TIMBER

Properties- Uses- Classification- SeasoningDefects- Preservation- Tests: Hard Board &

Particle Board Manufacture & Use

TIMBER
Timber denotes wood which is suitable for building/ carpentry & for
various engineering purposes
The word timber denotes from an old English word timbrian which
means to build
TREES
Exogenous Trees

Conifers

Soft wood

Deciduous

Hard wood

Endogenous Trees

Endogenous Trees
In the endogenous trees, a plant grows by the addition of new cells
only at the tips or end
The trees grows inwards & fibrous mass is seen in their
longitudinal section
Such trees shows very little branches
Limited engineering applications
Eg: Bamboo, Cane, Palm etc

Exogenous trees
These trees increase their bulk by growing outwards
Distinct consecutive rings are formed in the horizontal section of
such trees
These rings are known as annular rings because one ring is added
every year
Such trees grows bigger in diameter
Mostly used for engineering purposes. Eg: Teak, Sal, Pine

Conifers
Also known as evergreen trees
These trees bear cone-shaped fruits, thus they
are known as conifers
Theses trees yield soft wood which are generally
light colored, resinous, light in weight & weak
Hence they are not used for building constructions
Eg: pine

Deciduous
Also known as broad leaf trees
Leaves of these trees fall in autumn & new ones appear in spring
These trees yield hard wood which are usually close-grained, strong,
heavy, dark colour, durable & non-resinous
used for building constructions
Eg: Teak, Sal

Comparison of soft wood & hard wood

ITEM
Annular rings
Colour
Fire resistance

SOFTWOODS
Distinct
Light
Poor

HARD WOODS
Indistinct
Dark
More

Medullary rays indistinct

Distinct
Strength
Strong for pull & weak Equally strong for
for resisting shear
resisting tensile,
compressive and shear
Structure
Resinous & split easily Non-resinous & close
grained

Weight

Light

Heavy

STRUCTURE OF A TREE
Macro Structure
I. Macro Structure

Microstructure

Structure of a wood visible to the eye at a small magnification

The following are different components
1. Pith or medulla
Innermost part
It varies in size & shape for different types of trees
Wood of this zone is black, brown or grey appearance
It is normally found in the first year of growth of the tree
It consists entirely of cellular tissues and nourishes the
plant in its young age.
When the plant becomes old, the pith dies up and decays and the
sap is then transmitted by the woody fibres deposited round the
pith

Cross Section of an Exogenous Tree

2.

Heartwood
The inner annular rings surrounding the pith constitute the heartwood
It is usually dark in colour.
It indicates dead portion of tree & it does not take active part in the
growth of tree
But it imparts rigidity to the tree & hence it provides strong &
durable timber for various engineering purposes

3.

Sap Wood
The outer annular rings between heart wood & cambium layer
It is usually light in colour & weight
It indicates recent growth & it contains sap
The annular rings of sap wood are less sharply defined than those of
heart wood
It takes active part in growth of tree & sap moves in upward
direction through it
also known as alburnum

4.

5.

6.

Cambium layer
the thin layer of sap between sap wood & inner bark
It indicates sap which has yet not been converted into sap wood
If the bark is removed for any reason, the cambium layer gets
exposed & the cells cease to be active resulting in the death of tree
Bark
It is the outermost zone & makes the skin of the tree
The function of the bark is to protect the inner tissue from heat,
rain & injury
Sometimes a second thin membrane is also present inside the bark
& it is called the inner bark
Medullary rays
The thin radial fibres extending from pith to the cambium
The function is to hold together the annular rings of hard wood &
sap wood

II.

Microstructure

The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications is

known as microstructure
When studied under a microscope, it becomes evident that wood
consists of living & dead cells of various size & shapes
A living cell consists of four parts, namely membrane, protoplasm,
sap & core
The cells according to their function are classified as conductive
cells, mechanical & storage cells
Conductive Cells
Serve mainly to transmit nutrients from roots to the branches &
leaves
Mechanical Cells
Imparts strength to wood
Storage Cells
These cells serve to store & transmit nutrients to the living cells &
they usually located in medullary rays

Seasoning of Timber
A newly cut tree contains about 50 % of its own weight as
water in the forms of sap and moisture.
This moisture may lead to fermentation and consequent decay
of timber.
Hence this water is to be removed before timber can be used
for any engineering purpose.
This process of removing moisture or drying of timber is
known as seasoning of timber.

