DISCLAIMER
©2009 The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (EUROCONTROL). This document is
published by EUROCONTROL for information purposes. It may be copied in whole or in part provided that
EUROCONTROL is mentioned as a source and to the extent justified by the non-commercial use (not for sale).
The information in this document may not be modified without prior written permission from EUROCONTROL.
The use of this document is at user's sole risk and responsibility. EUROCONTROL expressly disclaims any and
all warranties with respect to the document, expressed or implied.
Additionally, the disclaimer available under www.euroocontrol.int/acas applies to the information contained in
this presentation.
1
Version 1.4 – 7 January 2009
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
• The development of TCAS was an American initiative, and pre-dates the ICAO
studies. Preliminary studies, in 1955, defined the time criterion (TAU) for
collision avoidance (Bendix, Dr MORRELL).
• TCAS I is only used in light transport aircraft in the USA (from 11 to 30 seats).
Other States are not currently interested in TCAS I, as it does not generates
resolution advisories.
• TCAS II is and will remain the only ACAS equipment available providing
effective anti-collision protection.
• The TCAS II v7.0, being released in late '98 will have improved performance in
some areas (e.g.: horizontal miss distance filter) and compliance with ACAS II
standards.
• TCAS II v6.04a is still in-use in the USA.
• The TCAS III project, which would have provided resolution advisories in the
horizontal plane, in addition to the vertical plane, was aborted because it was
not possible, using the SSR technology, to measure the bearing of an intruder
with a sufficient accuracy from an airborne equipment.
• The TCAS IV project would have used data from outside the equipment itself
(e.g.: GPS, INS), however, a dependency problem has been identified. The
project was put on stand-by for operational reasons (the interest of horizontal
manoeuvres has not been demonstrated) and financial reasons.
ACAS II principles
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z Europe:
z The carriage of ACAS II has been mandatory from 1-1-2005 for all civilian
turbine-engined aircraft carrying more than 19 passengers or with the maximum
take-off mass more than 5700 kg
z USA:
z TCAS II has been mandatory in US airspace since 1994, for all civilian turbine-
engined aircraft carrying more than 30 passengers
z Three manufacturers (Rockwell-Collins, ACSS, Honeywell)
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
• Several mid-air collisions occurred in the United States between 1970 and 1980,
which initiated the FAA study of the current TCAS (1981), and subsequently
Congress to mandate the carriage of TCAS in 1987.
• In Europe, the equipping is required based upon the weight criteria.
Additionally, the equipping of military transport aircraft is in progress in most
ECAC States.
• The world-wide mandatory carriage of ACAS II recommended by ICAO -
1.1.2003.
Equipment description
MODE S
TCAS DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA
ANTENNA
AURAL
ANNUNCIATION
COORDINATION
& INHIBITION
EFIS or TCAS DISPLAY
TCAS II MODE S
UNIT XPDR
RADAR ALTIMETER
ANTENNA LOWER TCAS MODE S
ANTENNA ANTENNA
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
• The TCAS II unit has its own antennas and interrogates the surrounding
transponders on 1030 MHz and receives the replies on 1090 MHz.
• Due to the mode S air-to-air data exchange capability, the transponder of a
TCAS-equipped aircraft co-ordinates the resolution advisories during an
encounter with another TCAS-equipped aircraft. The mode S transponder is
compulsory when fitting an aircraft with TCAS.
• The TCAS aural annunciations have a lower priority than the stall warning, the
windshear warning, the ground proximity warning, etc.
• The connection with various systems (landing gear, flaps, radio altimeter)
allows some advisories to be inhibited of when the aircraft is going to land or
has just taken off.
• The Air Data Computer passes on a more accurate altitude value to the TCAS II
unit (of the same aircraft) than the traditional air pressure altitude system.
Functions
z Aural annunciations
• TCAS II uses a modified mode C interrogation known as "the mode C only all-
call" to interrogate mode A/C transponders, within about 14 NM, and it sends
mode S interrogations to identified mode S transponders out to a range of 30
NM.
