Assignment in Physical Education 3

Kristine Joy B. Wong BS Pharm

11/13/2015
1 | Page

Bowling
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF BOWLING
Bowling is a popular anaerobic physical
exercise and/or competitive skill sport
which aims to hit the pins using rolled
weights (bowling balls) within a wooden or
synthetic lane. The objective of the game is
to gain many pin falls as possible.
Federation Internationale des Quilleurs
(FIQ) is the international governing body of
bowling worldwide responsible for carrying
out rules and regulations.
There is no agreed exact date when bowling was introduced. Most sports
historians cited that the sport originated way back the Stone Age. About
2,000 years ago, a similar game that entailed tossing stone objects as close
to other stone objects as possible was documented. This game became
popular with roman soldiers, and eventually evolved into what we call bocce,
or outdoor bowling.
Bowling is one of the oldest and most popular games in the world. Bowling is
a sport that can be dated back to circa 3200 BC. In the 1930's, a British
anthropologist named Sir Flinders Petrie discovered a collection of objects in
a child's grave in Egypt that appeared to be used for a primitive form of
bowling. There was a crude version of the bowling ball and pins that were all
sized for a child and were very primitive. This find was discovered along with
a couple of artifacts that could actually be dated back to 3200BC. This makes
the origin of bowling more than 5000 years old.
The next historical bowling related find was in Germany by a historian
named William Pehle whom said that there was evidence of bowling in
Germany around 300AD. England took the reins about 1366 as bowling was
forbidden by King Edward III. The game was taking archery practice away
from his troops. It is also known that Henry VIII brought bowling back.
Several types of "pin games" started to exist where balls were hurled
towards objects for points. These objects were somewhat pin shaped but
crude renditions of modern day bowling pin design and shape. As you can
see, the history of bowling is rich and deep.

Assignment in Physical Education 3

Kristine Joy B. Wong BS Pharm

11/13/2015
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There are several different games that

resemble modern bowling, there are
ninepin variations in Europe and Petanque
is popular in France. Bocce ball originates in
Italy and is similar to British lawn bowling.
Dutch and English immigrants each brought
their version of bowling with them from
their country's to the United States also. In
America, the very first mention of the word
"bowling" is found in the book Rip Van Winkle, a famous story by Washington
Irving, who gets woken up by the sound of "crashing ninepins" that was
published during 1812.
Bowling history continues on in the
United States. A lawn bowling site was
made in the heart of New York's battery
area that was the very first permanent
location to bowl and is now still called
Bowling Green and is in what is now the
financial district. Bowling became very
popular over the years in America and
had become one of the biggest betting
games. Connecticut banned any ninepin
games at all in 1841.

Because of mass popularity bowling was brought back. In the 1800's the
tenpin game was popular because of nine pin being outlawed as a gambling
game. Adding an extra pin gave people a way to keep bowling and exploited
a loophole in the law. Ball and pin formations still varied by region and it
wasn't until various regional bowler's clubs came together with the owner of
a restaurant on Sept. 9 1895 and formed the American Bowling Congress at
Beethoven hall in New York City. Consistency was born from there as was
national competitions. The congress was only for men, however women had
been bowling since the late nineteenth century. The women of bowling
formed their own congress called the Women's National Bowling Association
in 1917. Bowling really exploded from here due to the organized, agreed
upon standards. The game grew in popularity and became very popular all
over America.

Assignment in Physical Education 3

Kristine Joy B. Wong BS Pharm

11/13/2015
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The equipment used for bowling also had a

great advance in technology as far as the first
rubber ball, made in 1905 called the "Evertrue"
was introduced. The Brunswick Corporation in
1914 developed a ball using what was called
"mineralite". The balls before this new
"mysterious rubber compound" had been
made mostly of hard wood. With the ball
standardized, in 1951 the America Machine
and Foundry Company purchased
patents to eliminate the "pinboy", a person responsible for setting up the
pins, by adding an automatic "pinspotter" in 1952. After these innovations in
the sport, media embraced bowling by the 50's and NBC had "Championship
Bowling", the first airing of network coverage of bowling. Bowling for Dollars
and several others followed. The sport of bowling grew and grew because of
all the media attention.
The sport of bowling has grown leaps and bounds from its humble carved
beginnings and is still growing today. Bowling history continues to be written.
New technologies have improved the bowling ball, electronic scoring,
monitors that show the path and speed of your ball, and many other aspects
of the game. Several different types of games and strategies have been born
and so has the standard of the sport. Many people bowl on leagues and for
fun, families gather for birthday parties and fun which is what the sport was
based on. Bowling alleys are actually growing in numbers across the country
due to popularity.

