Carbon and Its Compounds

CARBON

An element

A non-metal

Present in earths crust- 0.02% ( in form of minerals carbonates, coal, petroleum, etc.) and in atmosphere 0.03%
( CO2 )

Present in all living things ( Carbon compounds---- Organic Compounds)

Always forms Covalent bonds.

Is tetravalent

Occurs in both free and combined state.

COVALENT BONDS
At. no. is 6 ---- K-2 ; L-4 ----- To become stable it should either gain 4 electrons or lose 4 electrons.

It cannot gain 4 electrons - It would be difficult for nucleus with 6 protons to hold 10 electrons.

It cannot lose 4 electrons - It would require large amount of energy to remove 4 electrons .

This problem is overcome by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with atoms of other elements.

Covalent bonds are very strong and do not break easily because the carbon atoms are very small in size due to which
their nuclei hold the shared pair of electrons between atoms strongly .

CARBON IS TETRAVALENT

Tetra - 4 ; Valent valency

SELF COMBINATION ( Catenation)
Carbon atoms form long chains which are useful to us as we can derive large no. of carbon compounds.

Carbon compounds are exceptionally stable as they form strong bonds among themselves and with other elements.

OCCURRENCE OF CARBON

In free state --- Diamond , Carbon, Buckminsterfullerene

In combined state ---- In form of compounds

CO2 in air

Carbonates ( limestone, marble, chalk)

Fossil fuels ( coal , petroleum, natural gas)

Organic compounds ( carbohydrates, fats and proteins)

Wood, cotton wool, etc.

ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
The various physical forms in which an element can exist.
1.

Diamond ----- Colourless , transparent substance with extraordinary brilliance.

Extremely hard , heavy, does not conduct electricity, burns on strong heating to give CO2 , high melting point ( more than 3500C )
Structure of Diamond
Each carbon atom in the diamond crystal is linked to four other carbon atoms by strong

covalent bonds and forms a regular tetrahedron. Due to this the structure gets very rigid .
Uses of Diamond

Making rock borers for drilling oil wells

Making glass cutters

For jewellery making

For removing cataract from eyes.

Diamonds can also be made artificially by subjecting pure carbon to very high pressure and temperature . These are also
called Synthetic diamonds.

2.

Graphite - It is a grayish black opaque substance , lighter than diamond, soft and slippery to touch, conducts electricity,
burns on strong burning to give CO2 .

The chemical properties of both diamond and graphite are same as both burn in oxygen to give carbon dioxide. However,
their physical properties are different due to difference in their structures ( different arrangements of carbon atoms).

Structure of Graphite

Each graphite crystal consists of layers of carbon atoms. Each carbon atom is joined to three other carbon atoms by strong
covalent bonds to form flat hexagonal rings.

Due to sheet like structure it is a soft substance due to which it is used as a dry lubricant for machine parts.

It is a good conductor of electricity--- Each carbon atom is joined to only three other carbon atoms by covalent bonds
i.e. only 3 atoms are used in bond formation leaving the 4th atom to move freely. Due to this free electron , it conducts
electricity.

Uses of Graphite

As lubricant for fast moving parts of machinery.

For making carbon electrodes in dry cells and electric arcs. (The black coloured anode of a dry cell is made of graphite)

For making pencil leads and black paints.

Buckminsterfullerene
-C60
It
is
an
allotrope
containing
60
carbon
atoms
joined
together
to
form
spherical
molecules.
It is a spherical molecule with atoms arranged in interlocking hexagonal and pentagonal rings . There are twenty hexagons and
twelve pentagons of carbon atoms in one molecule.

It is a dark solid at room temp. , burns to give CO2 , neither hard nor soft.

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
The compounds of carbon are known as organic compounds as they contain hydrogen and many organic compounds containing
oxygen or other elements. So, most organic compounds are HYDROCARBONS or their derivatives. They are covalent compounds
having low melting and boiling points.

Oxides of carbon , carbonates, hydrogencarbonates and carbides are also carbon compounds but they are not considered
as organic compounds because their properties are different from those of common organic compounds.

Two properties of carbon

1.

Catenation- atoms
3 types of chains ---

i) - Straight chain

ii) - Branched chain

join

with

one

another

to

form

long

chains

iii) - Closed chain

2.

Tetravalent

Types of Organic compounds 1.

Hydrocarbons

2.

Haloalkanes

3.

Alcohols

4.

Aldehydes

5.

Ketones

6.

Carboxylic acids ( Organic acids)

HYDROCARBONS
A compound made up of hydrogen and carbon only . Natural source is petroleum.
Two types-- Saturated ; unsaturated
1.

Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes)-

Carbon atoms are connected

The general formula is CnH2n+2
1.

with

single

covalent

bonds

and

end

with

ane.

They

are

unreactive.

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons ( Alkenes and Alkynes) -

Carbon atoms are connected by a double bond or a triple bond .These are obtained mostly from petroleum by a process called
cracking.
1.

Alkenes --- CnH2n

Alkenes contain a double bond between two carbon atoms which is formed by sharing of two electron pairs. Simplest alkene is
Ethene.
1.

Alkynes --- CnH2n-2

Alkynes contain a triple bond between two carbon atoms which is formed by sharing of three electron pairs. Simplest Alkyne
is Ethyne whose common name is Acetylene.
Alkyl Groups ---- CnH2n+1
The
group
formed
by
the
removal
of
one
hydrogen
atom
Methyl group (CH3- ) is formed by the removal of one H atom from Methane (CH4) , etc.
Cyclic Hydrocarbons

from

an

alkane

molecule

Hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms are arranged in the form of a ring. They may be saturated or unsaturated.
1.

A saturated cyclic hydrocarbon is cyclohexane C6H12

Electron dot structure is obtained by putting two electron dots in place of every single bond in its structural formula.
Cyclopropane - C3H6
Cyclobutane C4H8
Cyclopentane - C5H10
General formula of cycloalkanes is CnH2n
1.

An unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbon is benzene ( aromatic compounds ) whose electron dot structure is -- 2 electrons in
place of every single bond and 4 electrons in place of every double bond in its structural formula.

Single
bond -Double bond -- 4 shared electrons

shared

Naming Hydrocarbons --1 carbon atom

Meth

Eth

Prop

But

Pent

Hex

Hept

Oct

Non

10

Dec

Single Bond

ane

Double Bond

ene

Triple Bond

yne

Isomers :- The organic compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures.

electrons

Normal butane has a straight line structure whereas iso-butane structure has a branched chain structure.

Isomerism is possible only with hydrocarbons having 4 or more carbon atoms ie. Isomerim is not possible in methane,
ethane and propane.

1st isomer is called n- pentane (normal)

2nd isomer is called isopentane

3rd isomer is called neopentane

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A group of organic compounds having similar structures and similar chemical properties in which the successive compounds differ
by CH2 group.
Two adjacent homologous groups differ by 1 carbon atom and 2 hydrogen atoms .
General formula of Alkanes --- CnH2n+2
Characteristics of a Homologus Series
1.

All members represented by same general formula.

2.

Two adjacent homologues differ by a CH2

3.

Difference between molecular masses of any 2 homologues is 14.

4.

All compounds show similar chemical properties.

5.

There is gradual change in their physical properties with increase in molecular masses. ( melting , boiling points and
densities increase)

Alkenes ---- CnH2n

Alkynes ---- CnH2n-2
Functional Groups
An atom or a group of atoms which makes a carbon compound reactive and decides its properties.
1.

Halo Group : X ( X can be Cl, Br or I)

Chloro , Bromo and Iodo group ----

When
1
H
atom
of
an
alkane
Eg. CH4 Replace one H by Cl CH3Cl

is

replaced

by

halogen

atom,

we

get

Haloalkane.

General formula is CnC2n+1X ( X may be Cl ; Br ;I )

Chloromethane

Bromomethane
- CH3Br
Chloroethane
- C2H5Cl
Chloropropane - C3H7Cl ---- propyl chloride

CH3 Cl

----------

methyl
methyl
ethyl

chloride
bromide
chloride

2.

3.

Alcohol Group : OH ( alcoholic / hydroxyl group)

Alcohol
group
is
made
up
of
1
1
H
atom
is
replaced
by
an
CH4 Replace 1 H by OH CH3OH

oxygen
alkane

General
Methanol
- CH3OH
Ethanol
Propanol - C3H5OH ---- propyl alcohol

formula

and
by

1
a

hydrogen
hydroxyl

---C2H5OH

atom
group

methyl
ethyl

----

joined
together.
(
OH
group)

is CnH2n+1OH
alcohol
alcohol

Aldehyde Group :
It consists of 1 carbon, 1 hydrogen and 1 oxygen atom joined together.
General
Methanal
Ethanal
Propanal

formula
HCHO
CH3CHO
CH3CH2CHO

--------

--- CnH2nO
formaldehyde
acetaldehyde
propionaldehyde

Butanal - CH3CH2CH2CHO

4.

