to 20 kHz.
Table 5.1 Radio emission code designations.
Letter
A
Amplitude modulation
172
Number
F
P
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Frequency modulation
Phase modulation
Carrier ON only, no message (radio beacon)
Carrier ON/OFF, no message (Morse code, radar)
Carrier ON, keyed tone ON/OFF (code)
Telephony, message as voice or music
Fax, nonmoving graphics (slow-scan TV)
Vestigial sideband (commercial TV)
Four-frequency diplex telegraphy
Multiple sidebands each with different message
None
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
j
Double sideband, full carrier

Single sideband, reduced carrier
Double sideband, no carrier
Vestigial sideband
Carrier pulses only, pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
Carrier pulses only, pulse width modulation (PWM)
Carrier pulses only, pulse position modulation (PPM)
Quantized pulses, digital video
Single sideband, full carrier
Single sideband, no carrier
General (all others)
Subscripts
Another system used to describe a signal is given in table 5.2. It is similar to

the method just described, but with some variations. This is the definition used
by the standards organization International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
Some examples are A3F amplitude-modulated analog TV
J3E SSB voice
F2D FSK data
G7E phase-modulated voice, multiple signals
Table 5.2 ITU emissions designations
Type of Modulation
N
Unmodulated carrier
A
Amplitude modulation
J
Single sideband
F
Frequency modulation
G
Phase modulation
P
Series of pulses, no modulation
173
Type of Modulating Signals

0
None
1
Digital, single channel, no modulation
2
Digital, single channel, with modulation
3
Analog, single channel
7
Digital, two or more channels
8
Analog, two or more channels
9
Analog plus digital
Type of Intelligence Signal
N
None
A
Telegraphy, human
B
Telegraphy, machine
C
Fax
D
Data, telemetry, control signals
E
Telephony (human voice)
F
Video, TV
W
Some combination of any of the above
174
Self-test 5.0
1. Describe, by means of a block diagram, an AM radio receiver.
2.
(i) Label each block in the AM receiver in Figure below.
(ii) Label each block in the FM receiver in Figure below.
3.
An AM receiver is tuned to a transmitted frequency of 680 kHz. What is

the local oscillator (LO) frequency?
4.
An FM receiver is tuned to a transmitted frequency of 97.2 MHz,what is

the LO frequency?
5.
The LO in an FM receiver is running at 101.9 MHz what is the incoming

RF? What is the IF?
6.
Draw a block diagram of an AM superheterodyne receiver. Explain the

function of each block. Include the following terms in your description:
selectivity, sensitivity, AGC and image frequency rejection. Indicate
where in the receiver adjacent channel selectivity takes place.
Calculate the image frequency for a receiver whose intermediate
frequency is 455 kHz and the desired carrier frequency is 1 Mhz.
7.
Explain the following terms as they apply to communications receivers:

(i)
Double conversion
(ii)
Up conversion
175
8.
Determine the output frequency of the IF amplifier for the frequencies

shown in Figure below
IF
980 KHz
amplifier
986.4 KHz
9.
10.
A radio receiver used in the AM system is shown below. The mixer

translates the carrier frequency fc to a fixed IF of 455 kHz by using a
local oscillator of frequency fLO. The broadcast-band frequencies range
from 540 kHz to 1600 kHz.
(a)
Determine the range of tuning that must be provided in the local

oscillator (i) when fLO is higher than fc (superheterodyne receiver)
and (ii) when fLO is lower than fc.
(b)
Based on the results obtained in (a), explain why the usual AM

radio receiver uses a superheterodyne system.
An AM radio station is transmitted with a carrier frequency of 198

kHz. The signal has arrange from 100 Hz to 3.5 kHz.
(a) Calculate the bandwidth of the signal.
(b) Sketch the frequency spectrum of the signal.
(c) Complete the system diagram of a simple AM radio receiver.
Aerial
Speaker
RF
amplifier
Demodulator
(d) Explain the function of the RF amplifier.