The fifties were the decade of the bowler but we

have a new spin on the old days with things like
"lunar bowling" with all black lights and "prize
bowling". The truth is, bowling is still growing
today and we are forming the way people will
bowl in the future. Sports like bowling are hard to
keep up with because it is constantly changing.
People think of new and unusual ways of bowling
and scoring every day. Ninety five million people
across ninety countries still

Assignment in Physical Education 3

Kristine Joy B. Wong BS Pharm

11/13/2015
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bowl every day. In the Federation Nationale des Quilleurs, bowling's best
athletes regularly compete in Olympic Games and worldwide competitions
and championships.
Bowling today remains one of the best activities for bonding with friends.
It's always a good time getting together with friends and family for a little
friendly bowling competition. As always, have fun bowling out there.

DUCKPIN BOWLING
Popular
along
the
eastern
seaboard of the United States and
even into the province of Quebec in
Canada,
duckpin
bowling
is
somewhat similar to the more
popular ten-pin bowling game, with
some important differences. While
there is some difference of opinion on
the exact origins of the sport, there
can be no doubt that duckpin bowling
was an established pastime by World
War I.

One purported origin of duckbill bowling is traced to the beginning of the

20th century and the city of Baltimore, Maryland in the United States.
According to this legend, the sport was first played at a bowling alley owned

Assignment in Physical Education 3

Kristine Joy B. Wong BS Pharm

11/13/2015
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by John McGraw and Wilbert Robinson, both of whom were later inductees
into the Baseball Hall of Fame. Other sources trace the origin of the game to
Lowell, Massachusetts in the early years of the 1890s.
Duckpin bowling is a variation of 10-pin bowling. The balls used in duckpin
bowling are 4-3/4 in (12 cm) to 5 in (12.7 cm) in diameter (which is slightly
larger than a softball), weigh 3 lb 6 oz (1.5 kg) to 3 lb 12 oz (1.7 kg) each,
and lack finger holes. They are thus significantly smaller than those used in
ten-pin bowling but are slightly larger and heavier than those used in
candlepin bowling. The pins, while arranged in a triangular fashion identical
to that used in ten-pin bowling, are shorter, smaller, and lighter than their
ten-pin equivalents which makes it more difficult to achieve a strike. For this
reason (and similar to candlepin bowling), the bowler is allowed three rolls
per frame (as opposed to the standard two rolls per frame in ten-pin
bowling).

FACILITIES, SUPPLIES, AND EQUIPMENT

1. Ball (Ten-pin).
Bowling balls are made of hard rubber or plastic
and come in a variety of colors. The hard rubber
is the type of ball found in most bowling centers.
The circumference of the ball must not be more
than 2.25 feet (0.69 m), and the ball cannot
weigh more than 16 pounds (7.26 kg). The ball
must have a smooth surface over its entire
circumference except for holes or indentations
used for gripping the ball, holes or indentations
made to bring the ball back into compliance with weight-distribution
regulations, identification letters and numbers, and general wear from
normal use.
2. Bowling Lane Dimensions
From foul line to the pins is 60 feet long and your target is the pocket.
Missing by just one inch can make the difference between a perfect
strike or leaving a corner pin.

Assignment in Physical Education 3

Kristine Joy B. Wong BS Pharm

11/13/2015
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Table Tennis
BRIEF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Table tennis is a tennis-like skill sport in which two or four players hit a
lightweight ball back and forth using a bat /paddle or racket. The game takes
place on a table divided by a net. Players must allow a ball toward them with
one bounce on their table and it must return it- bouncing on the opponents
table. A player scores a point if the opposing player fails to properly return
the ball to the other side of the table. With two attempts of serving, the first
player to score eleven (11) points with two points advantage wins a set.

Assignment in Physical Education 3

Kristine Joy B. Wong BS Pharm

11/13/2015
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Table Tennis originated in England probably in the late 1800s serving as an

after dinner amusement for the upper class Victorians. The sport stretched
out to East Asia after which became a popular sport.
Though Table Tennis evolved, along with Badminton and Lawn tennis, from
the ancient game of tennis. (Also known as Jeu de Paume, Real tennis, Court
Tennis or Royal Tennis as shown in the picture), the game was developed
after Lawn Tennis became popular in the 1800s,
The earliest evidence extant of an action game of tennis on a table is a set
made by David Foster, patented in England in 1890: Parlour Table Games,
which included table versions of Lawn Tennis, Cricket and Football. This game
featured strung rackets, a 30mm cloth covered rubber ball, a wooden fence
set up around the perimeter of the table, and large side nets extending along
both sides.
In 1901, famous game makers John Jacques & son Ltd. Of London released
their Gossima game. This game borrowed the drum style battledores from
the shuttlecock game, and used a 50 mm webbed wrapped cork ball, with an
amazing 30 cm high net.
The name ping pong was in a wide use before British manufacturer J. Jaques
& Son Ltd. Tradedmarked it in 1901. The name Pind pong then came to be
used for the game played by the rather expensive Jaques equipment with
other manufacturers calling it table tennis. A similar situation arose in the
United States, where Jaques sold the rights of the ping-pong name to Parker
Brothers.
A number of sources indicate that the game was first brought to the
attention of HAMLEYS of Regent Street in London under the name Gossima J.
Jacques later sold the game rights to the Parker Brothers until it was later
altered to table tennis. In the same year, james Gibb introduced celluloid
balls which were ideal balls to the game. In 1903, E.C Goode invented the
modern version of bat by fixing a sheet of pimpled or strippled, rubber to the
wooden blade.