Objectives as seasoning of timber:

1. To decrease the weight of timber and lower the cost transport
and handling.
2. To improve hardness, stiffness ,strength & durability.
3. To make the timber safe from the attack of fungi and inserts.
4. To reduce the tendency of timber to crack, shrink and warp
etc.
5. To make timber fit for receiving treatment of paints,
varnishes, preservatives
6. To allow timber to burn easily if used as a fuel.
7. To make the timber easily workable

Natural Seasoning
In this method, seasoning of timber is carried out by natural
air, hence known as air seasoning

Following procedure is followed in natural seasoning

Timber is cut & sawn into suitable sections of planks or
scantling
The timber pieces can either be stacked horizontally or
vertically, the former arrangement being very common
The platform of stock is made 30cm higher than the round
level
The timber pieces are stored out according to the length &
thickness

 They are then arranged in layers, one above the other. All
members in a particular layer are of the same thickness
Each layer is separated by good quality dry wood
This arrangement is protected from strong blow of wind, rain
& extreme heat or sun
Air gets circulated between the layers & in course of time,
timber gets seasoned
This process takes a long time, even upto 2 years

Artificial Boling
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.

Boiling
Chemical Seasoning or Salt Seasoning
Electrical seasoning
Kiln seasoning
Water Seasoning

Boiling
In this method, timber is immersed in water & water is then boiled
Boiling of water extended for 3 to 4 hours
Boiled timber is then dried very slowly under a shed
The period of seasoning and shrinkage are reduced by this method,
but it affects the elasticity & strength of wood
This method of seasoning is quick but costly

2.

Chemical Seasoning or Salt Seasoning

In this method, timber is immersed in a solution of suitable salt
It is then seasoned in ordinary way
The interior surface of timber dries in advance of exterior one &
chances of formation of exterior cracks are reduced

3. Electrical seasoning
In this method, high frequency alternating current is used to dry
up the wood
This is most rapid method of seasoning, but very costly

4. Kiln seasoning
In this method, timber is arranged in stacks inside kilns & heated air
is circulated.
This heated air slowly circulates, takes up the moisture from timber
& season it
The relative humidity is gradually reduced

5. Water Seasoning
In this method, timber pieces are immersed in running water of
stream
The larger ends of the timber is kept facing on the upstream side
The sap, gum etc contained in timber is washed away by running
water
This process takes 2 to 4 weeks
It, however, weaken the timber & makes it brittle

Comparison Between Artificial &

Natural Seasoning
ITEM

NATURAL SEASONING

ARTIFICIAL
SEASONING

Moisture
content

It is difficult to reduce the

The moisture content can be
moisture content below 15 to 18% reduced to any desired level

Speed

Slow process

Quick process

Strength

Stronger timber

Little weaker timber

Nature

Simple & economical

Expensive & quite technical

Quality of More liable to the attack of

timber
insects & fungi

Less liable to the attack of

insects & fungi

Space

Requires less space for

stacking

Requires more space for stacking

DEFECTS IN TIMBER
1. Defects due to conversion

Chip Mark
Diagonal Grain
Torn Grain
Wane

2. Defects due to fungi

Blue Stain
Sap strain
Brown Rots
Dry Rots
Wet rot
Heart Rots

3. Defects due to insects

Beetles

marine borers
termites

4. Defects due to natural forces

Burls
Knots
Shakes
Twisted fibers
Water stain
Wind cracks
Chemical stains

5. Defects due to seasoning

Bow
Cup
Check and spilt
Twist
Warp

1.

Defects due to conversion

The defects mainly occur during the process of converting timber

to commercial forms such as planks, beams, rafters etc.
The common defects are
Chip Mark
This defect is indicated by the marks or signs places by the chips on

the finished surface of timber

Diagonal Grain
This defect is formed due to improper sawing of timber

Chip Mark

 Torn Grain
This defect is caused when a small depression is formed on the
finished surface of timber by falling of tools

Wane
This defect is denoted by the presence of original rounded surface

on the manufactured piece of timber

Wane

2.

