Chapter 3

Digital Modulation Schemes

Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Institute of Communications Engineering
g
g
National Sun YatYat-sen University

Contents

3.1 Representation of Digitally Modulated Signals

3.2 Memoryless Modulation Methods

3.3 Signaling
g
g Schemes with Memory
y

Chapter 3.1: Representation of

Digitally Modulated Signals
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Institute of Communications Engineering
g
g
National Sun YatYat-sen University

3.1 Digitally
g
y Modulated Signals
g

Digital Modulation (or digital signaling):

The process of mapping a digital sequence to signals for

transmission over a communication channel.

In the process of modulation, usually the transmitted signals are

bandpass signals suitable for transmission in the bandwidth provided
by the communication channel.

The transmitted signal can be memoryless or with memory.

3.1 Digitally
g
y Modulated Signals
g

Memoryless Modulation

Each of length k sequence is mapped into one of the sm(t),

1 m 2k, signals regardless of the previous transmitted signals

Equivalent to map a k-bit sequence to one of M=2k signals.

3.1 Digitally
g
y Modulated Signals
g

Modulation with memory

Mapping from the set of current k bits and the past (L1)k bits to the
set of M=2k possible signals
The modulation scheme can be viewed as a mapping from the
current state and the current input of the modulator to the set of
output signals resulting in a new state of the modulator.
This defines a finite-state machine with 2(L1)k states :
at t = l1,, the modulation is in state S l 1 1,, 2,, , 2 ( L 1 ) k
at t =l, the input sequence is I l {1, 2, , 2k } , then the modulation
moves to the next state Sl = f s ( Sl 1 , I l )
L is the constraint length of modulation.
Can be effectively represented by a Markov Chain.

3.1 Digitally
g
y Modulated Signals
g

Digital modulation is linear if

b1 m1 (t ), b2 m2 (t ) b1 + b2 m1 (t ) + m2 (t )

otherwise, it is nonlinear.

Assume that the signal waveforms sm(t), 1 m M=2k

are transmitted at every Ts seconds

Signal interval : Ts
Signaling rate or Symbol rate : Rs = 1/ Ts
Bit interval : Tb = Ts / k = Ts / log 2 M
Bit rate : R = 1/ Tb = k / Ts = kRs = Rs log 2 M

3.1 Digitally
g
y Modulated Signals
g

Let the energy of sm(t) is Em, the average signal energy is

M

Eavg = pm Em
m =1

pm is the probability of the m-th signal

1
E
=
If equiprobable messages, i.e. pm = 1/M, then avg
M
If Em = E, then Eavg = E

The average energy per bit when pm = 1/M is

Ebavg =

Eavg

Eavg

k
llog 2 M
Ebavg
The average power is Pavg =
= REbavg
Tb
8

E
m =1

Ch
Chapter
33.2
2 : Memoryless
M
l Modulation
M d l i
Methods
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Institute of Communications Engineering
g
g
National Sun YatYat-sen University

3.2 Memoryless
y
Modulation Methods

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Phase Modulation
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

/4-DQPSK
Dual-Carrier Modulation (DCM)

Multidimensional Signaling

Orthogonal Signaling
Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)
Hadamard Signals
Biorthogonal Signaling
Simplex Signaling
Si l Waveforms
Signal
W f
from
f
Binary
Bi
Codes
C d
10

3.2--1 Pulse Amplitude

3.2
p
Modulation ((PAM))

In PAM, the (baseband) signal waveforms are

sm (t ) = Am p (t ),

1 m M

p(t) : pulse of duration T

{Am}: amplitudes corresponding to M=2k possible k-bit symbols

The amplitudes of sm(t) are

Am = 2m 1 M ,

, ( M 1) .

Am = 1, 3, 5,
m = 1, 2, M

The energy in signal sm(t) is

Em = Am2 p 2 (t )dt = Am2 E p

Average bit energy is

Eavg =

Ep
M

2E p

m =1

2
A
m=

(12 + 32 + 52 +

1 +3 +5 +

+ ( M 1) 2 ) =

Ebavg = Eavg / k = ( M 2 1) Ep / 3log 2 M

11

+ ( M 1) =
2

( M 2 1) E p
3

M M 2 1
6

3.2--1 Pulse Amplitude

3.2
p
Modulation ((PAM))

In bandpass PAM signals with lowpass equivalents of the Amg(t),

Am and g(t) are real.
sm (t ) = Re[ Am g (t )e j 2 f t ] = Am g (t ) cos(2 f c t )
c

fc : carrier frequency
2
A
Energy of sm(t) : Em = m Eg
2

Compared with generic form of PAM signaling

E p = Eg / 2

p (t ) = g (t ) cos(2 f c t )

Average Signal Energy :

Eavg =

From 2.1-21

( M 2 1) Ep

Average Bit Energy :

Ebavg =

3
Eavg
k

=
12

( M 2 1) Eg
6

( M 2 1) Eg
6 log 2 M

3.2--1 Pulse Amplitude

3.2
p
Modulation ((PAM))