The first table tennis world championship tournament was played in London
during the year 1927. Olympic table tennis was first played in 1988 in Seoul,
South Korea ( with both men and women Singles and Doubles matches).
Toward the end of 2000, International Table Tennis Federation instituted
several changes in the rules aimed at making the sport more viable as a
televised spectator sport.

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Kristine Joy B. Wong BS Pharm

11/13/2015
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SUPPLIES AND EQUIPMENT

1. The Racket/Paddle/Bat
Table tennis regulations allow any size, shape and weight
of the racket but each side shall be uniformly dark in
color, usually black and red. The blade which is the
wooden portion of the racket shall be even thickness flat
surface and rigid consisting of at least 85% of natural
wood. The average size of the blade is approximately 6.5
inches (16.5 cm) long and 6 inches (15 cm) wide. The
covering may either be of plain, ordinary pimpled rubber with spots outward
and a total thickness of not more than 2mm. It could be of sandwich,
consisting of a layer of cellular rubber surfaced by plain pimpled rubber
having a total thickness of covering either side of not more than 4mm.
2. The ball
A white or orange celluloid-made table tennis
ball, with a matte finish, must measure
exactly 40mm. in diameter and weigh exactly
2.7 grams; preferably with three stars
(highest quality).
The rules say that the ball shall bounce up 2426
cm when dropped from a height of 30.5 cm on
to
standard steel block thereby having a
coefficient of resutitution of 0.89 to 0.92.
3. The Net
The ITTF states that all table tennis nets shall be attached on both sides to
upright poles that stand 15.25
centimeters high, with the posts set
15.25 centimeters beyond the side
line. The top of an ITTF-sanctioned
net will be exactly 15.25 cm above
the surface of the table with the
bottom of the net resting as close
to table top as possible.
4. The Table
The table is 2.74m long, 1.525m
wide and 76 cm high with Masonite
or similarly manufactured timber,
layered with a smooth, low friction coating. The table or playing surface is
divided into two halves by a 15.25cm (6 inch) high net. An ITTF- approved
table surface must be in a green or blue color.

Assignment in Physical Education 3

Kristine Joy B. Wong BS Pharm

11/13/2015
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LAWN TENNIS
Tennis, original name lawn tennis, game in which two opposing players
(singles) or pairs of players (doubles) use tautly strung rackets to hit a ball of
specified size, weight, and bounce over a net on a rectangular court. Points
are awarded to a player or team whenever the opponent fails to correctly
return the ball within the prescribed dimensions of the court. Organized
tennis is played according to rules sanctioned by the International Tennis
Federation (ITF), the world governing body of the sport.

HISTORY OF LAWN TENNIS

The following events that happened clearly gives one an idea how Lawn Tennis was
developed:
Ancient Tennis Trigon Rowald played using heavy paddles to hit a ball
filled with fig seeds
12th Century Gioco del Pallone Italians batted a ball tossed by a partner
into the opponents area using a wooden or leather cover to protect their
forearm.
14th Century Jeu de Paume Palm game spread in France; Longue Paume a
long palm, open- air tennis; Courte Paume court tennis was played 30m x
10 m and divided in halves first by a line, then by a rope, and by a net
suspended at hip height. Players hit the ball over the net with their palm.
15th Century Small wooden paddles were introduced and later improved,
string with lealder cords and got strings.
16th Century - 17th mostly in royal courts with upper class.
17th Century Common people played outdoors and in a more competitive
spirit.
1860 - Major Harry Gem of England played a game form of Tennis
1874- Major Clopton Wingfield patented the game and rules calling it
Sphairistike, a geek word for playing ball. The playing area was similar to a
hour glass, being 9.15m wide at the baseline and only 6.37m wide at the net.
1874- Mary Ewing Outerbrigde saw British men playing tennis while having a
vacation in Bermuda. She brought tennis equipment to the U.S
1875- Tennis was played in a rectangular court and server was to stand
behind the baseline.
1877- First National English Champion was played at Wimbledon, the British
Tournament started the international championship
1883- The net was lowered from 122 cm to 91 cms.
1891- French Championship was first played
1900- Davis Cup started every year onward
1913- Federation International de lawn Tennis was organized
1977- it changed to International Tennis Federation