(e) Explain the function of the demodulator.
11.
A receiver using high side injection has an RF carrier of 27M Hz and an

IF centre. frequency Of 455 kHz. Determine !he local oscillator
frequency, image frequency IFRR for a preselector Q of 100 and
preselector Q required to achieve the same IFRR as that achieved for
an RF carrier of 600 kHz.
176
12.
13.
For an AM receiver with RF amplifier loaded to an antenna, the coupling

circuit is 100. If the IF Is 455kHz, find the image frequency and its
rejection ratio at 1000 kHz and at 25M Hz. Also, find the IF to make the
image rejection as good as 25 MHz as it would be at 1000 kHz.
Calculate the image frequency rejection in dB of a double
superheterodyne receiver which has a first IF at 2 M Hz and a second IF
at 200 kHz. An RF amplifier is tuned to the circuit which has Q = 75 and
which is turned 10 30 MHz
14.
A superheterodyne receiver having an RF amplifier is tuned 10 15 MHz

The IF is 455kHz. The RF amplifier and preselector are equal and
are such that the image rejection is 41.58 dB Calculate Q.
15.
The given figure is the block diagram of the frequency multiplier and
heterodyne portion of an FM transmitter.
fC = 7.5MHz
8=5KHz
Multiplier
x3
Multiplier
x4
2
Heterodynes/
Mixer
Oscillator
f O =6MHz
Determine the carrier frequency and frequency deviation at the

following points;
a)
b)
2, and
c)
3.
References
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Communications, Theory and Applications of OFDM, 2nd edition, Springer
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A. Goldsmith, 2005, Wireless Communications, Cambridge Press.
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http://www2.eng.cam.ac.uk/~dmh/ptialcd/trf/trf.htm
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Systems/Amplitude_Modulatio
n
AM Synchronous Demodulation / Detection,
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A
AC, 55, 89, 103
ACOUSTIC, 63, 65-67, 73, 181
ACTUATOR, 52
ADDRESSABLE, 284
ADSL, 283
AERIAL, 28-29, 75, 78, 127, 281
AF, 163
AGC, 151-152, 165-167, 174
ALIGNMENT, 241
AM, 12, 21-24, 35, 76-77, 79, 81-89,
92, 94, 96, 100, 103-104, 106-109,
115-117, 119-122, 127-129, 131134, 136-141, 144, 147, 152, 160,
162-169, 171, 174-176
AMPLIFIER, 9-10, 13, 112, 134, 142,
149, 151, 163, 165, 167, 190, 199,
280
AMPLITUDE, 16-17, 19-21, 23, 31,
79-82, 84, 96, 115, 127, 129, 131133, 144, 171-172, 281
ANTENNA, 37, 75, 149, 151, 163,
165, 199, 202, 265, 279
ANTIPODAL, 231-232
APERTURE, 233, 272
APRANET, 3
ARRAY, 63, 184, 198, 274-275
ASCII, 189, 197
ATA, 191, 249-250
ATM, 7, 246-247, 250, 258
ATSC, 7, 279
ATTENUATION, 11, 161, 291
AUDIO, 34, 75, 78, 84, 112-113,
128, 134,
137-138, 148-149, 151, 165-168,
184,
199, 266, 282
AUTHENTICATION, 182, 252
AVC, 281
AWGN, 181
B
BACKPLATE, 51
BAFFLE, 66-67
BANDPASS, 111-112, 124, 161, 254
BANDWIDTH, 12, 20-23, 31-36, 38,
82, 84-85, 87-89, 93-95, 98, 100101, 104-105, 108-109, 117-118,
121-124, 128, 132, 146-148, 157,
159-160, 164, 168, 171, 175, 177,
179, 182, 194, 203-207, 233-234,
247-248, 250, 257-259, 268-269,
273, 276-277, 281-282
BASEBAND, 35, 104-105, 110-112,
131, 137, 157, 162, 236-238, 254256
BAUD, 193
BCCH, 225-226
BEACON, 24, 172
BEAM, 30, 200, 273-274
BER, 12, 181, 231
BFSK, 233
BINARY, 15, 114, 180-182, 231-232,
242-243,
255
BIOS, 208
BITRATE, 206
BNC, 51, 286
BOBBIN, 46, 54
BPFSK, 233
BPS, 31-33, 193