{sm(t), m=1,,M} is one-dimensional with basis signal:

Baseband PAM : (t ) = p (t )

( fct )
Bandpass
p
PAM : (t ) = 2 / Eg g (t ) cos(2

Ep

Using these basis signals, sm(t) is written as:

Baseband PAM: sm (t ) = Am p (t ) = Am Ep (t )

Bandpass PAM: sm (t ) = Am g (t ) cos(2 fC t ) = Am Eg / 2 (t )

Th one-dimentional
The
di
i l vector representation
i off sm(t)
( ) are

Baseband PAM: sm = Am Ep ,

Am = 1, 3, , ( M 1)

Bandpass PAM: sm = Am Eg / 2,

Am = 1, 3, , ( M 1)

Bandpass
p PAM is also called amplitude-shift
p
f keying
y g ((ASK))
13

3.2--1 Pulse Amplitude

3.2
p
Modulation ((PAM))
The mapping from k information bits to M=2k amplitudes is not
unique
Gray coding: the adjacent signal amplitudes differ by one digit

only one-bit error with erroneous selection of an adjacent amplitude

Euclidean distance between (sm, sn)

d mn = || sm sn ||2 =| Am An | Ep

(A

An = 2 )

=| Am An | Eg / 2

The minimum distance PAM is

d min

12 log 2 M
= 2 Ep = 2 Eg =
Ebavg
2
M 1
Ebavg =

( M 2 1) Eg
6 log 2 M

14

3.2--1 Pulse Amplitude

3.2
p
Modulation ((PAM))

The following bandpass signal is double-sideband (DSB)

sm (t ) = Re[ Am g (t )e j 2 f t ] = Am g (t ) cos(2 f c t )
c

Requires twice the channel bandwidth

We may use single-sideband (SSB) PAM:

sm (t ) = Re[ Am ( g (t ) jg (t ))e j 2 fct ]

g (t ) is the Hilbert transform of g (t )

Bandwidth is half of DSB

When M = 2, s1(t) = -s2(t)

E1= E2 =1
Cross-correlation coefficient = -1
Binary antipodal signaling
15

3.2--1 Pulse Amplitude

3.2
p
Modulation ((PAM))

16

3.2--2 Phase Modulation

3.2

Phase modulation is also called phase-shift keying (PSK)

sm (t ) = Re g (t )e j 2 ( m 1)/ M e j 2 fct ,

m = 1, 2, , M

= g (t ) cos[2 f c t + 2 (m 1)) / M ]

= g (t ) cos ( m ) cos ( 2 fC t ) g (t ) sin ( m ) sin ( 2 fC t )

g(t) : signal pulse shape
m = 2 (m 1) / M : phase of the M=2k transmitted signals

Signal waveforms have equal energy

Eavgg = Em = Eg / 2 E

Average bit energy :

Ebavg =

Eg
2k

Eg
2 log 2 M

17

Eb

(3 2-26)
(3.2
26)

3.2--2 Phase Modulation

3.2

g(t)cos(2fc t) and g(t)sin(2fc t) are orthogonal

Two basis functions from DSB signal
1 (t ) = 2 / Eg g (t ) cos(2 f c t )
2 (t ) = 2 / Eg g (t ) sin(2 f c t )

These can be used for expansion of {sm(t)}

sm (t ) =

Eg
2

cos
(m 1) 1 (t ) +
sin
i
(m 1) 2 (t )
2
2
M

Eg

The signal space has dimension N=2 and vector representations

Eg
2
Eg
2

sm =
cos
(m 1) ,
sin
(m 1)
2

M
M
2

18

3.2--2 Phase Modulation

3.2

M=2, BPSK

BPSK=Binary
y PAM
The mapping is not unique and Gray coding is preferred
A variant of four-phase
four phase PSK (QPSK), called /4
/4-QPSK,
QPSK, is
obtained by introducing an additional /4 phase shift.

M=4, QPSK

19

M=8, 8-PSK

3.2--2 Phase Modulation

3.2

The Euclidean distance between signal points

d mn = || sm sn ||2 = Eg 1 cos
( m n)
M

The minimal distance (|m-n|=1) :

d min

2
= Eg 1 cos
=
2
E
sin
i
g
M
M

2
= 2 log
l 2 M sin
i
Eb
M

sin(( / M ) ( / M )

For large
g M
d min 2

2 log 2 M
M

Eb
20

1 cos 2
2
2sin 2 = 1 cos 2

sin 2 =

Eg
2 log 2 M

Eb

( 3.2-26 )

3.2--3 Q
3.2
Quadrature Amplitude
p
Modulation

The bandwidth efficiency of PAM/SSB can be obtained by

impressing two k-bit symbols on two quadrature carriers
cos(2fc t) and sin(2fc t).