Assignment in Physical Education 3

Kristine Joy B. Wong BS Pharm

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1988- Tennis became an Olympic Sport. Grand Slam included championship

of England, Australian Open, French Open and U.S Open

SUPPLIES AND EQUIPMENT

1. Tennis Rackets
The tennis racket is an extension of the hand used to
hit the ball back and forth over the net. Choose a
racket that fits your right grip size. A too small grip
will make you squeeze the grip too tightly while a
too big grip will result to loss control. As a beginner,
it is better to choose a larger frame with a 15 or 16
gauge string.
2. Tennis Balls
There are many brands of balls being used in the
national and international competitions. Regular-duty
balls are good for softer surfaces like clay and grass.
Using extra duty on clay cause much slower play than
normal.
3. Playing Attire and Shoes
Wear comfortable clothes that do not inhibit you from
moving. It is suggested that you wear shorts, skirts or
sweat pants with pockets where you can in set extra
balls.
4. Lawn Tennis Court
The types of playing surfaces for tennis are hard
court, clay, grass, indoor, carpet and variations of
these. The differences among these surfaces in
relation to playing tennis is how the ball bounces
causing a slower game and this kind of court is common in our country.

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Kristine Joy B. Wong BS Pharm

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SWIMMING
Swimming has been known since prehistoric times. Drawings from the Stone
Age were found in "the cave of swimmers" near Wadi Sora (or Sura) in the
southwestern part of Egypt. Written references date from 2000 B.C.,
including Gilgamesh, the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Bible (Ezekiel 47:5, Acts
27:42, Isaiah 25:11), Beowulf, and other sagas. In 1538 Nicolas Wynman,
German professor of languages, wrote the first swimming book,
"Colymbetes". Competitive swimming in Europe started around 1800, mostly
using breaststroke. The front crawl, then called the trudgen, was introduced
in 1873 by John Arthur Trudgen, copying it from Native Americans. Swimming
was part of the first modern Olympic games in 1896 in Athens. In 1902 the
trudgen was improved by Richard Cavill, using the flutter kick. In 1908, the
world swimming association, Federation Internationale de Natation de
Amateur (FINA), was formed. Butterfly was first a variant of breaststroke,
until it was accepted as a separate style in 1952.

HISTORY OF SWIMMING
Ancient Times
Drawings from the Stone Age were found in "the cave of swimmers" near

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Wadi Sora (or Sura) in the southwestern part of Egypt near Libya. These
pictures seem to show breaststroke or dog paddle, although it may also be
possible that the movements have a ritual meaning unrelated to swimming.
This cave is also featured in the movie The English Patient. An Egyptian clay
seal dated between 4000 B.C. and 9000 B.C. shows four swimmers who are
believed to be swimming a variant of the front crawl. More references to
swimming are found in Babylonian bas-reliefs and Assyrian wall drawings,
depicting a variant of the breaststroke. The most famous drawings were
found in the Kebir desert and are estimated to be from around 4000 B.C. The
Nagoda bas-relief also shows swimmers dating back from 3000 B.C. The
Indian palace Mohenjo Daro from 2800B.C. contains a swimming pool sized
30m by 60m. The Minoan palace Minos of Knossos in Crete also featured
baths. An Egyptian tomb from 2000 B.C. shows a variant of the front crawl.
Depictions of swimmers were also found from the Hittites, Minoans, and
other Middle Eastern civilizations, the Incas in the Tepantitla House at
Teotihuacan, and in mosaics in Pompeii.
The Greeks did not include swimming in the ancient Olympic Games, but
practiced the sport, often building swimming pools as part of their baths.
One common insult in Greece was to say about somebody that he/she
neither knew how to run nor swim. The Etruscans at Tarquinia (Italy) show
pictures of swimmers in 600 B.C., and tombs in Greece depict swimmers 500
B.C. The greek Scyllis was taken prisoner on a ship of the Persian king Xerxes
I in 480 B.C. After learning about an impending attack on the Greek navy, he
stole a knife and jumped overboard. During the night and using a snorkel
made from reed, he swam back to the ships and cut them loose. It was also
said that the ability to swim saved the Greeks at the Battle of Salamis, while
the Persians all drowned when their ships were destroyed. Julius Caesar was
also known to be a good swimmer. A series of reliefs from 850 B.C. in the
Nimrud Gallery of the British Museum show swimmers, mostly in military
context, often using swimming aids.
In Japan swimming was one of the noble skills of the Samurai, and historic
records describe swimming competitions in 36 B.C. organized by emperor
Suigui (spelling unclear), which are the first known swimming races.
The Germanic folklore describes swimming, which was used successfully in
wars against the Romans. Swimming competitions are also known from that
time.
Middle Ages to 1800

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Kristine Joy B. Wong BS Pharm