BPSK, 181
BROADBAND, 34-35, 177, 207, 239240, 244, 259, 261, 263-265, 274,
279, 283, 290
BROADCAST, 5, 24, 45, 48, 78, 85,
90, 93, 106-109, 113, 123, 127-130,
133, 136, 142, 163, 165, 168, 171,
175, 198-199, 201-202, 211, 227,
236, 238, 260-261, 263, 271, 276277, 279, 283-285, 292
BROADCASTING, 12-13, 25, 29, 84,
94, 101-102, 106-109, 113, 184,
201, 203, 211, 277, 279
BS, 222-223, 225
BSC, 225, 228, 247
BSIC, 226
BSS, 228
BT, 281
BTS, 228, 247, 256-257, 290
BUFFER, 94
BUFFERING, 32
BURSTS, 76
BW, 32, 85, 87, 89, 146, 156
BYTE, 33, 188, 191-192
C
CABLE, 7, 9-10, 12-13, 31, 33-35,
49, 54, 114, 177, 189, 193, 201-202,
231, 238, 263-265, 269, 271, 276,
279-281, 283, 286-287, 290, 292
CABLING, 183
CALIBRATION, 52-53, 73
CAMERA, 13, 286-288, 292
CANCELLATION, 245-246
CANCELLATIONS, 57
CAPACITANCE, 41-43, 51, 101, 159
CARRIER, 11, 23, 77-79, 81-82, 86,
94, 103, 127, 129, 131, 137, 172,
237, 258, 262
CASING, 51
CATHODE, 47
CATV, 7, 161, 279
CB, 11, 14, 171
CCFL, 275
CCIR, 6
CCITT, 6-7, 269, 272
CCSA, 262
CCTV, 285-287, 292
CDMA, 205-206, 209, 222-223, 230231,
233-234, 238-239, 253-260, 262,
289
CELL, 11, 43-44, 215-218, 220, 224228
CELLULAR, 5-6, 25, 177, 184, 198,
208-211, 213-216, 218, 221-224,
230, 239, 247, 259, 262, 269-271
CEPT, 6
CHANNEL, 2, 8-13, 29, 33, 35-36,
78, 94, 107, 110-115, 128, 157, 173174, 180-182, 184, 192-194, 197,
210, 213-215, 217, 219-222, 225,
230-232, 235-236, 241-243, 247,
253-256, 258, 260-261, 268, 273,
277, 279-281, 283-284
CHANNELIZATION, 255
CHIRP, 203
CHOKE, 66
CLUSTER, 214-215, 219-220, 230
CLUSTERS, 215, 253COAXIAL, 12,