Ketone Group :
It consists of 1 carbon and 1 oxygen atom. A ketone group must contain at least 3 carbon atoms.
General
formula
-- CnH2nO
Propanone
CH3COCH3 ---acetone
(
simplest
ketone)
Butanone
CH3COCH2CH3
Pentanone - CH3COCH2CH2CH3

5.

6.

Alkene Group :
It is a Carbon carbon double bond.

Ethene
Propene - CH3 CH = CH2
7.

Alkyne
Ethyne
Propyne - CH3CCH

CH2 =

Group
-

CH2

: CC
CHCH

COAL AND PETROLEUM

When a fuel is burned , the energy is released mainly as heat which can be used for various purposes like cooking, heating , etc.
Most of the fuels are either free carbon or carbon compounds. They are obtained from coal, petroleum and natural gas which are
also called Fossil Fuels because they were formed by the decomposition of the remains of the pre-historic plants and animals
buried under the earth long ago.
Formation of coal - It is formed by the decomposition of large land plants and trees buried under the earth millions of years ago.
Due to high temp. and pressure inside the earth, and in absence of air, wood was converted into coal.
Formation of petroleum - It was formed by the decomposition of the remains of extremely small plants and animals buried under
the sea millions of years ago. It is a dark coloured, viscous and foul smelling crude oil which is a mixture of several solid, liquid and
gaseous hydrocarbons mixed with water , salt an dearth particles.

The fuels such as coal and petroleum have some nitrogen and sulphur in them . So, when they burn they lead to oxides of
nitrogen and sulphur which are major pollutants of air.
Burning of substances with or without flame ---A flame is a region where combustion of gaseous substances takes place. So, a flame is produced only when gaseous
substances burn.

All gaseous substances burn with a flame but only those solid and liquid fuels which vaporize on heating burn with a
flame.

Two types of flames - Blue ; Yellow

Colour of flame depends upon the proportion of oxygen available for burning of fuel.

Blue Flame - When the oxygen supply is sufficient . It does not produce much light Non-luminous .eg. gas stove.

Yellow Flame - Oxygen supply insufficient . Yellow color is due to the glow of hot, unburnt carbon particles produced
due to incomplete combustion of fuel .It produces light Luminous. Eg. candle

Solid and liquid fuels which do not vaporise on heating , burn without producing a flame.eg. charcoal and coal.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

Combustion --Process of burning of a carbon compound in air to give CO2, water, heat and light.
i.

Alkanes burn in air to produce lot of heat due to which they are excellent fuels. Eg. methane , Butane (LPG).
They burn in air with blue, non-sooty flame because the % of carbon in the saturated hydrocarbons is
comparatively low which gets oxidized completely by the oxygen present in the air.

ii.

The stoves have tiny holes for air so that sufficient oxygen is available for complete burning of fuel to produce a
smokeless blue flame.

iii.

Mixture of acetylene(ethyne) and air is not used for welding because burning of ethyne in air produces a sooty
flame , which is not hot enough to melt metals for welding.

Substitution reactions --- The reaction in which one or more hydrogen atoms of hydrocarbons are replaced by some
other atoms like chlorine ( chlorination).
iv.

Saturated hydrocarbons ( alkanes) are unreactive because they contain only carbon-carbon single bonds. They
do not react with many substances.

v.

They undergo substitution reactions with chlorine in the presence of sunlight.

vi.

Methane reacts with chlorine in the presence of sunlight to form chloromethane and hydrogen chloride.
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
1 H atom of methane is replaced by Cl atom and we get chloromethane .By supplying more chlorine , all H atoms
can
be
replaced
by
Cl
one
by
one.
So,
we
can
obtain
3
more
compounds
--Dichloromethane
/
methylene
dichloride
--CH2Cl2
Trichloromethane / Chloroform ---- CHCl3

vii.

Addition Reactions - The unsaturated hydrocarbon combines with another substance to give a single product
( addition of H, Cl or Br)
i.

These reactions are given by all unsaturated hydrocarbons containing double or triple bonds ( alkenes
and alkynes)

ii.

Simplest alkene is Ethene which reacts with hydrogen when heated in the presence of nickel catalyst to
form ethane .

iii.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons add on hydrogen in the presence of catalysts such as Nickel or

Palladium(Pd) to form saturated hydrocarbons which is called HYDROGENATION . This process is
used to prepare vegetable Ghee form vegetable oils.

ETHANOL / ETHYL ALCOHOL ( C2H5OH )

Physical properties :

Colourless liquid having pleasant smell and burning taste .