Quadrature PAM or QAM

In QAM, signal waveforms are

sm (t ) = Re[( Ami + jAmq ) g (t )e j 2 fct ]
= A mi g (t ) cos(2 f c t ) Amq g (t ) sin(2 f c t ),

m = 1,2, ,M

Ami and Amq : information-bearing signal amplitudes

Alternatively, it may be expressed as

sm (t ) = Re rm e jm g ( t ) e j 2 fct = rm g ( t ) cos(2 f c t + m )

2
rm = Ami2 + Amq
and m = tan 1 Amq Ami

21

3.2--3 Q
3.2
Quadrature Amplitude
p
Modulation

QAM: combined amplitude (rm) and phase (m) modulation

Similar to PSK, two basis functions:
1 (t ) = 2 / Eg g (t ) cos(2 f c t )
2 (t ) = 2 / Eg g (t ) sin(2 f c t )
Usingg this basis
sm (t ) = Ami Eg / 21 (t ) + Amq Eg / 22 (t ),

Vector representation
p
of sm((t):
)

m = 1, 2,..., M

sm = ( sm1 , sm 2 ) = Ami Eg / 2, Amq Eg / 2

2
)( Ami2 + Amq
)
Signal
g energy:
gy Em = sm = ( Eg / 2)(
Euclidean distance between signal points

d mn =

sm sn

= (

Eg
2

((3.2-39))

) ( Ami Ani ) 2 + ( Amq Anq ) 2

22

e.g . Ami Ani = 2; Amq Anq = 0;

3.2--3 Q
3.2
Quadrature Amplitude
p
Modulation

May combine M1-level PAM and M2-phase PSK to construct

M=M1M2 combined PAM-PSK
If M1=2n and M2=2m , the combined PAM-PSK simultaneously
transmit m + n = log2 M1M2 binary digits
(ex) M=8 (M1=2, M2=4)
M=16 (M1=4, M2=4)

23

3.2--3 Q
3.2
Quadrature Amplitude
p
Modulation

When the signal amplitudes (Ami , Amqq) take value on (2m1M),

m=1,,M, signal space is rectangular
Minimal distance is d
2 Eg E.g. Ami Ani = 2; Amq Anq = 0.
min =
If M=22k, (M=4,16,64,256,..) and Am , Am = 1, 3, ,
M 1
i

1 Eg
M
M
2
2
Eavg =
(
A
+
A

m
n)
m =1 n =1
M 2
Eg 2 M ( M 1) M 1

=
Eg
=
2M
3
3
M 1
Ebavg =
Eg
3l 2 M
3log
d min =

6 log 2 M
Ebavg
M 1

d min = 2 Eg
24

n =1

= 2n 1 M
n =1

) = ( 2n (1 +
2

n =1

= 4

1
=
3

))

( A
m =1 n =1

+ An

n =1

n =1

) =
M

m =1

25

i =1

N ( N + 1) ( 2 N + 1)
6

i =1
i=

)+

M +1
2

)(

M 1

1
= M Am 2 + M M
3
m =1
2
= M ( M 1)
3
M

N ( N + 1)

1
M Am 2 + M
3

i =

) n + (1 + M )
M ( M + 1) ( 2 M + 1)
4 (1 + M )
6
M ( M + 1) ( M 1)

= 4 n 2 4 1 + M
n =1

M 1+ M

M +1

)(

M 1

M +1

3.2--3 Q
3.2
Quadrature Amplitude
p
Modulation

Bandpass PAM, PSK and QAM are of the general form

sm (t ) = Re[ Am g (t )e j 2 fct ], m = 1, 2,..., M

PAM : Am is real,
and Am = 1, 3, , ( M 1) ; N=1
j 2 ( m 1) / M
PSK : Am is complex, and Am = e
; N=2
QAM: Am is complex, and Am = Ami + jAmq
; N=2
both amplitude and phase carry information
(bit)

(symbol)

26

Comparison
p
of PAM, PSK, and QAM
Q

27

Memoryless
y
Modulation Methods

Phase-modulated signals (/4-Shifted QPSK, /4-DQPSK)

The carrier phase used for the transmission of successive
symbols is alternately picked from one of the two QPSK
constellations in the following figure and then the other.

28

Memoryless
y
Modulation Methods

Phase-modulated signals (/4-Shifted QPSK, /4-DQPSK)

It follows that a /4-shifted QPSK signal may reside in any
one of eight possible phase states:

29

Memoryless
y
Modulation Methods

Phase-modulated signals (/4-Shifted QPSK, /4-DQPSK)

Attractive features of the /4-shifted QPSK scheme
The phase transitions from one symbol to the next are
restricted to /4 and 3/4.
Envelope variations due to filtering are significantly
reduced.
/4-shifted QPSK signals can be noncoherently detected,
thereby
h b considerably
id bl simplifying
i lif i the
h receiver
i
design.
d i
Like QPSK signals, /4-shifted QPSK can be differently
encoded in which case we should really speak of /4encoded,
/4
shifted DQPSK .
/4-DQPSK
/4 DQPSK is adopted in IS
IS-54/136.
54/136
30