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Swimming was initially one of the seven agilities of knights during the Middle
Ages, including swimming with armour. However, as swimming was done in a
state of undress, it became less popular as society became more
conservative, and it was opposed by the church at the end of the middle
ages. For example, in the 16th century, a German court document in the
Vechta prohibited the naked public swimming of children. Leonardo da Vinci
made early sketches of lifebelts. In 1538 Nicolas Wynman, German professor
of languages, wrote the first swimming book "Colymbetes". His goal was not
exercise, but rather to reduce the dangers of drowning. Nevertheless, the
book contained a very good and methodical approach to learning
breaststroke, and includes swimming aids like air filled cow bladders, reed
bundles, or cork belts. Around the same time, E. Digby in England also wrote
a swimming book, claiming that humans can swim better than fish.
In 1603 the first national swimming organization was established in Japan.
TEmperor Go-Yozei of Japan declared that school children should swim.
In 1696, the French author Thevenot wrote "The Art of Swimming",
describing a breaststroke very similar to the modern breaststroke. This book
was translated into English and became the standard reference of swimming
for many years to come.
In 1708, the first known lifesaving group "Chinkiang Association for the
Saving of Life" was established in China. In 1796 a (still existing) swimming
club was founded in Upsala, Sweden. Benjamin Franklin is credited with the
invention of the swimming fins at the age of ten, in 1716.
In 1739 Guts Muts (also spelled as Guts Muth) from Schnepfenthal, Germany,
wrote "Gymnastik fr die Jugend" (Exercise for the youth), including a
significant portion about swimming. In 1794 Kanonikus Oronzio de Bernardi
of Italy wrote a two volume book about swimming, including floating practice
as a prerequisite for swimming studies. In 1798 Guts Muts wrote another
book "Kleines Lehrbuch der Schwimmkunst zum Selbstunterricht" (Small
study book of the art of swimming for self study), recommending the use of a
"fishing rod" device to aid in the learning of swimming. His books describe a
three step approach to learn swimming that is still used today. First, get the
student used to the water, second, practice the swimming movements out of
the water, third, practice the swimming movements in the water. He believed
that swimming is an essential part of every education.
More lifesaving groups were established in 1767 (1768?) in Amsterdam by

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the Dutch, 1772 in Copenhagen, and in 1774 by Great Britain. In 1768 a

humane society was established in the United States.
The Haloren, a group of salt makers in Halle, Germany, greatly advanced
swimming through setting a good example to others by teaching their
children swimming at a very early age.
The Pre-Olympic Era to 1896
In 1804 the lifebelt was invented by W. H. Mallison (America?), the device
being known at that time as the "Seamans Friend". However, the lifebelts
took up valuable space on ships, and the United States Navy was worried
about the devices being used by sailors to desert.
The first German swimming club was founded in 1837 in Berlin. A journal
mentions "swimming skates" in France, which may be an early version of a
surfboard.
One watershed event was a swimming competition in 1844 in London. Some
Native Americans participated in this competition. While the British raced
using breaststroke, the Native Americans swam a variant of the front crawl,
which has been used by people in the Americas, West Africa and some Pacific
islands for generations, but was not known to the British. As the front crawl is
a much faster style than the breaststroke, the Americans won against the
British competition. Flying Gull won the medal, swimming the 130 feet in 30
seconds; the second place was also won by another American named
Tobacco. Their stroke was described as making a motion with the arms "like a
windmill" and kicking the legs up and down. As this produced considerably
splashing, it was considered barbaric and "un-European" to the British
gentlemen, who preferred to keep their heads over the water. Subsequently,
the British continued to swim only breaststroke until 1873.
The first indoor swimming pool was built in England in 1862. An Amateur
Swimming Association of Great Britain was organized in 1880 with more than
300 members. The main swimming styles were the breaststroke and the
recently developed sidestroke. In the sidestroke, the swimmer lies on one
side. Initially, the arms were brought forward under water, but this was soon
modified to bring the arm forward over water to reduce resistance and to
improve the speed, resulting in an overarm sidestroke. The legs were
squeezed together in a scissor style. In 1895, J. H. Thayers of England swam
100 yards in a record-breaking 1:02.50 using a sidestroke.

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In 1873 John Arthur Trudgen reintroduced the front crawl to England. Trudgen
learned the stroke from Native Americans during a trip to South America (the
exact date, however, is disputed and may be anywhere between 1870 and
1890). This stroke, a variant of the front crawl, was then called the Trudgen
or Trudgeon. The arms were brought forward, alternating while the body
rolled from side to side. The kick was a scissors kick, with one kick for two
arm strokes, although it is believed that the Native Americans did indeed do
a flutter kick and Trudgen mistakenly used the (in Britain) more common
breaststroke kick. Variants used different ratios of scissor kicks to arm
strokes, or alternated with a flutter (up-and-down) kick. The speed of the new
stroke was demonstrated by F. V. C. Lane in 1901, swimming 100 yards in
1:00.0, an improvement of about ten seconds compared to the breaststroke
record. This style is the first European version of the front crawl, the fastest
swimming style known today. Due to its speed the Trudgen became very
quickly popular around the world, despite all the ungentlemanlike splashing.
Captain Matthew Webb was the first man to swim the English channel
(between England and France), in 1875. He used breaststroke, swimming
21.26 miles in 21 hours and 45 minutes. No other man or woman swam the
channel for the next 31 years. He died in 1882 while attempting to swim the
Niagara Falls. The first European amateur swimming competitions were in
1889 in Vienna.
In 1879 Louis III of Bavaria built a swimming pool in castle Linderhof. This is
believed to be the first artificial wave pool and also featured electrically
heated water and light.
Synchronized swimming started in the late 19th century, and the first
competition was in 1891 in Berlin, a men's-only event.
The Modern Olympic Era after 1896
The Olympic Games were held in 1896 in Athens, a male-only competition
(see also Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics). Six events were
planned, but only four events were actually contested: 100 m, 500 m, and
1200 m freestyle and 100 m for sailors. The first gold medal was won by
Alfred Hajos of Hungary in 1:22.20 for the 100m freestyle. Hajos was also
victorious in the 1200 m event, and was unable to compete in the 500 m,
which was won by Austrian Paul Neumann. Another swimming competition of
100m for sailors included three Greek sailors in Bay of Zea near Piraeus,
starting from a rowing boat. The winner was Ioannis Malokinis in two minutes