Volatile liquid having low boiling point .

Lighter than water so it is soluble. Solubility of ethanol in water is due ot the presence of hydroxyl group in it.

Does not contain any hydrogen ions neutral compound.

No effect on litmus paper.

Chemical properties :1.

Combustion :- It is highly inflammable liquid and catches fire easily and starts burning in air with a blue flame to form
CO2 and
water
vapour
and
releases
lot
of
heat
and
light.
C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O + heat + light

Since it burns with a clear flame giving lot of heat, it is used as a fuel.

Used as an additive in petrol. It does not produce any poisonous gas like carbon monoxide .

Produced on large scale from sugarcane crop. ( after crystallization of sugar from concentrated sugar cane juice , a thick,
dark brown liquid called molasses is left behind. Ethanol is produced by fermentation of the cane sugar present in
molasses)

2.

Oxidation :- It means controlled combustion. When ethanol is heated with alkaline potassium permanganate solution , it
gets oxidized to ethanoic acid.
CH3CH2OH
+
2O

CH3COOH
Ethanoic acid is formed by the oxidation of ethanol by using a strong oxidizing agent.

H 2O

i.

Oxidation of ethanol to ethanoic acid can also be done by using acidified potassium dichromate as the oxidizing
agent ( in place of alkaline potassium permanganate) .

3.

Reaction with sodium metal :- Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide and hydrogen gas :
2C2H5OH + 2Na ? 2 C2H5ONa + H2

4.

Dehydration
:- It
means
removal
of
water
molecule
from
it.
When ethanol is heated with excess of conc. H 2SO4 ( dehydrating agent)it gets dehydrated to form ethene.
CH3- CHOH ?CH2= CH2 + H2O

5.

Reaction with Ethanoic acid :- Ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid on warming in the presence of a few drops of conc.
H2SO4 to
form
a
sweet
smelling
ester
,
ethyl
ethanoate
.
CH3COOH + C2H5OH ? CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
i.

The reaction in which a carboxylic acid combines with an alcohol to form an ester is called esterification. It takes
place in the presence of a catalyst H2SO4 .

USES OF ETHANOL
1.

Manufacture of paints, varnishes, medicines, perfumes, dyes, soaps and synthetic rubber.

2.

Used as a solvent.

3.

Used as a fuel.

4.

Used in alcoholic drinks

5.

Used as an antiseptic to sterilize wounds.

ETHANOIC ACID ( ACETIC ACID - CH3COOH )

A dilute solution of ethanoic acid in water is called vinegar .
Physical properties :1.

Colourless liquid having a sour taste and a smell of vinegar.

2.

Boiling point is 118C

3.

On cooling , it freezes to form a colorless , ice-like solid ( like glacier) so it is also called glacial ethanoic / acetic acid.

4.

Miscible with water in all proportions.

Chemical Properties :1.

Action on litmus- Turns blue litmus red ; universal indicator paper to orange ( 4 pH) showing it is a weak acid.

2.

Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogencarbonates :i.

With Sodium Carbonate Forms sodium

2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 ? 2 CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O

ethanoate

sodium

acetate

and

CO2 gas.

ii.

With Sodium Hydrogencarbonate - Forms sodium ethanoate and evolves brisk effervescence of CO2 gas.
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 ? CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O

3.

4.

Reaction
with
Sodium
CH3COOH
+
( sodium ethanoate)

Hydroxide
-NaOH

It

reacts
?

with

bases
to
form
CH3COONa

salt

and
+

water

.
H 2O

Reaction
with Alcohols
- Reacts in presence
of
a little of
Con. H 2SO4 to form
esters.
CH3COOH
+
C2H5OH
?
CH3COOC2H5 +
H 2O
Sweet smelling ester is formed. Esters are volatile liquids having sweet / pleasant / fruity smell . They are used to make
artificial perfumes , flavours and essences .

Esters can be hydrolysed back to the alcohol and carboxylic acid when heated with sodium hydroxide solution.
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
Detergent
Any
substance
which
Two types --- Soapy and Non soapy ( detergents)

has

cleansing

action

in

water.

Soaps -- Sodium or potassium salt of a long chain carboxylic acid( fatty acid) which has cleansing properties in water. It
has
a
large
non-ionic
hydrocarbon
group
and
an
ionic
group
,
COONa.
Eg. Sodium Stearate C17 H35COONa
Sodium Palmitate - C15H31COONa

Soap is the salt of a strong base ( sodium hydroxide) and a weak acid So a solution of soap in water is basic in
nature.