Memoryless
y
Modulation Methods

Dual-Carrier Modulation (DCM)

Multi-band OFDM (IEEE 802.15.3 a Ultra Wideband)
The coded and interleaved binary serial input data, b[i] where
i = 0, 1, 2, , shall be divided into groups of 200 bits and
converted into 100 complex numbers using a technique called
d l
dual-carrier
i modulation.
d l ti
The conversion shall be performed as follows:
1 Th 200 coded
1.The
d d bits
bi are groupedd into
i
50 groups off 4 bits.
bi
Each group is represented as (b[g(k)], b[g(k)+1], b[g(k) +
50)] b[g(k) + 51]),
50)],
51]) where k [ 0,
[0 49] and
2k
k [ 0, 24]
g (k ) =
25 49]
2k + 50 k [ 25,
31

Memoryless
y
Modulation Methods

Dual-Carrier Modulation (DCM)

2. Each group of 4 bits (b[g(k)], b[g(k)+1], b[g(k) + 50)], b[g(k) +
51]) shall be mapped onto a four-dimensional constellation, and
converted into two complex
p numbers ((d[k],
[ ], d[k
[ + 50]).
])
3. The complex numbers shall be normalized using a normalization
factor KMOD.

The normalization factor KMOD = 10-1/2 is used for the dualcarrier modulation
modulation.
An approximate value of the normalization factor may be used,
as long as the device conforms to the modulation accuracy
requirements.

32

Memoryless
y
Modulation Methods
Dual-Carrier Modulation (DCM)

33

Memoryless
y
Modulation Methods
Dual-Carrier Modulation (DCM) Encoding Table

34

3.2--4 Multidimensional Signaling

3.2
g
g

To construct signal waveforms corresponding to higher

dimensions, we may use time or frequency domain or both
Time domain:

Frequency Domain:

Divide a time interval into N subintervals with length T=T1/N,

Use binary PAM to transmit N-dimensional vector
If N is even, simultaneously transmits two N-dimensional vectors by
modulating the amplitude of quadrature carriers
Divide a frequency band to have N sub-band with width f
Frequency separation f must be large to avoid interference

May use both time and frequency domains to jointly transmit Ndimensional vector
35

3.2--4 Multidimensional Signaling

3.2
g
g

Subdivision of time and frequency axes into distinct slots.

36

Orthogonal
g
Signaling
g
g

Define a set of orthogonal signals {sm(t)} with equal energy

E, m = n
< sm (t ), sn (t ) >=
0, m n

1 m, n M

{sm(t)} are linearly independent (N = M), define orthonormal set

j (t ) = s j (t ) / E , 1 j N

Vector representations of {sm(t)}

Eb =

s1 = ( E , 0, 0,..., 0))
s2 = (0, E , 0,..., 0)

E
log 2 M

d mn = 2 E

d min = 2 E

sM = (0, 0,..., 0, E )

= 2 log 2 MEb
37

FrequencyFrequency
q
y-Shift Keying
y g (FSK)
(
)

A special case of orthogonal signaling :

sm (t )= Re[ sml (t )e j 2 fct ],

1 m M ,0 t T

= 2 E / T cos(2 f c t + 2 mft )

sml (t) = 2 E / T e j 2 mft , 1 m M , 0 t T

2 E / T is to guarantee that each signal has an energy equal to E.
Messages are transmitted by signals that differ in frequency
ASK, PSK, QAM are linear modulations The sum of two QAM signals
is another QAM signal.
FSK is non-linear modulations

To keep
k
the
h orthogonality
h
li among signals,
i l for
f mn

*
sm (t ) sn (t )dt = 0 Re[ sml
(t ) snl (t )dt ] = 0
0
f has to satisfy the above condition

(2.1 26) x , y =

38

x (t ) , y (t )
Ex E y

= Re xl , yl

FrequencyFrequency
q
y-Shift Keying
y g (FSK)
(
)

2 E T j 2 ( m n ) ft
sml (t ), snl (t ) =
e
dt

0
T
2 E sin( T (m n)f ) j T ( m n ) f
=
e
T (m n)f

2 E sin( T (m n)f )
cos(( T (m n)f )
T (m n)f
2 E sin(2 T (m n)f )
sin
=
sinc =
2 T (m n)f

= 2 E sinc(2T (m n)f )

Re

sml (t ), snl (t ) =

{ m((t)}
{s
)} is orthogonal
g
sinc(2T(mn)f
(
(
) f ))=0,, for all m n
If f = k / 2T , k is a positive integer, sinc(2T (mn)f )=0
Minimum frequency separation to guarantee orthogonality
f = 1/ 2T
39