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and 20 seconds. A 1500m race was also performed.

In 1897 Capt. Henry Sheffield designed a rescue can or rescue cylinder, now
well known as the lifesaving device in Baywatch. The pointed ends made it
slide faster though the water, although it can cause injuries.
The second Olympic games in Paris in 1900 featured 200m, 1000m, and
4000m freestyle, 200m backstroke , and a 200m team race (see also
Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics). There were two additional
unusual swimming events (although common at the time) : an obstacle
swimming course in the Seine river (swimming with the current), and an
underwater swimming race. The 4000m freestyle was won by John Arthur
Jarvis in under one hour, the longest Olympic swimming race ever. The
backstroke was also introduced to the Olympic games in Paris, as was water
polo. The Osborne Swimming Club from Manchester beat club teams from
Belgium, France and Germany quite easily.
The Trudgen was improved by the British-born Australian swimming teacher
and swimmer Richard (Fred, Frederick) Cavill. Like Trudgen, he watched
natives from the Solomon Islands, using front crawl. But different from
Trudgen, he noticed the flutter kick, and studied it closely. He used this new
flutter kick instead of the breaststroke or scissor kick for the Trudgen. He
used this stroke in 1902 at an International Championships in England to set
a new world record by outswimming all Trudgen swimmers over the 100
yards in 0:58.4 (some sources say it was his son in 0:58.8). He taught this
style to his six sons, each becoming a championship swimmer. The technique
became known as Australian crawl up to 1950, when it was shortened to
crawl, technically known as front crawl.
The Olympics in 1904 in St. Louis included races over 50 yards, 100 yards,
220 yards, 440 yards, 880 yards and one mile freestyle, 100 yards
backstroke and 440 yards breaststroke, and the 4*50 yards freestyle relay
(see also Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics). These games
differentiated between breaststroke and freestyle, so that there were now
two defined styles (breaststroke and backstroke) and freestyle, where most
people swam Trudgen. These games also featured a competition to plunge
for distance, where the distance without swimming, after jumping in a pool,
was measured.
In 1907 the swimmer Annette Kellerman from Australia visited the United
States as an "Underwater Ballerina", a version of Synchronized swimming,

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diving into glass tanks. She was arrested for indecent exposure, as her
swimsuit showed arms, legs and the neck. Kellerman changed the suit to
have long arms and legs, and a collar, still keeping the close fit revealing the
shapes underneath. She later starred in several movies, including one about
her life.
In 1908, the world swimming association Federation Internationale de
Natation de Amateur (FINA) was formed.
Women were first allowed to swim in the Olympic Games in 1912 in
Stockholm, competing in freestyle races. (Women could participate in golf
and tennis since 1900 in Paris). In the 1912 games, Harry Hebner of the
United States won the 100m backstroke. At these games Duke Kahanamoku
from Hawaii won the 100m freestyle, having learned the six kicks per cycle
front crawl from older natives of his island. This style is now considered the
classical front crawl style. The men's competitions were 100m, 400m, and
1500m Freestyle, 100m backstroke, 200m and 400m breaststroke, and four
by 200m freestyle relay. The womens competitions were 100m freestyle and
four by 100m freestyle relay.
On 28 July 1912, a 800m long bridge between Binz and Rgen, Germany
collapsed under the load of 1000 people waiting for a cruise steamer
Kronprinz Wilhelm. Sailors of the German navy were able to save most
people, but 17 people died because they could not swim, including seven
children. This catastrophe caused the foundation of the Deutsche LebensRettungs-Gesellschaft (DLRG) (German lifesaving organization) on October
19 1913 in Leipzig. In the same year the first elastic swimsuit was made by
the sweater company Jantzen.
In 1922, Johnny Weissmuller became the first person to swim the 100m in
less than a minute, using a six kicks per cycle Australian crawl. Johnny
Weissmuller started the golden age of swimming and was the world's most
famous swimmer, winning five Olympic medals and 36 national
championships and never losing a race in his ten-year career, until he retired
from swimming and started his second career as Tarzan. His record of 51
seconds in 100 yard freestyle stood for over 17 years. In the same year, Sybil
Bauer was the first woman to break a mens world record over the 440m
backstroke in 6:24.8.
At the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris, lane dividers made of cork were used
for the first time, and lines on the pool bottom aided with orientation.

