systems
Whitepaper
(c) 2015 Colt International Licensing Ltd
Summary
Enclosed or underground car parks normally require ventilation systems to assist firefighting operations.
These systems generally also prevent the build-up of carbon monoxide during normal day to day use of
the car park.
Naturally
ventilated
Mechanically
ventilated
ADB
Fire Safety
5%*
2.5%*
10ACH
ADF
General Vent
5%
2.5% + 3ACH
6ACH
* Of which at least 50% should be split equally between two opposing walls to provide
crossflow ventilation
ADF limits CO concentrations to 30ppm over 8 hours and 90ppm over 15 minutes.
An open sided car park is defined as one where there are natural
ventilation openings in the walls which equate to at least 5% of the
floor area. So if a car park measures 1,000m2 then 50m2 of ventilation
area will be needed. There is a further requirement that the ventilation
area should be split, so that at least a quarter of it is down each of two
opposing sides and reasonably evenly spaced so it creates cross flow
through the car park. The other 50% of the ventilation can be put in
wherever you can find room for it.
If the 5% cannot be achieved then there is an option for 2.5% of
ventilation area and that works in exactly the same way in that a quarter
of it needs to be provided down each of two sides. If there is 2.5%,
then while this is regarded as totally satisfactory for smoke ventilation,
it is not regarded as adequate for day to day fume ventilation. Therefore
a small mechanical system providing 3 air changes an hour (ACH) to
supplement the natural ventilation is needed.
b) Mechanically ventilated car parks
Normally an underground car park wont have any natural ventilation at
all. In this instance there are requirements for mechanical ventilation. 10
ACH is required in fire mode and 6 ACH for general ventilation. Again
the requirements are for a system designed to ensure that we get a
reasonable ventilation flow throughout the car park.
In terms of general day to day ventilation all of those requirements
are actually deemed to satisfy the requirement to achieve a maximum
carbon monoxide concentration of 30 parts per million (ppm) averaged
over 8 hours, leading to an environment which is both pleasant and safe.
Impulse ventilation systems move the air throughout the car park and
ensure that the air goes where we want it to go, rather than where
it would flow to if left to its own devices. It is a simple method of
ventilation that uses the thrust created by small fans that discharge air
at a high velocity to create a large air movement at low velocity.
This is probably the main reason why impulse ventilation has largely
taken over from ductwork. There are various other reasons why
impulse ventilation systems are generally better and why it is
uncommon these days for a traditional ducted system to be installed
unless there is a particular benefit in terms of the particular layout of
the car park.
c) Extract points to be arranged such that 50% are at high level, 50%
at low level. With the traditional ducted systems this was achieved by
having the ductwork with grilles at high level and then having
dropper ducts coming down to floor level, again with grilles in them.
Impulse ventilation removes the need for ductwork and low level
intakes, providing:
based around the rule of thumb that typically one 150 Newton unit is
needed per 400m2. This provides a rough number of units and then the
locations of the units are selected to match the geometry of the car
park.
Because the design is done by skill and experience rather than by
calculation, then generally Building Control wants to see a CFD model
to confirm that the system actually works very well. However in a
simple car park and with an experienced engineer the CFD model is
largely unnecessary but it is often the only way that Building Control
approval is going to be secured, so it generally needs to be done.
The impulse fans are located generally over roadways so that parked
cars are not going to impede the airflow too much, and they are
generally laid out to ensure that we dont get any stagnant areas within
the car park. The actual layout is basically determined by the skill and
experience of the engineer: there are no particular guidelines to inform
the designer exactly where to put the ventilators. Instead the layout is
13. Smoke clearance systems and the Bristol car park tests
The car park was filled with smoke for approximately 4 minutes using
smoke generators and warm air heaters to give the smoke a degree of
buoyancy. When the generators were stopped the visibility was down
to approximately 10m.
Because of this Colt carried out some test work in 2004. The purpose
of the tests was to provide a comparison between the performance
of a traditional ducted system and impulse systems in the same car
park. The car park was 50m x 30m x 2.9m high with a well distributed
extract system and inlet coming through the ramp.
In each case, the time taken to clear the smoke from the car park was
measured, giving a comparative measure of the performance of each
system.
System
Time to see
Time to
clearance
Traditional
27 minutes
42 minutes
Jetstream
19 minutes
33 minutes
Cyclone
17 minutes
28 minutes
The results demonstrate that the impulse ventilation and the induction
ventilation systems were both much quicker to clear the smoke
than the traditional ducted system. These tests provided confidence
that these newer kinds of systems do actually comply with Building
Regulations and are as good as or better than traditional ducted
systems.