2 E T j 2 ( m n ) ft
sml (t ), snl (t ) =
e
dt

0
T
=

j 2 ( m n ) ft

2E
e

T j 2 ( m n ) f

2 E e j 2 ( m n )fT 1
=

T j 2 ( m n ) f

j ( m n ) fT
j ( m n ) fT
j ( m n ) fT
e
e

e
2E
=

T
j 2 ( m n ) f

2 E sin(( T (m n)f ) j T ( m n ) f
=
e
T (m n)f

40

)
e j e j
sin =
2j

Hadamard Signals
g

The orthogonal signals constructed from Hadamard matrices

Hadamard matrices are 2n 2n and
H 0 = [1];
[1]

Hn
H n +1 =
Hn

1 1
H1 =

1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1

H2 =
1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

Hn

H n

1
1

H3 =
1

1
1

1
41

1
1

1 1
1 1

1 1
1 1

1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1

1 1
1 1
1 1

1 1
1 1

1 1
1 1

1 1

Hadamard Signals
g

Hadamard matrices:

Symmetric
All rows are orthogonal

Using Hadamard matrices to generate orthogonal signals

(ex) using H2: s1 = [ E

s2 = [ E

s3 = [ E

E]
E

E]

E]

s4 = [ E E E
E]
The set of signals may be used to modulate 4-D orthonormal basis
4

sm ( t ) = smjj j ( t ) , 1 m 4
j =1

Energy in each signal is 4E and Eb=2E

42

Biorthogonal
g
Signaling
g
g

A set of M biorthogonal signals is

constructed from M/2 orthogonal signals
Simply including the negatives of
orthogonal signals
Onlyy require
q
M/2 orthogonal
g
signals
g
Correlation between signals: = 0 or -1
Distance between signals:
g
d = 2 E or 2 E
Minimal distance: d min = 2 E

43

Simplex
p Signaling
g
g

Let {sm(t)} be a set of M orthogonal waveforms with energy E

and vector representation {sm}
The mean of {sm} is
1
s=
M

s
m =1

Construct M simplex signals :

sm = sm s , m = 1, 2,..., M

Translate the origin of M orthogonal signals to the point s

Energy per waveform:
2
1
1
2
|| sm ||2 = sm s = E
E+
E = E (1 )
M
M
M
Cross-correlation between signals:
sm sn
1/ M
1
Re[ mn ] =
=
=
sm sn 1 1/ M
M 1
44

Simplex
p Signaling
g
g

Simplex signals require less energy

Simplex signals are equally correlated
Distances between signal points remain the same: d = 2 E
Signal dimensionality: N = M 1

M =4

45

Comparisons
p

The signal space dimensionality of the class of orthogonal,

biorthogonal, and simplex signals is highly dependent on the
constellation size.

This
hi is
i in
i contrast to PAM,
A PSK,
S andd QAM
QA systems.

For fi
F
fixed
d Eb, the
th minimum
i i
distance
di t
in
i these
th
systems
t
increases
i
with increasing M.

This is in sharp contrast to PAM

PAM, PSK,
PSK and QAM signaling.
signaling

46

Signal
g Waveforms from Binaryy Codes

Signaling wave forms generated from M binary code words

cm = [cm1 cm 2

cmN ],

m = 1, 2,..., M

cmj {0,1} , for all m and j

Each component of a code word is mapped to a BPSK waveform:
cmj = 1 2 Ec / Tc cos 2 f c t , 0 t Tc
cmj = 0 2 Ec / Tc cos 2 f c t , 0 t Tc

Tc = T/N
Ec = E/N

The M code words {cm} are mapped to a set of M waveforms

{ m(t)},
{s
(t)} which
hi h have
h
vector
t forms
f
sm = [ sm1

sm 2

smN ], m = 1, 2,..., M

f all
ll m andd j
smj = E / N , for
47

Signal
g Waveforms from Binaryy Codes

Block length = N

Dimension of M waveforms = N
2N possible waveforms from 2N possible binary code words
2N signal points vertices of N-dim. hypercube w. center at origin
May select M < 2N signal waveforms for transmission
Cross-correlation depends on how to select M waveforms
Cross-correlation coefficient of adjacent points:
E (1 2 / N ) N 2
=
=
E
N
Minimal distance:
d min = 2 E (1 ) = 4 E / N

48

Chapter 3.3: Signaling Schemes with

Memory
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Institute of Communications Engineering
g
g
National Sun YatYat-sen University

49

Signaling
g
g Schemes with Memory
y

Three different baseband signals:

NRZ: (Non-return-to-zero)

NRZI: (Non
(Non-return-to-zero
return to zero, inverted)

1: A
0 -A
0:
A
Equivalent to a binary PAM or s BPSK signal.
0: amplitude unchanged
1: amplitude transit to another

Delay modulation:

0: No delay
1 Si
1:
Signall ddelayed
l d bby T/2

50

Signaling
g
g Schemes with Memory
y

NRZI: (Non-return-to-zero, inverted)

Differential encoding: bk = ak bk 1
Modulation with memory
T
Two-state
M k chain
Markov
h i
If P[ak=1] = P[ak=0] = 1/2,

