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The life cycle concept in marketing research

Martina Bauer Katharina J. Auer-Srnka
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Martina Bauer Katharina J. Auer-Srnka, (2012),"The life cycle concept in marketing research", Journal of
Historical Research in Marketing, Vol. 4 Iss 1 pp. 68 - 96
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JHRM
4,1
The life cycle concept in

marketing research
Martina Bauer
68
Department of Strategic Management, Marketing and Tourism,

University of Innsbruck School of Management, Innsbruck, Austria, and
Katharina J. Auer-Srnka
Department of Business Administration, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Abstract
Purpose This research seeks to provide a historical review of the life cycle concept in marketing.
The paper aims to show the development of traditional life cycle models and links to the life course
perspective.
Design/methodology/approach The authors relate to life events and transitions in consumers
life trajectories, life status, role transitions, and role identities as determinants of consumer behavior.
The paper reveals future research potential in the field. Essentially, the authors demonstrate the need
for life cycle models grounded on empirical data and discuss related methodological issues.
Findings This paper provides a temporal systematization of theoretical and empirical life cycle
research. The major outcome is an outline of conceptual and methodological research directions that
enable researchers to follow the life course perspective and to derive empirically grounded life cycle
models.
Research limitations/implications Providing chronological literature compilations and an
evolutionary review of life cycle research, the authors identify future research directions. To encourage
empirical development of the concept, the article also refers to the related methodological literature.
Practical implications Both marketing thought and practitioners benefit from the insights
presented. Marketing managers may better address consumers changing needs over their lifetime,
strengthen customer loyalty and reduce brand switching, thereby enhancing customer lifetime value.
Originality/value This paper adds to the study of the consumer life cycle by providing a
comprehensive anthology of life cycle research from 1910 to 2010. It shows major research streams and
reveals future research potential in marketing.
Keywords Consumer life cycle, Life course, Transitions, Role identity, Research methodology,
History of marketing thought, Marketing, Marketing theory
Paper type General review
Journal of Historical Research in

Marketing
Vol. 4 No. 1, 2012
pp. 68-96
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1755-750X
DOI 10.1108/17557501211195073
To successfully respond to consumers needs and to enhance customer lifetime value

(CLV) over the long term, marketers require an in-depth understanding of how
consumption systematically changes over consumers lifetimes (Harrison et al., 2011).
The life cycle constitutes a key marketing concept that helps in exploring changes in
consumer behavior over time (Cornwell et al., 2006). As a multidisciplinary concept, the
life cycle approach has significantly developed since its introduction in the marketing
literature. The theoretical and methodological advancements, however, have not
resulted in fruitful new insights of practical relevance. Still, marketing managers and
researchers need a greater practical understanding of the topic and the trends which
The authors would like to thank the Editor, Ben Wooliscroft, and two anonymous referees for
their helpful comments and suggestions.
affect it (Lawson, 1988, p. 13). Alternative research advances seem necessary to

expose the significant potential of the concept and stimulate its practical application in
marketing. Historical analysis can help in evaluating relevant research streams and
pointing out developments in life cycle research. It may reveal promising research
directions that inspire and guide new research potentially yielding such insights.
In this article, the authors aim at systematizing research on the consumer life cycle
in marketing and elaborate on current developments in the field. The article provides a
historical overview of conceptual models and describes how they developed over time.
It focuses on the application of the concept in marketing and shows the state-of-the art
at the beginning of the second decade of the twenty-first century. A historical approach
to marketing can enhance our understanding of the current state of the discipline, but
may also point to new research directions; and it can help in integrating different
aspects of marketing or in investigating current issues from various perspectives
(Wooliscroft, 2008, 2009). Several literature compilations and earlier historical reviews
of the life cycle concept have been provided in various streams of literature (Hareven,
1974; Elder, 1978; Murphy and Staples, 1979; Duvall, 1988; Lawson, 1988; ORand and
Krecker, 1990; Commuri and Gentry, 2000). However, a more current review of life
cycle research in marketing is still lacking. Such a historical review based on a
centurys research efforts in marketing and related fields seems promising.
This paper starts with the origins in sociology and continues with a systematic
analysis of the concept and its application in the marketing discipline. A discussion
follows linking the life cycle to other sociological and psychological concepts. Next, the
authors review empirical studies in the field and highlight the need for empirically
derived life cycle models. Referring to a seminal work published by Du and Kamakura
(2006), the authors discuss methodological issues. They give an outlook on research
potential and promising directions for life cycle research in marketing.
Origins and major advancements of the life cycle concept
The life cycle is an established concept in the social sciences. It is based on the
assumption that human life is characterized by passing through a certain sequence of
stages (Arndt, 1979), and suggests that relations exist between life stage, demographic
and behavioral characteristics of individuals (Blackwell, 1942). The concept has
significant appeal as a framework for the study of families, households, and
individuals (Stampfl, 1978; ORand and Krecker, 1990). In business contexts, the life
cycle provides a promising theoretical basis for understanding changes in consumer
needs, consumption patterns, and family decision making (Lawson, 1988, 1991),
constituting a much more sensitive indicator than other demographic and
socioeconomic variables (Lansing and Kish, 1957; Wells and Gubar, 1966; Danko
and Schaninger, 1990b).
The life cycle concept was first proposed in sociological literature in the field of
family research (Lawson, 1988). A study conducted in 1910 in the UK by Benjamin
Seebohm Rowntree on the impact of urban life conditions on family structure and
standard of living laid the grounding for life cycle research (Elder, 1978). Based on
empirical data, Rowntree (1910) distinguishes seven classes of households defined by
size of family and household members income and occupation. The study describes
differences in expenditures on elementary products (housing, food, clothing, energy
etc.) in the various classes. This study is seminal for the development of the life cycle
The life cycle