We modified the existing ducted ventilation system so that we had
the option of extracting either through the distributed ductwork or at
a single extract point located top centre in the diagram, and installed
some impulse and induction fans and checked the performance of those.
Three tests were carried out using the same approach with each test so
that a comparison could be made between each of the three systems.
Thus in general terms the design of the smoke control system is based
around working out what velocity is needed over what area and then
ensuring that the system can provide that velocity over that area.
Having provided that velocity, it is important to ensure that the
smoke which we are pushing towards the extract point is then totally
extracted and does not re-circulate and come back behind the fans.
The first thing we need to know is how big the fire is likely to be. There
are three standard steady state fire sizes set out in BS 7346-7, based on
test work which is being done around the world:
The smoke and heat from a car fire rises vertically to the ceiling and
spreads out rapidly in what is termed a ceiling jet in concentric circles
out until something stops it.
The principle for a narrow car park is shown here. By knowing what
the velocity of the smoke flow is going to be, the impulse fans can push
the smoke, in this case from right to left. The guidance sets out that
if the design is to enable fire fighter access, then the aim should be to
keep areas that are more than 10m away from the fire clear of smoke,
allowing clear approach to within 10m of the fire. The entire width of
the car park does not need to be kept clear of smoke, but there should
be just sufficient space available from the fire service entrance point to
wherever the fire is so that they can see where the fire is and fight it.
from the tunnel, but it was considered that this would not be
practical due to the large volume of smoke to be extracted. This
chosen smoke control design was modelled and verified using (CFD)
to prove its ability to operate against very onerous wind conditions.
A road tunnel has been built to provide an exit route from the car
park. The tunnel is approximately 125m long with the road sloping
down towards a central horizontal section and passing under the
main retail development.
Due to the single direction of traffic flow, there is an increased risk
that an incident in the tunnel would block traffic flow, meaning that
those trapped behind it would most probably have to evacuate on
foot, while those ahead of it could continue to drive out of the
tunnel. The approach chosen was to use Colt Cyclone fans to stop
smoke from flowing upstream and direct it towards the tunnel exit,
preventing the smoke from affecting the evacuation of the occupants
whose vehicles are trapped.
The design is based on a two car fire. In fire mode, the ventilation
system is designed to move smoke in the same direction as the
traffic flow. This means that vehicles downstream of the fire can
continue driving, and leave the tunnel. Occupants of vehicles trapped
upstream of the fire are protected from the smoke so that they can
be evacuated safely, on foot, as necessary. Fire fighters attending the
scene can approach the fire in relatively smoke-free conditions to
within approximately 10m of the fire location within the tunnel, as
required by BS 7346-7, even when there is a significant opposing
wind (modelled at 8 m/s) and a smoke from an 8 MW car fire. No
extract plant is required.
With a larger car park then it is not quite as easy because there arent
the walls there to constrain the fire. The image below is of a typical
quite large car park. There is an extract point in the bottom right, air
inlet through the ramp at the top right, and at the top left there are
some fans providing inlet air which are basically a secondary extract
point which can be reversed to provide inlet. This is because in this
instance, depending upon where the fire is in the building, we can
either extract top left to bottom right or bottom right to top left.
3. The extract rate must equal the bulk air movement, not 10 or
12 ACH.
4. It is necessary to achieve the required velocity across the cross-
sectional area of the zone some lateral spread should be expected.
5. If the scheme is to permit fire-fighting, the aim is to limit the smoke
to maintain 10m visibility everywhere that the Fire Service needs for
entrance until they get within 10m of the fire.
In this case the car fire is within the red area in the middle of the car
park and the blue areas are effectively clear of smoke. Rather than
creating airflow across the whole width of the car park, the use of
selective fans combined with appropriately located extract points
enables the spread of smoke to be limited to a particular area of the
car park. This makes it very easy for the Fire Service to come in and
get close to the fire and start fighting the fire in clear conditions. In this
case the system was designed to avoid the need for sprinklers which
was a requirement for this particular car park in Scotland.
When designing this sort of system there is a set of basic guidelines that
should be followed.
1. The system must be linked to a zoned fire detection system so only
the zone containing the fire activates. It is important for the system
to know exactly where the fire is to operate the correct fans and
so there is more onus on the detection system. So, it is necessary
to identify the zones which are going to be used, and theres a need
to link to a smoke detection system which is zoned so that only the
zone containing the fire will activate.