33, 51-52, 54, 189, 269,
279-280, 283, 286-287
CODE, 2-4, 15, 76, 171-172, 177,
180-181, 187-189, 197, 206, 209,
221, 231-234, 253, 255, 258-259
CODECS, 188
COFDM, 281
COHERENT, 132, 136, 233-234,
273
COIL, 42-47, 49-50, 53-56, 58-60,
65-68, 127
COMMUNICATION, 1-2, 4-6, 8-15,
20-21, 23-26, 32-33, 37, 64, 75, 109,
114, 129, 132, 142, 146-147, 161,
178-201, 203-206, 208-210, 221,
225, 228-231, 233-240, 249, 258,
261, 266-267, 269-274, 292
COMPOSITE, 16, 20-21, 38, 110112
COMPRESSION, 7, 43, 46, 188-189,
245-246, 258, 281
CONDENSER, 46-47, 51-52, 64-65,
73
CONDUCTIVITY, 269
CONDUCTOR, 43, 49, 65
CONFIGURATION, 50, 168, 190,
203, 243, 246, 249-250, 290
CONNECTIVITY, 194, 200, 251, 263
CONNECTORS, 51-52
CONSTELLATION, 233-234
CONSTRUCTION, 48, 53, 56, 217
CONTINUOUS, 14, 21, 76, 114, 155,
206, 221, 241, 276-277
CONTROLLER, 225, 242-243, 288
CONVERSATIONAL, 261
CORDLESS, 269, 289
COVERAGE, 61, 208-209, 211, 213,
215-216, 218, 221, 230, 239-241,
244, 269
CPE, 265
CPU, 283
CRC, 291
CREST, 82
CRH, 226-227
CROSSTALK, 229
CRP, 249
CRT, 275
CRYPTOGRAPHIC, 8
CSS, 203
CTIA, 239
CW, 15, 76, 162
D
DASH, 15
DATA, 14, 38, 173, 180, 183-184,
186, 188-189, 191-193, 195-197,
228-229, 235, 256, 262, 266, 271,
289
DATABASE, 212-213, 242-243, 261
DATALINK, 185
DATASTREAM, 193
DB, 36, 38, 46, 139, 147, 156, 161,
176, 256
DBM, 147
DBS, 256
DDS, 235
DECIBEL, 36-37
DECODER, 112-113, 181, 205, 258,
271, 280, 283
DECOMPOSITION, 21
DEFFERENTIATOR, 141
DEGRADATION, 11, 52, 107, 243,
273, 281, 283
DEMODULATION, 98, 110-111, 121,
131-132, 137-138, 140-142, 162,
192-193, 199
DEMODULATOR, 2, 11, 111, 131133, 137, 142, 144, 147, 152, 157,
176, 181, 204, 268
DEPACKETIZATION, 278
DESTINATION, 183-184, 193
DETECTION, 3, 122, 131-133, 138,
143-144, 182, 192, 196-197, 206,
233-234, 245-246, 291
DETECTOR, 11, 111-112, 121, 131144, 147-149, 152, 155, 157, 162,
164, 166-167, 231-232
DEVIATION, 25, 77, 89-96, 98, 101102, 104-106, 113, 115, 117-119,
121-124,
127,
138-141,
176,
232DEVICE, 1-2, 6, 9, 40-41, 45-47,
54-55,
63-65, 121, 127, 144, 149, 152, 183185, 187, 189, 192-194, 197-198,
201, 213, 250, 267, 270, 272, 274,
281-282, 290
DEVICES, 42, 45, 106, 188-193,
195-198,
207, 235, 252, 268, 289
DIAPHRAGM, 45-49, 51-54, 59-60,
63-68,
70-72, 268
DIELECTRIC, 4, 43
DIFFERENTIATOR, 138, 142
DIGITAL, 3, 6-7, 9, 12-15, 21-22, 31,
33, 35-37, 40, 42, 89, 102, 108, 113114, 172-173, 177, 179-184, 186,
188, 192-193, 207-208, 229-231,
233-235, 237-240, 244-245, 247250, 253, 261, 263, 266, 268, 270,
272-273, 277-278, 281-283, 289-290
DIGITIZATION, 188
DIODE, 3, 101, 127, 131-137, 144,
147, 152
DIPLEX, 172
DISCRETE, 14-15, 21, 91, 194, 258
DISCRIMINATOR, 111-112, 138,
144, 164, 166-168
DISH, 243, 263-264, 272, 281
DISPERSION, 26
DISTORTION, 9, 31, 53, 64, 70-72,
83, 93, 100, 135-136, 138, 152, 182
DLP, 274
DOT, 2, 285
DOWNLINK, 179, 213, 228, 230231, 259, 262
DOWNLOAD, 32, 34, 200, 260-261,
282
DPSK, 232
DSB, 81, 162, 171
DSL, 263-264, 283
DSP, 245
DSSS, 203-205
DTH, 277
DTP, 235
DTT, 281
DTTV, 281
DTV, 277, 281, 292
DUPLEX, 13-14, 162, 192, 229, 236,

238, 250
DVB, 281
DVD, 201, 282
E
EBCDIC, 189
EDCH, 260
EFFICIENCY, 46, 75, 84, 86, 100101, 120,
200, 209, 214, 230-233, 259
EHF, 30
EIA, 7
ELECTROACOUSTIC, 63
ELECTRODYNAMIC, 65
ELECTROLUMINESCENCE, 42
ELECTROMAGNETIC, 2, 8, 22-23,
26, 28, 32,
50, 55, 59, 78, 90, 129, 166, 168,
189,
198, 201, 207, 267, 273
ELF, 30
EMC, 207
EMI, 207-208
EMISSIONS, 172, 207-208
EMPHASIS, 4, 112-113, 121, 166168
ENCAPSULATION, 194
ENCODER, 180-181, 205, 278
ENCODING, 179-181, 188-189, 278
ENCRYPTION, 22, 182, 252, 258
ENIAC, 3
ENVELOPE, 79, 87, 98, 103-104,
119,
132-135, 137, 139, 144
EQUALIZATION, 3, 257
ETACS, 208
ETSI, 6, 259, 262
EV, 24-26, 28
EVOLUTION, 1, 262, 289
F
FACSIMILE, 113-114, 235, 240,
248-249, 267-268, 272
FAX, 11, 172-173, 237, 244, 248250
FCC, 25, 108-109, 208, 239-240
FDD, 228, 256, 260
FDM, 111, 194, 290-291
FDMA, 208, 222, 230-231, 254, 257,
262
FEEDER, 280
FH, 205-206
FHSS, 203-204
FIBER, 4, 10, 12, 30, 33, 177, 179,
189, 264, 273-274, 279-280
FIDELITY, 1, 21, 45, 84, 107-108,
128, 149
FILTER, 3, 12, 40, 66, 111-112, 124,
132-133, 138-140, 142-143, 151,
154, 160-162, 231-233, 254, 285
FM, 21-25, 35, 76-77, 89-96, 98,
100-115, 117-118, 121-124, 127128, 132, 138-142, 144, 152, 160,
162-164, 166-168, 174, 176, 248,
279
FOIP, 244, 248, 250-251
FOURIER, 20, 31, 33
FRAME, 230, 245-246, 249, 260,
282
FREQUENCY, 2, 17, 19-22, 30-31,

57, 77-78, 81, 87, 89-90, 94, 96,
100, 104, 112-114, 128, 131-132,
138, 141, 146-148, 152, 154-159,
171-172, 194, 203, 205, 215-216,
228, 241, 243, 254, 258-260
FRR, 169
FSK, 102, 172, 233
FTP, 185
FTTP, 264
FWA, 238
FXO, 245
FXS, 245
G
GATEWAY, 245, 247, 249-250, 263
GBPS, 34, 262
GENERATOR, 140-141, 183, 204205
GEO, 104
GPP, 259-260, 262, 289
GPRS, 234, 260, 290
GPS, 198, 205
GSM, 6, 208, 225, 228, 239, 259260, 289-290
GUARD, 94, 115, 121
H
HANDOFF, 219, 221-225, 230
HANDOVER, 213, 221-223, 230,
256-257
HANDSHAKES, 242
HARDWARE, 185-186, 189, 235,
246, 249, 251
HARMONICS, 58, 117, 207
HCFL, 275
HD, 282
HDLC, 192, 249
HDTV, 237, 281-282, 292
HEADPHONES, 148
HEADSETS, 63
HERTZ, 2, 17, 30, 33, 75, 107
HETERODYNE, 149, 156-157, 176
HETERODYNING, 129-130, 150,
156, 165
HF, 29-30
HFC, 280
HSDPA, 259-260, 289
HSPA, 260
HTTP, 185
HYSTERESIS, 70-72, 226
HZ, 121
I
ICLS, 271
ICMP, 185
ICP, 51
IDE, 191
IDN, 228
IDU, 272
IEC, 278
IEEE, 7, 35, 204, 265
IFRR, 159, 169-171, 176
ILF, 30
IMEI, 228
IMPEDANCE, 42, 49-51, 65-66
IMSI, 228
IMT, 259
INDUCTANCE, 40, 43-44
INDUCTION, 41, 50, 65
INFRARED, 22, 26, 198, 285-286

INSULATION, 34, 269
INSULATOR, 51
INTERFACE, 185, 201, 211-212,
248, 261
INTERFERENCE, 35, 75, 84, 90,
100, 103,
107-108, 115, 129-130, 149, 155156, 164, 168, 180, 191, 196, 203,
206-208, 213-214, 216-217, 219220, 222, 224-225, 230-233, 235,
253-254, 256-257, 281, 283
INTERMEDIATE, 149, 154-157
INTRANET, 184
IONNOSPHERE, 29
IP, 183, 185, 187, 229, 246, 248250, 252, 257, 259, 283, 289-291
IPSEC, 252-253
IPTV, 276, 283, 292
IPV, 289
IR, 198
ISD, 270
ISDN, 245, 250, 272-273
ISI, 187, 231-232
ISO, 6-7, 187, 278
ITU, 6, 172, 259, 262, 269, 281
ITUR, 6
IWF, 246-248, 250-251
J
JAMMING, 206, 232
K
KBPS, 34
KEYBOARD, 8, 267, 271
L
LANDLINE, 236-238
LANS, 228-229
LAYER, 185-188, 252
LCD, 207, 241, 274-276, 282, 284285, 292
LED, 274-275, 292
LIMITER, 144, 164, 166-168
LLC, 186
LNA, 151, 162
LNB, 272
LOS, 224
LPF, 142, 155, 162
LPI, 203
LSB, 81-83, 85, 87, 110, 169
LSF, 169
LTE, 262
M
MAC, 186, 290
MAGNETOSTRICTION, 65
MAGNETOSTRICTIVE, 44
MAGNETRONS, 25
MBPS, 34, 247, 259, 262, 264-265
MCPS, 255
MDS, 147
MEDIA, 4, 10-11, 185-186, 230, 266,
268, 273-274, 276, 282, 292
MESSAGE, 1, 5, 7-9, 11, 21, 76,
101, 120, 124, 141-142, 171-172,
187, 194-196, 201, 204, 210, 226,
240-241, 249, 266-267, 270, 290
MESSAGING, 5, 194, 208, 213, 240,
259
MICROCELLS, 213, 224

MICROPHONE, 20, 42, 45-55, 73,
198
MICROPROCESSOR, 245-246
MICROWAVES, 22-23, 25, 128, 200
MILLIMETER, 22-23, 26
MIMO, 259, 262
MIXER, 137, 149-152, 154, 156,
159-166, 175, 280
MODEM, 31, 34, 183-184, 191-193,
248-249, 271-272, 290
MODULATION, 75, 77-82, 84, 8990, 94, 96, 100, 102, 113-115, 119,
132, 137, 139, 172, 192, 259-260,
281
MODULATOR, 1, 76, 79, 86, 111112, 119, 121-122, 124, 150, 181,
203-204
MONITOR, 13, 286-288
MONOPHONIC, 109-110
MPEG, 278-279, 281
MRI, 24
MSC, 222, 228, 247
MSK, 232
MSSC, 270
MTSO, 291
MTX, 221
MULTICAST, 260-261, 289
MULTIMEDIA, 4, 34, 259, 261, 263,
266
MULTIPLEXER, 194, 280
MULTIPLEXING, 37, 110, 182, 194,
231, 233-234, 260, 278
N
NANOFILM, 50
NARROWBAND, 92, 95, 101, 160,
203-204,
206-207, 239-240
NBFM, 101
NLOS, 224
NMR, 24
NMT, 225
NRZ, 231-232
NTSC, 104-105, 276, 281
NTT, 208
NYQUIST, 3, 205, 233
PBX, 239, 246-247, 251

PCI, 191
PCM, 6, 231-234, 248-249, 290
PCN, 269
PCS, 239-240
PCU, 228
PDF, 249
PDN, 195
PICOCELLS, 213
PIEZOELECTRIC, 42, 44, 51, 65
PIXELS, 284-285
PLASMA, 274-275, 282, 292
PLL, 137, 142-144, 155, 162
PLMN, 212
PPM, 172
PPP, 252
PPTP, 252
PPV, 282
PREEMPHASIS, 111
PRESELECTOR, 149, 159, 169-170,
176
PRI, 245
PROJECTOR, 284, 292
PROPAGATION, 29-30, 37, 136,
189
PROXIMITY, 44
PSB, 86
PSD, 206
PSTN, 36, 193, 195, 208, 211, 246247
PWM, 172
Q
QOS, 261
QPSK, 256
QUADRATURE, 141-142, 152
O
OFDMA, 262
OOK, 171
OPAC, 235
OPTICAL, 33, 78, 114, 181, 183,
189, 195, 271, 273, 279, 283, 292
ORTHOGONAL, 255
OSCILLATOR, 75, 94, 101, 103,
111, 121, 129-130, 137, 149-151,
154-158, 162-166, 168-170, 174-176
OSI, 183, 185-187, 194, 229, 252
OVSF, 255
R
RADAR, 25, 172
RADIATORS, 66
RADIO, 29
RAKE, 206, 257
RECEIVERS, 11, 63, 67, 146, 164,
168, 257
RECORDER, 282, 287
REDUNDANCY, 180-181, 197, 291
REFLECTION, 29
REGULATIONS, 6
RELAY, 114, 202, 245-246
REPEATER, 190, 243
REPEATERS, 182, 197
RESISTANCE, 41-43, 47-48, 64, 66,
83-84, 269
RESONANCE, 24-25, 49, 56-58, 64,
72
RIBBON, 46-47, 50-51
RNC, 260
ROUTER, 35, 252, 290
ROUTING, 186, 188, 260
RTP, 246
P
PACKETIZATION, 193, 245, 278
PACKETS, 8, 177, 186, 193-196,
244-245, 248-249, 278-279, 289
PAGING, 113, 177, 226, 239-244,
259, 270, 290
PAL, 33, 276, 281
PAM, 172, 232
PASSBAND, 110
S
SATELLITE, 1, 3, 25, 28-29, 198,
202, 230-231, 263-264, 269, 284,
292SCATTER, 28-29
SDMA, 230
SECAM, 276, 281
SECTORIZATION, 228
SELECTIVITY, 146-152, 155, 157,
159-161, 174
SENSITIVITY, 45-46, 48-50, 64-65,

122, 138,
146-148, 150, 174, 207
SENSORS, 42
SMTP, 185, 248
SND, 209
SNR, 12, 115, 147, 262
SPREADING, 205, 207, 255-256
SRA, 161
SSB, 152, 162, 171-172
SSCG, 207
SSL, 252-253
STANDARDIZATION, 6, 259, 262,
269
STDM, 194
STP, 35
SUBCARRIER, 109-112, 128
SUBWOOFERS, 62
SUPERHETERODYNE, 2, 146, 149151, 156, 158-164, 166, 168-170,
174-176
SWING, 94-95
SYNTHESIZER, 151, 154-155, 162,
280
T
TACS, 225
TCP, 183, 185, 187, 229, 291
TDD, 228, 260
TDM, 231, 291
TDMA, 209, 222, 230-231, 233-234,
238-239, 253-254, 257
TELECONFERENCING, 271
TELEGRAM, 266
TELEGRAPH, 1-2, 4, 6, 15, 266-267,
269
TELEGRAPHY, 114, 173, 266-267
TELEMEDICINE, 235
TELEMETRY, 26, 114, 203, 272
TELEPHONY, 29, 113, 181, 214215, 236-238, 244-246, 259, 261,
283, 289
TELEPRINTER, 267
TELESERVICES, 261
TELETEX, 272
TELETYPEWRITER, 268
THSS, 203
TRANSCEIVERS, 113, 162
TRANSDUCER, 9-10, 13, 40-41, 4344, 180-181
TRANSMISSION, 11, 35, 75, 111,
183,189-193, 228-229, 233-234,
248, 273, 278, 291
TRANSMITTER, 2, 7, 10-11, 13, 29,
183, 190, 199, 242-243, 278
TRAU, 228
TRF, 148
TROPOSPHERE, 29
TUNER, 127-128, 163, 202, 279-280
TV, 13-15, 24, 33, 104-105, 109,
123, 128, 171-173, 177, 200-201,
203, 235-238, 263, 271, 274-277,
279-284, 292
TVIP, 283
U
UDP, 185
UHF, 24, 29-30, 115, 276, 281
UL, 213
UMTS, 205, 213, 223, 256, 259-262,

289
UPLINK, 213, 228, 230-231, 243,
260, 262, 290
URL, 253, 289
USB, 81-83, 85, 87, 110, 169
UTP, 34-35
UTRAN, 260
UWB, 204
V
VCO, 101, 103, 121, 142-145
VCR, 282
VDSL, 283
VDT, 242-243
VFO, 154-155
VHF, 24, 29-30, 93, 101, 108, 115,
127-128, 160, 276, 281
VLF, 30
VOD, 282-283
VOFR, 246
VOIP, 34, 177, 244-246, 248-250,
289
VPN, 251-252, 291-292
VSAT, 231, 272
VTOA, 246
W
WBFM, 101
WCDMA, 255, 257-259, 289
WDM, 194
WEB, 283
WIDEBAND, 95, 98, 101, 104, 203204, 259, 281
WIRELESS, 1, 12, 35, 177, 198,
200, 204, 228, 238-239, 261-262,
265, 292
WIRELINE, 238-240, 253
WWW, 185
Z
ZIF, 162

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Basic Concepts of

Basic Concepts of Analogue Communications

Basic Concepts of Analogue Communications

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Primitive Sign Language

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

called a Transmitter, whose function is to convert the source signals to signals

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

1.1.8 Satellite Communications

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Email: Email is a method originally intended to imitate physical mail.

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

The Electronics Industries Association (EIA) and the Telecommunication

(a) The Fundamental Model of Communication.

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

(a) Definition of a system

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Figure 1.1 Basic requirements for a one-way line telecommunication

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Figure 1.2 Basic requirements for one-way radio telecommunication

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Receivers: A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Signal-to-noise Ratio (SNR) at the receiver output.

Figure 1.5Communications System Diagram

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Figure 1.7 Analog signals

Mark = on; Space = off

Figure 1.8 Digital signals

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

non-periodic digital signals.

Figure 1.9 The Sine wave

1.10.1 Signal Representation

a. A signal with high peak amplitude

The frequency and period are the inverse of each other.

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

10-12 Swith respect

(a) signal with a frequency of 12 Hz

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

a. A sine wave in the time domain

Figure 1.13The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

a. A signal with frequency 0

b. A signal with frequency 8

Figure 1.14 Different 1signals

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

spikes in the frequency domain.

A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in communication systems; we

Bandwidth = 5000 - 1000 = 4000 Hz

Figure1.17 Bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

discrete frequencies; if the composite signal is nonperiodic, the

1.10.2 Comparisons of Digital and Analog Communication Systems

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Digital Communication System

Analog Communication System

inexpensive digital circuits

privacy preserved (data encryption)