concept
69
JHRM
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70
idea. In the beginning, life cycle research has a mainly sociological background. Life
cycle researchers focus on families and study the impact of life stage on income, debt,
and consumption. Loomiss (1936) sociological study relates directly to Rowntrees
work. Glick (1947) shows at which ages married US American couples reach the
various life cycle stages, based on census data.
In the path-breaking consumer behavior book edited by Clark (1955), authors
investigate the topic from different perspectives: Barton (1955) studies the
consumption of nondurable goods, whereas Lansing and Morgan (1955) analyze the
family financial situation across life cycle stages. Lansing and Kish (1957) compare age
and life cycle characteristics with respect to family financial situation and purchase of
certain goods (home, new car, TV sets). This first period of life cycle research widely
ignores differing social and economic settings. However, Farber (1961) significantly
advances family life cycle research by rejecting the previously predominant static view
of the life cycle and describing the family as a set of mutually contingent careers. He
defines career as the progressive occupation of different roles in the family referring to
the sociological role-concept defined as patterned sequence of intended actions or
deeds to be performed by a person in an interaction situation (p. 278).
In the following years, authors from other disciplines of the social sciences
(particularly marketing, economics, and psychology) adopt the concept considering it
helpful in explaining differences or changes in consumer behavior. Marketing scholars
introduce the life cycle concept in the 1960s to their field (Wells and Gubar, 1966) and
propose it as predictor of shopping behavior or consumer decision making (e.g. Rich
and Jain, 1968). A decade later, economists identify the concepts potential (Ghez and
Becker, 1975; Stampfl, 1978) and use life cycle stage as a determinant of household
expenditures (Arndt, 1979; Wagner and Hanna, 1983). The concept is updated,
recycled, and modernized in various ways in this period to overcome the substantial
limitations of the traditional family life cycle. Essentially, authors stress the
importance of social and historical context (e.g. Glick, 1977). Scholars in the 1970s
argue that individual transitions (education, professional career, etc.) should be
considered (e.g. Elder, 1978; Hareven, 1978). They propose adopting a life course
orientation that includes both changes in the family structure and individual
developments. The authors hold that life cycle models need to account for the changes
over the life course and the timing of life events and transitions. Research in the 1970s
and 1980s is also concerned with different segmentation methods. Numerous studies
compare the life cycle with alternative variables (see subsection 3.2) mostly supporting
the usefulness of life cycle segmentation (Hisrich and Peters, 1974; Darden and
Perreault, 1976; Fitts and Mason, 1977; Dominguez and Page, 1981). Lawson (1988)
reviews the life cycle in light of the demographic and social circumstances in the UK
and assesses the applicability of this mainly US-focused concept.
In subsequent decades, the life cycle concept is extended to account for the
developments in modern societies such as the increasing number of elderly (e.g.
Hamermesh, 1984; Krisjanous, 2001), single parent families (Hill, 1986; Sundeen, 1990),
lesbian families (Slater, 1996), and gender issues (e.g. Gentry et al., 2003). Empirical
research applies the life cycle concept as determinant of consumption of numerous
product categories including leisure activities (e.g. Danko and Schaninger, 1990a),
vacations (e.g. Lawson, 1991; Fodness, 1992), and health care (e.g. Cunningham, 1990;
Hong and Kim, 2000). A significant stream of research develops around family decision
making (decision making styles, family members influences on joint decisions and
changing influence patterns over time). Consumer research first focuses on
husband/wife interactions (e.g. Wolgast, 1958; Davis, 1970; Kirchler, 1995; Commuri
and Gentry, 2000). Subsequently, however, the influence of children on parents buying
decisions that has occasionally been studied (Atkin, 1978; Jenkins, 1979) or pointed out
in earlier research (e.g. Lawson, 1988, p. 18) gains more interest (e.g. Kim et al., 2009;
Nancarrow et al., 2011; Dauphin et al., 2011). Another significant development in the
early 2000s is the empirical validation of accepted life cycle models in various cultural
contexts, such as Spain (Redondo-Bellon et al., 2001) or South Africa (Van Rooyen and
Du Plessis, 2003). Although life cycle research is generally declining towards the end of
the 2000s, the work by Lienard (2010) or Brown and colleagues (Brown and Venkatesh,
2005; Brown et al., 2006) suggests that business disciplines can inspire research in both
the humanities and information technology.
Table I provides a chronological overview of life cycle research published from 1910
to 2010. The timetable is by no means exhaustive. Rather, it shall give an instructive
overview of significant contributions in various disciplines. The overview shows how
life cycle research in marketing started in the mid-twentieth century, culminated in the
1980s, and subsequently faced consolidation. New directions have been suggested in
the second half of the 2000s (Du and Kamakura, 2006) to make the life cycle concept
more practice-oriented. The following sections elaborate on the adoption of the life
cycle concept in marketing and seize on more recent developments.
Adoption of the life cycle concept in marketing
Marketing researchers adopted the life cycle concept to study consumer needs and
spending patterns. In contrast to life cycle research in sociology that typically focuses
on the family (e.g. Loomis, 1936; Glick, 1947; Lansing and Kish, 1957; Farber, 1961), the
household gains in importance as unit of analysis in marketing. More recently, scholars
call for an individual life course perspective in consumer research (e.g. Bailey et al.,
2010).
From family to household to consumer life cycle
Family and household both constitute basic socialization and consumption institutions
in society that are characterized by co-residence. The family is typically defined by
marriage, cohabitation, and consanguinity. In most western societies, the nuclear
family consisting of father (traditionally the household head), mother, and children
reflects the traditional family group (ORand and Krecker, 1990). In contrast to the
moderate family described by Rowntree (1910) that comprised two to four children,
couples in modern societies tend to have one to two children (Cherlin, 2010). Like the
family, the household represents a residential unit in which economic production and
consumption, as well as shelter, child rearing, and inheritance are organized. The
household concept, however, ignores affinity or procreation (Haviland, 2003). For ages,
family and household were considered identical in most civilizations, whereas in
modern societies family patterns have largely changed since the early nineteenth
century. Individuals living together in a household not necessarily are members of the
traditional family.
Particularly in western countries, households increasingly comprise various forms
of co-residence other than the traditional nuclear family: (married/unmarried) partners
The life cycle

concept
71
1979
1979
1978
1979
1977
1978
1975
1971
1974
1966
1968
1961
1947
1955
1955
1957
Title
Poverty: A Study of Town Life