• The range accuracy is to 1/128th of a nautical mile.
• TCAS II does not interrogate mode A, so it cannot know the SSR code selected
in the aircraft.
• However, TCAS II tracks the mode A/C transponders, even if the altitude
reporting system is either not fitted or not operating. In this situation, no RA
will occur, only TAs.
• If the number of tracked aircraft becomes too high, TCAS II discards the less
threatening targets and can reduce its interrogation range down to 5 NM, in
order to minimise the risks of transponder ‘lock-out’ in the event of over
interrogation by both ground SSR and airborne systems.
• In the event of an RA, co-ordination is performed with all TCAS-equipped
intruders. The co-ordination only determines the RA sense, not its strength.
• The aural annunciations are essential to alert the crew when an advisory is
generated.
Example of IVSI-type TCAS display
(classic instrumentation)
Intruder target
Other traffic
Proximate traffic
Relative altitude (ft x 100)
Intruding traffic
Threat
Vertical trend arrow
Resolution advisory
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• Note: the centre of the TCAS display is the symbolic aircraft and not the
rotational axis of the VSI needle.
• The blue diamonds represent non-threatening aircraft. The "-10" is solid (status
"Proximate Traffic" = less than 6 NM and 1,200 ft) in order to catch the pilot's
attention, so as not to confuse this target with the "Intruding Traffic" (-02 on top
of the display) when attempting a visual acquisition.
• The most distant traffic on the display is not necessarily the least threatening
based upon time criteria.
• Note: the information is adapted to help the visual acquisition of the intruder.
However, the display does not provide past positions, speed vector, nor the
identity of the displayed traffic. Therefore, it is impossible for the pilot to
determine based on TCAS display the trajectory of the other aircraft.
• The RA, shown here, is a "Climb". The pilot must initiate a climb of between
1,500 fpm and 2,000 fpm.
Example of EFIS with RAs displayed on
the vertical speed scale
MACH ALT HDG AP1
A/THR
FL 310
360
315
340
320 310 40
20
300
305
280
2
.818 STD
The pilot must manoeuvre the aircraft to comply with the specified vertical
speed (here: -1500 fpm)
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
• The TCAS information are dispatched between the PFD (Primary Flight
Display) for RAs and the ND (Navigation Display) for the traffic display.
• The RA is shown on the vertical speed scale
• The scale displayed on the ND can extend 320 NM. In the event of advisories,
the scale must be reduced (here, a scale of 10 NM is selected).
• The "Other Traffic" diamonds shown here are white; they can be either white or
blue.
Example of EFIS with RAs displayed on
the artificial horizon
SPD L-NAV ALT
M 0.82 31000
380 31400
360
340 31200
5 40
32 310 20
6
320
30800
300
280
30600
240
260 CRS 110
10 11 12
0.818 09 13 STD
14
08
• On this PFD, the RA is converted into an attitude value to avoid. When the pilot
has manoeuvred the aircraft to the required attitude (i.e. has brought the
symbolic wings outside of the red trapezium), the plane will then be moving at
the vertical rate prescribed by TCAS.
• This solution is supposed to be easier for the pilot to interpret and initiate to
control the aircraft.
• There is no green zone.
Initiation of alerts
z Vertical test: time to reach co-altitude (or "ZTHR" if the aircraft are
steady)
z The bearing is not taken into account (only used for the display)
• The horizontal test is based upon a measurement of the slant range every
second but is generally processed as a time criterion.
• If the slant range decreases, TCAS computes a closing speed. By dividing the
slant range by the closing speed, TCAS gets the flight time until the possible
collision (TCPA). TCAS considers a collision point because the measurement
is linear and does not take into account the respective routes.
• The vertical test is based upon a principle similar to the horizontal test one.
• In the case of steady aircraft, the ZTHR parameter replaces the time to reach
co-altitude.
