Unit 1

Matrix Algebra

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Unit 1: Matrix Algebra

Abstract

Elementary matrix operations

Determinant of a matrix

Rank of a matrix

Inverse of a matrix

Systems of equations. Rouche-Fr

obeniuss theorem. Cramers rule.

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1. Elementary matrix operations

Examples of matrices


3 1 2
A=
is a matrix of order 2 3. (2 rows and 3
4
0 1
columns). The entries of this matrix are
a11 = 3, a12 = 1, a13 = 2,
a21 = 4, a22 = 0, a23 = 1

1 4 2
2 is a matrix of order 3 3. (3 rows and 3
B= 3 0
1 1
3
columns). The entries of this matrix are
b11 = 1, b12 = 4, b13 = 2,
b21 = 3, b22 = 0, b23 = 2,
b31 = 1, b32 = 1, b33 = 3
If the number of rows equals the number of columns we say that the
matrix is a square matrix. So, B is a square matrix. In short, we say that
B is a square matrix of order 3.
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Addition or subtraction of matrices They need to have

 the same 
1 3 1
order. It is done element by element. Example. If A =
4 0
2


1 3
2
and B =
then the sum can be done since they have
1
5 1
the same order.
Furthermore,
the sum is given by


2 0 1
A+B =
5 5 1
Product by a constant Always can be carried out. Multiply
each


1 3
entry of the matrix by the constant. Example. If A =
then
4 0


2 6
2A =
8 0

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Product of two matrices If A is of order m n and B is of order

n p then the product AB of these two matrices can be carried out,
and the product matrix P = AB is of order m p. The element pij
of P is obtained multiplying the row i of A by the
j th column
of B.


4 2
5 3 4
Example. Consider A =
and B = 0 5 .
0
1 2
1 3
A is a matrix of order 2 3 and B is 3 2 . Then the product AB
is possible (the same underline numbers).
AB is a matrix of order

24 7
22 . One can obtain that AB =
2 11

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2. Determinat of a matrix
This operation is only for square matrices. Its denoted by det(A) or |A|.


a11 a12
Matrix of order 2. If A =
then
a21 a22


3 1
det(A) = a11 a22 a12 a21 . Example. If A =
then
4
2
det(A) = 10.
Matrix of order 3. To obtain
the determinat
use the so-called Sarruss

2 0
1
rule. Example. If A = 1 3 2 then using the Sarruss rule
3 4 4
one can obtain that det(A) = 3.

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3. Rank of a matrix
Definition
Any determinant of order k formed from any arbitrary k rows and k
columns of a matrix A is called a minor of order k of the matrix A.

1 1
1
Example. Give a minor of order two of A = 0 0 2 .
2 2 1


1
0 1
Example. Obtain all minors of A =
0 2 3

Definition
The rank of a matrix is the order of the greatest minor different from zero.

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Example.- Obtain the rank of the matrix A =

3 2
1
0
0 2

Solution. rank(A)=2

Exercise 8.
Obtain the rank of thefollowing matrices.
1 0
0 2 2
3 1 1 4
0

(h) H =
2 1 1 6 2
6 2 2 1
0
Solution. rank(H)=3

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4. Inverse of a matrix
Suppose that A is a square matrix of order n.
The inverse matrix of A is another matrix denoted by A1 such that
AA1 = A1 A = I, where I is the identity matrix of order n.
Not all square matrices have an inverse. If A has inverse then is called
regular or invertible, in other case is called singular.
A is invertible if and only if det(A) 6= 0.
It holds (A1 )1 = A and (AB)1 = B 1 A1 .
The adjoint
is another matrix given by
matrix of A denoted by Adj(A)

A11 A12 . . . A1n

A21 A22 . . . A2n

Adj(A)=
..
.. where Aij = (1)i+j ij ,

.
.
Am1 Am2 . . . Amn
and ij is the complentary minor of A.

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Let B be a matrix of order m n. The transpose of B, denoted by

B t , is a matrix of order n m where its (ij)-th element is equal to
the (ji)-th element of B.



3 0
3 3 3
Example.- If B =
then B t = 3 1
0
1 2
3 2
A matrix A is said to be symmetric if At = A.
1
If det(A) 6= 0 then A1 =
(Adj(A))t
det(A)

Exercise 9.
Obtain, ifpossible, the inverse of the followig matrices.
1 0 3
(e) E = 2 1 4
0 1 3

Solution.- E 1

1/5
3/5 3/5
3/5
2/5
= 6/5
2/5 1/5
1/5
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5. Systems of equations. Rouche-Frobeniuss theorem.