The Study of the Life Cycle of Families
Correlates of the States of Family
Development Among Farm Families on
Relief
Glick
The family life cycle
Barton
The Life Cycle and Buying Patterns
Lansing/Morgan Consumer Finances Over the Life Cycle
Lansing/Kish
Family Life Cycle as an Independent
Variable
Farber
The Family as a Set of Mutually
Contingent Careers
Wells/Gubar
Life Cycle Concept in Marketing Research
Rich/Jain
Social Class and Life Cycle as Predictors of
Shopping Behavior
Duvall
Family development
Hareven
The Family as Process: The Historical
Study of the Family Cycle
Ghez/Becker
The Allocation of Time and Goods over
the Life Cycle
Glick
Updating the Life Cycle of the Family
Landon/Locander Family Life Cycle and Leisure Behaviour
Research
Stampfl
The consumer life cycle
Arndt
Family Life Cycle as a Determinant of Size
and Composition of Household
Expenditures
Murphy/Staples A modernized family life cycle
Spanier et al.
An Empirical Evaluation of the Family
Life Cycle
Rowntree
Loomis
Blackwell
1910
1936
1942
Table I.
A timetable of life cycle
research
Author(s)
Marketing
Sociology
Economics
Economics
Sociology
Marketing
Economics
Sociology
Social history
Marketing
Marketing
Sociology
Sociology
Marketing
Sociology
Sociology
Sociology
Sociology
Sociology
Research field as determined by (lead)

authors research field
(continued)
Journal of Consumer Research

Journal of Marriage and the Family
Journal of Consumer Affairs

Advances in Consumer Research
Journal of Marriage and Family

(Report)
(Monograph)
Journal of Family History
Journal of Marketing Research

(Book Section)
American Sociological Review

(Book Section)
(Book Section)
American Sociological Review
(Monograph)
Rural Sociology
Rural Sociology
Journal (or other publication)
72
Year
JHRM
4,1
Derrick/Lehfeld
Fritzsche
Gilly/Enis
McLeod/Ellis
Tashchian et al.
Wagner/Hanna
Hamermesh
Hill
Duvall
Lawson
1980
1981
1982
1982
1983
1983
1984
1986
1988
1988
1990b Danko/
Schaninger
1990 ORand/Krecker
1990a Danko/
Schaninger
Author(s)
Year
The family life cycle: an alternative
approach
The Analysis of Energy Consumption
Patterns by Stage of Family Life Cycle
Recycling the Family Life Cycle: A
Proposal for Redefinition
Housing Consumption over the Family
Life Cycle
The Family Life Cycle and Preferred
Policies for Gasoline Conservation A
Conjoint Analysis
The Effectiveness of Family Life Cycle
Variables in Consumer Expenditure
Research
Consumption during Retirement: The
Missing Link in the Life Cycle
Life Cycle Stages for Types of Single
Parent Families: Of Family Development
Theory
Family Developments First Forty Years
The family life cycle: a demographic
analysis
Attitudinal and Leisure Activity
Differences Across Modernized Household
Life Cycle Categories
An Empirical Evaluation of the Gilly-Enis
updated Household Life Cycle Model
Concepts of the Life Cycle: Their History,
Meanings, and Uses in the Social Sciences
Title
Annual Review of Sociology
Sociology
(continued)
Journal of Business Research
Marketing
Marketing
Family Relations
Journal of Marketing Management
Family Relations
Sociology
Sociology/psychology
Marketing
Review of Economics and Statistics
Journal of Marriage and the Family
Urban Studies
Economics
Marketing
Marketing
Economics
Marketing
Marketing
Economics

The life cycle

concept
73
Table I.
Lawson
Fodness
Schaninger/
Danko
Wilkes
Slater
Hong/Kim
Commuri/Gentry
Krisjanous
Redondo-Bellon
et al.
Gourinchas/
Parker
Schaninger/
Danko
Gentry et al.
1991
1992
1993
1995
1996
2000
2000
2001
2001
2003
2002
2002
Sundeen
1990
Table I.
Author(s)
Review of Literature on Gender in the

Family
A full-nest classification approach
Family Life Course Status and Volunteer

Behavior: Implications for the Single
Parent
Patterns of Tourist Expenditure and
Types of Vacation Across the Family Life
Cycle
The Impact of Family Life Cycle on the
Vacation Decision-making Process
A Conceptual and Empirical Comparison
of Alternative Household Life Cycle
Models
Household Life Cycle Stages, Transitions,
and Product Expenditures
The lesbian family life cycle
Out-of-pocket Health Care Expenditure
Patterns and Financial Burden Across the
Life Cycle Stages
Opportunities for Family Research in
Marketing
The End of a Few Good Years: Redefining
the Household Life Cycle Classification for
the Elderly
A Family Life Cycle Model Adapted to the
Spanish Environment
Consumption over the Life Cycle
Title
Marketing
Marketing
Economics
Marketing
Marketing
Marketing
Psychology
Economics
Marketing
Marketing
Marketing
Marketing
Sociology

Academy of Marketing Science

Review
(continued)
Psychology and Marketing
Econometrica
European Journal of Marketing
Academy of Marketing Science

Review
ANZMAC Conference Proceedings
(Monograph)
Journal of Consumer Affairs
Journal of Travel Research
Journal of Travel Research
Sociological Perspectives
74
Year
JHRM
4,1
Author(s)
VanRooyen/
DuPlessis
Brown/
Venkatesh
Brown et al.
Du/Kamakura
Bearden/Wilder
Putler et al.
Nance/White
Lienard
Neulinger/Simon
Year
2003
2005
2006
2006
2007
2007
2009
2010
2011
A Conceptual and Empirical Validation of

the Household Life Cycle Concept in South
Africa
Model of Adoption of Technology in
Households: A Baseline Model Test and
Extension Incorporating Household Life
Cycle
Household Technology Use: Integrating
Household Life Cycle and the Model of
Adoption of Technology
Household Life Cycles and Lifestyles in the
United States
Household Life-Cycle Effects on Consumer
Wealth and Well-Being for the Recently
Retired
The Value of Household Life Cycle
Variables in Consumer Expenditure
Research: An Empirical Examination
Service performance and procedural
justice: the mediating roles of family life
cycle and culture
Life Stages and Risk-Avoidance: Statusand Context-Sensitivity in Precaution
Systems
Food consumption patterns and healthy
eating across the household life cycle in
Hungary
Title
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral

Reviews
International Journal of Consumer
Studies
Anthropology
Marketing
Journal of Services Marketing
Canadian Journal of Administrative