1/ 2 1/ 2
P=

1/
2
1/
2

Steady state probability p = [1/ 2 1/ 2]

If P[ak=1] = 1P[ak=0] = p,

p
1 p
P=

p
1

NRZI signaling can be represented

using
g trellis diagram
g
51

CPFSK

Continuous-Phase Frequency-Shift Keying (CPFSK)

The phase of signal is constrained to be continuous
Conventional FSK:
Shifting the carrier by mf , 1 m M
Switching one oscillators to another results in relative large spectral
side lobes requires large frequency band
To avoid large side lobe, the information-bearing frequency modulates
a single carrier whose frequency is changed continuously
The signal is phase-continuous
Continuous
Continuous-phase
phase FSK (CPFSK)
The modulation has memory because the phase of the carrier is
constrained to be continuous

52

CPFSK

Begin with a PAM signal: d (t ) = I n g (t nT )

{In} : sequence of amplitudes

g(t): rectangular pulse with duration T and amplitude 1/2T

d(t) is used to frequency-modulate the carrier

The equivalent lowpass waveform is

j 4 Tf d

d ( ) d +0

(t ) = 2 E / T e
fd : peak frequency deviation
0: initial phase of the carrier

The carrier modulate signal s(t) for v(t) is

s(t ) = 2 E / T cos [ 2 f c t + (t ; I ) + 0 ] (3.3-8)

(bandpass signal)

(t ; I ) = 4 Tf d d ( )d = 4 Tf d I n g ( nT ) d

53

CPFSK

Although d(t) is discrete, the integral of d(t) is continuous

s(t) is continuous-phase signal

The phase of carrier in nT t (n+1)T

(t ; I ) = 2 f d T

n 1

k =

+ 4 f d Tq (t nT ) I n

= n + 2 hI n q (t nT
T)

t<0
0

q (t ) = t / (2T )
0t T
1/ 2
t>T

n 1
=h
l ti (memory)
(
) off symbols
b l up to
t t = nT
T
k = I k: accumulation
n
(n-1)th symbol
h=2f T
:
modulation
index
d

54

Continuous--Phase Modulation
Continuous

CPFSK is a special case of continuous-phase modulation (CPM)

The carrier phase of CPM signal is
(t ; I ) = 2

I h q(t kT ),

k =

k k

nT t (n + 1))T

{Ik}: sequence of M-ary symbols , Ik {1,3,,(M1)}

{{hk}}: sequence
q
of modulation indices

When hk = h, for all k, modulation index is fixed for all symbols

If hk varies from one symbol to another multi-h CPM

q(t): normalized waveform shape, could be represented by

t
q (t ) = g ( )d
0

If g(t) = 0, for t > T full-response CPM

If g(t) 0, for t > T partial-response CPM

CPM signal has memory introduced through the phase continuity

55

Continuous--Phase Modulation
Continuous

Full-response CPM

LREC, L=1,
results in
CPFSK

LRC, L=1

Partial-response
p
CPM
LRC, L=2

LREC, L=2

1
2 LT
2LT
1
g (t ) =
2 LT

LREC: Rectangular pulse with duration LT: g ( t ) =

LRC: Raise-cosine pulse with duration LT:

For L > 1, additional memory is introduced by g(t)

2 t

1 cos
, 0 t LT
LT

56

0 t LT

Continuous--Phase Modulation
Continuous

Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK) pulse:

Q 2 B ( t T / 2 ) Q 2 B ( t + T / 2 )
g (t ) =

ln 2

Bandwidth B : represents the -3 dB

bandwidth of the Gaussian pulse
p
Pulse duration ,bandwidth
In GSM system, BT = 0.3

57

Continuous--Phase Modulation
Continuous

Phase trajectories (t;I)

generated by all possible {In} can
be sketched as a phase tree
Right figure: Phase tree of
CPFSK with In = 1

Phase tree is piecewise linear

because g(t) is rectangular
Phase trajectory is not smooth

58

Phase trajectory binary CPFSK:

Continuous--Phase Modulation
Continuous

Phase trajectory of {In }= (+1,-1,-1,-1,+1,+1,-1,+1)

: CPFSK

: partialresponse CPM
with LRC, L=3

Phase trellis: the pphase trajectory

j
y is plotted
p
in modulo 2

When h=m/p, m and p are relative prime, for full response CPM signal:

m 2 m
( p 1) m
s = 0,
0
,
,...,
, when m is even
P
p
p

m 2 m
(2 p 1) m
s = 0,,
,
,,...,,
, when m is odd
P
p
p

59

Continuous--Phase Modulation
Continuous

For partial-response CPM, the number of phase states may

increase up to
pM L 1 even m
St =
L 1
odd m
2 pM

Up-Right : phase trellis of

CPFSK with h = 1/2

St = 4
Not the real phase trajectory,
only represents phase at t = nT

Down-Right: state diagram of

CPFSK with h = 1/2
60

Minimum--Shift Keying
Minimum
y g (MSK)
(
)