Defects due to fungi

The fungi are minute microscopic plant organisms.

They attack timber only when the following two conditions
are satisfied simultaneously:
(i) The moisture content of timber is above 20%
(ii) There is presence of air and warmth for the growth of
fungi.
If any of the above condition is absent, the decay of wood
due to fungi would not occur.
Hence the dry wood having moisture content less than 20%
will remain sound for centuries.
Similarly the wood submerged in water will not be attacked
by fungi because of absence of air.

 Blue Stain

certain type of fungi attack the sap wood and it changes the
colour. This is known as stain.
If fungi changes the sap wood to blue colour. It is known as
blue stain.

Sap strain

Fungi of certain type do not bring about the complete decay

of timber but they feed on cell contents of sap wood
In doing so sapwood loses its colour
This is known as sap strain & it generally goes beyond 25%

Brown Rots

certain type of remove the cellulose compound from the

wood and it becomes brown colour .This is known as brown
rots.

Blue Stain
Brown Rots

Heart Rots
Wet Rots

 Dry Rots
certain types of fungi feed on wood& during feeding they
attack on wood and convert it into dry powder form . This
is known as dry rot.

Wet rot
Some varieties of fungi cause chemical decomposition of
wood & they convert timber into a greenish brown powder.
This is known as wet rot

Heart Rots
When a branch comes out of a tree, fungi attack the heart
wood & this makes the timber weak
In this case, the tree become weak and it gives out hollow
sound when struck with a hammer.

3.

Defects due to inserts

Following inserts are usually causing defects in timber : beetles,

marine borers and termites.

Beetiles
These are small insects , form pin holes like tunnels in all
directions thus affecting the sap wood.
In this process beetles convert the timber into fine flour like
powder
Since these insects do not disturb the outer cover of the timber,
the timber attacked by beetles may look sound till it completely
fails.

Marine borers
These insects generally found in salty water
These marine borers do no feed on wood, but they make holes or
tunnels in wood under water and taking shelter .
The timber attacked by marine borers loses colour and strength

Termites
Termites are white ants and they are found in abundant in
tropical and sub tropical countries .
These live in a colony and they are very fast in eating away the
wood from core of the cross-section thus making the timber not
fit for any engineering purpose .
Very few timbers like teak , Sal etc. can resist the attack of
termites.
This is because of their smell which is not favorable for
termites.

4.

Defects due to natural forces

Burls
A tree has received shock or injury in its young age, the
growth of tree is completely upset and irregular projections
appear on the body of the timber .
These projections are called burls.

Knots

Knots are the bases of branches which are broken or cut off
from the tree.
Since the knots break the continuity of wooden fibres, they
from a source of weakness.

BURLS

Shakes
These are cracks which partly or
completely separate the fibres of
wood.
If the cracks are curved one,
they are called cup shakes.
If the cup shakes cover the entire
ring they are known as called
ring shakes.
If the cracks are radial then they
are called heart shakes.
If the cracks extend from bark
towards the sap wood, then they
are called star shakes .
Radial shakes are similar to star
shakes but they are fine,
irregular and numerous.

Heart Shakes

Star Shakes

Twisted Fibres

Twisted Fibers
These are caused by twisting young trees by fast blowing wind.
The fibres are twisted in one direction making it unsuitable for
sawing.
Water Stain
When the wood comes into contact with water, sometimes it is
discolored this is known as water stains
Wind Cracks
If the wood is exposed to atmosphere agencies its exterior
surface shrinks which results into cracks.
Chemical Stains
If the wood is discoloured by the chemical action caused by
some external agency. It is known as chemical stain

5.

Defects due to seasoning

Defects due to seasoning process are Bow, cup, check and

split, twist and warp etc
Bow
This is indicated by the curvature formed in the direction of
length of timber.
Cup
This defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the
transverse direction of timber.
Check and spilt
A crack which separates the fibres of wood, and it does not
extend from one end to other is known as a check
If the same crack which separates the fibres of wood and
extending one end to other end is known as split.

Twist
When a piece of timber has spirally distorted along its length ,
it is known as twist.
Warp
If a piece of timber has twisted out of shape , it is called warp.