Cramers rule.
Consider a system of m linear equations with n unknowns
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + a2n xn = b2
..
.
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + + amn xn = bm
Its matrix form is given by Ax = b where

a11 a12 . . . a1n

a21 a22 . . . a2n

A=
..
..

.
.
am1 am2 . . . amn
{z
|
coefficients matrix

, x =

x1
x2
..
.

, b =

xm
| {z }
vector of

unknowns
Unit 1

b1
b2
..
.

bm
{z }
vector of

independent terms
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Exercise 10. Solve

4x y + 2z
x 3y + z
d)
2x + 2y 3z

the following
systems as a matrix equation.
= 11
= 6
= 1

Solution.- x = 2, y = 1, z = 1.
Some definitions. We say that a linear system is
incompatible if there is no solution.
a determinate system if there is a unique solution.
an indeterminate system if there are infinitely many solutions.

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Rouche-Frobenius theorem
Consider a system of linear equations Ax = b. Let A+ be the augmented
matrix. It holds,
1

if rank(A) 6= rank(A+ ) the system is incompatible: there is no

solution.
if rank(A) = rank(A+ )=number of unknowns the system is
determinate: there is a unique solution.
if rank(A) = rank(A+ ) < number of unknowns the system is
indeterminate: there are infinitely many solutions.

Exercise 11. Discuss the following systems applying

Rouche-Frobeniuss theorem.

x 3y + z = 2
2x + 2z = 0
c)
x 3y + 3z = 8
Solution.- rank(A)=2, rank(A+ )=3 incompatible system: there is no
solution.
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Cramers rule
Consider a system Ax = b, of n linear equations with the same number n
of unknowns. Suppose that det(A) 6= 0. Then, we know that there exists a
unique solution. Cramers rule states that the solution is given by
xi =

det(Ai )
det(A)

i = 1, . . . , n,

where Ai is the matrix obtained by replacing the i-th column of A by the

column vector b.

Exercise 12. Discuss the following systems of linear equations by

Rouche-Frobeniuss theorem. If there exists solution obtain it by
Cramers rule.

x 3y + 2z = 1
2x + 4z = 6
c)

x 2y + z = 0
Solution.- rank(A)=rank(A+ )=3 = number of unknowns determinate
system: unique solution. The solution is: x = 1, y = 0, z = 1.
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We have seen in the last point how to obtain by Cramers rule the solution
of a determinate system. Cramers rule can be extended to obtain the
solution of any indeterminate system. Next, we give an example.

Exercise 12. Discuss the following systems of linear equations by

Rouche-Frobeniuss theorem. If there exists solution obtain it by
Cramers rule.

3x + y z = 2
e) 2x + y z = 1

x + 2y 2z = 3
Solution.- rank(A)=rank(A+ )=3 < number of unknowns indeterminate
system: infinitely many solutions. By Cramers rule one can obtain that the
1
5 + 7
solutions are: x = , y =
, z = , for any R.
5
5

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Exercise 13. The following systems of linear equations depend on a

parameter. Discuss them by means of the Rouche-Frobeniuss
theorem. If there exists solution
obtain it by Cramers rule.

x+yz = m
2x + 3y 4z = 1
a) mx + 2y z = 3m
d) 4x + 6y kz = 2

2x + my z = 6
x + y + kz = 10
Solution.a)
If m 6= 0 and m 6= 2 rank(A)=rank(A+ )=3=number of unknowns
determined system: there is a unique solution.
3m
m2 m 6
2m + 3
, y=
, z=
The solution is x =
m
m
m
If m = 0 rank(A)=26= rank(A+ )=3 incompatible system: there
is no solution.
If m = 2 rank(A)=rank(A+ )=2 < number of unknowns
indeterminate system: there are infinitely many solutions.
The solutions are x = 4 , y = , z = 2, for any R.
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d)
If k 6= 8 rank(A)=rank(A+ )=3=number of unknowns
determined system: there is a unique solution.
29k + 232
19k 152
, y=
, z = 0.
The solution is x =
k + 8
k + 8
If k = 8 rank(A)=2=rank(A+ ) < number of unknowns
indetermined system: there are infinitely many solutions.
The solutions are x = 29 28, y = 19 + 20, z = for any R

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