MSK is a special case of binary CPFSK

h =1/2
g(t) is rectangular pulse with duration T

(t ; I ) = 2 f d T

n 1

+ 4 f d Tqq (t nT ) I n

1 n 1
n 1
= h k = I k + 2 hI n q(t nT )
(t ; I ) = I k + I n q(t nT )
2 k =
1
t nT
),
= n + I n (
nT t (n + 1)T
2
T

k =

Th modulated
The
d l t d carrier
i signal
i l is
i (see
(
3.3-8)
3 3 8)

1
t nT
s (t ) = A cos 2 f c t + n + I n

2
T

1
1

= A cos 2 ( f c +
I n )t n I n + n ,
4T
2

61

nT t (n + 1)T

Minimum--Shift Keying
Minimum
y g (MSK)
(
)

The binary CPFSK signal can be expressed as a sinusoid having

two possible frequencies in nT t (n+1)T
1
4T
1
f2 = fc +
4T
Th binary
The
bi
CPFSK signal
i l can be
b written
i
by
b
f1 = f c

si (t ) = A cos 2 fi t + n + n (1))i 1 ,
2

i = 1,, 2

1
Equivalent to a FSK signal with f = f 2 f1 =
2T
2T
I FSK
In
FSK, minimum
i i
ffrequency separation
i to ensure orthogonality
h
li off
1
the signals is f = 2T
Thus binary CPFSK with h=1/2
Thus,
h 1/2 is called minimum-shift keying
62

Offset Q
QPSK ((OQPSK)
Q
)

In QPSK, each 2 information bits is mapped into one of the

Mapping for QPSK signal:
constellation points
Assume the information bits are 11000111

Split into 11,00,01,11

In each of 2Tb period,
11: E / 2(1 + j )
00 : E / 2((1 j )
Phase transition:

01: E / 2(1 + j )
11: E / 2(1 + j )

Phase transition
occurs at 2nTb
63

Offset Q
QPSK ((OQPSK)
Q
)

180 phase changes causes abrupt change in

the signal, resulting large spectral side lobe.
To prevent 180 phase change
offset QPSK (OQPSK)
In OQPSK,
Q
the I-phase
p
and Q
Q-phase
p
components are misaligned by Tb
At t = nTb, one of I-phase
p
and Q
Q-phase
p
component changes
pprevent 180 pphase change
g
But, 90 phase change occurs more frequently
QPSK and OQPSK have the same PSD
64

Offset Q
QPSK ((OQPSK)
Q
)

The OQPSK signal is

s (t ) = A I 2 n g (t 2nT ) cos 2 f c t + I 2 n +1 g (t 2nT T ) sin 2 f c t

n =

n =

Lowpass equivalent of s(t) is

sl (t ) = A I 2 n g (t 2nT )
n =

j I 2 n +1 g (t 2nT T )
n =

MSK can be expressed as a form of OQPSK with

t
0 t 2T
sin
g (t ) = 2T
0 otherwise

(See Problem 3.26)

65

Offset Q
QPSK ((OQPSK)
Q
)

t
g
(
t
)
=
sin
,
With
2T

0 t 2T

the sum of I-phase

p
and QQ
phase has constant amplitude
and is frequency-modulated.

66

Offset Q
QPSK ((OQPSK)
Q
)

MSK: continuous phase but

jump in frequency

OQPSK: constant frequency

but 90 jjump
p in phase
p
everyy
T seconds.

QPSK: constant frequency

but 180 or 90 jjumpp in
phase every 2T seconds.

67

Linear Representation
p
of CPM Signals
g

CPM is a nonlinear modulation with memory, but it can be

represented as linear superposition of waveforms
A lowpass equivalent of a CPM signal is
v(t ) = 2 E / T e j (t ; I ) ,

(t ; I ) = 2 h I k q (t kT ),
k =
n L

= h I k + 2 h
t

k =

k = n L +1

nT t (n + 1)T
I k q (t kT )

q (t ) = g ( )d , the duration of g(t) is LT

0
nL

L 1
exp[ j (t ; I )] = exp j h I k exp{ j 2 hI n k q[t (n k )T ]}
k =

k =0

nT t (n + 1)T

Cumulated
phase up
p
p to

Product of L phase terms

I n L
68

Linear Representation
p
of CPM Signals
g

Assume that h is not an integer and symbols Ik{1}

The k-th phase term
sin h
exp{ j 2 hI n k q[t (n k )T ]} =
exp{ j 2 hI n k q[t (n k )T ]}
sin h
sin{ h 2 hq[t (n k )]T }
sin{2 hq[t (n k )T ]}
=
+ exp( j hI n k )
sin h
sin h
Define the signal pulse
, 0 t LT
sin 2 hq(t ) / sin h

s0 (t ) = sin[ h 2 hq(t LT )] / sin h

, LT t 2 LT
0

exp[ j (t ; I )]