• The determination of the RA sense relies on a complex logic (see the
following figures).
• ALIM is a safe vertical distance, which is sufficient to prevent the risk of
collision. It is not related to standard ATC separation minima.
• TCAS does not require flight level changes, nor a vertical deviation of a
specified amount of feet, but only to maintain a vertical speed, to ensure that
ALIM is achieved at CPA.
Threshold values (TCAS II v7)
Above Altitude Hysteresis Sensitivity VTT TAU DMOD TAU_TA Layer ZTHR ALIM ZTHR_TA
(ft) (ft) level (s) (s) (nm) (s) (ft) (ft) (ft)
TAU Time to CPA 1550’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits INCREASE DESCEND RAs
CPA Closest Point of Approach 1100’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits DESCEND RAs
DMOD Distance Modifier 1000’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits all RAs
Layer Altitude Layer 500’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits all Aural Alerts
ZTHR Fixed Threshold (RA)
ZTHR TA Fixed Threshold (TA)
ALIM Miss Distance
VTT Variable Threshold Test
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Illustration of the horizontal test
TCAS
Intruder
35 seconds
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• This figure shows the principle of TCAS operation. The system knows neither
of the aircraft routes, nor their speed, but it only "sees" a linear closing, between
own and the intruder aircraft, measured in terms of flight time.
• When the time left between now and the possible collision (TCPA) is lower
than a given threshold (here 35 seconds), an advisory is triggered.
• The distance at which the advisory is triggered, can vary a great deal, according
to the different encounter geometries, and to the speeds of the aircraft.
• For example, in the case of a head-on encounter, an RA can be issued at a
distance greater than 9 NM, whereas for a slow convergence, this distance may
be 2-3 NM.
RA sense selection
Threat
CPA
ALIM
TCAS
'upward'
ALIM
'downward'
The 'downward' sense will achieve ALIM, the 'upward' sense will not.
The 'downward' option is therefore selected.
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
RA without altitude crossing
TCAS
‘Climb’ RA
issued CPA
Threat
ALIM
ALIM
Both 'downward' and 'upward' senses will achieve ALIM. The 'upward'
sense is selected because it prevents the TCAS aircraft from
crossing through the intruder's altitude
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Target on-the-ground determination
Barometric Declared
altimeter airborne
Radar
altimeter
value
Declared
on ground 380-foot allowance
Declared
on ground
Ground level
Standard altimeter setting Estimated elevation of ground
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
• TCAS uses the radar altimeter data to progressively inhibit some advisories
when the aircraft flies closer to the ground:
– < 1,450 ft no more "Increase descent" RA
– < 1,100 ft no more "Descend" RA
– < 1,000 ft no more RA, nor aural annunciation
Miss Distance Filtering
TCAS
Intruder
35 se
cond
s
TCAS A/C
ground speed
HMD Intruder
ground speed
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z Thresholds:
z horizontal: 20 to 48 s (or DMOD = 0.3 to 1.3 NM)
z vertical: 20 to 48 s (or ZTHR = 850 or 1,200 ft)
z Thresholds:
z horizontal: 15 to 35 s (or DMOD = 0.2 to 1.1 NM)
z vertical: 15 to 35 s (or ZTHR = 600 to 800 ft)
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
• The various thresholds relate to the altitude band in which the aircraft are
operating. If the aircraft are not in the same altitude band, the highest one is
used.
• The DMOD values are very small and have no relationship to the applied radar
separation.
• During a TCAS alert, the RA can strengthen ("Increase ...") or weaken (“Adjust
vertical speed”) or even reverse ("Climb now" or "Descend now").
• Reversal can happen only once during the conflict
Alerts: “Resolution Advisory”
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z TCAS-TCAS co-ordination
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Limitations: General
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• The RAs occurring in the 1,000-ft level off geometry situations make +/- 50%
of RAs and are considered by some as nuisances. However, real examples show
that these RAs can turn out to be necessary.