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1928 was the start of the scientific study of swimming by David Armbruster,
coach at the University of Iowa, filming underwater swimmers. The Japanese
also used underwater photography to research the stroke mechanics, and
subsequently dominated the 1932 Summer Olympics. Armbruster also
researched a problem of breaststroke where the swimmer was slowed down
significantly while bringing the arms forward underwater. In 1934 Armbruster
refined a method to bring the arms forward over water in breaststroke. While
this "butterfly" technique was difficult, it brought a great improvement in
speed. One year later, in 1935, Jack Sieg (Seig?), a swimmer also from the
University of Iowa developed a technique involving swimming on his side and
beating his legs in unison similar to a fish tail, and modified the technique
afterward to swim it face down. Armbruster and Sieg combined these
techniques into a variant of the breaststroke called butterfly with the two
kicks per cycle being called dolphin fishtail kick. Using this technique Sieg
swam 100 yards in 1:00.2. However, even though this technique was much
faster than regular breaststroke, the dolphin fishtail kick violated the rules
and was not allowed. Therefore, the butterfly arms with a breaststroke kick
were used by a few swimmers in the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin for the
breaststroke competitions. In 1938, almost every breaststroke swimmer was
using this butterfly style, yet this stroke was considered a variant of the
breaststroke until 1952, when it was accepted as a separate style with a set
of rules.
Around that time another modification to the backstroke became popular.
Previously, the arms were held straight during the underwater push phase,
for example by the top backstroke swimmer from 1935 to 1945, Adolph
Kiefer. However, Australian swimmers developed a technique where the arms
are bent under water, increasing the horizontal push and the resulting speed
and reducing the wasted force upward and sideways. This style is now
generally used worldwide. In 1935 topless swimsuits for men were worn for
the first time during an official competition.
In 1943 the US ordered the reduction of fabric in swimsuits by 10% due to
wartime shortages, resulting in the first two piece swimsuits. Shortly
thereafter the Bikini was invented in Paris by Louis Reard (officially) or
Jacques Heim (earlier, but slightly larger).
Another modification was developed for breaststroke. In breaststroke,
breaking the water surface increases the friction, reducing the speed of the
swimmer. Therefore, swimming underwater increases the speed. This led to a

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controversy at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, and six swimmers

were disqualified, as they repeatedly swam long distances underwater.
However, one Japanese swimmer, Masaru Furukawa, circumvented the rule
by not surfacing at all after the start, but swimming as much of the lane
under water as possible before breaking the surface. He swam all but 5m
under water for the first three 50m laps, and also swam half under water for
the last lap, winning the gold medal. The adoption of this technique led to
many swimmers suffering from oxygen starvation or even some swimmers
passing out during the race due to a lack of air, and a new rule was
introduced by the FINA, limiting the distance that can be swum under water
after the start and every turn, and requiring the head to break the surface
every cycle. The 1956 games in Melbourne also saw the introduction of the
body roll, a sort of tumble turn to faster change directions at the end of the
lane.
In 1972, another famous swimmer, Mark Spitz, was at the height of his
career. During the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Germany, he won
seven gold medals, more than any other Olympic athlete has ever won.
Shortly thereafter in 1973, the first swimming world cup was held in
Belgrade, Yugoslavia by the FINA.
Breaking the water surface reduces the speed in swimming; this is true not
only for breaststroke, but also for backstroke. The swimmers Daichi Suzuki
(Japan) and David Berkoff (America) used this for the 100m backstroke at the
1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. Berkoff swam 33m of the first lane
completely underwater using only a dolphin kick, surfacing just before the
turn, far ahead of his competition. A sports commentator called this a Berkoff
Blastoff. Suzuki, having practiced the underwater technique for 10 years,
surfaced only a little bit earlier, winning the race in 0:55.05. The rules were
quickly changed in the same year by the FINA to ensure the health and
safety of the swimmers, limiting the underwater phase after the start to ten
meters, which was expanded to 15m in 1991. In Seoul, Kristin Otto from East
Germany won six gold medals, the most ever won by a woman.
Another innovation is the use of forward tumble turns for backstroke.
According to the rules, a backstroke swimmer had to touch the wall while
lying less than 90 degrees out of the horizontal. Some swimmers discovered
that they could turn faster if they rolled almost 90 degrees sideways,
touched the wall, and made a forward tumble turn, pushing off the wall on
their backs. The FINA has changed the rules to allow the swimmers to turn
over completely before touching the wall to simplify this turn and to improve

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the speed of the races.