Sciences
Marketing
Marketing
Journal of Macromarketing
Information Society
MIS Quarterly
SA Journal of Industrial Psychology
Marketing
Marketing
Information systems
Information systems
Marketing

The life cycle

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75
Table I.
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76
without children, divorced single-parents, divorced parents with children, and

new/re-married/gay partners with/without children (Commuri and Gentry, 2000). Also,
statistical data show that the role of the family as central institution in society is losing
ground (Cherlin, 2010). Essentially, the number of (young and elderly) singles living
alone is constantly rising. The household accounts for all of these groups (Gilly and
Enis, 1982; Van Rooyen and Du Plessis, 2003). The household life cycle classifies
persons living together and sharing their financial budget (Kroeber-Riel et al., 2009)
independent from marriage license and offspring (Redondo-Bellon et al., 2001).
Marketers consider the household construct to be more adequate for the investigation
of consumer behavior (Wilkes, 1995). Engel et al. (1993) therefore suggest renaming the
concept into household life cycle. While earlier studies (Murphy and Staples, 1979;
Gilly and Enis, 1982) refer to the family life cycle, more recent research (e.g. Du and
Kamakura, 2006) studies household life cycles.
Recent life cycle research in marketing has turned to the individual consumer as the
level of analysis (e.g. Cornwell et al., 2008; Bailey et al., 2010). Furthermore, life cycle
researchers increasingly recognize that individuals occupy specific roles in various
social institutions (family, professional environment, neighborhood, etc.) and adopt a
life course perspective that accounts for these different contexts (Macmillan and
Copher, 2005). More and more research investigates consequences of specific
transitions between various roles for individual customers (e.g. Thomsen and
Sorensen, 2006) or resulting dependency patterns between individual household
members (Cornwell et al., 2006, 2008).
The life cycle concept in marketing: is it all about segmentation?
The life cycle has been applied in two subfields of marketing: in strategic marketing for
segmentation purposes and in consumer research to predict consumer behavior (Savitt,
1980; Du and Kamakura, 2006). Marketers acknowledge the practical contribution of
the life cycle concept for subdividing consumer markets into homogeneous segments.
This static (segmentation) perspective characterizes earlier research in the field
(e.g. Wells and Gubar, 1966) and contrasts the current (consumer behavior) time-flow
approach reflected in more recent life cycle research in the marketing discipline (e.g. Du
and Kamakura, 2006). Although most life cycle research in marketing still focuses on
segmentation, recent studies investigating consumer behavior over time increasingly
focus on individual consumers (e.g. Harrison et al., 2011).
Marketers originally used the life cycle for segmenting the market to select adequate
target groups (Tonks, 2009). When the concept emerged in marketing literature in the
1950s, it was defined as viewing a heterogeneous market as a number of smaller
homogeneous markets in response to differing product preferences among important
market segments (Smith, 1956, p. 6). Market segmentation facilitates matching
company products and customer needs (Wind, 1978) and can increase profitability
(Plummer, 1971; McDonald and Dunbar, 1995; Dibb et al., 2002; Sausen et al., 2005;
Cooil et al., 2006). The need for market segmentation results from increasingly
heterogeneous customer demands, advancing technology, and intensifying product
competition (Smith, 1956) and is particularly relevant in highly competitive markets
(Dolnicar et al., 2005).
Effective segmentation is based on variables considered adequate to assign
potential customers to homogeneous groups (Wedel and Kamakura, 1998, p. 7). Early
life cycle research in marketing describes the life cycle as a valuable, observable
segmentation variable that can be used along with or in place of chronological age
(Lansing and Kish, 1957; Katona, 1960). A related term used occasionally in sociology
(e.g. Sundeen, 1990) and marketing (e.g. Andreasen, 1984) is life status. Life status
parallels the traditional notion of the life cycle in marketing as cross-sectional tool.
Research on consumers life status changes, however, increasingly acknowledges the
importance of studying consumers over time applying longitudinal approaches
(e.g. Lee et al., 2007; Mathur et al., 2008). The availability of longitudinal consumer data
due to technological advancement provides many opportunities to enrich life cycle
research (e.g. long-term observations of consumption patterns, changes in historical,
social, and political circumstances or prediction of future behavior).
A chronology of life cycle models
Early life cycle models in marketing are categorical models describing the distinct life
stages. Later conceptualizations, in contrast, represent flow models explaining
transitions between the successive stages. They provide a basis for marketing
decisions beyond mere segmentation.
Wells and Gubar (1966) present the first comprehensive (categorical) life cycle
model based on previous contributions in the field of marketing (Lansing and Morgan,
1955; Katona, 1960). The authors assign households to nine different stages according
to the variables age, employment status, and marital status of the household head,
presence of dependent children, and the youngest childs age (see Figure 1). These
stages reflect distinct market segments differing in their attractiveness for a wide
range of product categories (e.g. food, furniture or home equipment). This model makes
a significant contribution as it systematizes life cycle research in the field of sociology
and links the life cycle concept to empirical marketing research on consumer purchase
behavior. However, the model has some of the typically criticized shortcomings of life
cycle models developed in this early era. Essentially, it relies on the nuclear family in
the mid-twentieth century western (American) culture, consisting of a married couple
with children (ORand and Krecker, 1990, p. 251). The model fails to capture
non-traditional family types such as widowed non-parents or single parents
(Schaninger and Danko, 1993; Krisjanous, 2001). Most importantly, however, it is
static and ignores household dynamics. Although segmentation is a major goal in the
application of the life cycle, understanding life course dynamics allows marketers to
respond to consumers changing needs over time.
Life cycle research has considered the various social developments since the 1960s
including prolonged education, more single households, delayed marriage and first
child birth, falling fertility rate, separation of marriage and parenthood, changes in
family structure including various forms of non-marital cohabitation, more divorces,
re-marriage, and patch-work families, aging society and intergenerational differences,
etc. (Murphy and Staples, 1979; Derrick and Lehfeld, 1980; Gilly and Enis, 1982; Danko
and Schaninger, 1990a; Krisjanous, 2001). Research has resulted in more elaborate life
cycle conceptualizations that show sequential life paths rather than provide a mere
classification and allow marketers to better understand changes in consumer behavior.
Following the trend in sociological literature, marketing researchers in the 1970s
increasingly apply the life cycle approach in empirical research. Murphy and Staples
(1979) propose several adjustments to the Wells and Gubar-model. Based on 1973 US
The life cycle