Larger projects must use a zonal system: in a fire, the use of selective
fans upstream of the fire forces the smoke towards the extract point
Flow direction
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Extract
Fire
Cyclone fans
Outline of one of the models showing the extract, supply air, cyclone
fan locations and fire position
Quite a few different scenarios were modelled in the car parks because
different layouts and different floors were under consideration. In the
above illustration the fire is shown in red, the little green area is an
escape staircase. This was regarded as being quite a difficult condition
because the fire was just behind the staircase, which would tend to push
the smoke wider, and if a 50m width of smoke could be achieved here
then obviously 50m would be achieved in the areas without that kind
of obstruction. In this case 6 cyclone fans were positioned in the area
behind the fire.
Almost
clear
50m width
indicator
Dense
smoke
Visibility at 10 minutes
The above image shows visibility at 10 minutes into the fire and it can
be observed that the smoke there was kept within the 50m limit.
Smoke
layer
50m width
indicator
Visibility at 20 minutes
At 20 minutes into the fire the smoke hadnt actually spread very far
laterally but it had spread backwards at high level, against the flow of the
fans.
On the other hand the horizontal section shows that there is a clear
layer underneath the smoke at and behind the fire, and therefore there
was plenty of access for the Fire Service to get close to the fire with no
problems at all.
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Fire
However the above were purely CFD models and because this was such
a high profile and large project the authorities were quite concerned as
to whether the CFD modelled real life realistically. So to prove that the
CFD would model real life Colt built a relatively large scale model of
the car park at BRE in Middlesbrough.
Cyclone fans
35m long
The rig was 30m wide, 35m long and 3m high with a fire on one side
basically so that it could be considered as a 2 MW fire, as the test was
only looking at one half of it. A fire was set in a burnt out car shell using
a tray of diesel fuel sized to provide a heat output of 1 MW. A typical
car fire is reckoned to be about 4 MW peak output, but 1 MW was
deemed large enough to provide a useful simulation without being a
danger to those involved.
30m wide
Dense smoke
downstream
of fire
Light smoke
recirculated
Light smoke
upstream
So before the test rig was built and tested a CFD model was run
which showed where smoke would be expected to flow and with what
density. The above image shows that quite dark smoke was expected
downstream of the fire, but also that there would be some recirculation just from the end of the rig so that some light smoke would
be re-circulated within that area. This was borne out in the empirical
tests.
A BRE-endorsed video clip of the tests is available from
www.coltinfo.co.uk/paradise-street.html.
Next, lets turn to consideration of controls - an essential part of any
system. For car park ventilation, this subject can be split into two parts,
for day to day usage and for fire.
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The system would normally be activated into fire mode via the smoke
detection system in the case of a fire, though sometimes it is done
manually by the Fire Fighters override switch. Generally once the
system goes into fire mode all the fans are switched over from their day
to day mode, and the extract fans run at high speed to provide the 10
ACH.
Main extract
fans
Jetstream/Cyclone
fans
Low CO
(below 15ppm)
3 ACH
Off
Intermediate CO
(15 to 30ppm)
3 ACH
Low speed
High CO
(30ppm and over)
6 ACH
Low speed
If the car park is multi-storey at that point the dampers will be closed
on all levels except on the fire floor. The impulse fans are not switched
on for a few minutes, since in the early stages of the fire there is
probably not an awful lot of smoke and what smoke there is will be at
fairly high level, because as the smoke is warm it rises and spreads under
the ceiling, so it is not a particular risk to people who are escaping for
the first few minutes. During that period people escape, and then the
impulse fans are started again. They will have the effect of dispersing
that smoke but they will also spread it between high and low level so
they do actually tend to smoke-log the car park more quickly than if
no impulse fans were running. However that adverse effect is more
than compensated for by the fact that we are much reducing smoke
temperatures and greatly increasing the safety within the car park.
The reason that the entire system is not switched off if there are very
low CO levels is that there is always a slight concern that if cars are
within the car park there could be a petrol tank failure or carburettor
leak of petrol, which could potentially cause a flammable atmosphere
and therefore to avoid that risk just a minimum background ventilation
rate is generally kept going through the car park the entire time.
However if the car park is going to be totally empty at night then there
is no reason then why the system should not be totally switched off.
About Colt
Since 1931 Colt has been harnessing the natural elements to provide healthy, comfortable and safe working and living conditions
in buildings. Colt is a specialist in smoke control, climate control and HVAC systems, industrial ventilation and solar shading, with a
presence in more than 50 countries.
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