In 1998 Benot Lecomte swam across the Atlantic Ocean, a total of 5,600
kilometers in 72 days, swimming 6 to 8 hours daily. He was accompanied by
two sailors on a sailboat.
After underwater swimming for breaststroke and backstroke, the underwater
swimming technique is now also used for butterfly, for example by Denis
Pankratov (Russia) or Angela Kennedy (Australia), swimming large distances
underwater with a dolphin kick. FINA is again considering a rule change for
safety reasons. It is currently unclear if it is possible to swim faster
underwater than swimming freestyle or front crawl at the surface.

SUPPLIES AND EQUIPMENT

1. Goggles
Used to protect the eyes and improve visibility underwater

2.

Lap Card
A card displayed by a turn judge at the turn side of a lane to inform swimmers in 800m and 1500m
freestyle events.

3. Starting Blocks
a raised platform mounted at the end of a pool from which swimmers begin a race

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Swimming Cap
Caps are worn for various reasons. Some facilities require the wearing of swim
caps, in order to protect filters from becoming clogged with loose hairs which
fall from the head of swimmers who are not wearing a cap, or to ensure long
loose hair does not get caught in equipment.

5. Swim Suit
A swimsuit can be worn as an undergarment in sports that require a wetsuit
such as water skiing, scuba diving, surfing, and wake boarding.

6. Touch Pad
The pad at the end of each lane in the pool where a swimmer's time is registered and sent electronically
to the timing system.

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HISTORY OF GYMNASTIC
The ancient Greeks believed gymnastics to be the perfect symmetry
between mind and body. Modern gymnastics evolved at the end of the 19th
century.
1

Philosophical beginnings

Plato, Aristotle and Homer heartily advocated the strengthening qualities of

gymnastic activity. The Greeks believed symmetry between the mind and
body was possible only when physical exercise was coupled with intellectual
activity.
2

Rebirth

The term "artistic gymnastics" emerged in the early 1800s to distinguish

free-flowing styles from techniques used in military training. Gymnastic
competitions began to flourish in schools and athletic clubs across Europe
and made a fitting return when the Olympic Games were revived in Athens in
1896.
3

Rocks and clubs

Between 1896 and 1924 the sport evolved into what we recognise as modern
gymnastics. Among those disciplines discarded were club swinging, rock
lifting and even swimming, which appeared in 1922.
4

Changing times

In the early days of artistic gymnastics at the Games, participants often had
a background in ballet, and would reach their peak in their 20s. Nadia
Comanecis and Nellie Kim's perfect scores of 10 at the 1976 Montreal
Games, at the age of 14, heralded an era of younger champions, trained
specifically in gymnastics from childhood, although gymnasts must now be
16 to compete in the Olympic Games.
5

Olympic history

Artistic gymnastics was introduced at the very first Olympic Games in 1896
in Athens, and has been present at every edition of the Games since then. At
the beginning, it comprised disciplines that are difficult to qualify as
artistic, such as climbing and acrobatics.
The foundations of the Olympic gymnastics programme were laid at the 1924
Games in Paris, when the mens apparatus individual and team competitions
appeared. In 1928, women were included in the Amsterdam Games. It was

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not until 1952 that the womens programme was developed, with seven
events, and then stabilised at six events as from the 1960 Games in Rome.
This discipline was mainly dominated by the Soviet Union from 1952
onwards, following the creation of the Russian Gymnastics Federation in
1883. At the 2008 Games in Beijing, it was the Republic of Chinas turn to win
the most gold medals.

SUPPLIES AND EQUIPMENT

Still rings
Two parallel rings 50cm apart, suspended from a cable and straps
and held, one in each hand, for a series of exercises in men's
artistic gymnastics particularly requiring stillness of the body; also
called the "rings".
Uneven bars
An apparatus in women's artistic gymnastics with a top bar 2.4m
above the floor and a lower bar 1.6m high, used for a continuous
series of grip changes, releases, new grasps and other complex
moves.
High bar
A bar standing 2.75 metres high, used in men's artistic gymnastics;
also called the "horizontal bar".

Parallel

bars (Artistic)

An
adjustable
exercises

apparatus consisting of two wooden rails on uprights,

in height and used for swinging, vaulting and balancing
in men's artistic gymnastics.

Pommel horse
A solid apparatus 115 centimetres high with two handles, or
pommels, on top that men in artistic gymnastics use for a series of
manoeuvres defined by complex hand placements and body
positions while holding themselves above the apparatus.
Plane

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An imaginary surface where moves are performed, i.e. lateral, frontal,

horizontal or diagonal.
Diagonal plane
An imaginary surface at less than a 90-degree angle to the floor, where
moves are performed.
Horizontal plane
An imaginary surface, level with the ground, where moves are performed.
Lateral plane
An imaginary surface to the side of, and parallel to, the body, where moves
are performed.
Safety platform
A large, thick mat that sits on the floor at each end of the trampoline to
cushion the impact if anyone falls from the apparatus.
Vault
A solid apparatus similar to the pommel horse, but lacking
handles, and used in men's and women's artistic gymnastics for a
variety of handsprings from a running approach.
Beatboard
The springboard used in the men's and women's vault.

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