• When an RA is issued the pilot does not know how the intruding aircraft is
going to be behave. Assuming that “he is going to level-off” is speculative.
Operational impact: Pilots
z Consequences:
z frequently excessive deviations (observed average: 650 ft)
z slow returns to the ATC clearance (brief loss of confidence)
z discussions on the frequency and correct phraseology not always used
z Crews often use the TCAS display as a surveillance tool: high risk of
misinterpretation
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
• An RA will be a surprise for the crew, especially when cruising and in the
phases near take-off/landing. The crew must then leave all the "usual" cockpit
tasks at very short notice, and initiate the collision avoidance manoeuvre.
• Deviations over 1,000 ft, when 300 to 600 ft would have been sufficient, have
been noted. Some pilots have even changed flight level.
• Generally, pilots do not follow weakening RAs, introduced to minimise
deviations, but wait for the "Clear of Conflict" message before starting to
resume their ATC clearance.
• It must be clearly understood that the risk of misinterpreting the TCAS display
is high, mainly because there is no identity, nor speed vector, nor flight
intention shown. Additionally significant traffic data may be dropped in a dense
traffic environment.
Operational impact: Controllers
z Consequences of an RA:
z Disturbance to the tactical control plan
z Possibility of an induced conflict, although TCAS has a multiple threat
processing
z Frequency overload, initial lack of understanding
z In practice:
z Controller will not know about the RA until notified by the pilot
z If the RA event is known, the controller must cease issuing any
instructions, but should provide traffic information
z The controller must not consider the TCAS equipment of the aircraft to
establish and maintain spacing (ICAO)
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) indications shall be used by pilots in the
avoidance of potential collisions, the enhancement of situational awareness, and the active
search for, and visual acquisition of, conflicting traffic.
Doc. 8168, part VIII, para. 3.1.1
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Doc. 8168 (2/3)
Nothing in the procedures specified in 3.2 hereunder shall prevent pilots-in-command from exercising
their best judgement and full authority in the choice of the best course of action to resolve a traffic
conflict or avert a potential collision.
Note 1.— The ability of ACAS to fulfil its role of assisting pilots in the avoidance of potential collisions is
dependent on the correct and timely response by pilots to ACAS indications. Operational experience
has shown that the correct response by pilots is dependent on the effectiveness of initial and recurrent
training in ACAS procedures.
Note 2.— ACAS II Training Guidelines for Pilots are provided in Attachment A to Part VIII.
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Doc. 8168 (3/3)
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Doc. 4444 (1/2)
When a pilot reports an ACAS resolution advisory (RA), the controller shall not attempt
to modify the aircraft flight path until the pilot reports “Clear of Conflict”.
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Doc. 4444 (2/2)
Once an aircraft departs from its ATC clearance or instruction in compliance with an RA, or a
pilot reports an RA, the controller ceases to be responsible for providing separation between
that aircraft and any other aircraft affected as a direct consequence of the manoeuvre induced
by the RA. The controller shall resume responsibility for providing separation for all the affected
aircraft when:
a) the controller acknowledges a report from the flight crew that the aircraft has
resumed the current clearance; or
b) the controller acknowledges a report from the flight crew that the aircraft is resuming
the current clearance and issues an alternative clearance which is acknowledged by the flight
crew.
Note.— Pilots are required to report RAs which require a deviation from the current ATC
clearance or instruction (see PANS-OPS, Volume I, Part III, Section 3, Chapter 3, 3.2 c) 4)).
This report informs the controller that a deviation from clearance or instruction is taking place
in response to an ACAS RA.