, otherwise

n L

L 1
= exp j h I k {s0 [t + (k + L n)T )] + exp( j hI n k ) s0 [t (k n)T ]}
k =

k =0

69

Linear Representation
p
of CPM Signals
g
n L

L 1
exp[ j (t ; I )] = exp j h I k {s0 [t + ( k + L n)T )] + exp( j hI n k ) s0 [t ( k n)T ]}
k =

k =0

By multiplying over L terms, we obtain 2L terms

2L-1 terms are distinct

2L-1 terms are time-shifted version of 2L-1 distinct terms

70

Linear Representation
p
of CPM Signals
g

The final result is

exp[ j (t ; I )] =
L
L
1

2 L1 1

j hAk ,n

k =0

ck (t nT )

ck (t ) = s0 (t ) s0 [t + (n + Lak ,n )T ],

Ak ,n =

n =1

L 1

I I

m =

m =1

0 t T min[ L(2 ak ,n ) n]
n

n m k ,m

ak,n = 0 or 1 are coefficients in binary representation of k

L 1

k = 2m 1ak ,m ,

k = 0,1,...,
0 1 2 L 1 1

m =1

Binary CPM is expressed as a weighed sum of 2L-1 real pulses {ck(t)}

c0(t) is
i the
th mostt important
i
t t component:
t

Has longest duration

Contains the most signal
g energy
gy
71

Pulse Code Modulation

(Line Code)
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Institute of Communications Engineering
g
g
National Sun YatYat-sen University

72

PCM Waveform Representations

p

73

PCM Waveform : NRZNRZ-L

1

+E
0
-E

NRZ Level (or NRZ Change)

One
One is represented by one level.
level
Zero is represented by the other level.

74

PCM Waveform : NRZNRZ-M

1

+E
0
-E

NRZ Mark (Differential Encoding)

One
One is represented by a change in level.
level
Zero is represented by a no change in level.

75

PCM Waveform : NRZNRZ-S

1

+E
0
-E

NRZ Space (Differential Encoding)

One
One is represented by a no change in level.
level
Zero is represented by a change in level.

76

PCM Waveform : Unipolar

Unipolarp
-RZ
1

+E
0
-E

Unipolar - RZ

One
One is represented by a half-bit
half bit width pulse.
pulse
Zero is represented by a no pulse condition.

77

PCM Waveform : PolarPolar-RZ

1

+E
0
-E

Polar - RZ

One
One and Zero
Zero are represented by opposite
level polar pulses that are one half-bit in width.

78

PCM Waveform : BiBi--L

1

+E
0
-E

Bi--L (Biphase Level or Split Phase Manchester 11 +

180o)

One is represented by a 10.

Zero
Zero is represented by a 01.
79

PCM Waveform : BiBi--M

1

+E
0
-E

Bi--M
i
( Biphase
i h
Markk or Manchester
h
1)

A transition occurs at the beginning of every bit period.

O is
One
i represented
t d by
b a secondd transition
t
iti one half
h lf bit period
i d
later.
Zero
Zero is represented by no second transition.
transition
80

PCM Waveform : BiBi--S

1

+E
0
-E

Bi--S ( Biphase Space)

A transition occurs at the beginning of every bit period.

One is represented by no second transition.
Zero is represented by a second transition one-half bit period
later
later.
81

PCM Waveform : Dicode - NRZ

1

+E
0
-E

Dicode Non-Return-to-Zero

A One to Zero or Zero to One changes polarity.

Otherwise, a Zero is sent.

82

PCM Waveform : Dicode - RZ

1

+E
0
-E

Dicode Return-to-Zero

A One to Zero or Zero to One transition produces a half

d ti polarity
duration
l it change.
h
Otherwise, a Zero is sent.

83

PCM Waveform : Delay

y Mode
1

+E
0
-E

Dicode Non-Return-to-Zero

A One is represented by a transition at the midpoint of the bit

interval.
interval
A Zero is represented by a no transition unless it is followed
by another zero. In this case, a transition is placed at the end of
bi period
bit
i d off the
h fi
first zero.
84

Line Code: 4B3T

O--

85

Line Code: 4B3T

Ternary words in the middle column are balanced in their DC

content.
Code words from the first and third columns are selected
alternately to maintain DC balance.
If more positive pulses than negative pulses have been transmitted,
column
l
1 is
i selected.
l t d
Notice that the all-zeros code word is not used.

86

Line Code:
Code Multilevel Transmission

Multilevel transmission with 3 bits per signal interval.

interval

87

Criteria for Selecting PCM Waveform

DC component: eliminating the dc energy from the signals

power spectrum.
Self-Clocking: Symbol or bit synchronization is required for any
digital communication system.
system
Error detection: some schemes provide error detection without
introducing additional error
error-detection
detection bits.
Bandwidth compression: some schemes increase bandwidth
utilization by allowing a reduction in required bandwidth for a
given
i
data
d rate.
Noise immunity.
C t andd complexity.
Cost
l it

88

Spectral
p
Densities of Various PCM Waveforms

89