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77
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78
Figure 1.
Life cycle stages defined
by Wells and Gubar (1966)
census data, the authors add stages (totaling 13) to account for new household types.
They also introduce new age limits for dependent children (infants, young children
aged 4-12 years, adolescents) and show the potential flow of individuals and families
through life cycle stages (see Figure 2).
Although Murphy and Staples (1979) integrate and extend the earlier classification
proposed by Wells and Gubar (1966), unresolved differences in the definition of stages
remain between the two models (Derrick and Lehfeld, 1980). Conceptual imitations of
the modernized model concern the ignorance of non-traditional household types
(Wagner and Hanna, 1983) and female household heads and lead to a high number of
unclassified households. Investigating a representative US sample, Schaninger and
Danko (1993) find that unclassified households account for 27.9 percent in the Wells
and Gubar (1966) life cycle, and 19.4 percent in the model of Murphy and Staples (1979).
Gilly and Enis (1982) strive to further redefine the life cycle to minimize the
unclassified households category. They include non-family household forms
classifying couples of any sexual orientation living together in a household as
married. In contrast to the previous models, the authors consider the wifes instead of
husbands age, holding that the womans age better predicts household consumption
The life cycle

concept
79
Figure 2.
Life cycle model proposed
by Murphy and Staples
(1979)
than the males age. Gilly and Enis (1982) thus propose a modified model comprising
14 stages, based on the female household heads age, marital status, and presence and
age of children (see Figure 3).
As the preceding models, the classification by Gilly and Enis (1982) relies on US
census data. The model is thus US-centric and lacks empirical foundations concerning
Figure 3.
Life cycle model proposed
by Gilly and Enis (1982)
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80
individual consumers life cycle dynamics and transitions over the life course. Scholars
raised these and other issues on the definition and omission of stages and suggested
further model improvements (Schaninger and Danko, 1993; Redondo-Bellon et al.,
2001). Despite all criticism, the model is widely approved in marketing literature (e.g.
Cornwell et al., 2006; Putler et al., 2007). Contrary to mere classification as provided by
the Wells and Gubar-model, the models by Murphy and Staples (1979) and Gilly and
Enis (1982) describe consumers movements between life cycle stages. Most empirical
research relies on one of the three models presented.
Empirical marketing research on the consumer life cycle

A substantial body of research in marketing has applied or empirically validated life
cycle models. Table II lists representative empirical studies conducted from the 1970s
to the 2000s and the models used and adapted respectively. The overview shows that
the empirical life cycle studies have been mainly focused on the US or other
industrialized countries (e.g. Canada, Western European countries). Some studies use
life cycle stages as predictor of consumer spending (e.g. Arndt, 1979; Fritzsche, 1981),
investigate financial burden (e.g. Hong and Kim, 2000), shopping styles (Darden and
Perreault, 1976), and innovation adoption across life cycle stages (e.g. Brown and
Venkatesh, 2005; Brown et al., 2006) or apply the life cycle concept as segmentation tool
(e.g. Van Rooyen and Du Plessis, 2003). Others test and validate life cycle models
(e.g. Danko and Schaninger, 1990a; Danko and Schaninger, 1990b; Wilkes, 1995),
compare life cycle models to other approaches (e.g. Wagner and Hanna, 1983;
Schaninger and Danko, 1993; Putler et al., 2007) or aim to adapt and develop the life
cycle model applied (e.g. Schaninger and Danko, 1993; Redondo-Bellon et al., 2001).
Furthermore, researchers have devoted extensive attention to analyzing the
relationship between general or product-specific consumption patterns and the
affiliation to stages in the life cycle (e.g. McLeod and Ellis, 1982; Dominguez and Page,
1984; Wilkes, 1995; Du and Kamakura, 2006). Results suggest that consumption
expenditures across the life cycle frequently resemble an inverted-U distribution
(Arndt, 1979; Fritzsche, 1981; Wilkes, 1995) with a slight decline in the full nest stage
due to parental leave (Wells and Gubar, 1966).
Table II shows that the three models presented in this paper have been frequently
applied in marketing research. Although both the Gilly and Enis-model and the
Murphy and Staples-model propose a flow perspective, empirical research has so far
paid little attention to life cycle dynamics. Overall, the empirical studies mainly reflect
a static approach, in which consumption patterns are seen as somewhat steady states
in nature (Harrison et al., 2011). In contrast to sociological and psychological research,
which increasingly takes a life course perspective focusing on transition processes
(Blackwell, 1942; Nock, 1981), life cycle research in marketing is still mainly
cross-sectional aiming to predict household income, budget, and expenditures
(Schaninger and Danko, 1993; Putler et al., 2007) and to use the results for market
segmentation (Danko and Schaninger, 1990b). Most recent research, however, goes
beyond traditional segmentation towards the investigation of life trajectories,
transitions between stages, and resulting changes in consumers behavioral patterns.
Schaninger/
Danko
Danko/
Schaninger
Danko/
Schaninger
Wagner/
Hanna
Fritzsche
Landon/
Locander
Arndt
Hisrich/
Peters
Darden/
Perreault
Author(s)
Study purpose
1993 Test and compare models
1990b Test model
1990a Test model
1974 Compare life cycle to other

segmentation bases
1976 Use life cycle stage as
predictor of out-shopping
behavior
predictor of spending
patterns
predictor of leisure
behavior
predictor of energy
consumption behavior
1983 Test and compare models
Year
USA/158 Rich and Jain (1968)
HH
USA/278 mod. Wells and Gubar
HH
(1966)
Correlation
coefficients
MANOVA F-test
Analysis method
Family clothing
expenditures
(continued)
One-sided t-tests,
MANOVA
MANOVA
Pearsons chisquare test
MANOVA
MANCOVA
Multiple regression
Expenditures on products/ Descriptive

services, taxes, social
statistics
insurance/fees, and gifts
Leisure/recreation behavior Descriptive
statistics, Chisquare test
Energy consumption
ANOVA, ANCOVA
Outshopping profiles of
consumers
Entertainment activities
Dependent variable(s)
Sex role norms, work/time

pressure, self-fulfillment,
values, leisure activities
CrossUSA/444 mod. Gilly and Enis (1982) Expenditures on food/
sectional HH
beverages, durables,
services
CrossUSA/444 Wells and Gubar (1966),
Attitudes, leisure activities,
sectional HH
Duvall (1971), Murphy and consumption (FMCG,
durables)
Staples (1979), Gilly and
Enis (1982)
CrossUSA/
mod. Wells and Gubar
sectional 3,897 HH (1966), Murphy and Staples
(1979)
Wells and Gubar (1966),
CrossUSA/
mod. Murphy and Staples
sectional 10,034
(1979)
HH
CrossUSA/444 mod. Gilly and Enis (1982)
sectional HH
CrossUSA/647 mod. Wells and Gubar

sectional HH
(1966)
NOR/
mod. Wells and Gubar
Crosssectional 3,363 HH (1966)
Crosssectional
Crosssectional
Research Country/
design
# of HH HLC model(s)
The life cycle

concept
81
Table II.
Empirical studies on the
household life cycle in
marketing
Table II.
Putler et al.
Van
Rooyen/Du
Plessis
Brown et al.
Schaninger/
Lee
RedondoBellon et al.
Hong/Kim
Wilkes
Study purpose
1995 Model validation; test

expenditures on different
products and services;
between specific HHs
across different product
types
2000 Investigate health care
expenditure patterns and
financial burden across life
cycle stages
2001 Demonstrate need to adapt
life cycle construct to social
environment
2002 Conceptually and
empirically develop
improved classification of
full-nest HH
2003 Apply life cycle concept as
segmentation tool and basis
for marketing strategy
2006 Investigate PC adoption
over life cycle stages
2007 Compare predictive power
of life cycle model
regarding consumer
expenditures to more
parsimonious socioeconomic and demographic
variables
Year
mod. Gilly and Enis (1982)

CrossRSA/
sectional 30,000
HH
CrossUSA/370 Gilly and Enis (1982)
sectional HH
CrossCAN/
sectional 13,236
HH
CrossESP/
sectional 21,155
HH
CrossUSA/444 mod. Gilly and Enis (1982)
sectional HH
CrossUSA/885 mod. Bojanic (1992)

sectional HH
CrossUSA/
mod. Murphy and Staples
sectional 7,337 HH (1979) mod. Gilly and Enis
(1982)
Research Country/
design
# of HH HLC model(s)
OLS regression
MANCOVA
Analysis method
Expenditures on clothing, Tobit model

entertainment, sports,
recreation, reading material
Sex role norms, work/time MANOVA F-test

pressure, values;
expenditures on food and
beverages
MANOVA
Expenditures on food/
beverages, consumer goods,
transportation
PC usage
PLS path modelling
Expenditures on household ANOVA, F-test

assets, clothing, and leisure
Health care expenditures

and financial burden
Expenditures on homerelated products, services,

apparel, alcohol, medical
products, leisure
equipment, cars
Dependent variable(s)
82
Author(s)
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4,1
New directions in consumer research

Despite the conceptual progress and empirical contributions outlined above, life course
research is at its very beginnings in consumer research. Adopting a life course
perspective implies a focus on the individual consumer and life cycle models describing
transitions from one stage to another. Extant life cycle models widely ignore the
dynamics of individual life paths and changing social and historical influences.
Traditional models lack the empirical basis to identify sequences of life stages that
households follow through and fail to explore transitions between different stages. The
three dominant life cycle models presented earlier (Wells and Gubar, 1966; Murphy and
Staples, 1979; Gilly and Enis, 1982) do not sufficiently capture the heterogeneity due to
changing patterns of marriage timing, childbearing, and remarriage in different
historical contexts (ORand and Krecker, 1990, p. 252). These models limit marketers
to only a few demographic markers (Du and Kamakura, 2006). Furthermore, even the
two models postulating specific life paths (Murphy and Staples, 1979; Gilly and Enis,
1982) are based on cross-sectional snapshots of households (Du and Kamakura, 2006).
Marketing scholars increasingly realize that patterns of life cycle progression are
heterogeneous and that there is no one unique life cycle model (Duvall, 1988). The need
to explore consumers household structures, lifes paths, and consumption patterns
over time calls for empirical development of life cycle flow models.
Linking theory and practice: an empirical household life cycle model
Du and Kamakura (2006) aim at developing an empirically based life cycle model that
is likely to better reflect the realities of modern households than earlier models. The
authors estimate a hidden Markov model (HMM; Rabiner and Juang, 1986), in which
life cycle stages are taken as latent, unobservable states that are uncovered from
manifest household demographic profiles. The authors assume that households evolve
through these latent stages and identify empirically the most typical states and paths
that US households followed between 1968 and 2001. The arrows in Figure 4 show the
most common transitions between stages and related percentages reflected in the size
of the arrows indicate how many households made the transition from one stage to
another.
The classification in this model represents the thirteen most common types of US
households in the time period analyzed. It relies on the variables age and marital status
of the household head, employment status of household head and spouse, household
size, number of adults, presence of children in the age classes 7-14 years, 15-18 years,
and children in college. The model shows that empirically derived age categories are
more flexible than categories suggested by traditional models. However, traditional
stages still dominate the life cycle of US households, which might not apply to
households in other cultural environments. The model does not imply that every
household goes through each of the 13 stages in a particular order (Du and Kamakura,
2006).
The authors find substantial differences across life stages in expenditures on
various product and service categories (e.g. rent, food or clothing). The HMM-based
consumer life cycle model thus proves a valuable, more adequate basis for marketing
segmentation than the earlier models. Still, it lacks an inherent life course orientation
allowing product and brand managers life stage oriented marketing. Du and
Kamakura (2006) demonstrate that their life cycle model can be used to project
The life cycle

concept
83
JHRM
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84
Figure 4.
The life cycle model
developed by Du and
Kamakura (2006)
households future expenditures. Although the authors provide a detailed overview of

spending patterns in different stages, their study could be extended by longitudinal
analysis of consumers changes in consumption.
Beyond mere classification: the life course perspective
The life course approach goes beyond mere classification of life stages and allows
identification of main types of consumers role trajectories over time. It considers
individuals within their specific historical and social context (Hareven, 1978).
According to Elder (1985), the life course generally refers to the interweave of
age-graded trajectories, such as work careers and family pathways, that are subject to
changing conditions and future options, and to short-term transitions ranging from
leaving school to retirement (Elder, 1994, p. 5). Table III gives an overview of research
applying the life course perspective or contributing to the understanding of the
consumer life course, life events, and the transitions they evoke. This research relates
to social roles, individual role identity, the stress induced by role transitions, and the
impact of all these factors on consumption patterns. Few empirical studies in
marketing (e.g. Moschis et al., 2009; Bailey et al., 2010; Benmoyal-Bouzaglo and
Moschis, 2010) directly relate to the life course perspective. Various studies, though,
incorporate concepts inherent in the life course perspective such as life events and
transitions (e.g. Schouten, 1991; Mathur et al., 2008).
Longitudinal data on consumers role configurations providing insights into life
course trajectories should enhance the understanding of consumer behavior over time
(Moschis, 2007; Benmoyal-Bouzaglo and Moschis, 2010). Studies investigating the
Year
Author(s)
1978
1978
1980
1981
1982
1984
1985
1987
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1999
2000
2000
2001
2001
2002
2003
2003
2003
2004
2004
2006
2007
2007
800
2008
2010
2010
2010
2011
2011
Elder
Hareven
Rossi
Nock
Tausig
Andreasen
Elder
Cantor et al.
Schouten
Schewe/Balazs
Bengtson/Allen
Elder Jr
Gentry et al.
Pearlin/McKean Skaff
Boynton Arthur
Mathur et al.
Scully et al.
Yurchisin et al.
Ashforth
Lee et al.
Pulkkinen/Caspi
Hogg et al.
Mathur et al.
Zittoun et al.
Curasi et al.
Hogg et al.
Hopkins et al.
Lee et al.
Moschis
Mathur et al.
Kessous/Roux
Moschis et al.
Benmoyal-Bouzzagio/Moschis
Bailey et al.
Harrison et al.
Weaver et al.
Life course
Transitions
Life events
Research field
Sociology
Sociology
Psychology
Sociology
Medicine
Marketing
Sociology
Psychology
Marketing
Marketing
Sociology
Psychology
Marketing
Sociology
Sociology
Marketing
Psychology
Marketing
Psychology
Marketing
Psychology
Marketing
Marketing
Psychology
Marketing
Marketing
Marketing
Marketing
Marketing
Marketing
Marketing
Marketing
Marketing
Marketing
Marketing
Marketing
effects of individual life course and life cycle trajectories on spending/non-spending

consumer behavior seem insightful. Altogether, the analysis of consumers life course
patterns bears the potential to enrich extant consumer research over time.
A customer relationship-perspective: linking life course to consumer
behavior
Kamakura et al. (2005) in their inspiring paper discuss customer relationship
management as an approach that allows marketers tracking individual customer
behavior over time and using this knowledge to tailor solutions to both customers and
vendors needs. However, to apply the life cycle as a basis for marketing decisions and
action, marketers need to further understand the relationship between life course and
The life cycle

concept
85
Table III.
Research on life course,
transitions, and life
events
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86
consumption. Consumer research therefore has started to investigate concepts inherent

in the life course perspective (see Table III).
The amount of research dealing with the exploration of transitions in families
(e.g. Nock, 1981) or by individuals (e.g. Lee et al., 2001) is considerable. Transitions are
defined as occurrences that elicit changes in an individuals perceptions (of self, of the
world) and in the organization of his/her roles, resources, and central relationships
(Hopkins et al., 2006, p. 88). Transitions between life cycle stages are considered to be a
major event causing changes in lifestyles and consumption patterns (e.g. Wilkes, 1995;
Hopkins et al., 2006). Role theory, coping theory, and human capital theory provide
theoretical explanations for behavioral changes following transitions (e.g. Moschis,
2007).
Role theory deals with behavioral changes due to variations in expectations
emerging from role exit, role entry, or changing roles across the life cycle (Hopkins
et al., 2006). Such situations confront consumers with new role identities (Burke, 2006)
that might entail a redefinition of a persons self-concept (Mathur et al., 2003). Identities
form part of the self (Burke and Tully, 1977) and are sets of meanings people hold for
themselves that define what it means to be who they are as persons, as role occupants,
and as group members (Burke, 2004, p. 5). Identity theory suggests that individuals
have different role identities (Stets and Burke, 2000) that are composed of socially and
individually defined meanings that individuals attach to themselves while being in the
role (Stets, 2006).
Coping theory assumes that individuals apply coping strategies to overcome stress
caused by emotional reactions to transition situations (Hopkins et al., 2006) and to
adapt to the new life situation (Mathur et al., 2003). Consumption-coping strategies can
be initiation, intensification or change of various consumption activities and
lifestyles (Lee et al., 2007). Finally, human capital theory postulates that individuals
acquire qualifications, resources, knowledge, and skills (Mathur et al., 2006;
Benmoyal-Bouzaglo and Moschis, 2010), which is influenced by macro-level
(e.g. culture) and micro-level (e.g. family) environmental factors (Moschis, 2007).
Methodological issues
To apply the life course approach, methodological issues (data sources and methods of
analysis in particular) are crucial and need to be solved (Hareven, 1978). Marketing
researchers need to develop an adequate methodology for investigating
consumption-related issues over the life course (Moschis, 2007). So far, insufficient
consideration of the life course perspective seems to result from methodological issues.
Life course research, however, has made considerable progress in this regard. Several
researchers have developed sophisticated methodological approaches, such as hidden
Markov models or latent class analysis (e.g. Macmillan and Copher, 2005; Du and
Kamakura, 2006).
The use of cross-sectional data has caused many problems such as the confusion of
maturational and generational effects (Nock, 1981; Schaninger and Danko, 1993).
Despite high temporal and financial investments required (Arndt, 1979), scholars have
repeatedly recommended longitudinal panel studies (e.g. Loomis, 1936; Wagner and
Hanna, 1983) and sequential analysis (Blackwell, 1942, p. 161). Schaninger and Danko
(1993), for instance, recommend utilizing longitudinal panel data containing
information on family decision processes, sociological, and psychological variables.
The empirical model by Du and Kamakura (2006) proves a valuable tool for life
cycle-stage based marketing that enables quantifying transition probabilities between
stages and captures life cycle dynamics (essentially, probabilistic evaluations of
household members future spending patterns).
Life course research requires longitudinal or retrospective measures (Moschis,
2007). Due to the multi-theoretical background and complexity of the life course
perspective, methodological approaches are fragmented across and within academic
disciplines (Settersten and Mayer, 1997). Quantitative techniques such as event history
analysis (Settersten and Mayer, 1997; Lee et al., 2007) might be used to analyze
longitudinal data. Macmillan and Eliason (2003) view the life course as a process
consisting of transitions and role configurations regarding different social
(family/non-family) institutions that are interrelated over time. Common methodical
approaches such as regression analysis or structural equation models do not account
for heterogeneity in life courses (Macmillan and Eliason, 2003). Furthermore, these
methods require the definition of independent and dependent variables, exogenous
and endogenous variables, causes, and effects (Macmillan and Eliason, 2003, p. 532).
Since the assumptions of the life course perspective are not consistent with these
requirements, latent class analysis (Lazarsfeld and Henry, 1968) might be used to
identify consumers life course patterns (Macmillan and Eliason, 2003). Retrospective
methods, which are often used in cross-sectional studies, comprise quantitative
techniques, such as correlation/regression analysis (e.g. Benmoyal-Bouzaglo and
Moschis, 2010) or life history matrices (Settersten and Mayer, 1997) and qualitative
methods, such as narrative methods (Cohler and Hostetler, 2003).
Conclusion and outlook
This paper outlines the development of life cycle models over time and links to the life
course perspective and related concepts. The historical review of the life cycle concept
in marketing research reveals considerable research potential in the field. The authors
conclude that future research should apply life cycle models grounded on empirical
analyses and point to promising methodological options. Essentially, life cycle
research should use longitudinal data to get insights into life course trajectories and to
keep track of an individuals switching between life cycle stages. Technological
advances and increasing availability of longitudinal customer databases facilitate
longitudinal analysis of consumers characteristics and consumption patterns (Verhoef
et al., 2007). The vast repositories of data on consumer preferences that marketers can
accumulate online (e.g. online stores) can be linked to life cycle data collected from
customers (age, household size, number of children, etc.). So far, such databases are
hardly available to academic research. At present, scholarly studies mostly are
restricted to census data or data offered by institutions such as the German
Socio-Economic Panel (www.diw.de/soep) or the American Panel Study of Income
Dynamics (http://psidonline.isr.umich.edu/default.aspx).
While the need for synchronizing individual and family life course trajectories has
already been stated in sociological literature in the 1970s and the 1980s, marketing
literature has not yet sufficiently considered this perspective. Studies delineating the
effects of individual life course and family life cycle trajectories on spending patterns
or non-spending consumer behavior are promising. In this respect, investigation of
long-term influences (e.g. life course, personality) vs short-term influences (e.g. major
The life cycle

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87
JHRM
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88
life events) on consumer behavior might be a matter of interest in future studies. The
estimation of a longitudinal life course model enables investigation of cohort effects
(e.g. Moschis, 2007) or the effects of the timing of transitions on individual behavior, as
posited by the life course paradigm (Elder et al., 2003). Furthermore, detailed analysis
of cultural groups and specific segments (different generations of ethnic groups; newly
emerging segments such as living apart together, etc.) is important. The Du and
Kamakura-model discussed in this paper can be readily applied to identify the most
typical household types in different socio-cultural contexts. To enhance practical
understanding, research needs to focus on empirical investigations of marketing issues
related to consumer life cycles (e.g. changes of brand meaning depending on
consumers life cycle stages). Although research on transitions and transitional
consumption is developing (e.g. Srensen and Thomsen, 2006; Lee et al., 2007;
Katz-Wise et al., 2010), the analysis of dependency patterns still represents a highly
promising field of future research (Cornwell et al., 2006; Cornwell et al., 2008).
Methodological improvements as those outlined in this paper provide an opportunity
to gain new insights into the changing needs of consumers over time (Macmillan and
Eliason, 2003; Du and Kamakura, 2006).
With this study the authors wish to provide a context for better understanding the
evolution of the life cycle concept in marketing. Hopefully, this contribution will
encourage new consumer research taking a life course perspective and the empirical
development of life cycle models. Since marketing managers would benefit in various
ways from the newly suggested directions in life cycle research, this paper might
stimulate data exchange and cooperation between marketing scholars and
management. The benefits for marketing practice are manifold. First of all, the life
cycle concept can still be applied for market segmentation (Redondo-Bellon et al., 2001),
need identification, and market forecasts (Arndt, 1979). Furthermore, marketing
communication managers might use customized targeting programs to approach
individuals in certain stages of the life cycle (Fritzsche, 1981). Detailed analyses of the
process of adaptation and adjustment to life events can deliver valuable insights for
implementing successful targeting and positioning strategies. Understanding
consumers experiences of life events represents an important prerequisite for
effectively building long-term customer relationships and designing appropriate
customer relationship management activities (Boulding et al., 2005). Adopting a
long-term perspective in marketing is expected to optimize customer lifetime value due
to better understanding of customers needs and wants. Marketing managers should
consider the suggestions presented in this study to augment the lifetime value of their
regular customers. Consistent with the goals of customer value management, the
insights presented here can assist managers to increase retention of current customers,
attract new customers, and support customer expansion (Verhoef et al., 2007). Brand
managers in particular may better address consumers changing needs over their
lifetime and, by offering products and brand variations adapted to the life stage,
strengthen brand loyalty and prevent brand switching.
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About the authors

Martina Bauer is PhD Candidate and Research Assistant at the University of Innsbruck. Her
current research focuses on the life cycle concept in consumer behavior, consumers in transition
situations over their life course, and consumer-defined luxury. Martina Bauer is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: martina.bauer@uibk.ac.at
Katharina J. Auer-Srnka is Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of Vienna. She
was visiting scholar at the University of St Gallen, Switzerland, held positions at the Free
University of Brussels, Belgium and the University of Innsbruck, Austria, and has been teaching
at various other European universities and overseas. Areas of academic expertise: consumer
behavior, quality of life-oriented marketing, and mixed-designs research methodology.
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