Doc. 4444, para. 15.6.3.3
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
RA Phraseology (Doc. 4444)
... after a flight crew starts to deviate from any ATC clearance or instruction to comply with an ACAS resolution advisory (RA)
(Pilot and controller interchange):
Preventive RA No change Monitor vertical speed Preventive RA No change Monitor vertical speed
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Overview of ACAS II / TCAS II
DISCLAIMER
©2009 The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (EUROCONTROL). This document is
published by EUROCONTROL for information purposes. It may be copied in whole or in part provided that
EUROCONTROL is mentioned as a source and to the extent justified by the non-commercial use (not for sale).
The information in this document may not be modified without prior written permission from EUROCONTROL.
The use of this document is at user's sole risk and responsibility. EUROCONTROL expressly disclaims any and
all warranties with respect to the document, expressed or implied.
Additionally, the disclaimer available under www.euroocontrol.int/acas applies to the information contained in
this presentation.
1
Version 1.4 – 7 January 2009
2
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
TCAS
3
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
ACAS II principles
4
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Situation in the world
z Europe:
z The carriage of ACAS II has been mandatory from 1-1-2005 for all civilian
turbine-engined aircraft carrying more than 19 passengers or with the maximum
take-off mass more than 5700 kg
z USA:
z TCAS II has been mandatory in US airspace since 1994, for all civilian turbine-
engined aircraft carrying more than 30 passengers
z Three manufacturers (Rockwell-Collins, ACSS, Honeywell)
5
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Equipment description
MODE S
TCAS DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA
ANTENNA
AURAL
ANNUNCIATION
COORDINATION
& INHIBITION
EFIS or TCAS DISPLAY
TCAS II MODE S
UNIT XPDR
RADAR ALTIMETER
ANTENNA LOWER TCAS MODE S
ANTENNA ANTENNA
6
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Functions
z Aural annunciations
Proximate traffic
Relative altitude (ft x 100)
Intruding traffic
Threat
Vertical trend arrow
Resolution advisory
8
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Example of EFIS with RAs displayed on
the vertical speed scale
MACH ALT HDG AP1
A/THR
FL 310
360
315
340
320 310 40
20
300
305
280
2
.818 STD
The pilot must manoeuvre the aircraft to comply with the specified vertical
speed (here: -1500 fpm)
9
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Example of EFIS with RAs displayed on
the artificial horizon
SPD L-NAV ALT
M 0.82 31000
380 31400
360
340 31200
5 40
32 310 20
6
320
30800
300
280
30600
240
260 CRS 110
10 11 12
0.818 09 13 STD
08 14
z Vertical test: time to reach co-altitude (or "ZTHR" if the aircraft are
steady)
z The bearing is not taken into account (only used for the display)
Above Altitude Hysteresis Sensitivity VTT TAU DMOD TAU_TA Layer ZTHR ALIM ZTHR_TA
(ft) (ft) level (s) (s) (nm) (s) (ft) (ft) (ft)
TAU Time to CPA 1550’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits INCREASE DESCEND RAs
CPA Closest Point of Approach 1100’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits DESCEND RAs
DMOD Distance Modifier 1000’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits all RAs
Layer Altitude Layer 500’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits all Aural Alerts
ZTHR Fixed Threshold (RA)
ZTHR TA Fixed Threshold (TA)
ALIM Miss Distance
VTT Variable Threshold Test
12
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Illustration of the horizontal test
TCAS
Intruder
35 seconds
13
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
RA sense selection
Threat
CPA
ALIM
TCAS
'upward'
ALIM
'downward'
The 'downward' sense will achieve ALIM, the 'upward' sense will not.
The 'downward' option is therefore selected.