Manufacture of soap
Soap is made from animal fat or vegetable oils which when heated with sodium hydroxide solution ( caustic soda solution) , split to
form sodium salt of higher fatty acid ( soap) and glycerol.
Saponification - The process of making soap by the hydrolysis of fats and oils with alkalis .

Common salt is added in soap making - It is added to the mixture to make the soap come out of the solution. It
precipitates out all the soap from the aqueous solution.

The soap which is used for washing clothes or bathing works by making the oil and grease particles dissolve in water
because the oil and grease are insoluble in water.

Structure of a Soap Molecule

A soap molecule is made up of 2 parts : a long hydrocarbon and a short ionic part .

The hydrocarbon part of the soap molecule is soluble in oil or grease so it can attach to the oil and grease particles
present on dirty clothes. The short ionic part of the soap molecule is soluble in water so it can attach to the water
particles .

Micelle - A spherical aggregate of soap molecules in the soap solution in water.

Soap solution is a colloidal solution. A soap solution appears cloudy because the soap micelles are large enough to
scatter light.

Limitations of soaps
Soap is not suitable for washing clothes with hard water ---

1.

Large amt. of soap is wasted in reacting with calcium and magnesium ions of hard water to from insoluble precipitate
called scum . So larger amount of soap is needed.

2.

The scum formed sticks to the clothes and interferes with the cleaning ability of the additional soap , making cleaning
difficult.

Hard water contains calcium and magnesium salts.

Detergents :- It is the sodium salt of a long chain benzene sulphonic acid ( or the sodium salt of a long chain alkyl
hydrogensulphate) which has cleansing properties in water.
They are also called soap-less soaps because though they act like a soap in having the cleansing properties, they do not
contain the usual soaps like sodium stearate , etc.

Detergents are better cleansing agents than soaps because they do not form insoluble calcium and magnesium salts with
hard water and can be used for washing even with hard water.

Advantages of detergents
1.

Can be used with hard water

2.

Have strong cleansing action than soap.

3.

More soluble in water than soaps.

Disadvantage of detergents over soaps Some detergents are biodegradable , they cannot be decomposed by micro organisms like bacteria and hence cause water
pollution in lakes and rivers .All soaps are bio- degradable and do not cause pollution.

Lewis Structures: Simple

Organic Compounds
C2H4 is the symbol for the simple organic compound, ethylene. It is the simplestalkene (hydrocarbon with carboncarbon double bonds). This illustration demonstrates how to draw the Lewis dot structure for C2H4.

The first step is to write the symbols for carbon (C) adjacent to each other in the center and the hydrogens (H) will
have to surround the carbons. The hydrogen atoms will be distributed evenly on the outside of the molecule so we
draw 2 symbols for H outside each carbon. The next step is to draw the valence electrons. Hydrogen has 1 carbon
has 4.

In this diagram, the dots were connected to show that the valence electrons are being shared in covalent bonds.
Each of the lines represent 2 electrons being shared. Remember that hydrogen needs 2 valence electrons (a duet) to
complete its outer shell. Carbon needs 8 valence electrons (an octet) to complete its outer shell. As we look over
this diagram, we can see that by sharing in covalent bonds, every atom has a full outer shell of valence electrons (2
around each hydrogen and 8 around each carbon).
C2H2 is the symbol for the simple organic compound, acetylene. It is the simplestalkyne (hydrocarbon with carboncarbon triple bonds). This illustration demonstrates how to draw the Lewis dot structure for C2H2.

To begin, a C for each central carbon was drawn in the center. The hydrogens must go on the outside and they must
be as far apart from each other as possible, so we draw one on each side of the molecule in line with the carbon
atoms. Next we put in a dot for each electron and connect the dots.
CH2O is the symbol for the simple organic compound, formaldehyde. It is the simplest aldehyde (hydrocarbon with a
carbon atom connected to an oxygen atom by a double bond and to a hydrogen atom by a single bond). This
illustration demonstrates how to draw the Lewis dot structure for CH 2O.

On the left the attempt to draw the Lewis structure failed when we attempted to join one of the hydrogens to oxygen.
However, on the right, we know it is the correct Lewis structure because all atoms have their complete set of valence
electrons. There are 8 surrounding oxygen and carbon (a complete octet) and hydrogen has its full set of 2 (duet).
Solutions to problems:

Lewis CHCl3

CHCl3 = Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride

Lewis HCN

Lewis Hydrogen Cyanide

Lewis H2O2

Lewis Hydrogen Peroxide

Lewis H2CO2 or HCO2H

Lewis Formic Acid