14
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
RA without altitude crossing
TCAS
‘Climb’ RA
issued CPA
Threat
ALIM
ALIM
Both 'downward' and 'upward' senses will achieve ALIM. The 'upward'
sense is selected because it prevents the TCAS aircraft from
crossing through the intruder's altitude
15
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Target on-the-ground determination
Barometric Declared
altimeter airborne
Radar
altimeter
value
Declared
on ground 380-foot allowance
Declared
on ground
Ground level
Standard altimeter setting Estimated elevation of ground
16
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Miss Distance Filtering
TCAS
Intruder
35 se
cond
s
TCAS A/C
ground speed
HMD Intruder
ground speed
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Alerts: "Traffic Advisory"
z Thresholds:
z horizontal: 20 to 48 s (or DMOD = 0.3 to 1.3 NM)
z vertical: 20 to 48 s (or ZTHR = 850 or 1,200 ft)
z Thresholds:
z horizontal: 15 to 35 s (or DMOD = 0.2 to 1.1 NM)
z vertical: 15 to 35 s (or ZTHR = 600 to 800 ft)
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Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Alerts: “Resolution Advisory”
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TCAS Advantages
z TCAS-TCAS co-ordination
21
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Limitations: General
22
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Limitations: Unnecessary Alerts
23
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Operational impact: Pilots
z Consequences:
z frequently excessive deviations (observed average: 650 ft)
z slow returns to the ATC clearance (brief loss of confidence)
z discussions on the frequency and correct phraseology not always used
z Crews often use the TCAS display as a surveillance tool: high risk of
misinterpretation
24
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Operational impact: Controllers
z Consequences of an RA:
z Disturbance to the tactical control plan
z Possibility of an induced conflict, although TCAS has a multiple threat
processing
z Frequency overload, initial lack of understanding
z In practice:
z Controller will not know about the RA until notified by the pilot
z If the RA event is known, the controller must cease issuing any
instructions, but should provide traffic information
z The controller must not consider the TCAS equipment of the aircraft to
establish and maintain spacing (ICAO)
25
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Doc. 8168 (1/3)
Airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) indications shall be used by pilots in the
avoidance of potential collisions, the enhancement of situational awareness, and the active
search for, and visual acquisition of, conflicting traffic.
Doc. 8168, part VIII, para. 3.1.1
26
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Doc. 8168 (2/3)
Nothing in the procedures specified in 3.2 hereunder shall prevent pilots-in-command from exercising
their best judgement and full authority in the choice of the best course of action to resolve a traffic
conflict or avert a potential collision.
Note 1.— The ability of ACAS to fulfil its role of assisting pilots in the avoidance of potential collisions is
dependent on the correct and timely response by pilots to ACAS indications. Operational experience
has shown that the correct response by pilots is dependent on the effectiveness of initial and recurrent
training in ACAS procedures.
Note 2.— ACAS II Training Guidelines for Pilots are provided in Attachment A to Part VIII.
27
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Doc. 8168 (3/3)
28
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Doc. 4444 (1/2)
When a pilot reports an ACAS resolution advisory (RA), the controller shall not attempt
to modify the aircraft flight path until the pilot reports “Clear of Conflict”.
29
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
Doc. 4444 (2/2)
Once an aircraft departs from its ATC clearance or instruction in compliance with an RA, or a
pilot reports an RA, the controller ceases to be responsible for providing separation between
that aircraft and any other aircraft affected as a direct consequence of the manoeuvre induced
by the RA. The controller shall resume responsibility for providing separation for all the affected
aircraft when:
a) the controller acknowledges a report from the flight crew that the aircraft has
resumed the current clearance; or
b) the controller acknowledges a report from the flight crew that the aircraft is resuming
the current clearance and issues an alternative clearance which is acknowledged by the flight
crew.
Note.— Pilots are required to report RAs which require a deviation from the current ATC
clearance or instruction (see PANS-OPS, Volume I, Part III, Section 3, Chapter 3, 3.2 c) 4)).
This report informs the controller that a deviation from clearance or instruction is taking place
in response to an ACAS RA.
Doc. 4444, para. 15.6.3.3
30
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
RA Phraseology (Doc. 4444)
... after a flight crew starts to deviate from any ATC clearance or instruction to comply with an ACAS resolution advisory (RA)
(Pilot and controller interchange):
Preventive RA No change Monitor vertical speed Preventive RA No change Monitor vertical speed
32
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL