Chapter 1

1.

Define briefly SAFETY

Safety is the state of being SAFE

So, safety is the state of being certain that adverse effect will not be caused by some agents under
defined conditions.
Any method or technique or process which can minimize unwanted events (accidents) in an industrial
concern may be referred to as a method, technique or process of Industrial safety. Industrial safety is the
science and art of identifying, evaluating and controlling workplace hazards. It includes measure to
prevent human exposures to chemical and physical agents as well as faulty or unsafe work practices.
It is connected with the safety of people's life and property as well as the general situation of
development and stability. Safety is not a matter of chance; it is something that the employees and their
families have a right to expect from their employers. There is no such thing as rank when its come to
safety. It is not "us" and "them" its "partnership".
The importance of industrial safety was realized because every year millions of industrial accidents
occur which result in either death or in temporary or permanent disablement. Latest figure estimate
workplace accident costs the country at least Rs. 280 million each year. This is the economics cost only.
As well there is the human cost in terms of emotional sufferings to the partners, children, family and
workmates of those killed at work. This is immeasurable.
The casualties in road accidents are often well published but workplace death and injury toll is often
overlooked. For many organizations health and workplace safety is a compliance cost and they try and
get away with what they see as bare minimum.
Health and safety are basic desire and instinct. Industrial safety is mainly concerned with minimizing
hazards. Hazard is a state physical or chemical having the potential to injure the person, or
impairemement of health.
2.

Define risk

Risk or danger arises out of hazard. Risk is the product of two factors: that is probability of an event
which might occur and severity of the event if it occurs. While analyzing risks, the severity of the events

that might occur is more important then the probability of the event to occur. In other words:
RISK = probability of the event that might occur x severity of the event
In the above formula the probability of each event that might occur may remain constants, whereas
the severity of each event that might occur varies and therefore when analyzing risk we are more
concerned about the severity of the event that might occur and not the probability of the event that might
take place.

3.

Briefly explain the responsibility of employees and employer towards safety.

SAFETY RESPONSIBILITY AND ORGANIZATION

This section deals with safety responsibilities and organization within industrial and commercial firms,
public companies and enterprises owned by state and local authorities. They may vary in size from very
small firms to large multinational corporations.
General Responsibility for Safety
Employees at all levels are involved in accident prevention, but the main responsibility rests with
directors and management who alone have the authority to issue orders and direct work. The
implementation of proper safety measures is sometimes resisted on the grounds that they slow down or
interface with production. Of course introduction of any new and safer method or piece of machinery is
at first likely to cause a temporary drop in production while the method is being learnt and new habits
are formed. Soon however, production reaches its previous level, employees find they are able to work
faster, knowing that certain risks have been eliminated and that they no longer have to worry over them.
Management's Responsibility
Top management must accept full and definite responsibility and must apply a good share of its
attention to the task, just as it does to any other undertaking of vital importance. Every kind of work that
men do involves some degree of hazard, and every uncontrollable hazard if given time enough, will
produce its share of injuries. But proper attention to safety will result in elimination of almost all the
injuries that would otherwise occur regardless of industry, the type of operation or the occupation.
Management must eliminate injuries to make accident prevention a vital part of all activities.
In order to achieve adequate safety performance and prevent accidents management must:
1. Make it clear to all levels of supervision and to all workers that management is behind the safety
program and that every supervisor will be held accountable for the success of the program in his area of
responsibility. The policy must be clearly set forth in writing and must be brought to attention of
everyone in the plant.
2. Provide a safe and healthy place to work, including

Safe equipment and tools

Safeguard machinery
Process and operations planned and arranged with careful attention to safety
An inspection system to discover and correct all hazards.

3. Provide adequate training and supervision to develop safe work habits in all employees. Train
supervisors in safety so they in turn, can train and supervise the people under them in safe methods of
performing their jobs.
4. Organizing safety activities as a continuing function which includes:
Investigation of all accidents
Reporting of accidents to the proper authorities
Development of accident statistics as a means of eliminating cause ofinjury
First aid treatment.
Responsibility of Safety Specialist
The safety specialist or engineer is employed by management and is a part of managerial and
supervisory staff directing the work of employees. The safety specialist shares the responsibility of
management. Because of being specially qualified in safety work and often in direct charge of it, the
safety specialist has the opportunity of advising others. His main duties will be:

Short term and long term planning of safety activities.

Monitoring safety performance continually.
Advising managers in matters relating to safety.
Supervision of the work of safety committees.
Conducting safety inspections and accident investigations.
Overall direction of activities aimed at prevention of accidents.

Responsibility of Supervisor and Foreman

The responsibilities of management also apply to supervisors and foreman. The person who gives direct
instructions to employees is in a key position in reducing accidents, is closely associated with the work
force, knows 'them personally and is acquainted with !heir habits, grievances, attitudes and personal
qualities. The foreman controls the workforce by example. This control is a most important factor in
safety performance. The intelligent support of able supervisors and foreman is essential towards any
safety program. Proper training of supervisors in accident prevention methods is essential.
Responsibility of Employees
The main responsibility of non-supervisory employee is to oneself and ones dependents, to avoid
being injured and thus impairing the ability to support them. Employees have no authority to instruct
fellow employees nor are they responsible for inherent hazards in the equipment, which they operate.
But they have responsibilities to their employer for the safe conduct of their work and the maintenance
of equipment:
Every employee should report unsafe working conditions, which are outside his own control to
the supervisor.

 They should not interfere in the work of fellow employees in Ii. way liable to create
They should not allow other employees to interface with their own work in such a way.
Despite lack of authority, employees may have opportunities to assist their fellows by passing their
knowledge and experience is safety matters and they should be encouraged to take active part in safety
meetings. Employees who are members of a union or other groups may participate directly or through
their representative in safety inspections, in formulating safety rules and making recommendations.
Although the opportunities and responsibilities of any individual employee are limited, their collective
opportunities and responsibilities in a department are considerable.
Accident prevention is thus a co-operative task in which management has the main responsibility,
employees must do their share, and the foreman or the supervisor bear most of the burden.
4.

Does equipment design affect safety? Explain

SAFETY AND EQUIPMENT DESIGN
The following measures should be taken while equipment design:
The working equipments should be provided with guards or safety devices.
In all operations the workers should have an access to the controlling mechanism (starting
switches etc.)
The design and installation of the machine guards and safety devices must be foolproof so far as
structural stability, ease of installations and workings and proper specifications etc. are
concerned.
The working equipment (chisels, sledge hammers, hacksaws etc.) which are sharp, pointed ones
must be adequately covered to prevent injury.
The equipment example ladder should be sufficiently strong.

5.

Explain relationship between safety and environment.

SAFETY AND WORKING ENVIRONMENT

The working environment includes the atmosphere, temperature and comfort, lighting, air quality, noise
and the general surroundings. When anyone of these working conditions is substandard they can affects
health and safety.
Lighting
There must be levels of lighting sufficient for the work areas and tasks being performed. Too much and
too little light can lead to:
Eye strain
Headaches
Blurred vision
IES has given standard of illumination required for different types of work. For example, lighting for
routine office work is at a lower lumination level than lighting for jeweler's inspection.

Temperature and Humidity

Very warm or cold work environments can affect the comfort, concentration and productivity of
employees. Factors which contribute to comfort include:
Humidity
Air movement
Level of activity
Clothing
Temperature controls can range from fans and blowers to air conditioning and heating systems.
Optimal temperature is between 21 to 24 degrees Celsius. Environments that have extreme temperatures
can harm health and should be assessed so that adequate controls can be determined.
Noise
All sounds that are distracting, annoying or harmful to every dry activites such as work, rest,
entertainment, study and so forth are regarded as noises. Infact, any sound judged by tlw rpcipient as
undesirable can be considered as a noise. The noise level has an important bearing on human well-being,
even in those cases where it is not perceived consciously. Whether or not a sound is undesired by a
person will depend on number of factors, e.g.

Loudness
Frequency
Continuity
Variation with time
Time of occurrence
Information content
Origin of sound
Recipients state of mind and temperament
Background noise level

Noise is generally harmful and a serious health hazard. It has far reaching consequences and has many
physical, physiological as well as psychological effects on human being.
Physical Effects: The physcial manifestation of noise pollution is the effect on hearing ability.
Repeated exposure to noise may result in temporary or permanent shifting of the hearing threshold of a
person depending upon the level and duration of the exposure. The immediate and acute level of noise
pollution is improvement of hearing.
Physiological Effects: Headcher increase in rate of heart beat, Narrowing of arteries, muscular strain,
nervous breakdown, lowering of concentration are physiological effects of noise.
Psychological Effect: The psychological effects are: (i) Depression and fatigue (ii) lnsommia (iii)

Straining of senses (iv) Emotional disturbances

6.

What are different safety measures taken up in an organisation? Discuss

SAFETY MEASURES IN MANUFACTURING ORGANISATION

Manufacturing establishment include all smelters, oil refineries, cement works, mills of every kind,
machine and repair shops, addition any other kind or character of manufacturing establishment, of any
nature or description whatsoever, wherein any natural product or other articles or materials of any kind,
in a raw or unfinished or incomplete state or condition are converted into a new or improved or different
form. The measures taken in manufacturing organization are:
Safety Committee
Safety committee should be constituted in every plant. These committees should consist of members
from the management, the supervisor and the workers. All safety programmes should be implemented
through safety committee.
Safety Habits
Good working habits should be ingrained in the workers at the time of training, so that these habits
become inseparable part of their behavior, and they observe the necessary safety precautions without
repeated warning. It is necessary to place enough emphasis on safety training when entrants in
organization are trained in their respective trades.
Maintenance of Plant
Plant should be maintained in manner such that it may provide safety and security to the workers at
all costs. All objects which obstruct the passages made for movement of workers should be removed.
Passages should not be used to store equipments, goods and materials store rooms with suitable shelves,
racks should be provided for keeping electrical and other hazardous, equipment.
Protective Clothing
The workers should be provided with protective clothing such as hand gloves, masks, helmets, safety
footwear etc. The clothing serves a dual purpose of providing convenience as well as protection at work.
Safety Campaign
Safety campaign makes the workers safety conscious. Safety programme should be given a wide
publicity through poster and slogans. 'Safety consciousness will pay you rich dividends' and No smoking
are example of safety related slogans. Safety contest should be held between plants and the plant with
lowest accident rate must be given some award.
Regular Inspection

There should be regular inspection of machines, equipment and electric cables to check any
leakage.
Guarding of Machines
Safety guards should be designed and installed to provide positive protection, prevent access to
danger zones, avoid inconvenience in operation and give protection against unforeseen contingencies.
These are in the form of bard insulated covers provided to the moving or rotating parts of machines.
Material Handling Equipments
Material handling equipments should be installed to carry bulky material form one place to another.
Repair and Maintenance
All doors, stairs, passages shall be kept and maintained in a state of good repair and shall be free of
obstruction. No substance which is likely to cause a person to slip shall be kept near them:
Ergonomics
It deals with physiological and anatomical aspects of man and his interactions with working
environment. It is being increasingly used to improve man-machine system. For example equipment,
machinery and work procedures should be redesigned to minimize accidents.
7.

What are various types of accidents in an industry?

Industrialization has brought with it a large number of problems. One such is Industrial Accident.
Industrial accident has become a part of our set up in spite of continuing efforts by individuals and
organizations to put a check on their number. With rapid advances in industrial processes, new type of
dangers to life, limb and health are being introduced. Every year several lakhs of employees are injured
in factories due to accidents. These accidents may be caused as a result of any unsafe activity, or act on
their part or chance occurrences, or as a result of some unsafe working conditions or unsafe act of
employees themselves, or defective plant or shop layout. These accidents represent a social loss of great
magnitude in the form of pain, loss of earning capacity and cost due to disturbance of economic
efficiency. The pain and suffering of the injured as well as the emotional loss to the victims of the
accidents causing permanent disabilities are impossible to be summed up and evaluated.
Thus there is need to control and prevent the accidents. Now before we discuss the ways and means
of accident prevention let us see what an accident is and how it occurs? A lot of research work has been
done in this field.
The most agreed definition of accident is "It is an unplanned and uncontrolled event which causes or
is likely to cause an injury".
TYPES OF ACCIDENTS IN INDUSTRY
I. According to Length of Recovery
Lost time accidents: Lost time accidents are those in which worker loses a day or shift in which
accident occurred. These require payment of compensation to employee from employer e.g., while

operating a machine, worker's hand is caught and is cut off. He is hospitalized for six months.
Home-case accidents: In these types of accidents, worker loses the remainder of shift or turn on
which the accident has occurred.
First aid cases: In these workers receives first aid attention at plant hospital and then returns to
his job.
II. According to Causes of Events
Machine accidents: Machines are responsible for a large number of accidents in an industry. Depending
on the way harm is caused, accidents from machines can be classified into following groups:
(a) Contact: physical contact of the body with any moving part of a machine.
(b) Impact: parts of the body being violently hit by moving part of machines.
(c) Traps: parts of the body coming in between the moving parts which mostly lead to crushing of parts
of body trapped.
(d) Ejection of particles: parts projected at high velocity from the machine, which causes serious injury
when they hit the parts of the moving body.
Non machine accidents: These include:
(a) fall of persons which can be due to
tripping over obstacles on ground
slipping due to oily or greasy substances, or
running inside the shop, sudden fear or excitement etc.
also contribute to cause of falls.
(b) fall from a height which can be due to
lack of firm foot hold or unsafe postures
working on a machine at a height
leaning from a ladder to reach distant object.
(c) Strike against the objects.
(d) Pushes by other persons on the shop.
III. According to Nature of Injury
Fatal accidents: in which the worker or more are killed.
Permanent disablement: which incapacitates an employee and makes it impossible for him to engage
in any work which he was capable of performing at the time of the accident, which resulted in that
disablement.
Temporary disablement: which reduces the earning capacity of an individual in the employment in
which he was engaged when he sustained an injury at that time.

IV. Accidents from Hot Objects

Many industries employ hot processes like. steam generation, hot chemical processes, welding, gas
cutting, hot working of metals, heat treatment processes etc. which carry with them the danger that
persons in contact get burn injuries e.g., (i) splash of hot liquid from heat treatment tank (ii) contact with
a hot, forged component (iii) burn injury from a hot surface (iv) spillage from molten metal etc.
V. Chemical Hazards
The greatest danger in the use of chemicals arises out of their toxic properties, which can adversely
affect the health and wellbeing of the workers. Some chemicals such as Hydrogen Sulphide, Sulphur
dioxide, ammonia etc. have irritating properties which causes injury and discomfort to the workers. They
cause irritation of eyes; watering of the nose, cough etc. which necessitates rest, first aid and sometimes
hospitalization. Some other chemicals induce vomiting and headache. Handling of sulphuric acid, nitric
acid etc. can cause injury by burns.
VI. Radiations Hazards
VII. Miscellaneous Causes
There are many accidents occurring in an industry except the one mentioned above. These include:
Worker bitten by a dog while going to lunch.
Insect or reptile bite in the stoke-yard.
Public manhandling an employee on official work.
8.

Discuss the nature of accident in an industry?

NATURE OF ACCIDENTS
The nature of accidents may vary from industry to industry An employee may be caught in a
machine while working on it; or he may fall against a machine,'; or he may fall from a height
while engaged on a particular task; or explosives used carelessly may explode. These accidents
may result in disablement or death.
Disablement
Disablement whether partial or total may take the form of a loss of ability to work or to
move. Such incapacity may be temporary or permanent.
Partial Disablement
Partial disablement means disablement of temporary nature that reduces the earning capacity of a
workman in the employment in which he was engaged at the time of accident resulting in the
disablement.
Temporary Partial Disablement
It means any disablement that temporarily reduces the earning capacity of the workman in every
employment.
Permanent Partial Disablement
It means any disablement that permanently reduces the earning capacity of the workman in every
employment.

Total Disablement
Total disablement means such disablement whether of a temporary or permanent nature, which
incapacitates a workman or all or which he was capable of performing at the time of accident
resulting in such disablement. Certain injuries which are to be deemed to result in permanent
total disablement. These include:
Loss of both hands or amputation at higher sides
Loss of hand and a foot
Double amputation through leg or thigh or amputation through leg or thigh on one side
and loss of other foot
Loss of right to such an extent as to render the claimant unable to perform any work for
which eye-sight is essential
Very severe facial disfigurement, and
absolute deafness,
9.

Discuss the various causes of accidents in an industry.

CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
It is an established fact that accidents are caused, they do not just happen out of nothing. When
ever there occurs an accident, there must be some cause, which may be obvious, or difficult to
trace. A large number of factors combine to cause accidents. Each of these factors is different in
different situations. It has been rightly said that an accident does not have a single cause but a
multiplicity of causes, which are often closely related. Basic factors responsible for causing
accidents are unsafe acts of the employees, unsafe working conditions and last but not least the
chance occurrences.
Unsafe Acts

Unsafe act may be defined as the deviation from the normal and correct procedure or practice.
These acts may be result of lack of knowledge or skill on the part of the employee, certain bodily
defects and wrong attitudes. Some of the examples of the unsafe acts are as follows:
Failure on the part of workers to obtain necessary equipment or warning from other fellow workers
of possible danger.
Operating or working at unsafe' speeds, either too fast or too slow.
Operating machines or gadgets without approval of the relevant authority.
Throwing materials on the floor carelessly.
Using unsafe equipment, or using equipment unsafely.
Failure on the part of workers to use safety devices and personal protective equipments.
Adopting unsafe or wrong methods in such operations like loading, unloading, removing, placing,
intermixing etc.
Lifting goods especially fragile goods improperly.
Cleaning, adjusting, oiling, repairing, etc. or moving on a dangerous equipment.
Distracting, tearing, abusing, quarrelling, day-dreaming, horseplay.
Taking unsafe positions under suspended loads.
Operating-equipment at improper speeds.
Operating equipment without authority.
Using equipment improperly.
Using defective equipment.

Failure to use personal protective equipment.

Making safety devices inoperable by removing, adjusting, disconnecting them.
Throwing materials on the floor carelessly.
Improper loading or placement of equipment.
Taking an improper working position.
Improper lifting.
Cleaning, adjusting, oiling, repairing etc. moving a dangerous equipment.
Use of alcoholic beverages.
Use of drugs.
Individual characteristics are also responsible or accident behavior among workers. For
example, characteristics like personality, motivation serve as a basis for certain behaviour
tendencies such as tendencies to take risks and undesirable attitudes. These behavioural
tendencies, in turn, result in unsafe acts as, failure to follow procedures and safety rules, and
reluctance to use safety equipments, or haste on the part of the employee particularly, when he is
on incentive payment schemes. These unsafe acts increase the probability of an individual
incurring an accident.
2. Unsafe Conditions
Most of the accidents occur due to unsafe conditions i.e., work related causes. The work-related
causes are often referred to as technical causes. These arise when there are improper or
inadequate safety guards on machines; when machines break down; when improper personal
protection equipment is installed; when mechanical or construction designs are defective and
.unsafe; and when control devices, which h.ave been installed to make the operation of the
machines safe and accident free are lacking or defective; or when there is an absence of proper
maintenance and supervision of these devices.
Thus, unsafe conditions include:

Inadequate safety devices.

Improperly guarded equipment.
Defective tools or equipment.
Congestion of workplace, overloading.
Inadequate warning systems.
Fire and explosion hazards.
Improper plant layout.
Poor housekeeping.
Hazardous atmospheric conditions (gases, dust, fumes and vapours).
Excessive noise.
Poor illumination.
Poor ventilation.
Radiation exposure.
Inadequate warning systems.
Improperly guarded equipment.
Defective equipment.
Hazardous arrangement of procedure in, and, or around, machines or equipment.
Unsafe storage; congestion; overloading.

Inadequate safety devices.

Wrong and faulty layout and bad location.
Improper illumination - glare or insufficient light.
Improper ventilation - insufficient air charge, impure air source.
Poor housekeeping.
Safety experts are of the view that accidents can happen anywhere there are some "high danger"
zones. For example, about one-third of industrial accidents occur around hand lift trucks, wheelbarrows, and other handling and lifting areas. The most serious accident usually occur near metal
and working machines and saws, or around transmission machinery like gears, pulleys, and
flywheels, on stairs, ladders, walkways, scaffolds, hand rails. Hand tools (like chisels or screw
drivers) and electrical equipment (extension cords, electric drop lights, etc.) are other big
accident causes.
The other work related causes of accidents are:
(a) The job itself- Some jobs are inherently more dangerous than others, such as the job of crane
man in comparison to that of the foreman. Similarly, work in some departments (like personnel)
is inherently safer than the work in others (like production department).
(b) Work schedules- Accidents increase late in the day. They do hot usually occur during the
early hours of the work day. They are more frequent during the night shifts. This is partly due to
fatigue and partly due to the fact that night is the period when
one requires rest.
.
(c) Psychological climate of the work place. It also affects the accident rate. Psychological,
mental and emotional imbalances are at the root of several accidents. Emotionally disturbed and
mentally pre-occupied persons meet with more accidents than a normal person. The
psychological factors associated with accidents are fatigue, anxiety, tiredness, overwork,
monotony, boredom, lack of self-confidence, and frustration. Fatigue often has a psychological
origin, and may be due to anxiety, due to the monotony of the job on which a person is
employed; due to frustration and inadequate incentives; due to unfair and incorrect methods of
selection and promotion; due to the absence of group harmony and social integration; to bad
leadership and ineffective organisation; and due to low social prestige. The frustrating situations
includes sudden or arbitrary withdrawal of desirable objects and of certain privileges which were
enjoyed by all employee; the creation of distrust in an individual and his ability to work; the
creation of distrust on the part of employees of a particular, individual in the group; restrictions
on opportunities for self-expression; discrepancy between an aspiration and the ability to solve a
problem. All these situations affect for the worse the alertness of an employee, distract him,
make him lose his concentration on the job in hand, and lead to accidents.
3. Other Causes
These causes of accidents arise mainly due to unsafe situational and climatic conditions.
Some of these causes can be summarised as follows;

Excessively long duration of work

Harsh and domineering behavior of the management or supervisors towards workers.
Excessive heat in the factory premises.
Feeling of job insecurity among workers.

10.

Defective or reduced, vision of the workers.

The nature of motivation adopted by management towards workers.
Reduced hearing capacity of the workers.
The leadership style adopted by the management in the organisation.
Lack of proper inspection and supervision by the supervisor.
Careless handling of hazardous materials like petrol explosives etc.
Marital status of the workers.
Unmarried employees generally have more accidents than married employees.
Addiction to alcohol and drugs.
Smog in the atmosphere.
Inexperienced workers generally sustain injuries than experienced workers.
How will you classify the industrial accident?
CLASSIFICATION OF ACCIDENTS
There are several methods of classifying accidents some of the methods are as follows;
(1) Nature of Events
(2) Cause of Events
(3) Damage Caused
(4) Nature of Injury
(5) Length of Recovery.

Nature of Events
According to the nature of events accidents are classified as:
(a) Traffic accidents
(b) Passenger accidents
(a) Traffic Accidents:
Collisions with cars, buses and motor vehicles.
Collisions with pedestrians.
(b) Passenger Accidents:
Slips, stumbles, falls, etc.
Boarding moving car or bus.
Strucking by doors.
Cause of Events
According to the cause of events accident are classified as:
(a) Machine accidents.
(b) Non-machine accidents,
(a) Machine Accidents:
Catching of tools, guides, flying particles in machines.
Catching of fingers, arms, legs, clothing etc. in machines.

(b) Non-machine Accidents:

Trailillg of telephone cables on floor.
Objects on floor.
Pushes, bumps etc. by other persons, objects.
Damage Caused
(a) Damage of property
(b) Damage of material
(c) Damage of building.
Natural of Injury
Fatal accidents
Permanent accidents
Temporary accidents.
Fatal Accident: In such an accident persons are killed.
Permanent Accident: Due to this accident employee loses earning capacity. The employee is not
capable of earning that much money which he was capable to earn before accident. The employee may
cut his finger, arm or hand.
It is of two types
(i)
(ii)

Total disablement
Partial disablement.

Temporary Accident: In this accident worker is unfit temporarily and loses his earning capacity for a
short time. Fracture of arm is example of temporary accident.
Length of Recovery
According to length of recovery accidents are classified as:
First Aid cases
Home case
Lost time
First Aid Cases: In these cases injuries are minor. The workers are given first aid in the factory.
After treatment the workers are ready to work. In this case no time is lost except when the first aid
treatment is given.
Home Case: In this case medical treatment is firstly given at factory hospital and then worker is
allowed to go home. The worker is allowed to be away from duties for a maximum of 3 days. The
worker recovers in this period and then resumes his duty. No compensation is paid in this case.
Lost Time Accidents: In this case the injuries are serious and workers are admitted to hospital. The
worker is away from duty from more days and compensation is paid to the workers. The investigation of
accidents is done to find the causes of accidents.

11.

What are various types of accident costs?

ACCIDENT COSTS
With the growth of industrialization the chances of being trapped into accidents are common.
Accidents are unexpected situations in which workers loose their partial or total organs and
consequently the earning capacity. Every country has provided considerable attention towards
the menace of rising accident rate because they include cost to management and loss of income
to the workpeople. Whenever an industrial accident occurs, it gives rise to pain for the victim and
his family and retards industrial productivity, which in turn, affects the economy of a country. It
results in financial loss for the employee and the employer, and large payments by the latter in
the shape of compensation;
Accidents are symptoms of bad working conditions and poor morale. An accident causes direct
and indirect cost to the management. Installation of safety devices and cost on training programs
make accidents costs very alarming.
Direct costs
The direct costs of accidents comprise of
the compensation paid to the injured person;
medical expenses on his treatment; and
costs involved on account of waste of raw materials and damage to equipment. Since
both these are generally covered under insurance, the cost of accident on these accounts
are also commonly termed as 'Insured Cost'.
Indirect costs
The following items contribute the indirect or uninsured costs of accidents and can be calculated
in terms of money.
Lost time of the injured employee: These are the wages paid for the time lost by the
injured worker other than those paid under the workmen's compensation laws.
Lost time of other employees: After an accident all employees of the section stop work to
assist or talk it. Sometimes time is also lost as the equipment damaged in accident is
required or the output or aid of the injured person is required.
Lost time of foreman, supervisors or other executives: Time spent on activities such as
investigating the accident, preparing accident reports, setting claims rising from it, arrangement for his replacement, selecting and training a new employee, and attending
hearings conducted by government or other officials.
Cost of time spent by first aid attendant and hospital staff of factory.
Cost of damage to material or equipment. This should also include the cost incurred in
putting back in order the material or equipment which may be thrown into a state of
disorder.
Incidental costs due to interference with production like the loss of profit on contracts
cancelled or orders lost.

12.

Explain accident Proneness?

ACCIDENT-PRONENESS

It is condition in which a "human being is mentally inclined, strongly disposed, attitudinally

addicted or personally destined to become continually involved ill an ongoing and never-ending series of
accidents or injuries. Accordingly some people may be more often involved in accidents than others. In
other words, they are "accidents-prone". They get involved in accidents, however hard they try to avoid
them. The causes of accident proneness are muscular weakness, emotional instability, visual disability,
recklessness, hostility and indifference.
The concept of accident-proneness, however, is now being replaced by that of "accident repeater",
that is an accident repeater generally has more than a normal share of accidents during a particular
period of time. Repeated accidents are not due to any mysterious or supernatural cause but are due to the
personality, emotional make-up,' family background and physical condition of an individual in the
"context of specific circumstances. Age, experience and supervision are also sometimes related to the
recurring nature of accidents and injuries.
13.

What steps are to be taken for prevention of accidents in an industry?

ACCIDENT PREVENTION
Accident prevention is a vital factor in every individual enterprise one which if ignored or
practiced unskillfully, leads to human suffering and economic losses to management.
Accident prevention may be defined as "an integrated program, a series of coordinated
activities, directed to the control of unsafe personal performance and unsafe mechanical
conditions, and based on certain knowledge, attitudes and abilities".
Accident prevention program has shown great achievements in the saving of life and limb,
insurance premium reduction, continuity of service, increased production, decreased labor
turnover, and improved labor-management relations.
Reasons for Accident Prevention

Economic
Legal
Humanitarian
Productivity
Economic reasons
(a) Management: Fundamental reason for utilizing the economic argument in the promotion of
accident prevention is the fact that the accident costs the organization money. There are two types of
costs linked with the accidents.
Insured or direct cost: which include compensation paid to workers for temporary or permanent
disablement, monetary value of damaged materials, equipments, tools etc.
Uninsured cost or indirect cost: which include costs linked with lost time of injured employee, costs
linked with lost time of other employees who stops their work due to sympathy or curiosity, cost on
training of new worker, cost of time lost by supervisors in accidents investigations, reporting and
analysis etc.
(b) Worker and his family: The worker and his family may suffer two types of economic losses:
(i) Loss of earning

(ii) Extra expenses

Total and permanent disability at times cost even greater earning losses than death, because worker
has to be maintained besides his earning capacity.
(c) Society: In addition to the above losses the taxes that would have been paid by the injured
employees on the products. Some injured employees and families get public assistance and have to be
supported by the other members of the society.
Humanitarian
The humanitarian reasons for accident prevention are based on the fact that it is the duty of every man to
ensure the general well being of his fellowmen. This places the duty on the employer for providing the
safe working conditions to his employees. The employers therefore must take reasonable care for the
safety of his workmen, whether the employer may be an individual, affirm or a company and whether or
not the employee takes any share in the conduct of the operations.
Legal
The government has made acts such as Factory Act, Indian Boilers Act, Mines Act etc to ensure the
safety of workers employed in factories.
Productivity
Safety and productivity are closely related to each other. If an organization is free from hazards and
accidents, then workers will be mentally ensured that they are working in safe environment free from
hazards then they will work with more concentration, which will lead to increase in productivity.
Steps in Accident Prevention
Accident prevention is accomplished through five separate steps as shown in Fig. 2.1:
Collecting and Analyzing Data
The sources of information lies in the past accident history, the data obtained from inspection and
survey, and the knowledge and imagination of informed persons. The emphasis in data collection has
been on the direct and proximate causes of accidents, on information relating to the unsafe acts and
unsafe mechanical and or unsafe physical conditions. There are three basic information-gathering
approaches:
To ask why certain accidents and incidents are happening;
To ask whether or not certain knowledge proven accident controls are in effect and are effective
in the management system;
To analyze the accidents, their trends, and the circumstances that surrounds their happening.
In the first approach the supervisor is asked to investigatecthe multiple causes of accidents.
Supervisors are asked to identify a number off acts relating to accident, which includes the time of
injury, place of accident, name of employee injured, the nature and severity of injury, the witnesses
present at the spot, the kind of accident etc. In addition to above there are other fact which has to be

collected such as age and experience of the injured person, previous accident record of the injured
person, operation or process involved in the accident, description and cost of property damage, the
extent of lost time and cost of injury etc. It should be kept in mind that the primary reason for the
investigation is to find out the root cause of accidents.
Other techniques that ask why:
TOR (Technique of Operations Review) which starts from the proximate cause of accident which
seems to be of great importance in the accident, the investigators traces through other possible related
causes. TOR leads to root causes, regardless of where we start in our analysis.
Another method is the incident recall technique. In this employees are systematically encouraged to
recall situations and incidents that could well have led to accidents and injuries but that did not. Incident
analysis assists in locating some of the ways behind accidents.
The second approach to collecting data is to ask whether or not certain known workable controls are
in effect. There are number of ways to do this, and a number of levels that this approach can be used.
First, at the company wide level we can begin to look in some detail at what we do: our policy, our
procedures, our systems etc. Another method of asking is, whether or not to compare your work to
currently accepted standards. Each company is compare to a broad range of standards, which state how
things should be. In this way the important question will be asked for both managerial and physical
condition problems and accident causes.
The third approach i.e., Methods Safety Analysis is primarily concerned with investigating the
mechanical hazards of the methods of an operation. The four factors which are to be considered when
analyzing a job operation are:
(a) Worker: It includes one or all of the following: the operator, the supervisor, other person responsible
for safety on job, and the injured person.
(b) Method: The working procedures of the process being investigated.
(c) Machine: The machine tools employed
(d) Material: Other than machine tools employed in the process.
Method Safety Analysis examine each step of a job or process from its very beginning with respect to
the method, machine, or material involved to see if any or all of these are responsible for the occurrence
of accidents. Monitoring
The final step in the process is to monitor results, to see whether or not improvement is achieved as a
result of remedy applied. This can be done in number of ways, depending on the situation. The most
common is to see whether or not there are fewer accidents occurring. Monitoring is a feed back
mechanism; it tells us how we are doing, what progress are we making. As a result of our measurements,
we can spot additional difficulties to deal with, and by some additional measures or remedies we can
achieve better results. Monitoring tells us additional needs, we then collect additional information,
analyze it, select additional remedies and apply them, monitor etc. so the process goes on.
Reducing Unsafe Conditions and Unsafe Acts
Accident Prevention revolves around two basic activities: reducing unsafe conditions and reducing
unsafe acts.
Checklist for reducing unsafe acts

I. Management Organization

Company written policy on safety.

Line and staff relationships.
Delegation of safety responsibility by top management.
Safety committees.
Rules and procedures on safety.
Staff safety personnel.

II. Safety Accountability

Personnel responsible for accountability.
Techniques of fixing accountability.
III. Selection and Placement of Employees

Selection procedure.
Type of interview.
Skill, knowledge or psychological tests given.
Ergonomics of job given.

IV. Training and Supervision

Type of training.
Aids used in training.
Persons in charge of giving training.
Skill, knowledge and experience of training personnel.

V. Motivation
Ongoing activities aimed at motivation e.g., group meetings, film showings, posters, incentives, accident
facts on all plant operations.
Special campaigns.
VI. Others

Family disputes.
Alcoholism.
Grievance handling.
Job satisfaction.
Absenteeism.
Turnover.
Checklist for reducing unsafe conditions

1. General House Keeping

Floors-clean and dry.

Rest rooms.
Spittoons.
Adequate and wide aisles.
Drinking water.
Cleanliness.
Lighting.
Noise.

II. Material Handling Equipment

Brakes.
Warning device
Fuel and oil.
Loose parts.
III. Power Hand Tools

Point of operation
Guarding of gear, belts.
Accessibility of control switch. III Workplace around machines. II Wearing of safety glasses.
Condition before starting work.
Storage.

IV. Welding
Shielding of arc.
Electric controls.
Personal protective equipment.
V. Spray Painting! Fire Extinguishers
Storage of paints and thinners.
Adequate fire extinguishers.

Vl. Others

14.

Hazardous atmospheric conditions such as gases, dust fumes and vapors.

Plant layout.
Radiation exposures.
Pits and openings in the floor.
Fall of objects from height.

Write a short note on welfare and safety?

WELFARE AND SAFETY

Welfare work aims at providing such service facilities and amenities as would enable the workers
employed in industries/factories to enable their work in healthy congenial surroundings conducive to
good health and a high morale. It is partly
humanistic because it enables the workers to enjoy a fuller and richer life.
economic because it improves the efficiency of workers, increases its availability where it is
scarce and keeps them contented. It therefore, minimises the inducement to form or join unions
and to resort to strike.
civic because it develops a sense of responsibility and dignity among the workers and thus makes
them worthy citizens of the nation.
Safety is basically concerned with minimising hazards and occupational diseases in industries. In
certain cases welfare and safety activities are closely linked together. These areas may include
the following:

Proper layout of plant and machinery.

Provision of medical facilities.
Provision of first aid appliances.
Provision of compensation in case of accidents.
Proper ventilation.
Provision of fire extinguishers.
Provision of personnel protective devices.
Fencing and guarding of machines.
Improving working conditions.
Reasonable hours of work.
Temperature and humidity control in the workplace.

The areas in which safety and welfare are not directly linked are:

15.

Provision of rest place, canteens, restaurant and cafeteria.

Provision of kindergartens and nurseries.
Financial assistance example provident fund, gratuity, pension etc.
Housing facilities.
Educational facilities.
Recreational facilities.
How will you measure accident in an industry?

ACCIDENT MEASUREMENT
Two main statistical ratios have been used to gather accident information the frequency rate and severity
rate.
The frequency rate is the number of time-lost accidents (or injuries which have disabled an
employee) per 1,000,000 man-hours worked. The severity rate, on the other hand, is the total number of
days charged or lost because of accidents per 1, 000, 00 man-hours worked.
The National Safety Council of the United States has given the following formulae for the computation

of these rates:
Accident Frequency Rate =
Number of disabling work injuries x 1,000,000/ Total number of man-hours worked
Severity Rate = Number of man days lost x 1,000,000/ Total number of man-hours worked
16.

What records are to be kept during reporting of accidents? Discuss briefly.

ACCIDENT REPORTING

Main purpose of Accident Reporting is to assist the industry in eliminating accidents. There are many
types of accidents occurring in an industry that includes accidents, which cause death or disable the
injured beyond a certain time period, accidents resulting in minor injuries and accidents with no visible
injury or damage to property. All the accidents need not to be reported, only those accidents are
recorded, that are required to be reported under the law. Accidents occurring frequently in workplace
area, process or person should receive special attention.
Persons responsible for reporting accidents should have good knowledge of the classification of
accidents so that reports can be accurately made. For an effective safety program good accident records
should be accurately made. Information recorded in the accident reports should be periodically compiled
and analyzed and the findings should be brought to the notice of the concerned departments/supervisors
to plan the corrective steps. The benefits of keeping these records are:
Future planning of accident prevention programs.
Identifying accident-prone areas, workers, processes etc.
Comparison of accident performance between past and present, between different departments or
units.
Maintaining records is a statutory obligation.
For use in statistical and research work.
What needs to be reported?
Certain problems and incidents have to be reported. These incidents include:
Death: where someone is killed as a result of an accident related to work. This includes workrelated deaths as a result of physical violence.
Major injury: this includes fractures, amputations, loss of sight and loss or consciousness.
Dangerous occurrence: these are events that may not have caused injury, but clearly could have
done so. They include such occurrences as sudden release of materials from a pressurized system
or pipe work, some kinds of fire and explosions, failure of a load bearing part of a crane, collapse
of part of a building or of scaffolding.
Over three-day injury: this is where an employee or a self-employed person working on your
premises suffers an injury that results in them being away from work, or unable to do the full
range of duties, for more than three days.
Records to be Kept

Records of accidents are essential for efficient and successful safety work. The completeness and
accuracy of the entire accident record system depend on the information transmitted in the individual
accident reports. Therefore simple forms which contain all essential information should be used for
reporting. The essential records to be kept and maintained are as under:
The First Aid Report.
Supervisor's Accident Report.
Accident Investigation Report.
Employee's Accident Report.
Annual Accident Report.
The First Aid Report: As soon as an injury occurs the worker reports at the first-aid center. The
person in charge of first aid classify injury as to whether it is reportable under rule or not as the reporting
would primarily depend on his opinion. In. case of doubt, the opinion of doctor in charge should be
obtained. The report should contain the name of the employee who met with an accident, the time when
the accident reported, how it happened, when first aid was given, and what further action was advised.
The information shall be conveniently maintained in the form of register or in separate sheets securely.
A common Performa is shown in which can be used by the supervisor, the safety department and the
first aid section. It serves different purposes: authorization for first aid by the supervisor, simultaneous
intimation to the safety department, a record of first aid given, information to the supervisor or manager
who reported the accident as to what first aid was given.
2. Supervisor's Accident Report. Generally the supervisor prepares the accident report after the receipt
of the first aid report. In some cases supervisor prepares his report first. Supervisor must exercise
adequate care to ensure that they enter all the required data correctly and completely without delay. It is
recommended that some questions should be answered by the line supervisor in filling the accident
report:
4. Employee's Accident Report. It is a record of the accidents an employee has in tenure of
employment with the company. It serves different purposes:

Helps to locate persons meeting frequently with accidents.

Getting knowledge of background of such persons.
Identification of social, physical and family factors that leads to accident.
Helps in studying work situation and design of job of persons.
Helps during transfer, promotion of employees etc.
Helps in accident investigation.
These are required during safety audits and surveys.
Helps in eliminating unsafe conditions and unsafe acts.

5. Annual Accident Report. Annual accident reports help the organization in comparing its
performance with that of similar industries. The period being a longer one, it overcomes the difficulties
to a great extent due to incompleteness in any particular case. Annual reports should be prepared without
loss of time. The reports may be reduced to simple charts or graphs or pictorial depiction for easy
appreciation of the agencies involved in enforcement and promotion of safety. It is also a good practice
to circulate reports on unusual accidents among industries to make them alert. Accident reports are sent
to Government, which not only keeps watchful eye on the trend but also feeds the information to
planners to help them to decide upon the course of action.

17.

What is the purpose of accident investigation in an industry? Explain the steps of accident
prevention.
ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS

Accident investigation and analysis go together. The facts revealed to the investigators from the reports
of the accident are first analyzed. Accident investigation is of prime importance in a safety program. The
purpose of investigation is to find out different causes and circumstances that contributed both directly
and indirectly, to the accident with a view of taking necessary action to prevent their recurrence in
future. Investigation must be kept objective, factual and free from the punishment motive, otherwise it
may do more harm than the good. Investigations have to be taken up immediately as a delay of even a
few hours may lead to loss of important evidence. Information on why the unsafe conditions existed and
why the injured person or others acted unsafely is of great importance and should be obtained promptly
after the accident occurs, as this type of information is difficult to get later. The scene of accident should
not be disturbed until the investigator arrives on the scene.
Purpose of Accident Investigation
The principal purposes of accident investigation are as follows:
To learn accident causes so that similar accidents can be prevented by mechanical improvements,
better supervision and employee training;
To determine the change or deviation that produced an error that in turn resl:1lted in an accident;
To publicize the particular hazard among employees and their supervisors, and to direct attention
to accident prevention in general;
To determine facts bearing on legal liability. An investigation undertaken solely for this purpose,
though, will seldom give enough information for accident prevention purposes. On the other
hand, an accident investigation for preventive purposes may disclose facts, which are important
in determining liability.
Investigating Officer
The shop supervisor is the man on the spot and he is in a position to be physically present and ascertain
all facts immediately. No one probably knows more about the accident than him. He
is therefore most suited to enquire into the event and in most cases he is the one to take corrective action
to prevent recurrence. The supervisor by the virtue of his experience in the particular job has first hand
and full information about machines, equipments, the circumstances and the person who met with
accident. This makes the supervisor on shop floor the most suitable man for carrying out accident
investigations.
Investigations by the supervisor can be made more meaningful by:
Training the supervisor in the process of investigations.
Having an expert check on his work from time to time to avoid any chance of confusion.
Steps in Accident Investigation
Effective accident investigation is not complex or mysterious. All that is needed is an under-

standing of basic problem solving techniques. An accident investigation follows these steps:
Something must happen than one can define it as an accident or significant incident.
The accident investigation team must be assembled. They must agree on an investigation
process.
Gather information. This can include visiting the site, recording observations, taking pictures,
interviewing victims, witnesses, experts, and others. Written work procedures, engineering
drawings, maintenance records, purchasing specifications and training records may also be
relevant.
Analyze the data to try to find the causes ofthe accident (there are always more them one).
Decide what must be done to prevent the accident from occurring in the future, or at least
mitigate the outcome if it does. Be as specific as possible. Consider short-term measures and
longer-term prevention if appropriate.
Make sure the preventive measures are implemented.

Determining and analyzing the key facts in accidents

,
Fact
Injury
Part of the body
Source of injury

Question
What was the injury?
What part of the body was affected by the injury as mentioned in I?
What object, substance, exposure or bodily motion inflicted the
injury named in?
Accident type
How did the injured person came into contact with the object, etc
named in? Or during what personal movement did the bodily
motion named in 3 occur?
Hazardous condition
What hazardous or environmental conditions or circumstances
caused or permitted the occurrence of the event named in 4?
Agency of accident
In what object, substance or part of the premises did the hazardous
physical or environmental condition named in 5 exists?
Agency of accident part In what specific part of the agency of the accident named in 6
did the hazardous condition named in 5,xist?
Unsafe act
What unsafe act of a person caused or permitted the occurrence of
the event named in 4?
An investigation into accidents should be able to bring out the following information:
The injury: Its nature, part of body, permanent disablement or temporary disablement, single or multiple
injury, etc. This information can be obtained from the person in charge with the first aid department.
Part of body: If the injury is localized to one body part, that part should be named, but if extended to
several sections of a major body part, that major body part should be named. If the injury is internal, the
body system affected should be named.
Source of injury: The object which directly produced the injury should be identified. If the injury results
from contact with two or more object, the choice should be selected as
If one object is moving and the other stationary, choose the moving one;
If both objects are moving or both are stationary, choose the last, one;
If the injury results solely from stress or strain caused by free movement of body, state bodily

motion as the source of injury.

How the accident took place: Details of sequence of events that led to the accident, machinery and
equipments involved, what exactly man was doing at that time etc.
The unsafe conditions or unsafe acts: The hazardous condition is related to the accident and the
agency of accident. The hazardous condition may be the sole accident cause or one of several causes.
The factors and circumstances that contributed to the unsafe acts conditions: This should include
the people, the equipment and the conditions of work.
Steps to be taken to prevent similar accidents in future: accident investigations when carried out
thoroughly will bring to light a number of action areas. These will include action to be taken by top-level
management, the safety officer, the supervisor and the employees concerned. The accident investigation
helps in finding out different causes and circumstances that contributed both directly and indirectly, to
the accident with a view of taking necessary action to prevent their recurrence in future.
Accident costs: Accidents results in financial loss for the employee and the employer, and large
payments by the later in the shape of compensation. An accident causes direct and indirect cost to the
management.
Checklist for Identifying the Key Facts
Accident type

Machine accident
Struck against sharp objects, flying objects, sliding objects etc. Fall from height
Contact with electricity hot processes etc.
Inhalation, absorption, poisoning etc.
Others

Hazardous condition.

Inadequate safety devices

Defective tools or equipment Improper plant layout
Poor housekeeping Improper illumination improper ventilation
Using equipment improperly.
Others

Unsafe act

Operating without authority

Using defective equipments
Unsafe postures
Unsafe lifting
Unsafe loading
Machinery in motion

 Others
Guidelines for Making Investigations Useful

18.

Investigations should be started as early as possible.

Witnesses should be examined in a large number and separately and patiently.
Investigating officer should have full knowledge of accidents of different types.
Efforts should be made to identify all the causes of accidents- unsafe conditions, unsafe acts and
other miscellaneous causes a Investigating officer should look for indirect causes such as poor
maintenance standards, physiological factors etc.
Employees' participation in accident investigation should be encouraged at all levels.
The findings from investigations should be discussed in a meeting of concerned department
heads and supervisors.
Any recommendations should be brought to the notice of all concerned in writing.
The records of all accidents and investigations should be kept in a clean orderly way for future
reference.
Define industrial hazard.

A hazard is something that has the potential to cause harm. This harm can affect people, property and
processes as follows:
People-Injury, illness, death, psychological trauma;
Property-Damage, contamination, theft and wastage;
Processes-Work disruption and interruption to production.
In an industrial environment Hazard is defined as "any existing or potential condition in the
workplace which by itself or by interacting with other variables, can result in unwanted effects of deaths,
injuries, property damage and other losses.
or
A hazard is any practice, behaviour or condition or combination of these that can cause injury or
illness to people or damage to property.
or
"An unsafe condition or practice that could cause an injury or illness to an employee and it
is preventable".
The prime objective of any accident prevention program is to control hazards at work, so as
to reduce the chances of occurrence of accidents.
It takes a hazard and someone exposed to the hazard to produce an accident.
Hazard + Exposure = Accident
Hazard is the potential to cause harm; risk on the other hand is the likelihood of harm (in defined
circumstances, and usually qualified by some statement of the severity of the harm). The relationship

between hazard and risk must be treated very cautiously. If all other factors are equal especially the
exposures and the people subject to them, then the risk is proportional to the hazard. However all other
factors are very rarely equal?
19.

20.

Name two techniques of hazard identification.

Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) Technique
Hazard and operability review (HAZOP) Technique
Technique of operations review (TOR)
Human Error analysis (HEA) Technique
Fault Free analysis (FTA) Technique
Risk analysis Technique
Classify industrial hazard?

Hazards are generally classified into two broad categories:

Those dealing with safety i.e., resulting in injuries.
Those dealing with health i.e., resulting in illness.
Safety Hazard Categories
1. Material Handling Hazards: Manual material handling can involve lifting, carrying, lowering,
pushing, and pulling. All of these activities can lead to muscle straing, tears and pulls ofthe back,
shoulders, arms and abdomen. Mechanical material handling can involve such devices as forklift
trucks, conveyors, cranes, and handcarts and trucks. These devices can introduce many hazards
including accidental contact with moving equipment or parts, loads, or electricity. Handling of
hazardous materials, such as corrosives, flammables and reactives is another key area. Exposure can
cause serious harm to people and extensive damage to property.
2. Machine Hazards: Any machine cim be a hazard, especially those with moving parts that can get
tangled in a worker's clothes or come into contact with a worker's body. Here are some examples:
workers may be crushed if they get caught in rotating shafts, belts or pulleys; body parts may be injured
or severed by presses, blades. and saws or workers may be struck by flying projectiles from machines.
3. Energy Hazards: Workers can be seriously injured by the sudden movement of machine components,
electrical shock or other releases of energy when they are adjusting or maintaining equipment. Energy
sources include: electricity, steam, heat, pneumatic or hydraulic pressure and gravity as well as
mechanical and chemical energy.
4. Work Practice Hazards. Failure to have or to follow safe work practices is a significant cause of
injuries. Performing work safely in accordance with established safe work procedures is a fundamental
element in the control of safety hazards. Employers, supervisors and workers all share a responsibility in
this.
5. Confined Space Hazards. Confined spaces are workspaces where hazardous gases, vapors, dusts or

fumes may build up or where an oxygen-deficient atmosphere may be created. Examples include:
storage tanks, vaults, pits, vats, silos, pipelines, ducts and tunnels. Other hazards of confined spaces
include: difficulty of entry and exit and working in awkward spaces, poor walking surfaces, poor
visibility, and extremes of temperature and noise.
6 Chemical Hazards
Chemical substances, such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, sulphur dioxide,
hydro-carbons, ozone, sulphuric acid, acetic acid, fumeric acid and tannic acid, limes and alkalies cause
injury when they are absorbed by the skin, or when they are ingested or inhaled. The results are often
disastrous. Workers may suffer from respiratory diseases, skin diseases, allergy, heart disease, cancer
and neurological disorder, all of which often shorten life expectancy. The disease of sickness may be
chronic or acute, and it may appear after a long dormant period when it is difficult or impossible to treat
it effectively. Often, a disease may be difficult to diagnose because its symptoms are not apparent at all.
Gases, fumes and dust raised by such processes as grinding and crushing of stones or minerals may
be inhaled by workers and cause a serious injury, or even death coalminers often suffer Horn what is
known as "black lung" disease. Employees in manufacturing industries are often exposed to such health
hazards which arise from dust and fumes, while those working on lead or zincs melters often show
indications of zinc, or lead poisoning.
7. Mechanical Hazards
Mechanical hazards can mainly stem from any of the following causes:

Failure of components of a mechanical system due to faulty design,

faulty assembly, faulty materials, lack of repair and maintenance.
Inadvertance and complacency on the part of workers at the points of operation.
Inadequate safeguards on the machine.
Laxity in the use of personal protective equipments.
.

The chief sources of mechanical hazards originate born flywheels, protruding parts of a moving
machinery, presses pressure vessels, all, sorts of drives namely belt, chain and sprocket; conveyers, lifts,
hoist tackles, shafts, hand tools, power tools etc. The operations which make the workers vulnerable to
injuries are chiefly cutting, shearing, breaking, tearing, crushing, hoist, pressing etc. As a consequence
of these operations, the workers can injure themselves in a number of ways like cutting of finger tips,
crushing of limbs, injury due to flying splinters, fall from great heights, tangling by rapidly rotating
machine parts.
8. Biological Hazards: These include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other living organisms that can
cause acute and chronic infections by entering the body either directly or through breaks in the skin.
Occupations that deal with plants or animals or their product or with food and food processing may
expose workers to biological hazards. Laboratory and medical personnel also can be exposed to
biological hazards. Any occupational that result in contact with bodily fluids pose a risk to workers form
biological hazards. In occupations where animals are involved, biological hazards are dealt with by
preventing and controlling diseases in the animal population as well as properly caring for and handling
infected animals. Also, effectively personal hygiene, particularly proper attention to minor cuts and
scratches especially on the hands and forearms, helps keep worker risks to a minimum.

In occupations where there is potential exposure to biological hazards workers should practice proper
personal hygiene, particularly hand washing. Hospitals should provide proper ventilation, proper
personal protective equipment such as gloves and respirators, adequate infectious waste disposal
systems, and appropriate controls including isolation in instances of particularly contagious disease such
as tuberculosis.
9. Environment or Physical Hazards: These include excessive levels of ionizing and non ionizing
electromagnetic radiation, noise, vibration, illumination and temperature.
In occupations where there is exposure to ionizing radiation, time, distance, and shielding are
important tools in ensuring worker safety. Danger from radiation increases with the amount of time one
is exposed to it; hence, the shorter the time of exposure the smaller the radiation danger.
Distance also is a valuable tool in controlling exposure to both ionizing and non-ionising radiation,
radiation levels from some" sources can be estimated by comparing the squares of the distances between
the worker and the source.
Shielding also is a way to protect against radiation. The greater the protective mass between a
radioactive source and the worker, the lower the radiation exposure. In some instance, however, limiting
exposure to or increasing distance from certain forms of non-ionizing radiation, such as lasers is not
effective. For example, an exposure to laser radiation that is faster than the blinking of an eye can be
hazardous and would require workers to be miles from the laser source before being adequately
protected. Shielding workers form the source can be an effective control method. Noise, another
significant physical hazard, can be controlled by various measures. Noise can be reduced by installing
equipment and systems that have been engineered, designed, and built to operate quietly; by enclosing
or shielding noisy equipment; by making certain that equipment is in good repair and properly
maintained with all worn or unbalanced parts replaced; by mounting noisy equipment on special mounts
to reduce vibration; and by installing silencers, mufflers, or baffles.
Substituting quiet work methods for noisy ones is another significant way to reduce noise-for
example, welding parts rather than riveting them. Also, treating floors, ceilings, and walls with
acoustical material can reduce reflected or reverberant noise. In addition, erecting sound barriers at
adjacent work stations around noisy operations will reduce worker exposure to noise generated at
adjacent work stations.
It is also possible to reduce noise exposure by increasing the distance between the source and the
receiver, by isolating workers in acoustical booths, limiting workers' exposure time to noise, and by
providing hearing protection.
10. Electric Hazards
Necessary protection and safety devices are warranted to contain electric hazards. Electric exposures
can cause a myriad of problems which must be judiciously countered. The protection programme should
envisage safety to:
Users or occupants or workers.
Electrical machines and equipments.
The electrical system encompassing conductors, switches etc.

 Fire-hazards associated with short circuits etc.

Under normal circumstances the rate of current flow in amperes is of the order of 20 mA to 25 mA
can cause electrical shocks. A fatal shock can be caused by 50 mA of current. All the above relate to dry
skin conditions. In case of wet skin condition, of human body, the resistance could be even 100th part
compared to the dry skin conditions.
Hence all occupants or workers should be warned not to touch any electrical installation and
machines including switches in the wet skin conditions to avoid fatal shocks. A slight delay can cause
fatal accidents or inflaming of the electric system.
For household wiring connections and small units, a fuse can be provided, as a safety measure.
The fuse interrupts the electric supply in case overloading or faults. It may be better to use
miniature circuit breakers (MCBs).
For big industrial units (ACBs) air circuit breaker as well as (OCBs) oil circuit breakers should
be used to protect electric installations from hazards. Moulded Cases Circuit Breakers (MCCBs)
or Earth
Leakage Circuit Breakers (ELCBs) give superior performance. These circuit breakers can cut-off
the supply immediately if the current exceeds a particular stipulated limit within a fraction of
seconds, they can as well cut-off the main supply during short circuits or leakages. For all
electric connections proper earthing or grounding should be done.
All live electric machines, installations or gadgets which are liable to cause shocks should be
properly guarded by enclosures or railings with, danger rings signs properly displayed.
All electrical apparatus in industries must be enclosed inside flame proof boxes or enclosures to
avoid the danger which may result from sparking during the operation of switches.
Provision of lighting conductors should be made to protect the workers as well as the electrical
installations or electrical equipment from lighting.
Safety norms as mentioned in the Indian Electricity Rule, 1956 along with the amendments must
be strictly followed.
Inspite of best care and protection by using earthing and insulation, the control method may fail.
Under such circumstances use of an improved device called Ground fault Interrupter (GFl) is
suggested. It automatically interrupts the circuit practically instantly.
All circulation spaces and working spaces in the vicnity of hazardous spots should adequate.
Use of rubber gloves and mats should be specially recommended for workers working in live
wires, high installations and where bare conductor carries current of high amperage.
11. Fire Hazards
The hazards involved in the construction processes and their fall out could be summarised as follows:
(a) Those hazards or accidents that can cause immediate death.
(b) Those hazards or accidents which can cause injury or loss of limbs of the workers.
(c) Those hazards or accidents which can cause only loss of property.
These above three categories will have instantaneous or immediate ill-effects.
Factors responsible for causing hazards or accidents are as follows:

 Faulty structural design.

Improper repair and maintenance.
Substandard and defective materials of construction which do not satisfy the relevant standards
and specifications.
Improper planning of layout.
Lack of supervision during construction.
Ignoring the norms of sound engineering practice.
Carelessness and irresponsibility of the workforce in the execution of construction.
The following precautions may be adopted to minimise hazards due to the above factors.
Structural design must be entrusted to qualified and experienced structural engineers.
By carrying out regular repairs and maintenance under the expert guidance of qualified and
experienced engineers.
Materials of construction must be tested for strength and durability by standard laboratories.
The planning of the structures etc. should be entrusted to architects or engineers having sound
knowledge of safety principles and practices.
All supervision work must be done under the expert supervision and guidance of qualified and
experienced engineers or architects.
Care must be taken that the norms of sound engineering practice are not violated.
The workforce responsible for construction must be instructed to remain careful and responsible
and follow safety rules and norms.
12. Potential Hazards:
It include dusts, fumes, mists, aerosols, fibres and gases. Dusts are solid particles generated by
handling, crushing, grinding, colliding, exploding and heating organic or inorganic materials such as
rock, ore, metal, coal, wood and grain.
Fumes are formed when material from a volatilized 'solid condenses in cool air. In most cases, the solid
particles resulting from the condensation react with air to form an oxide.
The term mist is applied to liquid suspended in the atmosphere. Mists are generated by liquids
condensing from a vapour back to a liquid or by a liquid being dispersed by splashing or atomizing.
Aerosols are also a form of a mist characterized by highly respirable, minute liquid particles.
Fibers are solid particles whose length is several times greater than their diameter, such as asbestos.
Gases are formless fluids that expand to occupy the space or enclosure in which they are confined.
They are atomic, diatomic, or molecular in nature as opposed to droplets or particles which are made up
of millions of atoms or molecules. Through evaporation, liquids change into vapours and mix with the
surrounding atmosphere. Vapours are the volatile form of substances that are normally in a solid or
liquid state at room temperature and pressure. Vapours are gases in that true vapors are atomic or
molecular in nature.
21. Write a short notes on the following
1. Past Accident Analysis
2. Safety Survey/Study
3. Safety Audit
4. Job Hazard Analysis
5. FTA

6. FMEA
7. Fire and Explosion Index or Dow Index
8. Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP).
9. What if Analysis
Past Accident Analysis: Keeping a record of accidents help in identifying hazards based upon past
experience. Though non-occurrence of accidents in previous years does not necessarily means that plant
is totally safe. An accident history definitely indicates the need for identifying and controlling some
inherent hazards.
In order to properly utilize past accident records for hazard identification purpose, it is very important
that such record is suitably analyzed department wise, section wise, shift wise, accident causing agency
wise, reportable/non reportable wise. Regular workers/contract workers wise etc. A careful study of such
an analysis is very useful in identifying hazards in technical systems as well as management systems.
Past accident analysis also provides guidance about the quantity of material involved, failure mode,
energy released, damage and injury, type of event, time factor for development of hazard from initial
accident, warning time available to the emergency team for taking emergency measures and emergency
preparedness.
Safety Survey/Study: A safety survey is a detailed examination in narrow field to activity relating to
industrial safety. Such activities may involve identifying hazards due to air-borne chemical
contaminants, identifying hazards due to excessive noise levels and Identifying hazards due to heat
stress or poor illumination etc. This technique can identify hazards even before occurrence of a lossproducing event.

Safety Audit: A safety audit differs from safety survey in a sense that a safety survey is a detailed
examination limited to a narrow' field whereas safety audit covers a plant in its entirety. It covers various
management and technical aspects to identify the hazards due to ineffective use of various safety
systems. Safety audit is carried out thoroughly by a team of experts in various fields. This study is based
on information collected through questionnaire, checking documents/records, interviewing people at
various levels and plant visits. The report highlights the strength and weakness of various systems and
suggests recommendations for improvements. Safety audit gives only a qualitative assessment of
hazards. Safety audit has five elements:
Identification (of less producing situations)
Assessment (of losses by then situations)
Selection (of measures to minimize)
Implementation (of measures in the organization)
Monitoring (the changes).
Job Hazard Analysis: One way to increase the knowledge of hazards in the workplace is to conduct
a job hazard analysis on individual tasks. A job hazard analysis (JHA) is a technique that focuses on job
tasks as a way to identify hazards before they occur. It focuses on the relationship between the worker,
the task, the tools, and the work environment. In a JHA, each basic step of the job is examined to
identify potential hazards and to determine the safest way to do the job. Other terms used to describe this
procedure are Job Safety Analysis (JSA) and job hazard breakdown.
A job hazard analysis is one component of the larger commitment of a safety and health management
system. Supervisors can use the findings of a job hazard analysis to eliminate and prevent hazards in

their workplaces. This is likely to result in fewer worker injuries and illnesses; safer, more effective
work methods; reduced workers' compensation costs; and increased worker productivity. The analysis
also can be a valuable tool for training new employees in the steps required to perform their jobs safely.
Steps in conducting a JHA are:
Selecting the job to be analyzed
Breaking the job down into a sequence of steps
Identifying potential hazards
Determining preventive measures to overcome these hazards.
Selection of job
A job hazard analysis can be conducted on many jobs in your workplace.
Priority should go to the following types of jobs:
Jobs with the highest injury or illness rates;
Jobs with the potential to cause severe or disabling injuries or illness, even if there is no history
of previous accidents;
Jobs in which one simple human error could lead to a severe accident or injury;
Jobs that are new to your operation or have undergone changes in processes and procedures; and
Jobs complex enough to require written instructions.
Identifying potential hazards
To help identify potential hazards, the job analyst may use questions such as
Can any body part get caught in or between objects?
Do tools, machines, or equipment present any hazards?
Can the worker make harmful contact with objects?
Can the worker suffer strain from lifting, pushing, or pulling?
Is the worker exposed to extreme heat or cold?
Is excessive noise or vibration a problem?
Is there a danger from falling objects? Is lighting a problem?
Can contact be made with hot, toxic, or caustic substances?
Are there dusts, fumes, mists, or vapours in the air?
Determining preventive measures
The final stage in a JHA is to determine ways to eliminate or control the hazards identified. The
generally accepted measures, in order of preference, are:
Eliminate the hazard: This can be done by
Choosing a different process
Modifying an existing process
Substituting with less hazardous substance
Improving environment (ventilation)
Modifying or changing equipment or tools.

Contain the hazard: If the hazard cannot be eliminated, contact might be prevented by using enclosures,
machine guards, worker booths or similar devices.
Revise work procedures: Consideration might be given to modifying steps which are hazardous,
changing the sequence of steps, or adding additional steps (such as locking out energy sources).
Reduce the exposure: These measures are the least effective and should only be used if no other
solutions are possible. One way of minimizing exposure is to reduce the number of times the hazard is
encountered. An example would be modifying machinery so that less maintenance is necessary. The use
of appropriate personal protective equipment may be required. To reduce the severity of an accident,
emergency facilities, such as eyewash stations, may need to be provided.
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA): Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) is a deductive technique that focuses one
particular accident event and provides a method for determining the causes of that accident event.
Engineers developed FTA to improve the safety of missile systems. They reasoned most
accidents/incidents result from failures or malfunctions within a system. A system consists of people,
equipment, material, and environmental factors. This system performs specific tasks using prescribed
methods. The components of _ system and its environment are interrelated, and a failure in any part can
affect the other parts. A negative event can be a near miss or an incident that could have resulted in
personal injury to an employee or equipment/property damage.
Analytical trees are graphic representations or pictures of a project or event. They use deductive
reasoning in that they start with a general top event or output event and develop down through the
branches to specific input events that must occur in org.er for the output to be generated. Analytical trees
are called trees because their structure resembles a tree, narrow at the top with a single event symbol and
then branching out as the tree is developed.
Negative analytical trees or fault trees are excellent troubleshooting tools. They can be used to prevent
or identify failures prior to their occurrence, but are more frequently used to analyze accidents or as
investigative tools to pinpoint failures. When an accident or failure occurs, the root cause of the negative
event can be identified.
Each event is analyzed by asking, "How could this happen?" In answering this question, the primary
causes and how they interact to produce an undesired event are identified. This logic process continues
until all potential causes have been identified. Throughout this process, a tree diagram is used to record
the events as they are identified. Tree branches stop when all events leading-to the negative event are
complete.
FTA involves the following steps:

Define the top event.

Know the system.
Construct the fault tree.
Validate the tree.
Evaluate the fault tree.
Study tradeoffs.
Consider alternatives and recommend action.

(i) Define the Top Event. To define the top event the type of failure to be investigated must be identified.

This could be whatever the end result of an incident may have been, such as a forklift overturning.
(ii)

Know the System. All available information about the system and its environment should be studied.
A job analysis may prove helpful in determining the necessary information.

(iii)

Construct the Fault Tree. This step is perhaps the simplest because only the few symbols are
involved and the actual construction is pretty straightforward. The tree must be constructed using
the event symbols listed above. It should be kept simple.

(iv)

Validate the Tree. This requires allowing a person knowledgeable in the process to review the tree
for completeness and accuracy.

(v)Evaluate the Fault Tree. The tree should then be scrutinized for those areas where improvements in the
analysis can be made or where there may be an opportunity to utilize alternative procedures or
materials to decrease the hazard.
(vi)

Study Tradeoffs. In this step, any alternative methods that are implemented should be further
evaluated. This will allow evaluators to see any problems that may be related with
the
new
procedure prior to implementation.

(vii)

Consider Alternatives and Recommend Action. This is the last step in the process where corrective
action or alternative measures are recommended.

A typical example of this method of analysis is seen in fault locating charts supplied with household
appliances or automobiles, where the possible failure (e.g., engine not starting) and the probable reasons
for the same (e.g., engine cold, defective plug, poor mixture) are told to customer in logical order.
On the basis of analysis, a block diagram is constructed which depicts:
R The possible ways of failure,
The events which can logically be responsible for such failures,
The sequence of events leading to each failure, and
Relation between failures of different components.
Advantages of FTA
The primary advantages of fault tree analysis are the meaningful data they produce which allow
evaluation and improvement of the overall reliability of the system. It also evaluates the effectiveness of
and need for redundancy.
Disadvantages of FT A
A limitation of the fault tree analysis is that the undesired event evaluated must be foreseen and all
significant contributors to the failure must be anticipated. This effort may be very time consuming and
expensive. And finally, the overall success of the process depends on the skill of the analyst involved.
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA): Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) is a stepby-step approach for identifying all possible failures in a design, a manufacturing or assembly process,
or a product or service.

"Failure modes" means the ways, or modes, in which something might fail. Failures are any errors or
defects, especially ones that affect the customer, and can be potential or actual.
"Effects analysis" refers to studying the consequences of those failures.
Failures are prioritized according to how serious their consequences are, how frequently they occur
and how easily they can be detected. The purpose of the FMEA is to take actions to eliminate or reduce
failures, starting with the highest priority ones. An FMEA also documents current knowledge and
actions about the risks of failures, for use in continuous improvement. FMEA is used during design to
prevent failures. Later it is used for control, before and during ongoing operation of the process. Ideally,
FMEA begins during the earliest conceptual stages of design and continues throughout the life of the
product or service.
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis is defined as a procedure and tools that help to identify every
possible failure mode of a process or product,' to determine its effect on other sub items and on the
required function of the product or process. Here the entire system is divided into sub systems, sub-sub
systems and then to individual components. Each component is then studied in detail as to:
The function it is performing
The ways in which it can fail
The effect of failure of the component on the sub-systems and the system.
For example: A worn out bearing can overheat. Overheating of bearing leads to temperature rise of
the motor and the pump, temperature rise can damage the motor, which in turn can stop the pump. The
pump failure affects the flow rate and so on.
When to Use
When a process, product or service is being designed or redesigned, after quality function
deployment.
When an existing process, product or service is being applied in a new way.
Before developing control plans for a new or modified process.
When improvement goals are planned for an existing process, product or service.
When analyzing failures of an existing process, product or service.
Periodically throughout the life of the process, product or service
Advantages of FMEA
FMEA is designed to assist the engineer improve the quality and reliability of design. Properly used the
FMEA provides the engineer several benefits. Among others, these benefits include:
Improve product/process reliability and quality
Increase customer satisfaction
Early identification and elimination of potential product/process failure modes
Prioritize product/process deficiencies
Capture engineering/organization knowledge
Emphasizes problem prevention
Documents risk and actions taken to reduce risk
Provide focus for improved testing and development
Minimizes late changes and associated cost

Disadvantages of FMEA

Not efficient for identifying combinations of equipment failure.

Does not directly address siting, general safety, or environmental issues.
Does not directly address operability problems.
Can be time consuming.

Fire and Explosion Index or Dow Index: This technique is used to rate a chemical process unit
numerically for hazards to suggest the particular hazards involved in process plant and to indicate
measures that may be taken to neutralize or minimize them. Dow Index system of risk analysis is
developed by Dow chemical company of USA. It involves simplified ways of calculating.
Area of exposure In case of fire and explosion.
Percentage of damage expected in the above area.
Maximum probable property damage.
Total business loss in terms of money value.
The above approach involves general process hazards (increased hazard potential due to process itself
e.g., physical changes taking place, reactions during transfer of chemicals) an Special process hazards
(like low/high pressure, low/high temperature, corrosion, vibration which are difficult to control.)
Thus the technique attempts to evaluate the maximum loss that can occur due to fire, explosion and
reactivity potential of process equipments by identifying them, qualifying the expected damage and
presenting to the management a criterion for acceptable risk.
Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP): Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) is the most
widely used method of analysis used in the process industries. It is recommended for use by legislators,
regulators and engineering institutions. A HAZOP study is a formal, systematic examination of a
processing plant in order to identify hazards, failures and operability problems, and assess the
consequences from such maloperation.
Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP's) are structured critical examinations of plant or processes
undertaken by an experienced team of company staff in order to identify all possible deviations from an
intended design, along with the consequent undesirable effects concerning safety, operability and the
environment. The possible deviations are generated by rigorous questioning, prompted by a series of
standard 'guidewords' applied to the intended design.
Definitions
Hazard: Any operation that could possibly cause a catastrophic release of toxic, flammable or
explosive chemicals or any action that could result in injury to personnel.
Operability: Any operation inside the design envelope that would cause a shutdown that could
possibly: lead to a violation of environmental, health or safety regulations or negatively impact
profitability.
The deviations from the intended design are generated by coupling the guideword with a variable
parameter or characteristic of the plant or process, such as reactants, reaction sequence, temperature,

pressure, flow, phase, etc.

In other words: Guideword + Parameter = Deviation
Systematic examinations are made of each part of a plant or process using these guidewords. Having
examined one part of the design and recorded any potential hazards and operability problems associated
with it, the study progresses to focus on the next part of the design or the next step in the operation. The
examination is repeated until the whole plant has been studied for all major modes of operation.
Recommendations for changes in design, operating procedure, materials or for referral outside for
further consideration can then be made to overcome the problems which have been identified.

The success or failure of study depends on four aspects:

The accuracy of the design drawings and other data used as the basis for the study;
The technical skills and expertise of the team;
The ability of the team to use the approach as an aid to their imagination in visualizing
Possible deviations, causes and consequences; and
The ability of the team to maintain a sense of proportion, particularly when assessing the
seriousness of the hazards, which are identified.

Advantages of HAZOP
Most systematic and comprehensive of methodologies.
Can be used in conjunction with Human Error analysis.
Provides greatest safety assurance.
Disadvantages of HAZOP
Can be time consuming and costly.
Can be tedious if not well facilitated.
What-If Analysis: What-If analysis uses a creative team brainstorming "what if' questioning
approach to the examination of a process or operation to identify potential hazards and their
consequences. Hazards are identified, existing safeguards noted, and qualitative severity and likelihood
ratings are assigned to aid in risk management decision-making. Engineering personnel experienced in
the process or operation formulate questions that begin with" what-if'.
Advantages of What-if Analysis
Team of relevant experts extend knowledge and creativity pool.
Easy to use.
Ability to focus on specific element (i.e., human error or environmental issues).
Disadvantages of What-if Analysis
Quality is dependent on knowledge, thoroughness and experience of team.
Loose structure can let hazards slip through.
Does not directly address operability problems.
22.

Describe the term Recognizing and controlling hazards

RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING HAZARDS

Industrial hygienists recognize that engineering, work practice; administrative controls are the primary
means of reducing employee exposure to occupational hazards.
Engineering Hazard Control: "Engineering hazard controls" may be defined as an installation of
equipment, or physical facilities including, if necessary, the selection and arrangement of experimental
equipment. Engineering controls remove the hazard, either by initial design specifications or by
applying methods of substitution, minimization, isolation, or ventilation. Engineering controls are the
most effective hazard control methods, especially when introduced at the conceptual stage of planning
when control measure can be integrated more readily into the design. 1hey tend to be more effective
than other hazard controls (administrative controls and personal protective equipment) because they
remove the source of the hazard or reduce the hazard rather than lessen the damage that may result from
the hazard. They are also less dependent on the chemical user who, unfortunately, is subjected to all of
the frailties which befall humans (e.g., forgetfulness, preoccupation, insufficient knowledge).
Substitution refers to the replacement of a hazardous material or process with one that is less
hazardous (e.g., the replacement of mercury thermometers with alcohol thermometers or dip coating
materials rather than spray coating to reduce the inhalation hazard). Minimization is the expression used
when a hazard is lessened by scaling down the hazardous process. Hence, the quality of hazardous
materials used and stored is reduced, lessening the potential hazards (e.g., using micro-scale glassware
so that chemical reactions can be carried out on a smaller scale). Isolation is the term applied when a
barrier is interposed between a material, equipment or process hazard and the property or persons who
might be affected by the hazard (e.g., glove box, blast shield).
Substitution is usually the least expensive and the most positive method of controlling hazards and
should always be the first engineering hazard control 'measure considered. Minimization should always
be the next engineering control measure attempted after examining substitution followed by the
consideration of isolation. Isolation is particularly useful when the material, equipment or process
requires minimal contact or manipulations. When these previously mentioned control methods are not
feasible, ventilation is the next desirable engineering option.
Ventilation is used to control toxic and/or flammable atmospheres by exhausting or supplying air to
either remove hazardous atmosphere at their source or dilute them to a safe level. The two types of
ventilation are typically termed local exhaust and general ventilation. local exhaust attempt to enclose
the material, equipment Or process as much as' possible and to withdraw air from the physical enclosure
at a rate sufficient to, assure that the direction of air movement at all openings is always into the
enclosure. General ventilation attempts to control hazardous atmospheres by diluting the atmosphere toa safe level by either exhausting; or supplying air to the general ,area (e.g., evaporative cooler).
Local exhaust is, always the preferable ventilation method but is typically more costly. For some
situation, general ventilation may suffice but only if the following criteria are met: only small quantities
at air contaminants are released into the area at fairly uniform rates; there is sufficient distance between
the person and the contaminant source to allow sufficient air movement to dilute the contaminant to a
safe level; only materials of low toxicity or flammability are being used; there is no need to collect or
filter the contaminant before the exhaust air is discharged into the environment ,,(including the rest of
the building), and the contaminant will not procJ.uce corrosion or other damage to equipment in the area
or in any way affect other building occupants outside the general use area (e.g., foul odors).

Work Practice Controls

Alter the manner in which a task is performed. Some fundamental and easily implemented work
practice controls include
changing existing work practices to follow proper procedures that minimize exposures while
operating production and control equipment;
inspecting and maintaining process and control equipment on a regular basis;
implementing good housekeeping procedures;
providing good supervision; and
mandating that eating, drinking, smoking, chewing tobacco or gum, and applying cosmetics
in regulated are as be prohibited.
3. Administrative Control
It consists of managerial _efforts to reduce hazards through planning, information and training (e.g
hazard communication), written policies and procedure (i.e., the chemical hygiene plan), safe work
practices and environmental and medical surveillance e.g. workplace inspections equipment preventive
maintenance, and exposure monitoring.
4. Personal Protective Equipment
When effective work practices or engineering controls are not feasible or while such controls are being
instituted, appropriate personnel protective equipment are used. Personal protective equipment includes
articles to protect the eyes, skin and respiratory tract (e.g., goggles, face shield, coats, gloves, aprons,
respirators).
23.

Define major industrial hazard.

MAJOR INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS

The phrase 'major hazard' is used in the context of possible accidents in chemical or other industrial
installations handling hazardous substances which might cause extensive damage and kill or injure a
person in or outside the boundary.
A major hazard can be defined as an industrial accident which causes injury or death to large number
of persons. It could be an. industrial fire, explosion, a toxic release or even a structural collapse.
The following are considered major hazards:
Industrial fires
Explosions
Toxic releases.
Industrial Fires
Major Industrial fires arise due to leakage of flammable material from the system and their getting
ignited from some source. In case of large discharge o{flammable materials, formation of vapour clouds,
the cloud traveling to other location and causing a fire or explosion is possible. This poses danger to
communities nearby or even at some distance. The damage in both cases could be extensive.
In case of industrial fires the quantities of flammable materials involved are large. Hence there is
possibility of generating toxic materials in large quantities, which are released into atmosphere. This

poses another major hazard from toxic material. In case of fires the extent of damage will depend upon
the quantity of material in flame, the properties of the material (flash point, products of combustion),
atmospheric factors such as wind, velocity, fog, temperature, humidity and also the site situation. .
..
Explosions
Flammable material released can mix with air and form explosive mixture at certain concentrations.
When this mixture is ignites, the result is an explosion. Explosion can result in:
Structural damage to buildings
Flying objects
Persons getting buried under collapsed structures.
Examples
Gases (e.g., LPG)
Dust
Confined vapour clouds
Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion.
Toxic Releases
Large quantities of toxic chemicals released into the atmosphere due to accidents can cause serious
injury or death in large numbers. The tragedy in Bhopal is a vivid example of this. In case of toxic
releases the extent of damage depends upon several factors. The higher the quantity released, naturally
higher will be the damage. The toxicity of the material is important. Physical properties of material
released (lighter or heavier than air, soluble in water or not) also plays its role. Wind can spread toxic
clouds over a large area. Hence factors like wind direction, .wind velocity, fog and humidity needs
consideration in estimating the extent of damage.
24.

Name some industries involved in hazardous processes

LIST OF INDUSTRIES INVOLVING HAZARDOUS PROCESSES

Ferrous metallurgical industries

Non-ferrous metallurgical industries
Foundries
Coal (including coke) industries.
Power generating industries
Pulp and paper industries
Fertilizer industries
Cement industries
Petroleum industries
Drugs and pharmaceutical industries
Fermentation industries (Distilleries and breweries)
Rubber industries
Paints and pigment industries
Leather tanning industries

Electro-plating industries
Chemical industries
Insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and other pesticides industries
Man made fiber industry.

Chapter 2
1. Discuss the safety principles to be followed by any organization dealing with industrial
safety.
SAFETY PRINCIPLES
Managing safety at work should involve following principles:
1. Policy Decision. The company should first decide the level of safety it is going to achieve. The
attitude of top management, accidents liability, profits, relations with employees, government policy,
previous accident records, funds available etc. will influence this decision. Policy decision should
include:
Targets for performance- targets could be spelt out in terms of reduction from earlier results, or
maximum limits in terms of number of accidents.
A statement as to what the company proposes to do, to achieve the targets.
What it expects from its employees-right from the manager to the worker?
Action required at executive/supervisory level.
How it proposes to monitor and evaluate the performance?
2. Assignment of Responsibility for Safety. The management should assign the responsibility of
safety to its executives in clear terms. Some companies employ a full time manager. If there is no safety
manager, the job of coordinating safety activities is given to an officer as an additional charge. There are
also safety committees constituted in some of the industrial units. The different department heads and
other line executives are also involved in the safety program. The safety manager and the safety
committees should help the supervisors and the line executives to achieve safety. The responsibilities,
duties and authorities in different levels should be clearly spelt out by company.
3. Staff Safety Assistance. Every industry should have one executive who is assigned the duty of
coordinating the safety activities within the plant. In small industries this job can be assigned to one of
the executives as an additional charge if it can be ensured that the person will have sufficient time at his
disposal to look after safety function without affecting his main
functions. For the safety program in
the plant to be successful, the manager should:
Have clearly defined responsibilities and targets of performance.
Have full support and backing from the chief executive \ have sufficient facilities to perform the
tasks assigned to him, and
Have the ability to think, come to logical conclusions and put his ideas across to others.
4. Communication with Employees. Even in cases where the top management is genuinely
interested in the safety of the workmen, it is often seen that the employees are unaware of the

management's intentions. As such it is essential that the company's policy on safety should be made
known to each and every employee in clear terms. Employees should be told:
That safety of workmen is of importance to the company.
That the management has assigned the job of looking after the safety of workmen to the
executives.
That it expects the employees to work safely and co-operate with the management in ensuring
safety.
An outline of proposed safety program and safety organization in the plant.
5. Participation of Employees. One of the weak links in the safety programs in industry is employee
himself. The success of safety program depends to a great extent on the interest created in the employees
and so the emphasis on the participation of the employees should be more in safety program than in any
other area of management. Since safety is a matter of direct interest to the employees, naturally it can be
expected that they would like to participate. Employees' participation may be in the form of:
Safety committees
Safety campaigns.
6. Overall Management Direction. Safety Management should have the four basic elements of
direction and control:
Planning: Decisions for safety, targets for performance, setting standards, working out detail activities,
budgeting, assignment of responsibility and procedures, data collection and analysis.
Activities: Carrying out activities, which are planned. These include:
Providing safe conditions of work
Directing people to be safe.

Measurements: To evaluate actions taken, to compare performance with standards and targets set, to
identify weak areas.
Control: Using the information from measurements to bring about changes in the next cycle/future
plans.
2. Discuss the purpose of planning industrial safety.
Purpose of planning: Planning is an essential forerunner of action. It is a process of deciding in
advance the future course of action. A prerequisite for achieving industrial safety is need of
planning. Planning forms the backbone of any management activity including industrial safety
management. Although often managers avoid this, preferring the excitement of activity to the
inactivity of thought.
At this juncture, consider the example of a well known industrial conglomerate which

decided to construct simultaneously three identical chemical plants in India, the UK and Japan.
Indians completed the plant, Britishers were at the verge of completion but Japanese were yet to
lay the foundation. Indian plant started production, British plant was about to start production but
Japanese were far behind.
However, before the Indian plant came into full production, problems began to emerge. These
were discussed as mere "teething troubles". In due course, such problems started appearing in
UK plant when it started production. Meanwhile, after inordinate planning, Japanese
construction started and the project therefore progressed flawlessly. The Indian plant continued
giving problems and finally stopped production needing a major overhaul. The British plant also
by then started giving major problems. Both Indian and British plants had to undergo; major
replanning. Through careful planning, the Japanese plant got completed on schedule and as per
plan. Through careful planning, the Japanese plant became fully operational without any
problem. This example shows the relevance of systematic planning in industries and business.
Japanese go by systematic planning slowly but steadily when compared to the rest of the world
and achieve brilliant success.
Planning involves decision making, in advance taking due account of the constraints and
priorities, resource available and shape of things to come in future. Anticipation of goals,
choosing between alternatives, the possible pitfalls and lacuna during working, any bottlenecks
in the smooth functioning of various activities are some of the main concerns of planning. Clarity
of vision, intellectual acumen and a strong but conscious determination pave the way to success
so far as planning is concerned.
3. Write any two purposes of safety planning.
Sol.

SAFETY PLANNING

Purpose of safety planning

Safety program must be a planned continuous effort to promote plant safety. An effective safety
program recognizes that acidents are results; of unsafe acts and unsafe conditions. Hence the safety
program should begin with the safety planning. The underlying objectives of safety planning are:

Humanitarian
Reduction of production and operating costs
Intangible benefits
Performance standards.
To promote standards of safety and health which comply fully with requirements of

Factories Act, 1948.

To maintain safe and healthy workplaces and safe systems and methods of work.

 To protect all employees, from unforeseen hazards.

To develop safety awareness.
To encourage effective participation from employees on safety matters.
4. Explain the procedure of safety planning.
To start with the planning process for safety, the management should decide the
organisational plans for safety. Everyone in the organisation should understand the importance of
safety practices and how to incorporate them in daily work schedule. Some safety standards
should be agreed upon and understood by all. Everyone with the organisation should strive
continuously to satisfy those standards. The senior management of the organisation should act in
unison to give a clear direction for the achievement of safety and. Concentrate its efforts on the
key measures of safety.
Some basic considerations while planning for safety are as follows:
Involvement of Workers
Workers should be motivated to be safety conscious. Right type of training must be imparted to
workers after considering their socio economic backgrounds, and their attitudes towards safety.
Age and other Traits of Workers
The age of the workers as well as their salient traits have some bearing on-safety. Since the age as
well as traits of the workers must have due consideration for building up strategy for safety
management.
Experience of Workers
The experience of workers in the field plays a pivotal role in preventing hazards to a great extent.
The novice among the workers should have proper interaction with the experienced worker so that
adequate knowledge may be disseminated among the new entrants.
Actual Working Procedures
A safe layout and working procedure contribute individually or collectively in the field of safety
management.
Working Conditions
Poor working conditions, worn out machines, lack of repair and maintenance and an uncongenial
working environment have deleterious, effects in the field of safety management.
Past experience of Planning
Past experience of planning plays a very important role in chalking out future line of action in safety

planning. The successful as well as the unsuccessful experiments of the past can help to formulate
superior planning standard.
Role of Employer or Management
The role of employer or management in inculcating the norms of safety among workers is a very
important consideration for safety planning. Mutual cooperation and understanding between the
management and the workers is a touchstone for a successful planning.
1. The outcomes from such a planning process include a basic understanding of purpose,
2.
3.
4.
5.

nature and scope of safety in an organization.

An agreed company safety mission statement.
Allocation of roles and responsibilities to each member of safety management team.
Implementation of safety plan together with' an agreed communication.
Dates for series of review meetings.

5. Discuss the various safety measures in an industry.

SAFETY MEASURES IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
The term measure means the provision of devices, equipment or other modes which ensure safety e.g.,
presence of guard enclosing a rotating part of machine, fire extinguishers, emergency exits etc. Safety
procedures relate to methods to be followed to minimize accident Safety measures can be classified as:
Safety measures for design of factory premises. These includes:

Proper ventilation and lighting.

Adequate layout.
Proper control of overhead cranes.
Sharp bends and undue steps.
Emergency exits.
Adequate controls on electric installation
First-aid arrangements.

Safety measures against machine accidents

These includes:
Enclose dangerous parts with suitable casing.
Dangerous parts should be out of reach during operation.
All belts, pulleys, gears etc. should be covered with adequate guards. IIJ Provision of interlock
guards.
Don't oil/grease during running of machines.
Don't allow trainees on complicated machines.
Safety measures against fire
These includes:

Adequate exits
Doors should be open outwards.
Proper warning signals should be provide.
Interior doors should not be locked.
Fire fighting equipments.
Ensure proper electrical contacts.
Proper storage of explosives.

Safety measures against electrical hazards

This includes:

Insulate all electrical, wiring etc.

All metallic covers over electrical machinery should be properly guarded.
No hanging of loose wires.
Warning signals.
Underground cables.
Safety fuses should be there.

6. Discuss the structure of safety plan.

Structure of Safety Plan
The specific requirements for a safety plan will vary depending on the nature of the activity. One way to
structure the safety plan is as follows:
1. Introduction.
Sets up the scope of the plan and what it is trying to achieve.
Identifies any relevant safety policies and goals of the safety plan.
2. Legal obligation and industry standards.
Identifies and perhaps summarizes any relevant legislation to give the plan a context.
Details industry standards relevant to the type of operation.
3 Management procedures
Details the management roles and responsibilities in relation to safety.
Identifies accountability for safety within the -operation.
4. Operational risk management procedures.
Details staff experience requirements, training, and certification and re-validation procedures.
Identifies the responsibilities of staff.
Identifies and describes processes for hazard identification.
Describes procedures for equipment maintenance, documentation and retirement.
5. Accident/Incident reporting.

Describes the accident reporting and investigation processes.

6. Emergency plans
Identifies the procedures to deal with emergencies that may arise while people are at work.
7. Procedures for applying and updating the plan.
A statement about how often and when the plan will be reviewed.
Outlines who internally and who externally will check that the safety plan provisions are being applied
and how often these checks will be made.
7. How safety measures affect economy of an industry? Explain.
SAFETY AND ECONOMICS
In context of an industry, Safety and Economics are closely related. If the workers are ensured mentally
that they working in an organization which is free from hazards and accidents, their life and limbs are
safe in all possible manner, their safety at all cost .is ensured and accidents are a far cry, then in such
situations each and every worker will possibly be optimistic and will contribute their best efforts and
expertise to achieve optimum or expected production. Workers will be motivated to perform their jobs in
an efficient and skilled manner in a safe working environment. Good working conditions boost the
morale of the employees.
In a safe working environment the managerial staff will get more time to perform their managerial
functions, i.e. planning, organization, staffing, directing, coordinating, controlling etc. smoothly. All
these factors boost the productivity of the organization resulting in a strong economic base for the
industry.
On the other hand if the working conditions are adverse to safety, then it might possibly lead to
accidents at an alarming rate, Workers will feel that they are working in unsafe and hazardous
conditions. In such situations the morale of the workers will possibly become low, they will possibly be
demotivated to put their best efforts and will show little interest in their assigned job.
The accident of a particular worker lowers the morale of the fellow workers. The fellow workers
become pessimistic and become aware of the hazardous nature of the job. They do not contribute their
best efforts and expertise to achieve optimum production, The management also do not get enough time,
to perform their managerial functions smoothly resulting in fall in overall productivity. This in turns
weakens the economic base of the organization and the country as a whole.
8. Define safety policy. What should be included in safety policy? Give some examples of
safety policies.

A Policy is defined as "a settled course adopted and followed by a body". When top executives
determine and announce a "settled course" they are affirming a shared purpose or one in which they
want to enlist the voluntary cooperation of every member.
"A health, safety and environment policy is a plan, unique to your business, which sets out how you
are going to manage health, safety and environment issues."
The policy document should:
Set out your business' commitment to manage your risks and meet your legal duties for safety
Tell people in your business what their duties are for health, safety and the environment
Explain the steps that they need to take to meet their duties.
Written safety policy is important in every organization. It is a- starting point for all our various
activities in a safety program. If the principle "safety is line responsibility" is true, then it is important
not only that we as safety people believe it, but also that the line organization believes it. The line
organization will believe that safety is their responsibility only when it is definitely assigned to them by
management.
Another principle is that "management should direct the safety effort by setting safety goals and by
planning, organizing and controlling to achieve them". A safety policy is management's expression of
direction to be followed. It is management's first step in organizing to accomplish its desires'. It is
important that management's safety policy be in writing in almost all cases, to ensure that there would be
no confusion concerning direction and assignment of responsibility. It is only through policy that the
worker on the line, or on the construction job, will know management's desires on the subject of safety.
It is for the reason we say that regardless of how most company policy is handled, safety policy must be
stated on paper and published at least to the point where each and every employee is aware of it.
The Health and Safety at Work Act says you need to set your policy out in writing and then bring it into
effect. Most businesses set out their policy in three parts:
The statement of intent section sets out your commitment to managing health, safety and the
environment effectively, and what you want to achieve.
The organization section states who is responsible for what.
The arrangements sections are-the detail of what you are going to do in practice to achieve the
aims set out in your statement of intent.
What is included in the safety policy may vary from company to company?
The statement of intent
The statement tells what your commitment to health, safety and the environment is and how you are
going to manage it. There are no set rules on what you should include in your statement, but statements
of intent are often only one page long. The most senior person in the business must sign and date the
statement.
Most statements of safety policy will say:
You are committed to ensuring the safety of your employees, customers and anyone else affected by

your business' activities.

Who has ultimate responsibility for health, safety and environment in the business? Which staffs have
special responsibilities - give the name of the person in charge of health, safety and environment?
That all employees are responsible for taking care of their own health and safety and that of the people
they work with.
That you recognize the legal duties your business is bounded by and that you will provide a safe
working environment, safe work equipment and safe methods of work. What organization and
arrangements will be made to support the policy?
The organization section of your policy
The organization section of your policy clearly tells who is responsible for what. The overall
responsibility for safety rests on the employer, but day-to-day responsibility can be delegated to others
within the business.
In smaller businesses, it may be very easy to decide who needs to do what for health, safety and
environment.
You can identify for example:
Who will undertake risk assessments.
Who will make workplace inspections.
Who will ensure the safety of specific tasks or work activities or areas of the workplace.
As businesses get larger, the organization section of the policy may need to set out the responsibilities
of staff at different levels in the business.
The organization section may include a diagram or chart showing the business structure and the
responsibilities of:
The managing director
Other managers
Supervisors or team leaders
All employees.
Your business must designate a "competent person" who will take responsibility for health, safety and
the environment and advise you on your legal duties and how to comply with them. The duties of your
competent person should be mentioned in this part of the policy, along with their contact details.
Before you write your policy
Before writing your health, safety and environment policy you should consider the following.
Your legal duties
You should ensure that your systems for managing health, safety and the environment comply with the
law.
Your "competent person" for health, safety and environment should be able to advise you on what
your legal duties are, and whether you are doing enough. They are appointed by the company to take

responsibility for health, safety and the environment and advise you on your legal duties and how to
comply with them.
Risks
You have a legal duty to carry out a risk assessment. The outcome of your risk assessment may be:
Providing training for employees
Providing a written safe working method
Safety rules for particular areas
Providing special tools to enable a task to be carried out in safety.
These will form part of the arrangements section of your policy. Your risk assessment can help you to
ensure that you cover the main risks within your policy.
Involve your employees
You have a legal duty to consult with your employees on matters to do with their safety at work. In
practice it can be useful to involve your employees in preparing and implementing the safety policy,
because:
Where employees are involved in making safety rules, or devising safe working methods, they may be
more likely to adhere to them, because they will understand the reasoning behind them.
The person who is actually doing a job can be best placed to advise on whether the proposed safe
working method will work in practice.
You have a legal duty to bring the statement of policy to the attention of your employees.
Some of the ways that businesses bring the policy statement to their employees' attentions are by:

Including it in any employees' handbooks

Providing it at induction
Including a copy with the contract of employment
Posting it on their intranet sites
Posting it on notice boards. .

9. Explain the process of policy formulation.

Formulation of Safety Policy
The formulation of safety policy includes ways and means to make safety policy positive or effective.
An effective safety policy needs to be flexible. It should be flexible and broad-based in the sense that
they will provide guidelines for problems which vary in nature such that frequent changes in the policy

are avoided. The safety policy should be so formulated that explicitness is maintained. This implies that
the poi1icy should be in writing and ambiguous terms or statements should be absent in the formulation
of the said policy. It should be coherent neither contradictory not at variance with other policies thus
maintaining the
very essence of compatability. The safety policies must reflect pragmatism. The viability and the success
of the policy lie in the input-output assessment such that the benefits are commensurate with monetary
involvement. Any safety policy must have clear acceptability among the workers and should have
enough credibility and sincerity of purpose so that workers do not show a sense of aversion towards the
Policy.
While formulating a safety policy the following points should be kept in mind:
The target in the field of safety must be clearly defined by the management.
The powers vested with the authority must be defined in unambiguous terms.
The norms and standard should be clearly defined.
The duties and responsibilities of safety personal must be well defined so that no confusion arises
on this account. Accountability is the prime need in all safety management activity. Scope of
various personnel in respect of safety must be well defined in order to have a foolproof safety
management system.
Some of the guidelines for the formulation of an effective safety policy are:
Formulation of self regular safety policy by the employees should be allowed. Workers can
be informed orally of safety standards and procedures, but for lasting impact there is no
substitute for a written policy to which an employee may refer. The policy statement sets the tone
and indicates what the consequences will be. A written policy reflect the purpose of safety
program and will be assigned safety responsibilities and what their responsibilities and
accountability required will be.
There are specific statements and elements the safety policy should contain. They will help to
not. Only reflect your philosophy and the intent of safety policy, but also give specific
information and guidance to employees about safety.
10. What are the elements of safety policy?
ELEMENTS OF SAFETY POLICY
A safety policy should contain:
A strongly worded affirmative statement that acknowledges and support the company's
responsibility.

 Titles; positions and locations of those responsible for policy design, enforcement and
modification.
A system for any employee to report violations of safety rules confidentially.
Documentation that establishes that the policy was given to all employees.
A statement that supervisors are held to act as agents for the company.
A statement that any deviation from known policy by supervisors will not be tolerated.
a process to address how questions are to be answered and emergencies handled.
The penalties for employees who don't follow safety rules.
Employee should be convinced regarding the need and usefulness of the safety policy. This goal
can be achieved by ensuring that; the workplaces as well as the working environment are free
from risks.
Workers should be taken into confidence and their involvement in the framing of safety policy
and decision-making should be welcomed.
The safety policy shall aim at rewarding persons who exhibit exemplary performance in
containing accidents.
Safety policy should be positive and optimistic in approach. The usefulness of safety norms
should be highlighted through various information, data and other statements.
Safety policy should be specific though flexible in case of certain circumstances.
While ravening the safety policy the workers should be taken into confidence.
No relaxation should be allowed in the enfocemat of safety policy.
11. How will you monitoring the effectiveness of policy? Give example of safety policy
Monitoring the Effectiveness of Policy
Your health, safety and environment policy should be a practical guide to how you manage health, safety
and environment within your business. It sets out the actions you are taking to:
Manage risks
Prevent accidents and ill health
Meet your legal duties.
There are a number of ways by which you can check your policy:
Where you have set out clear responsibilities for various employees, you can check that they
have actually carried them out.
You can monitor whether people are working in accordance with rules, or safe methods set out in
the arrangements.
You can walk around the workplace and check for hazards - a sign that safety management needs
to be improved.
You can check whether any records or registers - part of your arrangements, are being used. For
example, it is good practice to record workplace safety inspections and training given to staff.
Examples of Safety Policy

1. "It is the policy of this company to give the greatest importance to the safety of its employees,
considering this as a management responsibility ranking with production, sales and production. In the
design, construction, operation and maintenance of all plant equipments and facilities, it is the duty of
management to do everything possible to prevent personal injuries. It is equally the duty of every
employee to exercise personal responsibility and to do everything to prevent injury to himself and to
others".
2. Safety Policy for Employees. All employees:
Must wear hard hats on all jobs where there is danger of being stuck by falling or moving
objects, and on all roadwork.
Must wear safety glasses- when chipping, grinding, or wherever an eye hazard exists.
Must use grounded electrical equipment and hand tools which are in good condition.
Must observe all safety precautions and report unsafe conditions to the foreman.
Must understand the foreman's instructions. If you do not know how to do the job safely, ask
your foreman.
Must report all injuries immediately.
Must keep their mind on jobs; this is best way to prevent accidents.
Truck and Equipment operators must be absolutely certain that the path of movement is clear,
particularly when they are backing up. The horn or other available signal must be sounded while
backing up.
3. Our Safety Policy. MODI XEROX Management firmly believes that creation of safe and healthy
working condition in' our work place is as important as production, quality, cost and other aspects of
industrial and related activities.
We believe that prevention of danger to life and limbs of its employees starts with planning and is
achieved through:

Good design and sound engineering practices,

Properly oriented purchase practices,
Proper installation, operation and maintenance of machine guards, and
Continued use of Personal Protective Equipment.
Safety, in fact, must be an integral part of each and every job, process and work method.

The objectives of the policy are

To promote standards of safety and health which comply fully with the requirements of Factories
Act 1948;
To maintain safe and healthy work places and safe systems and methods of work;
To provide all concerned with the information, instructions, training and supervision they need to
work safely;
To develop safety awareness;
To make all concerned, aware of their individual responsibility to take reasonable care for the
health and safety of themselves and others and to cooperate with the management in matters of
safety;
To encourage effective participation from employees on safety matters.

 The Management sincerely believes that accidents are preventable, provided complete
participation from employees in matters of safety.
4. Health and Safety Policy Statement
This is the Health and Safety Policy Statement of:
Our statement of general policy is :
To provide adequate control of the health, and safety risks arising from our work activities;
To consult with our employees on matters affect their health and safety;
To provide and maintain safe plant and equipment;
To ensure safe handling and use of substances;
To provide information, instruction and supervision for all employees;
To ensure all employees are competent to do their tasks, and to give them adequate training; .
To prevent accidents and cases of work-related ill health;
To maintain safe and healthy working conditions; and
To review and revise this policy as necessary at regular intervals.
12. How a safety policy can be implemented.
IMPLEMENTATION OF SAFETY POLICY
The implementation phase involves development of an implementation plan. The implementation plan
lists detailed steps or tactics necessary to accomplish the safety objective. Hence, implementation plan
are typically prepared at the lower management levels. Special care is needed in implementing the plan
which is most crucial and difficult portion of the planning process.

CHAPTER 3
1.

How plant productivity can be achieved through industrial safety

SAFETY AND PRODUCTIVITY

Productivity is a measure of effectiveness of the use of resources to produce goods and services. Safety
and productivity are closely related to each other. To improve productivity in an organization workplace

must be conducive.
The following points or situations reveal the relation between safety and productivity:
(a) If an organization is free from hazards and accidents then the white collar employees i.e., managerial
staff can save their valuable time otherwise lost in the following activities.

Assisting injured workers.

Arranging for the production of an injured worker to be continued by some other worker.
Preparing accident report.
Selecting and training a new worker to replace the injured person.
Investigating the cause of accident.

Therefore, the managerial staff will possibly be able to perform their managerial functions viz
planning, organizing, staffing, directing, controlling, co-coordinating etc. more smoothly which in turn
will possibly boost the productivity of the organization. On the other hand if serious hazards and
accidents occur in an organization at an alarming rate then the managerial staff will not possibly be able
to perform their managerial functions smoothly and as a result productivity of the organization will
decrease.
(b) if the workers are mentally ensured that they are working in a safe working environment free from
hazards and their life and limbs are safe in all possible aspects then they will possibly work with more
zeal and concentration and thus the quality and productivif will increase considerably. On the other
hand if workers feel that their working' environment is adverse to, safety then their morale will become
low and will show little interest in their work and thus the productivity will decrease considerably.
(c) If in an industrial organization the workplace is safe then in such situations the workers will be
highly motivated to perform their jobs in an efficient manner and thus the productivity will increase
considerably. On the other hand if work place is not safe then the workers will possibly be demotivated
to put their best efforts and thus the productivity will decrease considerably.
(d) If the working environment is safe then the labour turnover and absenteeism will be reduced and
each and every worker will possibly be optimistic and will possibly contribute their best efforts' which in
turn will help improve productivity. On the other hand if working environment is unsafe then the
workers will not contribute their best efforts which will increase the absenteeism and thus the
productivity will decrease considerably.
(e) If the working place is safe then there is considerable reduction in accidents and hence reduction in
direct and indirect cost of accidents. Damage to machines, materials, buildings is also reduced in safe
work environment. Thus there is an improvement in productivity of the organization. On the other if
work environment is unsafe then the occurrence of accidenfs and consequent damage to machines,
materials, buildings will be increased and hence the productivity will get decreased.

(f) If the working conditions in an organization are conducive to safety then accidents are a far cry in
such situations and each and every worker will possibly be optimistic will possibly contribute their best
efforts and expertise to achieve optimum and or expected production and thus the productivity will
increase on the other hand.
If working conditions in an organization are not conducive to safety then it might possibly lead to
accidents. Accident of a particular worker lowers the morale of the fellow workers. The fellow workers
in such situation become pessimistic and obviously become aware of hazardous nature of their job and
consequently fellow workers will not contribute their best efforts to achieve expected production and
thus productivity will decrease.
2. How safety measures affect economy of an industry? Explain.
SAFETY AND ECONOMICS
In context of an industry, Safety and Economics are closely related. If the workers are ensured mentally
that they working in an organization which is free from hazards and accidents, their life and limbs are
safe in all possible manner, their safety at all cost .is ensured and accidents are a far cry, then in such
situations each and every worker will possibly be optimistic and will contribute their best efforts and
expertise to achieve optimum or expected production. Workers will be motivated to perform their jobs in
an efficient and skilled manner in a safe working environment. Good working conditions boost the
morale of the employees.
In a safe working environment the managerial staff will get more time to perform their managerial
functions, i.e. planning, organization, staffing, directing, coordinating, controlling etc. smoothly. All
these factors boost the productivity of the organization resulting in a strong economic base for the
industry.
On the other hand if the working conditions are adverse to safety, then it might possibly lead to
accidents at an alarming rate, Workers will feel that they are working in unsafe and hazardous
conditions. In such situations the morale of the workers will possibly become low, they will possibly be
demotivated to put their best efforts and will show little interest in their assigned job.
The accident of a particular worker lowers the morale of the fellow workers. The fellow workers
become pessimistic and become aware of the hazardous nature of the job. They do not contribute their
best efforts and expertise to achieve optimum production, The management also do not get enough time,
to perform their managerial functions smoothly resulting in fall in overall productivity. This in turns
weakens the economic base of the organization and the country as a whole.
3. How can employees participate in safety measures of an organization?

EMPLOYEES PARTICIPATION IN SAFETY

Employee participation is an important part of developing and implementing health and safety practices
in a place of work. Employers must provide reasonable opportunities for employees to participate in
ongoing processes for the improvement of health and safety, and employees are expected to actively
participate in health and safety matters. Employers, employees who wish to be involved, and unions
representing them are required to co-operate in good faith and develop, agree, implement and maintain a
participation system.
To promote safety, one of the best alternatives is to involve the employee. They usually know better
than anyone where hazard exists. Each worker should have a safety responsibility, because it is the
worker and his family who suffers a lot due to accidents. It must be made clear to all the employees that
all the safety regulations and instructions are expected to be followed just as seriously as any other
directions. It is always better to lead than to loss and safety should be more cooperative than enforced.
After all employees should be willing to act in the interests of their own safety.
The term' employees participation' involves encouraging the people to participate in safety function
of an organization to accomplish improved results and satisfaction. Employee's participation in safety
can be achieved by providing employees:

Means to report signs, symptoms and hazards;

Means to make control recommendations;
Prompt responses to their reports and recommendations; .
Access to information about ergonomic programs; and
.
Ways to become involved in program development, implementation and evaluation.

Employees participation has several benefits such as:

Enhanced worker motivation/job satisfaction.
Adding problem solving capabilities.
Greater acceptance of change.
Greater knowledge of the work and organization.
In general, the greater the employee participation in the safety program the more effective it will be.
The organized safety programs should include as many activities in which workmen can take part. It
should give them the major roles whenever and wherever possible. Such activities include:

Safety campaigns
Safety contests
Safety suggestion schemes
Safety committees
Safety cartoons.

Safety campaigns
Safety campaigns are of undoubted value if properly timed and properly conducted. They are timely
when a special situation arises, for example, general laxity in wearing goggles, a general staleness in the
safety work etc. Safety campaign helps a lot in making employees aware of the safety rules and
regulations.

Safety contests
Safety contests are used to develop a spirit of rivalry in the interest of safety between individuals in the
department, departments in a plant, or between establishments in a given industry. Many organizations
have found safety contests between their members to be very effective in improving the injury
experience of the participants. The success of safety contest should not be judged mainly by the
excellence of the winning performance or the attendance, much more important are factors that indicate
the benefits occurring to the non-winners.
Safety suggestion schemes
Under this system, workers are invited and encouraged to offer suggestions for improving the safety in
an organization. A suggestion box is installed. Any worker can write his suggestions and put it into the
box. Periodically all the suggestions are scrutinized by the suggestion committee. Good suggestions are
suggested for implementation and suitable awards are given to the concerned workers. Suggestion
schemes encourage worker's interest in safety activities of an organization.
Safety committees
One of the most successful means of promoting safety work is through safety committees. A safety
committee consists of representatives of both the employer and the workers. The employer's
representatives include the staff members who have direct responsibility for safety such as manager, the
safety engineer, plant engineer etc. The worker representatives are usually rotated so that an increasing
number have the experience of safety work. The worker members may be elected by the workers
themselves or nominated by the employer. Its functions can be broadly classified as follows:
To promote safety through co-operation between management and workers.
Planning for the control of physical hazards concerning standards to be followed in guarding
machinery, the design of equipment, layout of process, etc.
Arousing and maintaining interest in safety of all workers and supervisors and to help them to
understand safety in their business.
Investigation of accidents.
Study of accidents and accident record.
Safety training.
To provide an opportunity for free discussion of accident problems and preventive measures, and
To make safety activities an integral part of operating policies and methods.
Safety cartoons
Cartoons showing bad practice and bad conditions are widely used because of their effectiveness in
promoting interest in safety.
4.

How worker's safety can be maximized in an industry?

RULES TO MAXIMIZE WORKER'S SAFETY

Certain rules to be followed to ensure safety of workers include:
Always be sure that moving mechanisms are clear of people and objects.
Be sure that workers are not wearing any jewelry or loose clothing that could get snagged in the

machine.
Keep an eye on overheard moving parts, like pulleys, for potential hazards.
Check that guards are in place at all points where you could contact moving parts before turning
the machine on.
Be aware of how to turn power on and off if you should have to do so quickly.
Read the manufacturer's instructions on how to operate the machine safely and correctly.
Feed material into the machine with push sticks, not your hands.
Take it easy. Rushing through a job is one of the major causes of accidents.
Make sure maintenance is performed when required. If one thinks that equipment might have
missed its scheduled maintenance let the supervisor know.
Use lockout/tagout procedures when a machine needs repair or maintenance. Turn the machine
and the power to the machine off and tag it so that no one tries to use it.

5. Describe the relationship between industrial revolution and safety legislation.

SAFETY LEGISLATION
Indian government has made following legislation to ensure safety of worker and to provide social and
economic justice to the worker.
Factory Act, 1948
Indian Electricity Act, 1910
Indian Boilers Act, 1923
Mines Act, 1952
Petroleum Act, 1934
Bihar Rules
The Minimum Wages Act, 1948
The Payment of Wages Act, 1936.
Indian Boiler Act, 1923
Purpose: To consolidate and amend the law relating to steam boilers
Provisions
Prohibition of unregistered, uncertified boiler.
Prohibition of using any boiler by the owner, which has been transferred from one state to
another until the transfer has been reported in prescribed manner.
Prohibition of using any boiler by the owner at a pressure higher than maximum pressure
recorded in the certificate.
The Minimum Wages Act, 1948 Objectives
To determine the minimum wages in industry and trade where labour organizations are nonexistent or ineffective.
Scope and coverage
Applicable to all employees engaged to do any work, skilled, unskilled manual or clerical, in a

scheduled employment, including out-workers.

Fixation of minimum wages.
Main provisions
Fixation of minimum wage of employees.
Procedure for fixing and revising minimum wages.
Obligation of employees.
Rights of workers.
The Payment of Wages Act, 1936
Objectives
To ensure regular and prompt payment of wages and to prevent the exploitation of a wage
earner by prohibiting arbitrary fines and deductions from his wages.
Scope and coverage
Application for payment of wages to persons employed in any factory.
Not applicable to wages which average Rs16QO/- per month or more.
Wages include all remuneration, bonus, or slims payable for termination of service, but do not
include house rent reimbursement, light vehicle charges, medical expenses, TA, etc.
Main provisions:

Responsibility of the employer for payment of wages and fixing the wage period.
Procedures and time period in wage payment.
Payment of wages to discharged workers.
Permissible deductions from wages.
Nominations to be made by employees.
Penalties for contravention of the Act.
Equal remuneration for men and women.
Obligations and rights of employers.
Obligations and rights of employees.

6. "Safety in industry today is largely a matter of complying with government regulation". Justify.
REGULATORY AGENCIES AND STATUTORY BODIES DEALING WITH SAFETY IN
INDIA AND ABROAD
1.
2.

Directorate General of Employment and Training (DGE & T): This Office is responsible for
laying down the policies, standards, norms and guidelines in the area of vocational training
throughout the country and also for coordinating employment services.
Office of the Chief Labour Commissioner (Central): The office is responsible for:' w
Prevention, investigation and settlement of industrial disputes in the Central sphere l1li
Enforcement of awards and settlements

Implementation of labour laws in industries

 Verification of membership of Unions affiliated to the Central Organizations of workers for

giving them representation in national and international conferences and committees and
Fixation and revision of dearness allowance component of minimum wages by notification under
the Minimum Wages Act, 1948 in scheduled employments.

3.

Directorate General of Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes (DGFASLI): This
Office is concerned with formulation of policy relating to the safety, health and welfare of
workers in factories and docks. It is responsible for coordinating the implementation of the
measures of the Factories Act, 1948 by the State Governments and formulation of Model Rules
there under. It undertakes research in industrial safety, occupational health, industrial hygiene,
industrial psychology and industrial physiology. It provides training mainly in the field of
industrial psychology and industrial safety and health including a diploma course of one-year
duration in industrial safety. The Diploma is an essential qualification for appointment of Safety
Officers in factories.

4.

Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS): This Office is entrusted with enforcement of
provisions of the Mines Act, 1952 and the Rules and Regulations framed there under. The
provisions of the Indian Electricity Act, 1910 as applicable to mines and oil fields are also
enforced by it.

5.

Employees' State Insurance Corporation (ESIC): The Corporation is responsible for

implementation of the Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948 which provides for medical care
and treatment to insured persons and their families. Assistance is given in terms of benefits
during sickness and maternity, compensation for employment injury, pensions for dependents
on the death of workers due to employment injury, etc.

6.

Employees' Provident Fund Organization (EPFO): This Organization is responsible for

administration of the Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952.
Schemes for Provident Fund, Family Pension and Deposit Linked Insurance are implemented by
the Organization for the benefit of workers covered under the scheme.

7.

Central Labour Service (CLS): The Central Labour Service (CLS) was constituted with effect
from 3rd February 1987 to ensure better industrial relations, labour law enforcement and labour
welfare. Factories and mines employing 500 or more workers and plantations employing 300 or
more workers are required to appoint a prescribed number of welfare officers under the relevant
statutes. Assistant Labour Welfare Commissioners (Central) and Deputy Labour Welfare
Commissioners (Central) under the supervision of Welfare Commissioners discharge these
statutory functions and they also advise and assist the management of the concerned
establishments in maintaining harmonious industrial relations in the areas of safety, health and
welfare of workers etc.

8.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA): OSHA stands for the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration, an agency of the U.S. Department of Labor. "To assure so far
as possible every working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions
and to preserve our human resources."

For business, protecting workers' safety and health is the right thing to do. It saves money and adds
value to the organization. Safety and health add value to workplaces by increasing morale, improving

productivity, and reducing turnover. Establishing a safe and healthful working environment requires
every employer and every worker to make safety and health a top priority. OSHA uses three basic
strategies, authorized by the Occupational Safety and Health Act, to help employers and employees
reduce injuries, illnesses, and deaths on the job:

8.

Strong, fair, and effective enforcement;

Outreach, education, and compliance assistance; and
Partnerships and other cooperative programs.
Based on these strategies, OSHA conducts a wide range of programs and activities to promote
workplace safety and health. The agency:
Encourages employers and employees to reduce workplace hazards and to implement new safety
and health management systems or improve existing programs;
Develops mandatory job safety and health standards and enforces them through worksite
inspections, employer-assistance, and sometimes by imposing citations, penalties, or both
Promotes safe and healthful work environments through cooperative programs, partnerships, and
alliances;
Establishes responsibilities and rights for employers and employees to achieve better safety and
health conditions; iii Supports the development of innovative ways of dealing with workplace
hazards; iii! Establishes training programs to increase the competence of occupational safety and
health personnel; and
Provides technical and compliance assistance .and training and education to help employers
reduce worker accidents and injuries.
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC): The U.S. Consumer Product Safety
Commission (CPSC) is an independent federal regulatory agency that was created in 1972 b3
Congress in the Consumer Product Safety Act. In that law, Congress directed the Commission
to "protect the public against unreasonable risks of injuries and deaths associated with con
summer products."

CPSC works to reduce the risk of injuries and deaths from consumer products by:
Developing voluntary standards with industry;
Issuing and enforcing mandatory standards; banning consumer products if no feasible standard
would adequately protect the public;
Obtaining the recall of products or arranging for their repair;
Conducting research on potential product hazards; and
Informing and educating consumers through the media, state and local governments private
organizations, and by responding to consumer inquiries.
9.

Institution of Occupational Safety and Health (IOSH): IOSH (Institution of Occupational

Safety and Health) is an independent, not-for-profit organisation with over 27000 members. It is
Europe's leading body for individuals with a professional involvement in occupational safety
and health.

Clearly communicated expert advice from competent safety and health practitioners is an essential
component in defining the safety, health and welfare policies of employers, ensuring that high standards
of occupational safety and health are achieved and maintained. IOSH promotes the important function of

the safety and health professional while also working to encourage employees to protect themselves and
their colleagues from workplace hazards.
10.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH): The National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health .(NIOSH),is the United States federal agency responsible for
conducting research and making recommendations for the prevention of work related injury and
illness. NIOSH is part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) within the UB.
Department of Health and Human Services.

The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 created both NIOSH and the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA). NIOSH was established to help assure safe and healthful working
conditions for working men and women by providing research, information, education, and training in
the field of occupational safety and health. NIOSH provides national and world leadership to prevent
work-related illness, injury, disability, and death by gathering information, conducting scientific
research, and translating the knowledge gained into products and services.

CHAPTER 4
1. Define environment. What is need of environment control?
Environment can be defined as one's surroundings, which includes everything around an
organism i.e., abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) environment. Abiotic environment consists of
soil, water and air, while the biotic environment includes all other organisms, with which the
organism comes into regular contact.
Environment may refer to a small localised area in which a specific problem is to be addressed,
or it may take on global dimensions on the other hand.
The global environment consists of the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. The
lithosphere is the soil mental that wraps the core of the earth, in which the biological activities take
place. The hydrosphere consists of the oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers and the shallow ground water
bodies that interflow with the surface water. Approximately, "70% of earth's surface is covered with
water mainly in the form of oceans. The atmosphere is a blanket of gases, and suspended liquids and
solids that entirely envelope the earth, extending outward several thousand kilometers.
WORKING ENVIRONMENT
The working environment refers to the environment in which a worker performs his job. It has an
influence on the strain the worker acquires while performing his task and also his productivity. If the
working environment is not proper then it can increase strain on the workers, reduc1e their
efficiency and the ultimate result is low productivity.
Even the best working methods do not help to perform the tasks efficiently and effectively if the
workplace where the worker works has insufficient light, high or low temp, unhygienic conditions
unbearable noise, smokes and fumes, improper ventilation etc.
For better results, the working environment should be such that the workers feel comfortable and
safe.

2. Explain the types of environment.

TYPES OF WORK ENVIRONMENT
Work environment may be divided into thee components: Physical, mental and social.
Physical Environment:
It consists of physical factors example lighting, ventilation, temperature, humidity, noise,
layout of machines.
Poor light cause eye strain, mental fatigue, accidents and irritation.
Poor ventilation and absence of fresh air make the people uncomfortable at work.
The degree of moisture or humidity in the air affects speed of work.
Noise cause fatigue and reduces efficiency of work.
Workers efficiency will be very low if he does not have physical comforts.
Mental Environment:
Mental environment comprises the psychological factors which influence the attitudes,
behavior and performance of a worker.
It includes various instincts of the worker like fears, anger etc.
Favourable mental environment should be created for the satisfaction of workers and to
boost their morale.
Social Environment:
Social environment refers to the group to which a worker belongs within a large formal
group workers form small informal groups and they develop a sense of belonging to their
group.
The norms of the group influence the attitudes and behavior of its individual workers.
Management should attempt to create groups of like minded people and make constructive
use of groups.
3. What is the need of environment control in an industry?
NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
Natural environment is full of beauty as well as hazards.
Hazards include tornadoes, lighting, floods, earthquakes, pollution etc. Some of the hazards can
be controlled while on others men have little or no control.
The need of controlled environment generated.
An example of controlled environment is our home or workplace that is heated to reduce the
potential hazards associated with cold.
Health and Safety professionals need to be prepared to deal with potential hazards in all of those
types of environment. It deals with protecting workers from hazardous environmental conditions
within the plant and protecting general public from hazardous conditions that may be produced
by the plant.
The different hazards of the environment which may be natural or that of workplace can be high
humidity conditions, low relative humidity, sunlight, high temperature conditions, low
temperature conditions, dust, dirt, fumes etc.
Each of these hazards can have an effect on people, machines, systems and other inhibitors of a given

environment. There is a growing need to tackle these problems through a variety of measures such as
legal, scientific, technical, economic and educational. Control of working environment in an
organization leads to:

Increase in production
Improved productivity
Increased employee morale
Fewer accidents
Reduction in labour turnover and absenteeism
Reduced physical and mental fatigue.

4. List the various environment factores in industry.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN INDUSTRY
Ergonomics researchers have found:
Identifying the effect that the environment has on man's psychological and physiological process
Ensuring that work patterns, equipment and machine interfaces are designed in such a way to
minimize the individual variations in performance.
Ensuring that all necessary protective systems are designed to take an account of psychological
and physiological needs and variations in man.

5.

The various factors affecting working performance are:

Temperature
Illumination
Noise
Vibrations
Housekeeping and maintenance
Plant layout
Color schemes and safety color code
Humidity and Air-conditioning.
How to Protect Workers from cold stress?

Recognize the environmental and workplace conditions that lead to potential cold induced
illnesses and injuries.
Learn the signs and symptoms of cold-induced illnesses/injuries and what to do to help the
worker.
Train the workforce about cold-induced illnesses and injuries.
Select proper clothing for cold, wet, and windy conditions. Layer clothing to adjust to changing
environmental temperatures. Wear a hat and gloves, in addition to underwear that will keep water
away from the skin (polypropylene).
Take frequent short breaks in warm dry shelters to allow the body to warm up.
Perform work in warmer part of the day.
Use the buddy system (work in pairs).

 Drink warm, sweet beverages (sugar water, sports-type drinks). Avoid drinks with caffeine
(coffee, tea, or hot chocolate) or alcohol.
Eat warm, high-calorie foods.
6.

Write short note on the following environmental factors:

(i)
Temperature
(ii)
Illumination
(iii)
Industrial noise
(iv)
Vibration
(v)
Housekeeping and maintenance
(vi)
Plant layout
(vii) Color schemes
(viii) Humidity
(ix)
Lighting

Temperature
Human beings need to maintain a constant body temperature if they are to stay healthy. Working in high
or low temperatures will induce heat and cold stress. The effects of working in high and low
temperatures are explained below:
Working in Hot Temperature
Heat is being constantly generated due to bodily activity called metabolism. As the human body is
required to be maintained at a particular temperature called normal body temperature. Any heat
producing rise in degree of temperature in excess of normal body temperature has to be continuously
dissipated. The usual methods of heat dissipation are conduction, convection and radiation. When the
body is unable to cool itself through sweating, serious heat illnesses may occur.
High Temperature + High Humidity + Physical Work = Heat Illness
The major effects on human body of excess temperature are:
1. Heat Stroke: Heat stroke develops when all the water and salt available for sweating has been
used up. The body's temperature rises to above 40C, the skin becomes hot, dry and red. Victims may act
strangely, be weak, confused, have a fast pulse rate, headache or be dizzy. In later stages, victims may
faint or have convulsions.
Heat stroke can kill. Anyone in this condition must be taken to a hospital immediately.
During transport:
Remove excess clothing from the victims
Fan and spray their bodies with cool water
Offer sips of cool, salted water.
2. Heat Exhaustion: Heat exhaustion occurs when the body's cooling system cannot keep up with the
heat stress. Sweat contains a balance of important fluids and salts. If lost water and salt are not replaced,
the body becomes dehydrated. Signs of heat exhaustion include:

Heavy sweating
Cool, moist skin
Body temperature greater than 38C
Weak pulse
Normal or low blood pressure.

Victims may be tired, weak, clumsy, upset or confused. They are usually very thirsty, panting and may
have blurred vision. Victims should be moved to a cool area, given cool salted water to drink and have
their clothing loosened. Since heat exhaustion can lead to heat stroke, provide first aid and send victims
to a doctor.
3. Heat Cramps: Painful cramps in the stomach, arms and legs can result if heavy sweating drains a
person of salt. Cramps may occur suddenly-at work or after hours. Cramps are a warning that more
serious heat disorders may occurs if the stress continues. Lost salt cannot be replaced by drinking water
alone. When heat cramps' occur, move the victims to a cool area, loosen their clothing and have them
drink cool, salted water (mix at one teaspoon of salt per gallon of water). If cramps continue, provide
first aid and take victims to a doctor.
4. Heat Rash: Heat Rash is the most common problem in hot work environments. Prickly heat is
manifested as red papules and usually appears in areas where the clothing is restrictive. As sweating
increases, these papules give rise to a prickling sensation. Prickly heat occurs in skin that is persistently
wetted by unevaporated sweat, and heat rash papules may become infected if they are not treated. In
most cases, heat rashes will disappear when the affected individual returns to a cool environment.
5. Heat Fatigue: A factor that predisposes an individual to heat fatigue is lack of acclimatization. The
use of a program of acclimatization and training for work in hot environments is advisable. The signs
and symptoms of heat fatigue include impaired performance of skilled mental, or vigilance jobs. There is
no treatment for heat fatigue except to remove the heat stress before a more serious heat-related
condition develops.
Working in Cold Temperature
Working under cold conditions can lead to various injuries or health effects, which are collectively
known as cold stress. Workers may experience cold stress when working: II Outdoors on a cold day

In a refrigerated room.
In an unheated building.
In cold water, rain, or snow.
While handling cold objects or materials.

People who work indoors can also be exposed to cold such as freezer or cool room workers, meat
workers, mortuary workers, and florists.
In a cold environment, most of body's energy is used to keep internal temperature warm. Over time,
body will begin to shift blood flow from extremities (hands, feet, arms, and legs) and outer skin to the
core (chest and abdomen). This allows exposed skin and the extremities to cool rapidly and increases the

risk of cold stress.

Factors causing cold stress
Exposure to cold, particularly if the worker is wet, dehydrated or tired.
Wind. Wind removes the thin layer of warm air that surrounds the skin. Wind chill is the
combination of air temperature and wind speed.
Water: If clothing becomes wet or damp from water, snow or perspiration the risk is increased.
Immersion in cold water will conduct heat away from the body 25 times faster than cold air.
Effects of low temperature
The hazardous effects of cold on the body may include dehydration, numbness, shivering, frostbite,
immersion foot (trench foot), and hypothermia.
Hazards associated with cold stress are categorized into systemic and local effects. Local effects
impact the part of the body where the exposure to cold is the greatest. Systemic effects impact more than
just the local area and can affect the whole body. Numbness, frostbite, and immersion foot are all local
effects. The effects oflow temperature on human body with their symptoms and remedies are explained
below:
1. Frostbite. Frostbite is the freezing of some part of the body. Frostbite occurs when the skin actually
freezes and loses water. In severe cases, amputation of the frostbitten area may be required. While
frostbite usually occurs when the temperatures are 30 F or lower, wind chill factors can allow frostbite
to occur in above freezing temperatures. Frostbite occurs more readily from touching cold metal objects
than from exposure to cold air. That's because heat is rapidly transferred from skin to metal. Frostbite
typically affects the extremities, particularly the feet and hands. Fingers, toes, and even whole arms and
legs can be lost as a result of frostbite
2. Hypothermia. Hypothermia means "low heat" and is a potentially serious health condition. This
occurs when body heat is lost from being in a cold environment faster than it can be replaced. When the
body temperature drops below the normal 98.6 F to around 95 F, the onset of symptoms normally
begins. The person begins to shiver and stomp feet in order to generate heat. As the body temperature
continues to fall, slurred speech, lack of coordination and memory loss develops and the person will stop
shivering. Once the body temperature falls to around 85 F, the person may become unconscious, and at
78F, the person could die.
3. Frost nip: Frost nip occurs when the top layers of skin are frozen after exposure to the cold. It is
treated by slow, gentle warming. Hot objects should not be used. The skin should hot be rubbed.
Illumination
Lighting or Illumination is one of the most important environmental factors. Poor ligting can include a
range of problems such as:
Insufficient light- not enough light for need
Glare-too much light for need

Improper contrast
Poorly distributed light
Flicker.
Lighting is important in the work environment for the following reasons:
Efficient and acute performance of visual tasks
Worker safety and health
Capital expense and maintenance costs

Productivity

General feeling of well-being.

Poor lighting can adversely affect the safety and health of workers by contributing to:
Eye/visual fatigue (vision diminishes with age)
General stress and strain (headaches etc.)
Changes to the sleep wake cycle
Poor psychological health, morale
Increased possibility of errors
Increased probability of accidents by misjudging the position, shape or speed of an object.

Noise
Noise is also a factor in relation to efficiency of workers. It is a frequent cause of fatigue, irritation and
thus loss of output. Particularly disturbing is intermittent noise such as that of road drills, riveting guns,
drop hammers or heavy processes.
Noise is defined as "Sound, which is unwanted, either because of its effect on humans, its effect on
fatigue or malfunction of physical equipment, or its interference with the perception or detection of other
sounds".
Effects of noise
Noise is a physical and social problem with several undesirable effects:
It can cause hearing loss if of higher level (a physical effect).
Causes annoyance (a psychological effect), which can result in sleep disturbance, stress, tension,
and loss of performance.
Interferes with activities; such as speech communication, which in turn can cause annoyance and
all of its associated effects.
Causes structural response (mechanical effect), which can cause structural failures, injury, and
product liability.
Influences consumers to buy a competitor's quieter product.
The most important point to be made is that the successful design is one in which noise is a
consideration at every stage. A noisy site, for example, will strongly affect the overall design of a
building, and may necessitate costly noise control measures. Similarly within the building the
spatial separation of quiet and noisy regions will simplify the problem of achieving adequate
noise insulation between them. Finally, noise insulation design must be carried through to the last
detail; there is no merit, for example, in specifying a good partition and then allowing it to

become punctured with service outlets, or badly fitted doors. There are some ways in which
noise considerations affect the design of buildings, illustrating with three common structures: the
apartment building, the office building, and the industrial plant.
Apartment Building
The problem to be considered in apartment buildings and other multiple-dwelling structures is
the transmission of noise from one dwelling unit to another. Noises produced in apartments vary
with the occupants and with their activities of the moment. Similarly one's tolerance of extraneous
noise varies with one's own activities, ip fact if all the occupants of a building were always doing the
same things at the same time there would be no noise problem. More commonly, however, one
occupant will be trying to sleep while his neighbour watches a late television show; or a day worker
will be living below someone who works in the evening and diner at 3 a.m. The successful building
is one that can accommodate the wide variety of tenants and tenant activities amicably. A completely
"soundproof" building is not practical; the m9dest objective in the following discussion is to satisfy
perhaps 75% of apartment dwellers 90% of the time.
An apartment building can usually be laid out in plan so that the most critical rooms (bedrooms,
living rooms) are protected from adjoining apartments by a buffer zone of non-critical areas such as
bathrooms, kitchens, closets and hallways. The next best arrangement is to place quiet rooms such as
bedrooms .on the two sides of the party wall; in this case the separation should be a 50 db wall.
Similar considerations apply to floors separating dwelling units. For separating critical areas an
airborne sound transmission loss of 50 db is necessary. Since in the conventional building pattern it
is not easy to vary the floor construction from critical to noncritical areas, it is usually the 50 db
requirements that governs.
An additional problem of special importance in floors is impact sound (e.g. footsteps), originating as
a vibration in the separating structure itself. Floors separating apartments should provide adequate
insulation against impact sounds. Since a satisfactory floor design is the most costly noise control
measure it is worth noting that floor transmission is the commonest and most disturbing noise
problem in existing apartment buildings.
Office Building
Noise insulation requirements for an office building are not as stringent as those for an apartment
building. Offices are usually occupied for only about of the 24 hours, a moderate amount of business
noise is usually acceptable, and interference with sleep is rarely a concern. The main requirement for
partitions between tenants in an office building is speech privacy. The speech originating in one
tenancy should not be intelligible in an adjoining tenancy. An exact specification depends upon the
ambient noise level in the listening "room", but generally an average transmission loss of 35 to 40 db
is adequate. Office building floors usually provide adequate insulation for airborne sound, and
impact noise is of minor importance except when heavy machine or other sources of vibration of
impact are involved.
There is the problem of noise transmission over the partition above the suspended ceiling. This may
be prevented
by using ceiling panels backed by a heavy impervious layer that reduces sound penetration
through the ceiling, or
by building adequate partitions in the space above the ceiling.

Executive offices and conference rooms constitute the most critical noise control problem in
office buildings. Speech privacy is usually a requirement, necessitating the same considerations as
above even for walls within a tenancy. An additional concern is to provide conditions quiet enough
for comfortable speech over ranges of perhaps 10 to 20 ft. Meeting the speech privacy requirements
will take care of most business noises except possibly business machine noise. Commonly the
remaining problem is the noise produced by mechanical equipment such as ventilators. Quiet
ventilator design is primarily the responsibility of the equipment manufacturer and the heating
engineer.
The large general office is a compromise between sound insulation and such factors as space
economy, lighting and ventilation. The main noise sources are telephone conversations, and small
machines such as typewriters. A partial solution is to use sound absorbing hoods or partial partitions
around the principal offenders. More mechanized equipment such as card-punching and sorting
machines, and reproduction equipment should be placed in a separate room where possible. Heavy
machines should be mounted on properly designed vibration isolating bases.
Industrial noise
The typical industrial plant comprises, offices factory areas, storage space, and other
occupancies. The special noise control problem is the ill factory area.
No general solution can be prescribed for factory noise since the intensity and character of
industrial noise vary widely.
Apart from airborne poise there is often a vibration; problem, which can usually be solved by
providing special foundations or vibration isolating mountings. Sometimes the machine
manufacture is prepared to offer guidance; otherwise a qualified acoustical consultant should
be retained.

The requirements are:

To prevent hearing impairment among machine operators,
To facilitate necessary speech communication among operators, and
To prevent the transmission of excessive noise into other parts of the building or into adjacent
buildings.
The building designers share in minimizing the first two problems is to provide soundabsorbing surfaces or space absorbers within the factory space.
Sound-absorbing hoods or partial enclosure around the principal noisemakers are also
sometimes feasible and useful.
The third problem is dealt with as in the preceding examples, except that the frequency
content of the noise should be considered in conjunction with the frequency versus
transmission loss characteristics of the walls and floors used to enclose it.

Vibration
Many workers are exposed to vibration daily while using vibrating equipment or machinery.
Workers operating hand-held equipment, such as chain saw or jackhammer, are exposed to
hand-arm vibration.
Workers sitting or standing on a vibrating floor or seat are exposed to whole-body vibration

because the vibration affects almost their entire body.

The risk of injury from exposure to either type of vibration depends on the intensity and
frequency of the vibration, the duration of exposure and the part(s) of the body affected.
Hand-arm vibration
Hand-arm vibration damages blood vessels in the hands and fingers, reducing the flow of
blood and harming the skin, nerves and muscles. This is called Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome
(HAVS), also known as "Vibration-induced White Finger (VWF)", "dead-finger". Affected fingers turn white or blanch, especially when exposed to cold. Symptoms of HA VS include tingling fingers, numbness, loss of grip strength, and clumsiness with the hands, fingertips that turn
white or blue, coldness and pain in the hands. The chances of getting HA VS increases with
exposure to vibration, particularly in combination with risk factors such as cold exposure and
smoking. Both of these reduce the flow of blood to the hands.
Major sources of vibration among hand tools are grinders, sanders, drills, impact wrenches,
jackhammers, riveting and chipping hammers and chain saws.
Anti-Vibration Tools
Using anti-vibration chain saws reduces acceleration levels by a factor of about 10. These types
of chain saws must be well maintained.
Maintenance must include periodic replacement of shock absorbers.
A few pneumatic tool companies manufacture anti-vibration tools such as anti-vibration
pneumatic chipping hammers, pavement breakers and vibration-damped pneumatic riveting
guns.
Training and education in controlling vibration should also address concerns about noise control.
Anti-Vibration Gloves
Conventional protective gloves (e.g., cotton, leather), commonly used by workers, do not
reduce the vibration that is transferred to workers' hands when they are using vibrating tools
or equipment.
Anti-vibration gloves are made using a layer of viscoelastic material. Actual measurements
have shown that 'such gloves have limited effectiveness in absorbing low-frequency
vibration, the major contributor to vibration-related disorders. Therefore, they offer little
protection against developing vibration induced white finger syndrome.
Gloves do provide protection from typical industrial hazards and from cold temperatures that,
in turn, may reduce the initial sensation of white finger attacks.
Safe Work Practices
Along with using anti-vibration tools and gloves, workers can reduce the risk of hand-arm vibration
syndrome (HA V5) by following work practices:
Employ a minimum hand grip consistent with safe operation of the tool or process
Wear sufficient clothing, including gloves, to keep warm.
Avoid continuous exposure by taking rest periods.
Rest the tool on the work piece whenever practical.
Refrain from using faulty tools.

 Maintain properly sharpened cutting tools.

Consult a doctor at the first sign of vibration disease and ask about the possibility of changing to
a job with less exposure.
Whole-body vibration
Whole body vibration can cause fatigue, insomnia, headaches and "shakiness" during or shortly after
exposure. The symptoms are similar to those that many people experience after a long car or boat trip.
After daily exposure over a number of years, whole-body vibration can affect the entire body and result
in a number of health disorders. While there is substantial evidence that whole-body vibration is
associated with lower back and neck injuries, it is difficult to identify practical ways for employers to
determine whether vehicles or other equipment produce hazardous exposure.
Methods of controlling whole-body vibration in vehicles may include "air-ride" suspended seats,
suspended cabs, maintaining vehicle suspension systems, and inflating tires to their proper pressure.
Seats with arm rests, lumbar support, an adjustable seat back, and an adjustable at pan are also useful.
The following precautions help to reduce whole-body vibration exposure;
limit the time spent by workers on a vibrating surface.
Mechanically isolate the vibrating source or surface to reduce exposure.
Ensure that equipment is well maintained to avoid excessive vibration.
Install vibration damping seats.
Housekeeping
Housekeeping is defined as "a place for everything and everything in its place." Good housekeeping
means having no unnecessary items about and keeping all necessary items at their proper places.
Signs of poor housekeeping
There are many signs of poor housekeeping such as:
Cluttered and poorly arranged work areas;
Untidy or dangerous storage of materials (for example, materials stuffed in corners; overcrowded
shelves);
Dusty, dirty floors and work surfaces;
Items that are in excess or no longer needed;
Tools and equipment left in work areas instead of being returned to proper storage places;
Broken containers and damaged materials; III Overflowing waste bins and containers;
Spills and leaks.
Benefits of good housekeeping at work
Good housekeeping at work benefits both employers and employees alike.' Good housekeeping can:

Eliminate clutter which is a common cause of accidents, such as slips, trips, and falls, and
Fires and explosions;
Reduce the chances of harmful materials entering the body (e.g., dusts, vapours);
Improve productivity (the right tools and materials for the job will be easy to find);

 Improve your company's image (good housekeeping reflects a well-run business. An orderly
workplace will impress all who enter it employees, visitors, customers, etc.);
Help your company to keep its inventory to a minimum (good housekeeping makes it easier to
keep an accurate count of inventories);
Help your company to make the best use of its space;
Make the workplace neat, comfortable, and pleasant-not a dangerous eyesore.
Plant Layout
Plant is a general name for machinery, tools, appliances and equipment. It can include things as diverse
as presses in a foundry and computers in an office. It can range from scaffolding to lifts and escalators;
from tractors to hand trolleys; cranes to commercial fishing nets; arc welding gear to electric drills. Plant
can be hazardous as each year; there are large number of deaths and workers' compensation claims
involving plant.
Providing safe plant to the workplace
Thoughtful layout and design of plant can eliminate many of its risks to health and safety from the
beginning. Careful manufacturing can ensure it as safe as the designer intended it to be, and suppliers
can then carry through to deliver safe plant to the workplace significantly reducing the chances that
people using it will be harmed. Providing enough safety information along with the plant is vital too.
This can make users aware of any risks the designer hasn't been able to eliminate, and ensure they don't
create any new risks by not using the plant properly.
A risk management process is a systematic way of making plant as safe as possible. Various
methodologies have been developed which may be useful, depending on the type and complexity of the
plant, and the kind of information available. Steps in risk management process are:
Identifying the hazards:
Identify all hazards associated with the plant and it relates systems of work.
Assess the risks: Assess the risks arising from the hazards.
Control the risks: Decide on and use appropriate control measures.
Review: Have the control measures eliminated or reduce the risks? Have the control measures
introduced any risks?
Color
Some reference should be made to the use of color as a factor influencing the worker's feelings of heat
or coolness. It has been shown that in temperature conditions, worker's comfort has been enhanced by
repainting the walls and furnishings of the workplace in colors designed to give a feeling of warmth or
cold. It is worth bearing in mind that, when the time comes to repaint workshops and offices, it costs
little or no more to use pleasing colors than drab ones, and that to do so is a visible sign of the
management's desire to make conditions pleasant for workers.
Identification colors on machines should be reserved for things which really matter, such as stop
buttons and other safety tripping devices, which must be found quickly in an emergency. Dangerous
moving parts should be guarded, not coloured, and when guarding is impossible, color should be used to
highlight the actual hazard and not merely as general warning. Color is used extensively for improving:

Quality of workmanship

To reduce rejections
To reduce accidents
To raise housekeeping
To reduce absenteeism
To improve morale of workers.

Humidity and Air-conditioning

The water vapour content of air, i.e., the humidity is an important process variable that affects the
human comforts and the efficient operation of many industrial processes. Proper control of
critical operations with fabrics, papers and certain chemicals frequently hinges on suitable
control of the humidity of the surrounding environment. The importance of humidity can be well
appreciated from the following few processes which require humidity control.
Maintenance of comfortable conditions of humidity and temperature for human comforts.
Requirements of low humidity to prevent withering of food products, and spoilage of dried milk.
Requisite moisture conditions for a drying process.
Proper amount of moisture in the growing of bacteria and in the manufacturing of
pharmaceuticals.
Humidity is measured by absorption hygrometer, which is based on the fact that a change in
moisture content causes a change in the physical and chemical characteristics of certain materials.
Air-conditioning should be adopted in case temperature and humidity cannot be maintained by
simply ventilation. Air-conditioning is applied for the following purposes:
To provide comfort to industrial workers.
To provide proper conditions of temperature and humidity for the manufacturing process.
To maintain ultra-clean atmosphere.
For drying the products.
To preserve food during storage and transport.
Relative humidity plays a very important role to number of items and resources of an industry.
Relative humidity requirements always take precedence over employee needs because people
can use protective devices if product moisture levels are extreme. Proper moisture content is
maintained only by keeping air in the plant at predetermined RH value.
Lighting
Light has an influence on work performance. A well designed lighting scheme increases
individual and group productivity and reduces accidents at work. 50 while designing lighting some
factors should be considered:
Industrial light should provide energy efficient illumination in quality and quantity sufficient for
safety and to enhance visibility and productivity.
Follow standard levels of illumination to provide sufficient illumination to perform the task well without

fatigue and least chance of error.

Combine lighting, heating, cooling and atmospheric central requirements in an integrated system with
the use of higher illuminances. The lighting system provides most of energy during heating period.
When cooling is required much of the lighting heat can be removed by air exhaust system. .
It is important for lighting designer to analyze luminaire construction and reflectors finish and also to
make provision for maintenance access so the system can be properly services.
Balance all of the energy management considerations and economic factors including, initial costs,
operating and maintenance costs, versus the quantity and quality requirements for optimum visual
performance. The choice of electric distribution system may affect overall economics.
The use of day lighting should be considered for area lighting in all industries.
Low ambient temp is common in frozen food plants and cold storage warehouses. Abnormally high
temperature is seen in truss heights in foundries, steel mills, fuel shops etc. Equipment should be
selected to operate tinder such condition and particular attention should be given to lamp starting and,
light output characteristics, if fluorescent equipment is considered.
7. What is fatigue? How it is related to working environment.
NATURE OF FATIGUE
Fatigue has been described as "negative appetite for activity". It means a reduced capacity for
further work "as a consequence of previous activity where a person was trying almost as hard as he
could. It includes both mental and physical reactions as well as the phenomenon of boredom and
monotony.
The study and control of fatigue is difficult because it has three aspects.
It has been defined in terms of one of these, namely, decline in quantity of work for a given level
of effort.
A second aspect is a feeling of tiredness, which is not necessarily accompanied by reduced
capacity to work.
The third aspect is physiological change. The most prominent physiological change is
accumulation of lactic acid in the blood caused by the breaking down of glycogen, or sugar, in
the blood.
Other physiological changes are believed to be present in the junction of the nerve and muscle
cells, and under certain conditions changes in the capacity of the nerve fiber to conduct, and
possibly changes in the brain.
The physiological changes do not necessarily accompany changes in production as in feelings.
Neither the physiologically changes nor feeling changes are as convenient to measure as are
changes in production.
These three measures of activity decrement, the result of prolonged work, do riot necessarily
operate concurrently as to time or intensity. One can be exhibited without the other two, or all
three can operate together.
Physiological changes occur almost as soon as work begins, and yet they are not necessarily
highly correlated with the other two decrement either in quantity. There is a tendency for the
feeling decrement to appear sooner than the so called work decrement.
In order to effects of fatigue on production, it is necessary to control such variables as the nature,
difficulty, and method of work, and incentives.
For instance, improvement in illumination and rest pauses usually raise output.

8. Discuss various types of fatigue.

TYPES OF FATIGUE
Fatigue is of three types:
Muscular Fatigue: It means physical tiredness due to continuous work for a certain period. It
reduces capacity of body and muscles to exert.
Mental Fatigue: It is mental tiredness and irritation. It reduces control over thoughts and causes
restlessness.
Nervous Fatigue: It occurs when the nerve ending in muscles fail to keep the muscles active. It is
caused mainly by emotional conflict and representation of negative feelings.

9. What are various methods to measure fatigue?

MEASUREMENT OF FATIGUE
Usually only plant having some type of wage;-incentive plan has accurate rate of production,
hence it is mainly under this systems of wage payment that plant studies of fatigue are available.
Although not the only measure, production records are the most common measure of industrial fatigue.
Plants with wage-incentives are preferable for fatigue measurement not only because of presence of
more accurate measures of output, but also because motivation is likely to be higher.
Since practices to alleviate fatigue depend to a large measure on the nature of work curve, its
discovery and use are important. If work is uniform and successive in terms of llI1its'produced then
there is no difficulty exists in obtaining such a curve. However, where work changes are frequent, in
ordinary varied office work, work curves are most frequently obtained by the use of laboratory task
tests. The results of these tests are then plotted and used as an index of fatigue for such jobs. Motivation
might be higher in the laboratory tests than on the job.
Work curves can be typed according to the nature of task involved, namely, simple muscular,
complex muscular and mental. A work curve is a composite owing the effects a fatigue and other
variables over a period of time.
Simple Muscular Work

The first work curve is a simple muscular activity curve.

It is derived by recording the units of output of group of muscles against the force of some weight or
spring. It can be seen from the drawing that the curve for simple muscular tasks shows, a short warm up
period followed by a high level of performance. A gradual tapering off then appears. Subsequently a
sudden drop occurs to a point of complete exhaustion. Such work curves have a general resemblance to
motor curves, but they involve simplex coordination and fewer muscles. One can conclude from a study
of such curves that the more complex and rapid the task, the faster fatigue sets in. Moderate tasks permit
a greater total amount of work before complete exhaustion occurs than do heavier tasks. Since each
person has own work curve, it appears possible to match the workers to jobs whose energy requirements
more nearly approximate his own. Discovery of a person's work curve allows the scheduling of activities
and rest pauses that fit his peculiarities.
Complex Muscular Work
The second curve depicts the amounts of work done per unit of time in a typical industrial situation
at a complex muscular task. This job is assumed to be motor in nature and not monotonous. The initial
upward slope of curve indicates a warm-up period. This is followed by a gradual rise in production until
mid morning, when a drop occurs. The afternoon curve, taken after the midday rest, is similar in
appearance to the morning curve but it does not rise to as high a production peak and it falls more
rapidly near the end of the day.
Mental Work
The third graph shows a typical mental work curve. As in muscular work, mental work decrement
occurs in quantity, speed and accuracy of output. Again large individual differences and the nature of
work tend to determine the timing and extent of such declines. The work decrement in mental tasks
requiring continuous attention has been attributed, to interferences known as "blocks". These intervals
become larger and more frequent as the time spent at work progress. These lapses in performance are
sources of mistakes. In office or industrial workplaces such blocks may cause accidents. Two
experiments conducted to determine results of intense mental work suggest that a great deal of such
work decline is real1y due to loss of interest and incentive and hot exhaustion per sec. Blocking acts as a
natural way of providing rest. Mental work that is varied can consequently go on with few interruptions,

but work requiring constant attention will produce many blocks and consequently a sharp drop in output
with the passage of time. As shown, the mental fatigue curve generally has no warm-up period, but it
shows a gradual but steady downward slope with some emphasis on deceleration at the later stages.
10. How fatigue affects the workers performance?
EFFECTS OF FATIGUE
Effect on Work Performance: Fatigue has an adverse affect on every aspect of human
performance. High levels of fatigue cause reduced performance and productivity in the
workplace, and increase the risk of accidents and injuries. Fatigue affects the ability to think
clearly, which is vital when making safety-related decisions and judgments. As a result, fatigued
people are unaware that they are not functioning as well or as safely as they would be if they
were not fatigued.
When fatigued, a person may experience micro sleeps. A micro sleep is a brief nap that
lasts for approximately four to five seconds. People who suffer from micro sleeps are not always
aware when a sleep occurs-this can have a significant impact on safety. A decrease in performance capacity is linked to fatigue. Performance levels drop as work periods become longer and
sleep loss increases the most common effects associated with fatigue are:
Desire to sleep;
Lack of concentration;
Impaired recollection of timing and events;
Irritability;
Poor judgement;
Reduced capacity for effective interpersonal communication;
Reduced hand-eye coordination;
Reduced visual perception;
Reduced vigilance; and
Slower reaction times.
Evidence also suggests that 'fatigued people are more likely to engage in risk taking behavior. People
working in a fatigued state may place themselves and others at risk, most particularly:
When operating machinery;
When performing critical tasks that require a high level of concentration; and
Where the consequence of error is serious.
.
2. Health Effects. Lack of sleep has been indirectly linked with the following health effects:

Heart disease and high blood pressure;

Stomach ulcers and other gastrointestinal disorders; and
Depression.
Fatigue and irregular sleeping habits disrupt circadian rhythms.
Coronary heart disease (blocked arteries in the heart);
Ischaemic heart disease (blocked arteries leading to lack of oxygen to the heart muscle);
High blood pressure; and
Myocardial infarction (heart attack).
Gastro-intestinal disorders are the most common health problem related to fatigue. The body

rhythm for digestion is designed for food to be eaten during the day irrespective of whether an
individual is working or resting. This can cause problems when heavy or fatty foods are eaten during
the night. The most common complaints include:
Digestive complaints: and
Increased risk of peptic (stomach) ulcers.
Fatigue can also affect mental health. Anxiety and depression can be triggered or made worse by
fatigue and irregular sleep patterns. The effects of fatigue increase with age. People over 50 years of age
tend to have lighter, fragmented sleep. This can prevent them from receiving the recuperative effects
from a full night of sleep, and can make them more likely to become fatigued. The metabolism of certain
medications follows the body's circadian rhythm. When the circadian rhythm is disrupted, for example
when working at night and sleeping during the day, the treatment of some medical conditions can be
affected. Examples of medical conditions which may be affected include:
Asthma;
Depression; and
Diabetes.
Women's reproductive health can also be affected by fatigue. Fatigue and irregular sleep patterns have
been associated with a number of negative effects for pregnant women and fertility rates. These negative
effects include:
Increased risk of miscarriage;
Low birth weight; and
Higher occurrence of premature births.
11. Briefly explain the various factors that contribute to fatigue in an industry.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO FATIGUE
The various factors that contribute to fatigue are:
1. Extended Work and Commuting Periods. Long work hours seldom-independently-result in
operator fatigue. Rather, it is the combination of long work periods and other non-duty factors that
contribute to on-the-job fatigue, by limiting the available time for recreation, rest, and sleep. Over
extended working periods, repeated inadequate sleep periods can result in accumulated sleep debt and
associated operator fatigue. Among the primary aspects of extended work and/or commuting periods that
have been cited as contributing to
operator fatigue are:
Long commutes to or from work on a daily basis,
Long waits after reporting for work before duty begins, and
Forced interruptions in work that extend the duty day.
2. Work Schedules
Split-shifts
Split-shift work can increase the likelihood of operator fatigue, by resulting in schedules that are not
conducive to obtaining adequate sleep. Among the primary factors that commonly occur in conjunction
with split-shift schedules contributing to operator fatigue are:
Early morning start of shift;
Late evening end of shift;

High-paced operations during the work period;

Limited time at home during the awake period;
Difficulty in taking advantage of mid-day sleep opportunities; and
Sleep/work periods conflicting with circadian rhythm.

When work schedules require people to obtain their sleep during times that are normally awake
periods, the quality and quantity of sleep suffers. Work during "low" periods of the circadian rhythm can
be associated with drowsiness and a low level of alertness.
Changing or rotating work schedules
Many operations require frequent changes or rotations in schedule. These schedule shifts lead to
relatively quick changes in the time of day at which operators can obtain sleep, generally resulting in
inadequate levels of rest. Changing or rotating work schedules can be characterized as follows:
Changes in work and rest schedules that do not have a fixed pattern and thereby result in fatigue
management challenges that are extremely difficult to address, and Rotating schedules that have
fairly systematic shifts in the work start and stop times.
Unpredictable work schedules
An unpredictable schedule can lead to forced changes in sleep times and therefore to low quality sleep.
Unpredictable schedules can also cause workers to wake sooner than necessary in order to check in with
dispatchers. Conditions commonly associated with unpredictable work schedules include:
Being "on call" for work without a fixed schedule;
First-in, first-out work pool scheduling; and
Schedule delays resulting from equipment, weather, and problems.
3. Lack of Rest or Nap Periods During Work. Lack of rest or nap periods can also results in fatigue
to operators. Lack of rest or nap periods can result from:
Company policies that restrict or prohibit napping; and
Unwillingness of operators to take naps.
4. Inadequate Exercise Opportunities. People who exercise regularly have fewer episodes of
sleeplessness. Exercise can improve sleep quality by promoting smoother, more regular transitions
between the cycles and phases of sleep. Moderate exercise lasting 20 to 30 minutes, three or four times a
week promotes sleep. Exercise in the morning or afternoon is preferred, because exercise close to
evening bedtime can disrupt the onset of sleep. A brisk walk can be very beneficial, although more
vigorous exercise has been shown to provide increased health benefits. Factors that may limit exercise
opportunities include:
Personal habits that might need to be overcome in initiating an exercise program;
Work schedules that might need to be adjusted to include appropriate exercise opportunities.
5. Poor Diet. What one eats can be a determining factor in sleep quality and duration.
Some dietary behaviors that can disrupt sleep include:
Eating heavy or spicy foods just prior to bedtime, which can interfere with sleep by causing heartburn;
Consuming alcohol just prior to bedtime can induce sleep initially, but tends to lead to fragmented sleep;
and
Consuming caffeine within 4 to 6 hours before bedtime can delay the onset of sleep as well as disrupt

sleep.
6. Environmental Stressors. Several environmental factors can adversely affect operator's level of
alertness. These include environmental aspects related to heat, humidity, cold, altitude. vibration. and
noise.
Heat and humidity
Generally, one experiences high ambient temperatures as dry heat (temperature above 85F,
humidity less than 50%) or wet heat (temperature above 85F, humidity above 80%). All excessively
hot conditions make operators feel less alert and generally more fatigued. Hot-wet working conditions
can be significantly more detrimental to worker performance tha_ can, hot-dry c;o_ditions and.will
usually make one feel "fatigued".
Cold
Cold weather can indirectly contribute to operator fatigue. Operators often wear several layers
of clothing during cold weather, which can make using restroom facilities more difficult, which in
turn can le.ad operators to reduce the amount of liquids they consume. Reduced liquid consumption
can then lead to dehydration, which can cause operators to become fatigued more quickly than usual.
Whole body vibration
Whole-body vibration can add to operators' general feeling of fatigue, thereby compromising
their alertness while operating equipment.
Acoustical noise
Operators are exposed to machine noises, as well as related noises emanating from controls,
transmissions, braking systems, and wind streams. Some of these noises present more of a hearingconservation issue-than a fatigue issue. In fact, wearing ear protection in the presence of these noises is
often called for; however, these noises can also contribute to an operator's level of fatigue. The
continuous "hum" and other intermittent noises of most running machines can contribute to sleepiness.
Being aware that noise can contribute to operator fatigue, it is an important step towards ensuring that
operators take rest breaks.
12. Discuss the fatigue management process in n industry.
MANAGING FATIGUE
Controlling fatigue in the workplace requires cooperation between employers and employees.
Prevention is the best form of control, but is not always possible due to the number of factors that can
cause fatigue. Not all of these factors are work related. Good management practices can assist in
identifying fatigue. Employers have a duty to provide a workplace where, so far as is practicable,
employees are not exposed to hazards.
There are five basic steps in the risk management process. These include:
Identifying hazards;
Assessing risks that may result because of these hazards;
Deciding on control measures to prevent or minimize the level of risks;

 Implementing control measures; and

Monitoring and reviewing the effectiveness of control measures.
1. Identify Factors That Contribute to Fatigue. The first step when managing fatigue is to identify
factors within the workplace that may contribute to fatigue. Employers should develop a list of all the
factors within their business or undertaking that have the potential to contribute to fatigue within the
workplace.
One particular workplace factor that should be carefully considered is roster design. Shift length and
roster design may be placing workers at risk of sleep deprivation and fatigue. When determining if roster
design is contributing to fatigue, consider the following:
Length of shifts worked the length of shifts worked can contribute to fatigue;
Previous hours and days worked - the effects of fatigue are cumulative, workers may have sleep
debt due to the previous hours and days worked, which can contribute to fatigue;
Type of work being performed - pay particular attention to the level of physical and/or mental
effort that is required;
Time of the day when the work is being performed.
There are many ways to identify workplace factors that contribute to fatigue.
They include inspecting workplace rosters;
Consulting with workers - ask them if they regularly feel fatigued;
Consult with workplace health and safety representatives and workplace health and safety
committees;
Conduct a safety audit;
Analyze injury and incident reports, pay particular attention to injuries and incidents that occur
in periods of high fatigue
Assess Risk: The second step when managing fatigue involves assessing the risks associated
with the workplace factors that contribute to fatigue. Risk is the likelihood that death, injury and illness
may result because of the factors that contribute to fatigue. To assess risk, it is necessary to consider
both likelihood and consequences. For each of the risks:
Determine the likelihood of an incident occurring at the workplace, bearing in mind the existing
control measures;
Determine the consequences of an incident occurring at your workplace, bearing in mind the
existing control measures;
Combine the likelihood and consequences estimates to rate the risk.
Once the above process has been completed, the ratings of each risk should be prioritized for
further action. The following should be considered when assessing the factors that contribute to
fatigue:
Time of day;
Length of shifts worked;
Lack of opportunity to recover from fatigue;
How often the situation occurs;
How many people are fatigued;
The skills and experience of persons, fatigued;
Any special characteristics of the people involved;

 The duration of exposure to fatigue;

The level of risk inherent in the work.
Decide on Control Measures: The third step when managing fatigue involves deciding on control
measures to manage exposure to fatigue. Employers should implement control measures that adequately
control exposure to fatigue. The ideal solution when managing fatigue is to completely eliminate factors
that contributes to fatigue. This may involve the elimination of night shifts and extended working hours.
If this is not possible, there are a number of control options that may be used alone, or in combination, to
minimize and control exposure to fatigue. Because fatigue is caused by a combination of factors, the
most effective way to manage it is by using a combination of risk control measures.
Limiting shift work to essential jobs and tasks that must be completed at night;
Redesigning work practices so that routine administrative tasks are minimized for night shift
workers, allowing them to focus on core duties during night work;
Scheduling low risk work during periods of high fatigue, such as night time and in the latter half
of shifts;
Scheduling complex tasks to be performed only during the day.
Examples of administrative controls that may be used to manage fatigue include:
Sufficient supervision, particularly during periods of high fatigue and especially for hazardous
work;
Contingency plans if workers become fatigued - this would involve removing fatigued workers
from work activities where there is a considerable risk to health and/or safety
Effective emergency responses;
Strict controls and procedures if performing hazardous work during high fatigue periods
Job rotation for repetitive or monotonous work, or work that involves heavy physical demands.
Implement Control Measures. The fourth step when managing fatigue is putting the selected control
measures in place. This involves undertaking those activities that are necessary to allow the measures to
operate effectively. These activities include:

Workplace conditions;
Communicating control measures;
Providing training and instruction; and
Supervision.

Workplace conditions: Safe and suitable workplace conditions help to reduce fatigue. It involves
designing the workplace to ensure adequate lighting, ventilation and the correct equipment to perform
tasks. Workstations should be designed so that employee's posture doesn't induce fatigue. Special
consideration should be given to the impact of environmental factors such as extreme heat or cold, tasks
requiring high degrees of concentration, monotony or highly stressful situations.
Effective fatigue control measures should define and communicate responsibilities. Employers
should inform workers about the control measures to be implemented. It is important to clearly
communicate that the control measures are being introduced to effectively manage fatigue.
Employers must ensure employees have the skills and competence to perform their tasks safely.
Training on the issue of fatigue to employees, should incorporate:

The meaning of fatigue

How to identify fatigue?
How to manage fatigue?
The workplace's system for managing fatigue;
The responsibilities of employees in the workplace's system; and
General health and lifestyle issues.

Employers and persons conducting a business or undertaking should also provide adequate
supervision to ensure that new control measures are being used correctly.
Monitor and Review. The final step in the fatigue management process is to monitor and review the
effectiveness of fatigue control measures. When working through this step, it is useful for employers to
consider:
Have the chosen control measures been implemented as planned;
Are the chosen control measures working; and
.
Are there any new problems?
When answering these questions, employers can:
Consult with workers, supervisors, health and safety representatives, workplace health and safety
officers, and workplace health and safety committees,
Measure exposure to fatigue-are workers still getting fatigued; and
Monitor incident reports and assess the likelihood for fatigue contributing to incidents, pay
particular attention to injuries and incidents that occur in periods of high fatigue

13. List down the indicators of fatigue.

INDICATORS OF FATIGUE
Some of the indicators of fatigue are:
The states of absenteeism and labour turnover.
The rate of accidents.
Percentage of rejects, rework and spoiled work.
Reduction in productivity.
General attitude of workers towards their work, management and the organization.
14. How fatigue can be mitigated in an industry?
MITIGATION OF FATIGUE
It can be done by:
Obtaining adequate sleep,
Napping,
Anchor sleep,
Caffeine, and
Good sleeping environment.

Obtaining adequate sleep

The amount of sleep needed should be enough to feel refreshed and healthy the next day, but not morethis will usually be between 7.5 and 8.5 hours. Based on the amount of sleep needed, people should
establish a habitual time for going to sleep and waking up, and then maintain this schedule whether or
not it is a workday. Additionally, daily exercise helps to promote sounder sleep. Getting good sleep
depends on knowing what to avoid prior to sleeping. It is especially important to avoid caffeine, a
widely used stimulant compound-it should be avoided within 4 to 6 hours of going to sleep, since
caffeine effects can last long. It is also important to avoid drinking alcohol within 3 hours of bedtime,
because alcohol fragments sleep and makes it less restorative. Cutting down or eliminating nicotine is
important for promoting good sleep. Drinking fewer fluids before going to sleep will reduce awakenings
to use the bathroom.
Napping
Napping is one of the most popular coping mechanisms for those working in nontraditional hours. There
is significant evidence of the value-of supplementing the primary sleep period with a nap. Napping can
be effective for meeting the daily sleep requirements',' but the length of the nap determines whether or
not it significantly adds to a' short main sleep period. A nap of less than 90 minutes will not significantly
add to a short main sleep period and may not prevent the onset of fatigue. While a nap of up to 20
minutes may not, compensate for inadequate daily sleep, it may eliminate the performance
manifestations of fatigue for a short period of time. Scheduled naps of appropriate timing and duration,
well integrated into the worker's sleep management program are a better course of action.
Anchor sleep
Anchor sleep refers to a regular sleep period of at least 4 hours duration, obtained at the same time each
day. The anchor sleep period is supplemented by; additional sleep periods taken when the schedule
allows. Employing an anchor sleep and taking supplemental naps should be used as a coping mechanism
for situations where one cannot get a full continuous eight hours of normal sleep. While split sleep
periods may give a sufficient amount of sleep on a short-term basis, getting a full sleep allotment in a
single episode is preferred.
Anchor sleep is not a substitute for getting a full 8 hours' sleep during any 24 hour period. Instead, it
is a coping mechanism meant to keep one's circadian rhythm synchronized to a daily schedule. It is
important to supplement. anchor sleep with naps that are sufficient to provide the complete sleep
allotment that we need on a daily basis.
Good sleeping environment
The sleep environment should be quiet and dark, using room-darkening shades if necessary.
Earplugs can be helpful, if there is noise. The temperature of the sleeping room should be
aroUIid,i65 of, and the bed should be used only for sleeping-not for activities such as reading or
television watching. To ensure quiet environment, one should remove any noise sources. Use of
earplugs to reduce traffic noise or other external sounds helps many people, as does use of a constant
low-level noise source su.ch as a fan. Reducing the amount of light in your sleeping area can be done
by using black out shades over windows or heavy dark fabric for curtains.
It can also be mitigated by taking following measures:

Fatigue may be reduced, by improving environment conditions (lighting, temp., humidity, noise).
A physical crowded situation results in mental fatigue and confusion. "When too may workers working
in small space fatigue occur. Hence extension of workir1.g space and rearrangement of plant layout can
eliminate fatigue.
Adequate training should be give to relieve tension and thus reducing fatigue.
Fatigue occurs when work is repetitive or monotonous. A change from one job to another breaks
monotony and hence reduce fatigue.
Studies show that fatigue develops only after some hours of continuous work. Rest pauses helps to
reduce fatigue to a greater extent.
Proper application of scheduled hours can go a long way in reducing the incidence of fatigue.
Regular exercise improves overall health and may decrease bedtime restlessness and hence reduce
fatigue.
Steady consistent bedtime routine helps to avoid fatigue.
Adjustment of eating and drinking habits and taking balanced diet can help to avoid fatigue.

CHAPTER 5
1. Define ventilation. Give its legal requirement.

Industrial ventilation is a method of controlling worker exposure to airborne toxic chemicals or

flammable vapors by exhausting contaminated air away from the work area and replacing it with
clean air. It is an alternative to, control employee exposure to air contaminants in the workplace.
Ventilation is a process by which fresh air is introduced and ventilated air is removed from an
occupied space. The primary aim of ventilation is to preserve the qualities of air. Efficient ventilation
and proper maintenance of ventilation systems helps provide a comfortable working environment for
workers and avoid various invisible health hazards in buildings and workplaces.
Section 14(3) stipulates that where glasses, vapors or other impurities are generated in the course
of any process or work carried out in a workplace which may be injurious to health, effective and
suitable ventilation shall be provided for securing and maintaining the circulation of fresh air in the
workplace.
Section 59(1) stipulates that where any process or work carried out in any workplace is likely to
produce or give off any toxic, irritating or offensive dust, fume or other contaminants, all practicable
measures shall be taken to protect persons employed in the workplace against inhalation of dust, fume or
other contaminants; and prf9vent.their accumulation in the workplace.
Section 59(2) specifies' 'that the measures' to be taken shall, where appropriate, include providing
local exhaust ventilation to remove the dust, fumes or other contaminants at their sources of emission.
2. What is the purpose of ventilation?
PURPOSE OF VENTILATION
Maintaining human comfort and health are two key reasons for providing ventilation in
buildings. To achieve these purposes, a ventilation system should be able to meet the following

criteria:
Provide sufficient supply of air/oxygen for the physiological needs of human beings;
Provide sufficient supply of air/oxygen for industrial, agricultural and other processes (for
example, provision of oxygen for burning and combustion processes);
Remove the products of respiration and body odour (including those from smoking) of human
occupants;
Remove contaminants or harmful chemicals generated by processes or from building materials;
Remove heat generated by people, lighting and equipment inside the occupied space;
Create some degree of air movement which is essential for feelings of freshness and comfort
(usually a velocity of 0.1 to 0.3 ml/ is required); and
To maintain the temperature and humidity within an acceptable range that is appropriate to the
activities on the premises.

3. What are various types of ventilator?

TYPES QF VENTILATION
Ventilation is done by replacing (in full or part) the contaminated or foul air by fresh air from the
atmosphere outside. Outside atmosphere, of course, has an unending supply of fresh, good quality air.
The replacement of foul air by fresh air is achieved by, Natural General Ventilation, Mechanical
General Ventilation, Dilution, Ventilation, Local Exhaust Ventilation.
Natural Ventilation
Natural Ventilation can be effected by wind action and stack effect. It achieved by providing enough
openings at convenient locations so that natural wind can pass through the space and automatically
replaces the foul air. To take the proper advantage of wind action, in the design stage itself of the plant,
these aspects should be looked into. The distribution of windows, doors and openings, their number, the
ceil height, as well as the orientation of the structure need careful consideration. In case of an enclosure,
when the air inside and outside the enclosure has different temperatures, ventilation may be effected by
stack effect. Openings near, the roof like ventilators and other vents can be provided for stack effects. In
this case, the cool outside air enters the enclosure through openings at lower level whereas the warm air
in the enclosure will pass through "openings near the roof or ceiling levels. If will be necessary in case
of natural ventilation, to take into account the position of buildings with respect to wind direction
prevailing, position of sun and admission of sunlight, outside temperature during different parts of the
year and the desired inside temperature conditions. This is a cheap and effective method in cases when
There are no external contaminants generated
Outside atmosphere air it is not contaminated

Special types of ventilators which increase the natural flow of air are also commercially available
and can be used to augment natural ventilation.
Mechanical General Ventilation
Mechanical general ventilation is done in two ways:
Blowing air form outside into the room resulting in the development of a slight positive pressure
inside and constant flow of air from outside to inside and then out.
Sucking out the air inside the room with the help of exhaust fans arid developing negative
pressure inside the room. This will draw outside air inside to replace the, foul air thrown out by
the fan.
Both the methods have their own advantages and areas' of specific applications; For instance, a rest
room for workers is provided adjacent to the spinning department of a rayon factory where hydrogen
sulphide may be present.
In the spinning room, it is advisable to create negative pressures so that air from outside is sucked
inside. But in the rest room, it will be desirable to blow air from outside as creating negative pressures
will result in part of the foul air from the spinning section also entering the rest room. Fresh air from
outside comes to rest room and a part of it escaping to the spinning shop can cause to harm; In the case
of positive pressure systems, it will be possible to clean the air before blowing inside which, is not
easy ,in the case of negative pressure.
Mechanical ventilation can be effected as follows:
By using exhaust fans.
.
By the use of positive ventilation i.e., by the use of supply fans coupled with suitable ducts to
force fresh air from outside the enclosure.
By combination of exhaust fans and positive ventilation.
Dilution Ventilation
The amount of uncontaminated outside air introduced mixes with the inside air and serves to dilute
and "reduce the concentration of air contaminants to acceptable level to which a worker can be safely
exposed for eight hours a day.
Dilution ventilation is usually applied to the control of contaminants in situation meeting the criteria:
To control vapour (+ organic) from low toxicity solvents.
To control contaminants released over such 'a large area or in such a manner that exhaust ventilation is
impossible, impractical or expensive.
Small quantities of contaminants released into the work room.
Rate of contaminant release should be reasonably constant to avoid inadequate dilution during periods of
peak contaminant release.
No corrosion or other problems from the diluted contaminants in the work room air
Sufficient distance from the worker to the contaminants source to allow dilution to safe levels.
Dilution Ventilation is Prohibited Control emission. of very toxic air contaminants example
formaldehyde or other carcinogenic chemicals. For effective dilution ventilation, the exhaust outlet and
air supply must be so located that all the air employed in the ventilation passes through the zone of
contamination and avoid re-entrance of the exhausted air.

Advantages and Disadvantages of dilution ventilation

Advantage
Simplicity
Low original cost
Disadvantage
Large volumes of dilution air needed
Employee exposures are difficult to control near source
Local Exhaust Ventilation,
It is used to capture or contain contaminants released at their source before escape into the work room
environment. It removes contaminants rather than just dilute them.
A typical local exhaust system will consist of:

A "hood" to capture and direct the contaminants into pipeline.

A pipeline to transport contaminants.
A suitable fan to generate sufficient air velocity to capture and transport the contaminants.
Collectors/filters to separate the contaminant from air.
Hood

A pipe terminating near the source of contaminants is the simplest exhaust hood. It is not
effective because it allows air from all directions to be sucked in resulting only a portion of the
contaminants is removed and a lot of clean air around is also sucked into the pipeline.
Providing flange around the opening reduces suction from one side of pipe, thus increasing
suction from front. Thus the effectiveness is increased. This arrangement finds practical application in
hoods for grinding machines and exhaust hoods for welding.
A cannoy type hood is an improved version and is more effective. The side draught exhaust hood is
also effective and has the advantage that operator has freedom of movement. The factors that are taken
into account for the correct selection and design of exhaust hood are:
The shape of hood.
.
Distance of the hood from the source and the directions from which contaminants are released.
The area of opening necessary, which depends 4pon the job itself.
Flow of air inside the hood and the resistance to air flow offered by the hood.
The capture velocity required - i.e. the velocity of air necessary to capture the particles
effectively.
A poorly designed hood will result in complete failure of system irrespective of the capacity of
fan used.

The Pipeline (Ducting)

The use of pipelines in exhaust systems is to transport the contaminants trapped by the hood to the
fan and then to the exhaust. It could by a simple pipe connecting the exhaust fan and one hood, or a

complicated network of pipelines connecting many hords. The important considerations are:

Transport velocity required and the quantity of air to be handled.

Corrosive, abrasive or sticking properties of the contaminants being transported.
The length of pipeline required.
Bends, joints and diversions required to be included-which increase the resistance to flow.

Fan
The fan is used to introduce sufficient air velocity to capture and transport the contaminants. The fan
selected should have sufficient capacity to handle the required quantity of air and provide transport
velocity needed and also the power to overcome resistance of system starting from hood to exhaust. The
types of fans used commonly are:
Axial flow fans with or without guide vanes which are suitable for low pressure atmospheric
applications.
Centrifugal fans with
forward curved blades for low and medium pressure applications.
aerofoil blades.
.
backward curved blades for medium and high pressure systems and high air velocities.
Propeller fans for low pressure systems and atmospheric applications like exhaust from a room.
Collectors
Apart from entrapping and conveying the contaminants, it becomes sometimes necessary to separate
and collect the particles captured. The purpose is either to prevent contaminants from re-entering into
the atmosphere or to reuse the material in the process and thus avoid wastage.
The requirements of good collector are:
Cleaning efficiency should not come down with time.
Low cost and durability.
No operational difficulties in terms of maintenance and cleaning.
There are various types of collectors available, the main ones being
Gravity Chambers
Where dust particles are substantially heavier than air, they are allowed fall to a chamber by their
own weight, and get collected in a tray. The inlets .and outlets are so spaced that the maximum quantity
gets collected.
Centrifugal or Inertia Separators
Here the air inside the collector takes a circular path and due to high velocity, the centrifugal force
throws the particles away from the flow which are subsequently deflected and guided to a tray.
Filter
Filters interposed in the airflow traps the contaminants and releases clean air.

Electrostatic Precipitators
A plate or tube charged with electricity installed in the air path attracts dust particles and releases
only clean air.
Wet Scrubbers
Water is sprayed at or through the air path which wets the contaminants, and collects them.
Use of Local Exhaust Ventilation
The most effective means of controlling air contaminants is to capture and remove the air
contaminents at their source with LEV and to prevent them from being carried away by air
currents into the breathing zones of the worker.
Major release i.e. toxic of localize sources of contaminants.
4. What are the sources of ventilation?
SOURCES OF VENTILATION
Ventilation of any type may be provided through natural means or through artificial means.
Natural Ventilation
Natural ventilation is the movement of air into and out of the premises through windows, doors or any
openings without any mechanical aid. The rate of air exchange in this type of ventilation is unsteady as it
is governed by geographical and many other factors which are very often beyond the occupant's control.
Natural ventilation is suitable only for control of modest heat load and very low emission of less toxic
contaminants.
Adequacy of air inlets and outlets is of great importance to natural ventilation. As a reference,
premises relying entirely on natural ventilation should have openings of at least 5 to 10 % of the floor
area to obtain adequate ventilation in summer.
Before the advent of mechanical ventilation, all buildings were naturally ventilated. Since that time,
climate control expectations have risen significantly, and most building programs, codes, and regulations
are based on the expectation of mechanical systems. Natural ventilation is the only feasible solution in
industries, which release vast quantities of heat. Examples of the application are blast furnaces, heat
treatment shop, boiler houses, engine rooms etc.
Natural ventilation may be divided into two categories:
1. Controlled natural ventilation is intentional displacement of air through specified openings such as
windows, doors, and ventilations by using natural forces (usually by pressures from wind and/or indooroutdoor temperature differences). It is usually controlled to some extent by the occupant.
2. Infiltration is the uncontrolled random flow of air through unintentional openings driven by wind,
temperature-difference pressures and/or appliance-induced pressures across the building envelope. In
contrast to controlled natural ventilation, infiltration cannot be so controlled and is less desirable than
other ventilation strategies, but it is a main source of ventilation in envelope-dominated buildings.
Principle of natural ventilation

For air to move into and out of a building, a pressure difference between the inside and outside of the
building is required. The resistance to flow of air through the building will affect the actual airflow rate.
In general, controlled natural ventilation and infiltration are driven by pressure difference across t4e
building envelope. The pressure difference is caused by:
P Wind (or wind effect);
Difference in air density due to temperature difference between indoor and outdoor air (stack or chimney
effect); or Combination of both wind and stack effects.
Advantages of Natural Ventilation
It is sustainable and does not contribute to pollution.
Higher air velocities enhance cooling sensation.
Cost effective: no/reduced mechanical or operational maintenance. Air is free and it saves space.
Disadvantages of natural Ventilation
Difficult to control: depends on unpredictable behavior of the wind.
In many urban environments, outdoor air conditions and acoustics are unacceptable. For deep
plan or multi-roomed buildings, fresh air delivery or good mixing may not be possible.
Fluctuations of indoor conditions. Air flow rates vary with outdoor conditions.
Good natural ventilation in a livestock building is the result of the 'right' design, 'right' location
and 'right' construction. Therefore, a naturally ventilated building which does not function
properly is often difficult and expensive to correct. Sometimes the only solution is to revert to
mechanical ventilation.
Mechanical Ventilation
Mechanical ventilation is the supply and or extraction of air using fans. Fans of various types such as
centrifugal fans, axial flow fans, roof extractors etc. and ducts are used to effect ventilation. This source
of ventilation is highly suitable for local exhaust ventilation.
5. How will you control the ventilation?
VENTILATION CONTROL PROGRAM
All ventilation systems require inspections and testing. Training on routine and emergency operating
procedures should also be provided. Some factors to be considered and incorporated into the ventilation
control program:
Written standards and procedures for operation.
Regular daily or weekly inspections, depending upon the toxicity of substances to be
exhausted.
Regular cleanout schedule for settling chambers, dropout boxes, dust collectors. Regular
maintenance.
Operator training.
Use of personal protective equipment, when required.
Regular medical examinations, where applicable.
An emergency plan in case of fan failure or blockages of ducts.

1. Inspection. Never assume the system is operating properly just because the fan is running. Some
things to be considered during inspections are:
Determining the velocities at which the system is to operate
Doing visual checks of the system - physical condition of ducts, dampers, hoods, stack, motor,
fan, blades, belts
Checking the electrical system regularly
Checking noise levels from fans (increase in noise levels is an indication of problems; any
increase in noise could also raise noise exposure levels to above legal limits).
Difficulty in opening doors in buildings with local exhaust may indicate that not enough makeup air is being supplied, so that the efficiency of the system is reduced.
The frequency of inspections depends on the manufacturer's recommendations, how often the
system is used, and the form and concentration of the contaminant(s) being removed.
2. Training. Training requirements should include the following:
The role of ventilation in contaminant control.
Breakdowns which cause hazardous or nuisance conditions.
How to handle fire in ducts.
Knowledge of tests carried out (to reinforce why there is such a ventilation system). Position
required being in while working near exhaust hood.
Shutdown procedures of fans, etc.

3. Maintenance. Any ventilation system will have slight performance fluctuations. As with any piece
of machinery, a ventilation system is subject to wear, misalignment and breakdowns. Only through
regular and thorough maintenance it can remain in effective operating condition.
The following are a few of the more common problems to be aware of:
Hood system
Adjustable slots have been altered.
Resistance has been changed (i.e., the hood has been modified or more fume hoods have been
inappropriately added, so the velocity and flow rate of air are less than what was specified). .
Holes in the enclosure resulting in air entering the hood in other locations.
Inspection doors left open or removed, allowing air to enter.
Duct work
Duct partially plugged, increasing the resistance of air flow and decreasing the flow rate of air
through the system.
Damper settings changed which lessens the amount of air flowing through the system.
Corrosion, leaks, holes, bent, crushed.
Inspection doors left open.
Ducts joints have worked loose or become separated.
Dust or corrosion.
Incorrect position (causing system to become unbalanced).
Collecting devices
Bags missing, blocked, overloaded.
Cleaning mechanism not working.

 Hopper full of dust.

Filters clogged.
Motors/fans

Duct or corrosion on fan blades.

Incorrect rotation of blades.
Fan blade assembly incorrectly mounted.
Incorrect fan size for system.
Incorrect speed.
Field modification to fan wheel or casing.
Broken fan belt.
Belt slippage/pulley sizes changed.
Motors not lubricated, drives belts and other parts worn out.

4. Write a short note DESIGN OF VENTILATION SYSTEM.

A ventilation system may be designed more or less according the following procedure:
Identify all significant contaminant sources that require ventilation control. Request the
local industrial hygiene office to provide a source characterization with area diagrams of
the contaminant sources, and employee work areas. Also, consider how the system being
designed might affect the performance of any existing processes, industrial ventilation
systems.
Consider how the facility is to be used or expanded in the future. It may be possible to
initially specify fans that are capable of handling future needs at minimal increased cost.
Select or design the exhaust hood that best suits the work piece or operation. Design the
exhaust hood to enclose the work piece or operation as much as possible. This will reduce
the ventilation rates required to provide contaminant control.
Calculate heat and cooling loads by calculating indoor heat or cooling loads and
calculating surrounding heat or cooling loads.
Calculate Air Shifts according the Occupants or any Processes. Calculate the pollution
created by persons and their activity and processes.
Calculate Air Supply Temperature
Determine the capture velocity required to control generated contaminants.
Determine the exhaust volumetric flow, in cubic meters per second (m3/s) required to
maintain the capture velocity determined.
Create a line drawing of the proposed system. Include plan and elevation dimensions, fan
location and air cleaning device location. Identify each hood, branch duct and main duct
sections.
Size duct work. Maintain the required minimum transport velocity throughout the system.
Determine requirements for replacement air. Based on the process, determine if the room
should be under slightly negative, neutral or slightly positive pressure with respect to the
surrounding area. The surrounding area can be either outside the building envelope or an

adjacent room or hallway. Determine if tempered replacement air is needed.

5. Write short note on ventilator.
Ventilator is defined the device which acts on the body (-ve pressure body ventilator and
other body ventilator) and device which forces intermittent pressure to the airways.
Body ventilator includes device which assist respiratory muscles by intermittently
lowering pressure around the chest and abdomen so that air enters the nose and
mouth.
Devices which apply forces directly to the body to displace respiratory muscles
mechanically.
Iron lung, chest shell style ventilator are some type of body ventilators.
Volume cycled ventilator: are very reliable devices. For this reason they are used in
severe respiratory insufficiency which leads often to tra cheostomy. It is advisable to choose
portable ventilator easy to fit to the wheel chair with back up battery and alarm for possible
defaults of the m/c.
6. Define air-conditioning and its types
AIR-CONDITIONING
In summer, high relative humidity, elevated air temperatures and bright sunshine can sometimes
combine to produce an uncomfortable indoor environment. An air-conditioning system can
provide comfort for occupants by lowering the air temperature and the humidity level in the
home.
TYPES OF AIR-CONDITIONERS
The basic types of air-conditioners are room air-conditioners, split-system central air-conditioners, and packaged central air-conditioners.
1. Room Air-Conditioners. Room air-conditioners cool rooms rather than the entire home. If
they provide cooling only where they're needed, room air-conditioners are less expensive to
operate than central units, even though their efficiency is generally lower than that of central airconditioners.
2. Central Air-Conditioners. Central air-conditioners circulate cool air through a system of
supply and return ducts. Supply ducts and registers (i.e., openings in the walls, floors, or ceilings
covered by grills) carry cooled air from the air-conditioner to the home. This cooled air becomes
warmer as it circulates through the home; then it flows back to the central air conditioner through
return ducts and registers. A central air-conditioner is either a split system unit or a packaged
unit.
In a split-system central air-conditioner, an outdoor metal cabinet contains the condenser and
compressor, and an indoor cabinet contains the evaporator. In many split-system air conditioners,
this indoor cabinet also contains a furnace or the indoor part of a heat pump. The air-conditioners
evaporator coil is installed in the cabinet or main supply duct of this furnace or heat pump. If a
home is having a furnace but no air-conditioner, a split-system is the most economical central
air-conditioner to install.

In a packaged central air-conditioner, the evaporator, condenser, and compressor are all located
in one cabinet, which is usually placed on a roof or on a concrete slab next to the house's
foundation. This type of air-conditioner is also used in small commercial buildings. Air-supply
and return ducts come from indoors through the home's exterior wall or roof to connect with the
packaged air-conditioner, which is usually located outdoors. Packaged air conditioners often
include electric heating coils or a natural gas furnace. This combination of air-conditioner and
central heater eliminates the need for a separate furnace indoors.
7. Write a note component of air cond.
Components of an Air-conditioner
The refrigerant is a substance that circulates through the air-conditioner, alternately absorbing, transporting and releasing heat.
A coil is a system of tubing loops through which refrigerant flows and where heat transfer
takes place. The tubing may have fins to increase the surface area available for heat exchange.
The evaporator is a coil that allows the refrigerant to absorb heat from its surroundings,
causing the refrigerant to boil and become a low-temperature vapour.
The compressor squeezes the molecules of the refrigerant gas together, increasing the
pressure and temperature of the refrigerant.
The condenser is a coil that allows the refrigerant gas to give off heat to its surroundings
and become a liquid.
The expansion device releases the pressure created by the compressor. This causes the
temperature to drop and the refrigerant to become a low-temperature vapour liquid mixture.
The plenum is an air compartment that forms part of the system for distributing warmed or
cooled air through the house. It is generally a large compartment immediately above the heat
exchanger.
Other terms
A Btu/h, or British thermal unit per hour, is a measure of the heat output of a heating system.
One Btu is the amount of heat energy given off by a typical birthday candle. If this heat energy
were released over the course of one hour, it would be the equivalent of 1 Btu/h. A ton is a
measure of cooling capacity. It is equivalent to 3.5 kW or 12000 Btu/h.
The capacity of an air-conditioner is a measure of the maximum rate at which it can
remove heat from the conditioned space. Capacity is expressed in British thermal units per hour
or tons and is determined under a specific set of test conditions.
The cooling load, also stated in British thermal units per hour, is the maximum amount of heat
that builds up in a space without a cooling system operating. It is calculated to determine the
capacity of air-conditioner required.
Heat gain is a term applied to various components of the heat load, such as appliance heat gain
and solar heat gain. All of the heat gain components are summed to calculate the cooling load.
The Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) is a measure of how much cooling effect is provided by the

air-conditioner for each unit of electrical energy that it consumes under steady state operation. It
is determined by dividing the- cooling output of the unit, in British thermal units per hour, by the
electrical power input, in watts, at a specific temperature.
The higher the EER, the more efficient the unit.
The Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) is a measurement of the cooling efficiency
of the air-conditioner over the entire cooling season. It is determined by dividing the total
cooling provided over the cooling season, in British thermal units per hour, by the total energy
used by the air-conditioner during that time, in watt/hours. The SEER is based on a climate with
an average summer temperature of 28C.
8. How air-conditioners work?
WORKING OF AIR CONDITIONERS
The Basic Idea
An air conditioner is basically a refrigerator without the insulated box. It uses the evaporation of a
refrigerant, like Freon, to provide cooling.
The mechanics of the Freon evaporation cycle "Is the same in a refrigerator as in an air conditioner.
This is how the evaporation cycle in an air-conditioner works:
The compressor compresses cool Freon gas, causing it to become hot, high pressure Freon gas.
This hot gas runs through a set of coils so it can dissipate its heat, and it condenses into a liquid.
The Freon liquid runs through an expansion valve, and in the process it evaporates to become
cold, low-pressure Freon gas.
This cold gas runs through a set of coils that allow, the gas to absorb heat and cool down the air
inside the building:
Mixed in with the Freon is a small amount of a light weight oil.

9. What are various types of air-conditioning systems?

Window Units
A window air-conditioner unit implements a complete air-conditioner in a small space. The units are
made small enough to fit into a standard window frame. You close the window down on the unit, plug
the unit in and Turn it on to get cool air. If you take the cover off of an unplugged window unit, you will
find that it contains:
A compressor
An expansion valve
A hot coil
A chilled coil
Two fans
A control unit
The fans blow air over the coils to improve, their ability to dissipate heat and cold.
Split-system Units: A split-system air-conditioner splits the hot side from the cold side of the system.

The cold side, consisting of the expansion valve and the cold coil, is generally placed into a furnace
or some other air handler. The air handler blows air through the coil and rotates the air throughout the
building using a series of ducts. The hot side, known as the condensing unit, lives outside the building:
The unit consists of a long, spiral coil shaped like a cylinder. Inside the coil is a fan to blow air
through the coil, along with a "weather resistant compressor and some control logic. This approach has
evolved over the years because it, is low-cost, and also because it normally results in reduced noise
inside the house. Besides the fact that the hot and cold sides are split apart and the capacity is higher,
there is no difference between a split-system and a window air-conditioner.
Chilled-water System
In large buildings and particularly in multi storey buildings, the "split-system approach begins to run
into problems. Either running the pipe between the condenser and the air handler, exceeds distance
limitations or the amount of duct work, and, the length of ducts becomes unmanageable. At this point, it
is time to think about a chilled water system.
In a chilled-water system, the entire, air-conditioner lives on the I roof or behind the building. It
cools water to between 40 and 45 F. This chilled-water is then piped throughout the building and
connected to air handlers as needed. There is no practical limit to the length of a chilled-water pipe if it
is well insulated.
10. Explain heat stress and its effects on the efficiency of workers.
HEAT STRESS
The human body is equipped to maintain an appropriate balance, between the metabolic heat it produces
and the environmental heat to which it is exposed. Sweating and the subsequent evaporation of sweat are
the body's way of trying to maintain an acceptable temperature balance. According to Alpaugh, this
balance can be expressed as a function of the various factors in the following equation.
H=MRC-E
H = body heat, M = internal heat gain, R = radiant heat gain C = Convection heat gain E = Evaporation.
As long as heat gained from radiation, convection and metabolic, processes does not exceed that
lost through the evaporation induced by sweating, the body experiences no stress or hazard. However,
when heat gain from any source is more than the body can compensate for by sweating, the result is heat
stress. "Heat stress is the net heat burden on the body from the combination of the body generated heat
while working, environmental, sources (air temperature, humidity, air movement, and radiation from the
sun) and clothing requirements. Heat stress is a major concern of modern health and safety
professionals.
Heat Stress Causes the following Illnesses
Heat edema is swelling which generally occurs among people, who are not acclimatized to working in
hot conditions. Swelling is often most noticeable in the ankles. Recovery occurs after a day or two in a
cool environment.
Heat rashes are tiny red spots on the skin which cause a prickling sensation during heat exposure.

The spots are the result of inflammation caused when the ducts of sweat glands become plugged.
Heat cramps are sharp pains in the muscles that may occur alone or be combined with one of the
other heat stress disorders. The cause is salt imbalance, resulting from the failure to replace salt lost with
sweat. Cramps most often occur when people drink large amounts of water without sufficient salt
replacement.
Heat exhaustion is caused by loss of body water and salt through excessive sweating. Signs and
symptoms of heat exhaustion include: heavy weakness, dizziness, visual disturbances, intense thirst,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle cramps, breathlessness, palpitations, tingling and numbness of the
hands and feet. Recovery occurs after resting in a cool area and consuming cool salted drinks.
Heat syncope is heat-induced giddiness and fainting induced by temporarily insufficient flow of
blood to the brain while a person is standing. It occurs mostly among unacclimatized people. It is caused
by the loss of body fluids through sweating, and by lowered blood pressure due to pooling of blood in
legs. Recovery is rapid after rest in a cool area.
Heat stroke and hyperpyrexia are the most serious types of heat illnesses caused by prolonged work
in hot environments. Signs of heat stroke include dry, hot skin (due to failure to sweating), body
temperature often exceeding 410 C, and complete or partial loss of consciousness. The signs of heat
hyperpyrexia are similar except that the skin remains moist.
11. Discuss the factors contributing to heat stress in an industry.
Environment

Worker

Work

Air temperature
Airflow
Humidity
Radiant heat
Acclimatization
Hydration
Clothing
Medical conditions
Workload
Work rate

12. What are various sources of heat.

SOURCES OF HEAT
The body can gain heat in two ways: it can generate heat itself through work activity and it can absorb
heat from the environment. Both work activity and the environment are important sources of heat and
sometimes the work activity itself can be the main source of heat stress. Cases of heat stress have been
reported when the air temperature was relatively low but the physical activity level of the work was very
high.
Heat from Activity
The amount of heat generated by the worker depends on the kind of work performed. The workload may
be light, moderate or heavy depending upon the job.

Heat from the Environment

The amount of heat gained from the environment depends on the surrounding air temperature, the
amount of air movement, and any radiant heat. Some examples of radiant heat sources are heaters,
boilers, fires, and sunlight. The addition of heat from radiant sources can cause overheating even when
the air temperature is not high.
11. Explain physiology of heat regulation.
PHYSIOLOGY OF HEAT REGULATION:
The temperature of different parts of the body varies. The temperature of the outer skin like hands, arms,
forehead etc. is influenced by the weather conditions around. A person working near a furnace may have
a warm forehead and a person working in cold may have cold hands. The temperature of the inner
organs like heart brain liver etc. is not influenced by the outside temperature. The temperature of the
inner organs has to remain in specified constant temperature called core temperature if the body has to
survive. This is achieved in the body by an automatic thermal regulation process taking place within the
body itself. Thermal regulation process in the human body accurately controlled by the brain, which gets
information through heat sensitive nerves located throughout the body.
Human body, like any other object loses or gains heat in three ways conduction, convection and
radiation. The blood circulation regulates the heat to some degree by carrying blood from cold areas to
warm areas and vice-versa. When the outer skin of the body gains heat as happens when a person work
near a furnace exposed to radiant heat, secretion of sweat is increased which leads to evaporative
cooling. The person feels thirsty and prompted to take water. Changes take place in head beating and
breathing and the body activities, which control the generation of heat within, the body. On the other
hand, when, the body loses heat as happens when one is exposed to cold weather, secretion of sweat is
controlled and more heat is produced by muscles, and internal organs. Shivering of the body in cold
weather is nothing but the musc1es try to generate more heat. In both cases physiological changes take
place prompting the person exposed to take corrective action. In case of cold; the person feels like
taking' hot drinks, keeping hands, feet and body together, slapping hands and stamping feet to generate
heat. In the case of hot, the person feels thirst taking cold drinks and, needing rest.
If the exposure time to excess cold or hot is too long so that the regulatory mechanism within the
body cannot cope up with it, the temperature of the inside organs will change which is highly dangerous.
13. How will you prevent heat transfer?
PREVENTING HEAT STRESS
Employers, supervisors, and workers must have a basic understanding of how heat affects the
body if they are to prevent heat stress. Employers must provide adequate training and education

to all workers at risk for heat stress, their immediate co-workers, and their supervisors. Training
should include the following information:

How heat stress develops?

Personal risk factors.
How to prevent heat stress?
How to recognize symptoms?
What to do if a worker himself or herself?

It is important for workers to recognize the signs and symptoms of the early stages o(heat stress. If
workers are able to remove themselves or co-workers from a hot environment in the early stages, serious
illness can be avoided. The best method of prevention is to conduct a proper heat stress assessment and
then eliminate or reduce the contributing factors.
Control measures for preventing heat stress should be considered in the following order:
1. Engineering controls
2. Administrative controls
3. Personal heat-protective equipment.
1. Engineering Controls. Engineering controls are the most effective and preferred means to reduce
excessive heat exposure. The following are some examples of engineering controls.

Reduce worker activity through automation or mechanization.

Cover or insulate hot surfaces to reduce radiant heat.
Shield workers from radiant heat.
Provide air conditioning or increased ventilation to remove hot air.
Provide fans for spot cooling.
Reduce the humidity using air conditioning and dehumidifiers, or reduce the sources of moisture
2. Administrative Controls. The following are some common administrative controls used to
reduce the risk of heat stress.

Acclimatize workers: Acclimatization, allows the body to modify its own functions to better
cope with heat stress and to remove excess heat more efficiently. Acclimatization has three main
benefits:
Enhanced cardiovascular fitness
Enhanced sweating
Lower salt content in sweat.
In general, acclimatized workers will be able to work in hotter work conditions and for longer
periods than unacclimatized workers.
Supervise workers: Workers should not work alone in conditions where heat stress is possible. They
should be closely supervised or work in pairs or groups to ensure that heat disorders are identified and
treated as soon as possible. Supervisors need to ensure that there is adequate first aid coverage and must
establish emergency procedures to deal with serious condition such as heat exhaustion and heat stroke.

Determine appropriate work-rest cycles: Appropriate work-rest cycles should be determined and
scheduled to allow adequate time for workers' body to cool. It is important to have cool areas, such as
shaded or well ventilated areas, for breaks and rests. Showering or soaking in cool water, when possible,
can cool the body very quickly.
.
Wear cool clothing: Clothing suitable for hot conditions and heavy work helps the body to cool
itself. Loose-fitting clothes made from fabrics such as cotton and silk allow air to pass through. Air
passing over the skin will help cool the body by evaporating the sweat from the skin.
Drink water: The body naturally sweats to cool itself. Sweating can use up a significant amount of
fluid, which must be replaced continuously throughout the day. If fluid is not regularly replaced, a
worker will become dehydrated, increasing his or her risk for heat stress. It is important to drink water
before as well as during and after working a hot environment. Employers are required to provide an
adequate supply of drinking water close to the work area for workers exposed to heat.
3. Personal Heat-Protective Clothing. Some work environments may be so hot that even the most
suitable and acclimatized workers will be able to work only for short periods of time or only with the
use of personal temperature-controlled equipment. In extremely hot environments - for example, near
kilns - specialized heat-protective clothing may be required. There are two main types of specialized
heat-protective clothing:
Temperature-controlled clothing includes including air-cooled suits, water-cooled suits, and icecooled waistcoats.
Anti-radiant heat or reflective clothing may be necessary where there is excessive radiant heat
from a hot surface that cannot be otherwise covered.
14. What are various factors causing heat stress
PERSONAL RISK FACTORS CAUSING HEAT STRESS
Lack of Acclimatization: Conditioning of the body to a hot working environment is known as
acclimatization. A person who regularly works in a hot environment will be at a lower risk of
developing heat disorders than a person who does not.
Poor Physical Fitness: Physically fit people are generally better able to cope with heat stress
and less likely to develop heat disorders. Regular aerobic activity such as walking, running
cycling, and swimming can increase a person's level of physical fitness.
Obesity: Excess fat provides increased insulation, which reduces heat loss. People with excess
weight may also generate more heat during activity.
Increased Age: Older workers (40 to 65 years of age) are generally less able to cope with heat.
In older adults, heart function becomes less efficient, and sweating starts later and occurs at a
slower rate.
Short-term Disorders and Minor Illnesses: Feverish illnesses, diarrhea, and vomiting can all
cause excess loss of fluids, which may decrease a person's ability to cope with heat. Workers
who feel unwell should not work in hot conditions until they feel well again.
Chronic Skin Disorders: Rashes, dermatitis, healed burns, and other skin conditions may limit
the body's ability to sweat properly. Skin problems can also worsen when exposed to heat.
Alcohol Abuse and use of Recreational Drugs. Alcohol intake increases water loss, and can

cause even acclimatize workers to become dehydrated.

15. How can heat exposure be controlled in an industry?
CONTROL OF HEAT EXPOSURES
Various methods of giving relief from heat to the workers are:
Good General Ventilation: Ventilation should aim at
Keeping the air temperature of the workroom low enough to enable body heat to be dissipated by
convection,
Preventing excessive humidity so as to assist body heat loss by evaporation,
Regulating the rate of air movement so that the loss of body heat by convection is facilitated.
Control at Source. For mitigating the effects of heat, first of all eliminate all heat sources
wherever possible. Some of the hot process equipment could be placed out of doors with only a
protective roof. The location of furnaces in separate wings will simplify the problem of
supplying air for general ventilation.
Local Exhaust Ventilation: Another method of removing heat from the source is by providing
ventilated enclosures such as exhaust hoods by which natural convection column of heated air
rises from a hot process environment. This will minimize the temperature rise in the space
around the hot process.
Insulation. The insulation of furnaces and other heat producing equipment will not only reduce
the amount of heat exposure but also result in the consequent saving in fuel consumption. The
insulation will be of value only when heat produced has several avenues of escape.
Control of Radiant Heat. In some industries such as "hot industries" the frequency of very hot
objects and surfaces such as furnaces, ovens, molten material, castings and forgings is such that
the major environmental heat load is in the form of radiant heat which may be several times
greater that the convective heat transfer load. No amount of ventilation will reduce the heat
exposure. The only effective control is to decrease the amount of radiant heat impinging on the
exposed workers. This can be accomplished by either lowering the surface temperature of the hot
equipment or by radiation shielding.
Local Relief: In certain situations where a general reduction of heat exposure through out the
plant is not feasible relief may be provided locally by Providing a complete enclosure around
worker with separate ventilation in order to maintain cooler working conditions.
Surrounding the worker with a relatively cool atmosphere by a direct supply of air introduced at
the working level or over a small area of plant.
Personal Protection and Shielding: In certain operations the workers may be required to work
within reach of hot objects may be at temperature of 800C. In such situations, protective
clothing and protective shields of heat reflecting type can be used to control heat exposure.
16. Define thermal environment?
THERMAL ENVIRONMENT
Thermal environment is related to combined effects of radian temp., humidity air velocity etc.
The thermal environment we work in can have a large effect on the enjoyment and effectiveness of
our work. It is divided into three broad categories. The first is thermal comfort, where people feel

neither too hot nor too cold, and do not perceive the temperature to be a problem. The second is
thermal stress, where the thermal environment will cause clearly defined medical conditions, and
cal1 prove fatal. The third is thermal discomfort, which lie between first two. People can feel too hot
or too cold_ but do not display medical symptoms beyond irritability and fatigue.
17. What are different methods for measure of thermal environment?
MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL ENVIRONMENT
Feeling of hot or cold depeni1s on
air temperature
relative humidity of air.
presence of 'hot or cold object in the surrounding area
Presence of air movement
Various methods of measuring occupational heat exposure combine these environmental factors to
obtain a single number as a measure of overall heat load. The most commonly used measure in the
workplace is the wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT) index.
The Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT)
The wet bulb globe temperature is calculated using a formula that takes into account air temperature,
speed of air movement radiant heat from hot objects; sunshine and body cooling due to sweat
evaporation.
The wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT) is calculated by using the following equations.
For outdoors with, direct sun exposure:
WBGT = 0.7 x Temp wet bulb + 0.2 x Temp globe + 0.1. x Temp air
For indoors or outdoors without direct sun exposure:
WBGT =0.7 x Temp wet bulb + 03 x. Temp globe
where
TemP wet bulb natural wet bulb temperature measured by using a thermometer whose bulb is covered
with wet cotton, cloth and is cooled by the natural air movement.
Temp globe temperature measured using a black globe thermometer. Temp air temperature measured
using a conventional thermometer. All temperatures are to be expressed in c.
18. Define thermal comfort and various factors depend upon thermal comfort.
THERMAL COMFORT
A condition of the mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment".
A person can be described as being "thermally comfortable" when they are not conscious of
being either too hot or too cold.

 A "thermally comfortable" environment is the ideal thermal environment for people to work in.
Not only do people perform their work more efficiently, but they are less likely to make mistakes
that could result in an accident.
Thermal comfort can be very subjective. Conditions that are very comfortable to one person can
be uncomfortable to another.
To have "thermal comfort" means that a person wearing a normal amount of clothing feels
neither too cold nor too warm.
Such comfort is important both for one's well being and for productivity in office work, and can
be achieved only when the air temperature, humidity and air movement are within the specified
range often referred to as the "comfort zone".
Each person is the expert on their own thermal comfort.
A person's perception of thermal comfort is affected by air temperature, air movement (speed),
humidity, clothing, mean radiant temperature (the average temperature of the walls. floor
windows. etc.) and many other factors.
15. Discuss various FACTORS AFFECTING THERMAL COMFORT
There are six main factors that affect how hot or cold we feel. In addition to these general factors,
individual differences also affect how we perceive temperature.
Air Temperature: Air temperature is the most important factor contributing to thermal comfort.
There is no scientifically correct "best" temperature. The best temperature is the temperature that
most people find comfortable. The most important point is that it is impossible to please
everybody. The best temperature depends on clothing worn and the type of work being
performed. For general office work it has been found that 20-24C is comfortable for most
people in winter, when winter clothes are being worn and 23-26C in summer, when summer
clothes are being worn.
Mean Radiant Temperature: Mean radiant temperature is the average temperature of surfaces
that surround a person. Sunlight coming in through a window will markedly contribute to mean
radiant temperature. This may be decreased by simple measures such as the closing of blinds and
curtains or the installation of solar film.
Air speed: Air speed is the speed of movement of air in a working environment. If the air speeds
too high it may cause discomfort and a sensation of one word. There is no particular air speed for
thermal comfort. Increased air speed will aid the evaporation of sweat thus leading to a cooling
effect, particularly if loose clothing is worn. However, if the temperature or humidity is too high
it cannot be compensated for by air speed.
Humidity: Humidity is the amount of moisture in the air. For people 'who perform very light or
sedentary activities the influence of humidity on personal comfort is not great. Higher humidity
will make a person feel warmer particularly in a ventilated area where the air speed is low. In
areas of very low humidity people may experience discomfort from dry eyes, nose and throat.
Generally people are much more sensitive to extremes of temperature than extremes of humidity.
Physical Activity: Our bodies generate heat, and as our level of physical activity increases, so
does our heat production. In a cool situation, physical activity can help to warm a person. In a
warm or hot situation, physical activity can increase the effect of heat on a person.
Clothing: Clothing insulates us from our environment to a greater or lesser degree. It can shield

us from radiant heat, prevent heat escaping, and prevent sweat from evaporating. This will make
a person feel cold, warm or hot, depending on the situation, and the clothing. Of particular
concern is where a employee needs to wear protective clothing, and the clothing is not
appropriate for the thermal situation.
Other Factors: Other factors that may affect includes:

Age
State of health
Body build and weight
Use of prescribed medicines
Use of substances such as alcohol.

16. What are the conditions of thermal comfort?

CONDITIONS FOR THERMAL COMFORT
Thermal comfort is when people feel neither too hot nor too cold and do not perceive temperature to be
a problem.
Condition
Value
Summer
Winter
Air temperature
19-24C
18-22C
Relative humidity
40-70%
40-70%
0.1-0.2 m/s, without creating a 0.1-0.2 m/s, without creating a
Air speed
draught
draught
No direct exposure to a radiant No direct exposure to a radiant
Radiant heat
heat source
heat source
Clothing
Light clothing
Winter clothing
If any of these conditions are not met, others will need to be adjusted to maintain comfort. For
example, if there is not measurable air movement, the air temperature would need to be lower than the
maximum stated.

17. WHAT ARE THERMAL LIMITS FOR CONTROL?

THERMAL LIMITS FOR COMFORT
Comfortable limits of temperatures in which a person feels comfortable is far below the temperatures he
can stand without damage and ill effects an body function. The feeling of comfort to same extent is
subjective and varies from person to person. A person used to cold climate may find a room temperature
of 25C uncomfortably hot while another person coming from a tropical country might consider 25 C
as too cold to bear. A person sitting and doing a clerical job will feel mare cold than another person
doing heavy manual jab, in the same atmospheric conditions. The type of clothing warn also affect the
feeling comfort. Feeling of comfort is not decided by temperature alone. It is also dependent an:
humidity
air movement

 radiant heat
For this reason, temperature conditions in living and working atmospheres are expressed in terms of
"Effective Temperature" a scale or measure which takes into account all three factors. Effective
temperature can be read from charts once air velocity, humidity and radiant heat are known.
Another measure which takes into account all the three factors is the WBGT index. A WBGT index
at 79 F is considered a comfortable level far mast people.
18. What are various measures taken to control heat exposure in industry?
CONTROL OF HEAT EXPOSURE
Exposure to high temperature and heat stress impossible in many situations in industry.
Some examples are:
Working near or around boilers and hot processes.
Working near furnaces, heat treatment tanks etc.
Working in foundries and forge shops.
Working an operation like welding, gas cutting.
Working in hot confined spaces.
Working m very hat weather.
Working in direct sunlight in summer.
The way to tackle this problem should begin with the identification of source of heat and an evaluation
at temperature conditions by actual measurements. This should be followed by assess the effect of heat
all, persons exposed. These will give an idea of the extent and magnitude, of the problem.
The following measures can be taken to control heat exposure in industry.
Control at Source: Separation of heat sources from general working area can prevent exposure to heat to
many persons. Far. example, a furnace emitting heat in a machine shop can .be shifted to a roam
enclosed from all four sides by a brick wall. This will prevent all persons other than furnace operator
from being exposed to heat
Insulation: Insulating steam pipes, hat processes and hat surfaces can stop the atmospheric air from
getting heated by them.
Control of Radiant Heat: Radiation shielding can be employed incase of heat stress from radiant heat.
Far example in case of radiant heat from a furnace, a shiny aluminium sheet vertically placed between
operator and furnace will reflect 'the Heat back and protect the operator. Reflection of heat from walls
and. ceilings can also be reduced by shielding.
Ventilation and Air-Conditioning: Ventilation, localized' air conditioning, and cooled observation booths
are commonly used to provide cool work stations. Cooled, observation booths allow workers to cool
down after brief periods of intense heat exposure while still allowing them to monitor equipment.
Reducing Metabolic Heat Production: Automation and mechanization of tasks minimize the need for
heavy physical work and the resulting buildup of body heat.

Adjusting humidity and air Velocity: Often comfortable levels can be obtained by adjusting humidity
and air velocity. In dry hot climates, humidifications will bring about comfort. In humid and hot climate,
augmentation of air flow like use of circulators can reduce the discomfort forever these changes should
be made only after a scientific evaluation of prevailing conditions.
Reducing Exposure Time: In cases where the improvement of conditions is not possible, the persons can
be protected from the exposure of heat by local relief. One way is to reduce the exposure time. In case,
only some areas in the factory are hot, it might be convenient to stagger the work such that a person
works for some time in hot area and then goes to a colder area, for the remaining time.
Rest pauses: Introducing rest pauses in between work periods. The rest has to be in a cool room and the
persons should really rest. The period and frequency of rest pauses have to be decided on the basis of
actual assessment of heat stress by measurements. Rest pauses allow the persons to recuperate and bring
back heart beats, blood pressure and circulation to normal.
Beverages: Persons engaged in work in hot climates should maintain the water balance and salt balance
in the body. Drinking plenty of water and taking salt tablets are also recommended. Quantity of water
and salt tablets to be taken is best decided in consultation with a doctor.
Personal Protection: Ordinary clothing provides some protection from heat radiated by surrounding hot
surfaces. Specially designed heat-protective clothing is available for working in extremely hot
conditions. In hot and humid workplaces, light clothing allows maximum skin exposure and efficient
body cooling by sweat evaporation.
Workers who move back and forth between very hot, dry indoor environments and cold winter outdoor
environments find that long underwear moderates the extremes in temperatures.
Eye protection which absorbs radiation is needed when the work involves very hot objects, such as
molten metals and hot ovens. Work that requires the wearing of impermeable clothing presents an added
heat burden as the clothing reduces the body\s ability to dissipate heat. Under such circumstances, it is
often necessary to reduce the exposure limit values of WBGT to levels below those appropriate for
workers light clothing.
19. Write short note on thermal discomfort.
THERMAL DISCOMFORT
Thermal discomfort is the uncomfortable area between the thermal environment that is ideal, and
one that will cause a person to be harmed.
A person feeling thermal discomfort will feel either too hot or too cold.
A person will not suffer harm as a direct result of the thermal environment..
A thermal environment that causes discomfort may not directly cause harm, it does have many
disadvantages.
People can feel tired and irritable. They may be less productive and make more mistakes with
their work. There's a greater risk of someone making a mistake that could result in an accident.
It's therefore not desirable for people to work in thermally uncomfortable conditions.
General thermal discomfort occurs when a person's entire body feels uncomfortable. It's possible
for situations to occur when one part of a person's body feels comfortable, and another, such as
the feet, feels either too hot or too cold.
This is referred to as local thermal discomfort. In these situations, the cause of the discomfort

should be identified, and if practicable eliminated.

Many industrial and commercial buildings are not designed to provide thermally comfortable
conditions for employees.
Such buildings allow a high radiant heat loading on the occupants, for example, through lack of
insulation in roof spaces, or large glass areas in the walls.
In order for an employer to ensure thermal comfort for employees, some alterations may need to
be made to the building itself.
With the addition of physical activity, it becomes more difficult to predict a comfortable
environment.

CHAPTER 6

1. Define industrial lighting and its purpose.

Light and vision have their influence on work performance. A well designed lighting scheme
increases individual and group productivity and reduces accidents at work. It also reduces
rejections in process and fatigue of individuals. It gives a feeling of well being the workforce
as well.
Poor lighting can cause (a) accidents, (b) in comfort to workers, (c) Defects in the eyesight of
the workers in the long run, generates unpleasantness and leads to less output, more 'fatigue,
more accidents and more rejections. For this reason, lighting in industry is an important area'
for action for the management as well as the safety professionals.
Lighting is one of the physical facilities most required in a factory.
It is the most important single environmental factor contributing to worker satisfaction, comfort
and productivity.
Adequate and good lighting is necessary for a worker so that he may see minute details of his job
with ease and accuracy.
Lighting is said to be good when it is free from glare and is properly diffused and its flow is
direct and steady.
Excessive lighting is harmful to the eyes of workers and should therefore -be avoided.
Adequate and good lighting in a factory is a legal requirement.
The Factory Act, 1948 contains provisions for proper lighting and for the punishment of those
who do not comply with the requirements of the act. Section 17 of the Act states that, in every
part of the factory where workers are working, there shall be sufficient and suitable lighting.

PURPOSEOF LIGHTING
The purpose of industrial lighting is to provide energy efficient illumination in quality
and quantity sufficient or safety and to enhance visibility and productivity within a
pleasant environment.
Industry encompasses seeing tasks, operating conditions and economic considerations for
a wide range. Visual tasks may be extremely small or very large; dark or light: opaque,
transparent or translucent; secular or diffuse surfaces and may involve flat or contoured
shapes.
With each of the various tasks conditions, lighting must be suitable for adequate visibility

and productivity in developing raw materials into finished products.

Physical hazards exist in l11anufacturing processes and therefore, lighting must
contribute to the 'utmost as a safety factor to increase the speed of vision.
Lighting must serve not only as a production tool and as a safety factor, but should also
contribute to the overall environmental conditions of the work space.
2. What are the benefits of adequate lighting?
IMPORTANCE OF ADEQUATE LIGHTING
Adequate and good lighting is essential for higher efficiency and greater output. Good lighting
makes a work place safe and helps in satisfactory performance of operations. An operator's
efficiency depends on how easily and accurately he can see the objects of his work. A well
planned and properly maintained system of lighting will lessen fatigue and increase safety, and
thereby contribute to the employee's effectiveness.
Benefits of Adequate Lighting
Ease of seeing
Workmen should be able to see the objects clearly and with ease they are working upon. This is
essential for increased speed and efficiency, and is particularly true for old employees or those
who suffer from defective eyesight. Good illumination enables the workers to see the objects
easily and clearly.
Reduced eyestrain
Eyestrain is the result of inadequate and bad lighting. It causes fatigue and impairs vision.
Good illumination eliminates eyestrain and makes the objects clear to eyes of the
workers.
Increased output
Good illumination helps operators to increase the speed and efficiency of their work and thereby
increasing productivity. Modern lighting system has helped in increasing production and
reduction in cost of production.
Good housekeeping
Good housekeeping refers to the cleanliness and good appearance of the plant. A plant becomes
dirty when dust accumulates on machines, floors and walls. There can be no proper cleaning
when there is darkness. 'the cleanliness of plant is largely ensured by good illumination.
Fewer accidents
There are many factors of occurrence of accidents. Fatigue caused by eyestrain is one such
factor. Eyestrain in turn, is the result of defective or poor lighting. Good and adequate illumi nation eliminates all such causes of accidents and ensures industrial safety to workers.
"Improved employee morale
Good illumination will have a desirable psychological effect on the well being of the workers. It
increases their speed and efficiency, and enables them to earn more. It eliminates eyestrain and
guarantees better health of the eyes. Good lighting ensures that the surroundings are kept clean

and in order.
Better supervision
Supervision becomes easy and effective with good illumination. Small objects in the workshop
are made visible to the supervisor from a distance, making it easier for him to exercise a proper
supervision of the entire operation.
3. Discuss various terms used in lighting terminology?
Light: Light is that part of energy from a hot body which produces a visual sensation.
Plane Angle (): A plane angle is subtended at a point and is enclosed by two straight lines
lying in the same plane.
A plane angle is expressed in radians:
= arc (AB)/radius (OA)

Solid Angle (). A solid angle () is subtended at a point in space by an area and is the angle
enclosed in the volume formed by an infinite number of lines lying on the surface of the
volume and meeting at the center point.
A solid angle is expressed in radians:
d = area/radius2 = ds/r2
Radiant Flux (R): The total energy radiated by a source per second is called radiant flux. The
flux is measured in units of Joules per second (J/s), or Watts (W). A radiant flux of 1 W means that a
source produces 1 Joule every second. If we integrate radiant flux over time we obtain the total Energy
(Q) output by the source.
Luminous Flux (): Luminous flux is defined as the total light energy emitted by a source per second
and represents the total brightness producing capacity of the source. It is measured in 'lumen',
abbreviated as lm. The units 'lumen' and 'watt' have the same dimension as they both represent energy
per second.
Lumen: Lumen is defined as the luminous flux emitted in a unit solid angle by a source of one candle
power.
Lumens = candle power x solid angle = cp x
Candle Power: Candle power of a source is the number of lumens emitted in a unit solid angle in a
given direction.
Candle power = lumens/
Luminous Efficiency (): It is defined as the ratio of luminous flux emitted by a source to the total
radiant flux i.e.

 = Luminous flux/Radiant flux = /R

SI unit if luminous efficiency is lumen/watt (lm/w)
Luminous Intensity (L). Luminous intensity is a measure of the energy emitted by a light source in a
particular direction. In a given direction it is defined as luminous flux per unit solid angle. The SI unit of
luminous intensity is lumen per radian and is called candela (cd). For an isotropic point source
L= /4
Candela: The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction
of 1/683 watt per radian.
Illuminance or Intensity of illumination (I): The luminous flux incident per unit area of a surface is
called illumination or intensity of illumination. Its SI unit is lumen/m2 and is called lux.
In case of a point source at a distance r,
I = /4r2
Units of illumination: The Foot Candle - in FPS Units- which is equal to the illumination on a surface
of an area 1 square foot, created by 1 lumen of Light Flux Lux -is the SI derived unit of illumination
Metric system- is the illumination on a surface 1 square meter in area, created by 1 lumen of Light Flux.
1 Lux = 10.76 Foot Candle
Footcandles vs. Candlepower: A footcandle is a measure of the quantity of light (illuminance), which
falls on a surface - a measure of the lighting in a room.
Candlepower describes the light intensity of a lamp in a certain direction. It is a measure of the light
source itself, measured in candelas.
Lamp vs Bulb: The lamp is the actual light-producing component inside the bulb. The bulb is the
decorative glass or plastic housing that diffuses the light distribution.
Watts vs. Lumens: A watt is a measure of the amount of electrical power required by a product to
operate at any given instant - the power going in the lamp.
A lumen is a measure of the amount of light produced by a lamp - the light coming out of the lamp.
Laws of Illumination: Inverse square law. The illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the surface. In other words E 1/r2
Lambert's Cosine Law: According to this law, Illumination is directly proportional to the cosine of
angle made by the normal to the illuminated surface with the direction of the incident flux.
E I cos
Color: The color of light is determined by its wavelength. The range of wavelengths that comprise
visible light make up only a small portion of the entire electromagnetic spectrum. The entire
electromagnetic spectrum represents all of the different wavelengths, including radio waves, microwaves
to infrared, visible light, ultra-violet light, x-rays and finally gamma rays. White light contains all the
colors of the visible spectrum. Two ratings are commonly used to describe the color properties of lamps:
Color Temperature is the color appearance of the light produced by a lamp and the color appearance

ofthe lamp itself. It is measured with the Kelvin scale (K). A lamp with a low color temperature will
have a "warm" appearance (red, orange, or yellow). Conversely, a lamp with a high color temperature
will have a "cool" appearance (blue or blue-white).
Color Rendition is a measure of how the lamp influences the color appearance of the objects, which are
being illuminated. It represents the ability of a lamp to render colors accurately and to show color shade
variations more clearly. High color rendition allows us to see objects, as we would expect them to
appear under natural sunlight. Color rendition is measured via a complex process on the Color
Rendering Index scale (CRI), ranging in value from 0 to 100.
Efficacy vs. Efficiency: Efficacy is the lamp output per unit of energy input to the lamp. Therefore, it is
the ratio of lamp output to wattage consumption, expressed in lumens per watt (LPW).
Efficiency is the absolute percentage of light produced within a fixture that is not absorbed within the
fixture, but actually leaves the fixture.
4. What are the considerations to design for lighting industrial areas?
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN LIGHTING
It is a common misunderstanding that providing good lighting conditions means only increasing the
illumination level. Sufficient light to perform the task comfortably, of course, is important, but there are
many other factors which need to be considered in the study of lighting.
Light and Visibility
Lighting is for seeing. Visibility or the case of seeing depends upon three interrelated factors:
The size of the object.
The larger the size, the easier it will be to see.
Inspecting a watch is more difficult compared to examining a clock, in terms of eye strain, with
the same light.
The amount of light falling on the object.
Correct levels of lighting make it easier to see the task.
The contrast between the object and the surroundings.
It will be easier to see a black spot on a white shirt than on a black suit.
Age and Light Needs
As the age advances, the light requirements of individuals increase. A person aged 60 will need
approximately 5 times the light required by a person aged 40 for the same task under the same
conditions. A boy aged 10 will need 1/3 of the light needed by the latter. This is probably the reason why
a youngster can easily spot a needle fallen on the floor much faster than a middle aged person.
Further, as age advances the minimum distance at which things are clearly visible moves away from
the eyes.
Accommodation
The human eye can adjust itself to many changes in the tasks that it performs. It can, for instance,
adjust to the distance. One moment a - person is reading, next moment looking at a car coming up the
hill and then looking at the clock on the wall. All the three tasks are performed by the eye with ease.
While moving from a dark room to a bright room or vice versa, the eye adjusts itself to the change in

level of illumination in a matter of seconds. It can function in dull moonlight and bright sunlight. This
ability to self adjust, called accommodation, is due to the fact that the retina, the pupils and the muscles
of the eye are capable of adjusting to the need and controlled by the brain. However, if the eyes are
forced to make use of this ability continuously, it will overwork the muscles and lead to eye strain.
Typical situations where eye strain can occur are:
A machine operator faces the window. His eyes travel form the job to the window and back many times
and by the end of the day, he cart feel eye strain and possibly headache. A person who is required to read
a number of meters in a row, and one required to see a luminous display in the wall and write it down
continuously are likely to feel the same effect.
The visual effort required should be studied for each job and wherever possible attempts made to
reduce the strain in eyes by not forcing it to accommodate wide variations continuously. In the first case,
providing a window curtain or turning the machine around so that the operator does not have to face the
window could solve the problem.
Use of Colours
Colours are used in industry to fulfill two needs - one is to enable objects or surfaces to be
distinguished from one another. The other is to "give a good look" Le, to provide acceptability in terms
of psychological effects on people.
Selection of colour for an object or surface depends on needs predominant. In the case of an ON and
OFF switch for a machine the predominant need is to distinguish one knob from the other and both
knobs from other machine parts. A bright contrast will be the ideal choice here like bright green and
bright red for the knobs and a light back-ground for the surroundings.
But when it comes to painting of walls or ceilings or machines, the predominant need is to give an
optimum psychological environment, though distinguishing one object or surface from another also
figures. Light pastel shades may be more suitable for this purpose
Different colours have different effects on people in terms of psychological acceptance. Blue and
green have a soothing effect whereas orange, yellow and brown are stimulating. Red and violet are "eye
catching" but on large surfaces, they have a disturbing and sometimes alarming effect.
The type of work being carried out also needs to be considered in the selection of colours. For dull,
monotonous tasks, stimulating colours are recommended. Soothing colours around can give some
amount of relief 10 persons engaged. in work involving concentration and mental fatigue.
Light colours on the wall reflect more light and make the workplace look brighter. An artistic
selection of colours, taking into account, the factors mentioned above and the people can make the
workplace a happier place to stay.
Glare
Apart from causing strain, glare can sometimes blind the operator for a few seconds. The person
himself may also close the eyes by reflex. While operating or working near machines both cases can
lead to severe accidents as well. So the causes of glare should be eliminated as far as possible.
Some of the sources of glare in workplaces are:
Windows admitting or reflecting sunlight.
Highly polished surfaces like large plated sheets in process or bright inspection blocks.
Unscreened light sources like bulbs or tubes, in the visual field.
Visual field is the area that is visible when the head and eyes are kept still. This is a problem

particularly in large sheds, where naked bulbs/tubes in one end are directly visible from the other
end.
In cases of workplaces, situated near main roads, headlights of cars at night also can cause glare.
If the light sources are not carefully located light rays falling on
directly reflected to the eyes of the operator.

the workbench itself can be

Glare can be avoided by

Eliminating large reflecting surfaces from the direct Path of light and
By-suitably adjusting the layout such that reflecting surfaces that cannot be eliminated is kept
away from the visual fields of persons working.

5. What are various standards of illumination recommended in an industry?

LEVELS OF IllUMINATION
Technically, one can see even with very low levels of illumination. But in this case, the human efforts to
be put in to see and work will be too much to be justified from productivity considerations. The recent
trend, therefore, is to pre vide sufficient illumination to perform the task well without fatigue and least
chances of error. The standards for illumination levels followed in different countries vary to some
extent. It will be advisable to consult the national standards on illumination for information relating to
illumination levels required for specific tasks. Leading Lighting Engineering Firms also provide
information service in this respect.,
The level of illumination to be provided also will depend upon:
Specific task requirements.
Reflection of light from walls and ceilings
Age of the employees,
Prevailing daylight conditions
Obviously the investment required and the cost of maintenance also are not less important.
The values of illumination levels recommended by IES code for some selected tasks are given
below:
Typical Task or Interior
Standard Service
Illuminance (Lux)
Storage .areas and plant rooms with no
continuous work
150
Casual Work
200
Routine Work, Rough Machining and Assembly
300
Routine Work, Offices, Central Rooms,
medium machining and assembly
500
Demanding Work, Deep Plan, Drg Office,
Inspection of medium machining.
750
Fine Work Colour discrimination textile
processing, fine machining
1000

Very Fine Work, Hand engraving, Inspection

of fine machining or assembly.
1500
Minute work, Inspection of very fine assembly.
3000
6. What are various source of light? Explain it
SOURCES OF LIGHT
Daylight is the natural source of light and has the great advantage that it does not cost anything. But
daylight is not available for more than 8 hours in a day and as such, one has to look for other sources as
well. Electric light is the next and perhaps the only alternative. It is the common sources of light used
extensively.
Daylight
Apart from the cost, day light has another plus factor its excellent colour rendering qualities.
Daylight can be admitted to the workplace through the windows on the sides or inlets provided on
the roof. The problems associated with the admission of sunlight are:
Lighting by daylight alone cannot be depended upon, due to variation in lighting conditions
during different hours of the day and from season to season. Therefore, artificial lighting is to be
provided and the use of daylight can only be to supplement or substitute them during day time.
Even this is a great advantage in' terms of power savings and life of artificial fittings.
Admission of daylight through windbwsis associated with chances of glare, especially in tropical
countries. This problem can be overcome by limiting the number of windows/inlets admitting
sunlight and positioning them away from the visual field of persons.
Unplanned admission of sunlight results in dark and bright spots. This can be controlled by
careful positioning of the inlets taking into account the travel of sun and diffusing the light
admitted
Artificial Lighting
The choice available are from ordinary electric bulbs Tubelights (Fluorescent tubes) and Mercury
vapour lamps.
Ordinary electric bulbs are not very suitable for industrial lighting because of their many
disadvantages. These include:

Low light output per watt consumed.

They radiate more heat.
Unless encased in a shield, they create glare.
With a shield: light output is further decreased.

The one advantage which ordinary bulb has is that they need minimum initial investment. They are
suitable for portable applications and providing supplementary lighting.
Fluorescent lamps are being incre\1sing if used in industry. They have their own advantages and
disadvantages, but the former outnumber the latter.
Advantages are;
High light output per unit consumed.'

 They give lighting conditions that resemble daylight.

Least glare-glare can be totally eliminated by the use of levers and diffusing shields.
Elegant to look at.
Fluorescent lamps have two disadvantages;
They flicker and have a 'stroboscopic' effect on rotating parts
They need higher initial investment.
The third choice is the Mercury vapour lamp. The light output per unit consumed is favourable
though less than fluorescent lamps. These lamps come in high ratings which is useful in certain
applications.
Their disadvantages are:
Very poor colour rendering qualities
They create glare.
The fourth choice is the Metal Halide lamps. These lamps use a combination of several metals and have
high light, output per unit consumed than mercury vapour lamps. Its light is described as cool blue in
perception with a more noticeable colour shift with increasing hours of operation.
These lamps have good colour rendering qualities and high efficacy. These can be used where large
open areas are required to be lit. This is the preferred light source for indoor industrial uses, monuments,
bridges, enhancing architect, usal features and sports arenas. It is also used in, warehouses, street
lighting and some retail applications.
High Pressure Sodium lamp commonly referred to by its HPS initials. Traditionally it was associated
with its yellow or orange color. Newer and more expensive lamp designs have highcolot rendering value
upto 85 and its color normally has a very warm golden white tone. It is the preferred choice where
maximum energy efficiency, high light output and very long lamp life is required. High color rendering
value can be obtained a.t a considerable drop in efficancy.
This lamp is principally specified for roadway, street and parking lighting, as well as indoor
industrial lighting where color rendition is not critical. Warehouse lighting is also a common,
application.
7.
LIGHTING CONTROL SYSTEMS
There are several means available to control the lightingJeve1s. We will concentrate only on two
tecqnologies motion or occupancy sensors and dimming systems.
Motion or occupancy sensors are used to automatically switch lights. Lighting is either switched off
or switched down when these are newer sensors that combine passive infrared, ultrasonic and photocell
technologies for more complex applications. There are many sensor brands available and they do not
necessarily operate alike. Sensor location is critical to a successful application. Incandescent lamps are
the easiest to control and switch because they can be instantly switched on or off. Fluorescent lamps
require mTbre complex1controls, but they cah also be instantly switched on or off. High intensity
discharge lamps can be switched off easily; however after being switched on, it takes several minutes for
them to attain full light output. This makes it necessary to use either an auxiliary quartz lamp or a
separate lamp for emergency purposes.
A bi-Ievel switching system can be used for high intensity discharge fixtures to drop their power

consumption to approximately 50 per cent of nominal capacity. With this system, the lamp can be
instantly switched up to 100 per cent power when needed. This bi-Ievel system has proven very cost
effective in warehouses, where some aisles are occupied only a small percentage of the time.
Dimming systems are available for all lamp types. Incandescent lamps are the easiest ones to dim.
Fluorescent lamps also lend them easily to dimmin'gbut require more expensive controls and dimmable
type ballasts.
Lighting control systems range from simple measures such as localized manual switches positioned
close to the areas which they control, to more complex automatic systems based on time control,
occupancy linking or photoelectric daylight linking. Lighting controls are devices for turning lights on
and off or for dimming them. The simplest type is a standard snap switch. Other controls are photocells,
timers, occupancy sensors, and dimmers.
Snap switches, located in numerous convenient areas, make it easier for people in large, shared
spaces to turn off lights in unused areas.
Photocells turn lights on and off in response to natural light levels. Photocells switch outdoor
lights on at dusk and off at dawn, for example. Advanced designs gradually raise
Lower fluorescent light levels with changing daylight levels.
Mechanical or electronic time clocks automatically turn on and off indoor or outdoor lights for
security, safety, and tasks such as janitorial work.
Crank timers, which are spring-driven and similar to old oven timers, limit lights to short
durations where the need for light is brief.
Occupancy sensors activate lights when a person is in the area and then turn off the lights after
the person has left. They are popular for areas used infrequently, such as warehouses. They also
offer security advantages over continuous lighting: when lights suddenly come on, they startle
intruders and alert residents and neighbors to motion in the area.
Dimmers reduce 'the wattage and output of incandescent and fluorescent lamps., Dimmers also
increase the service life of incandescent lamps significantly. However;' dimming incandescent
lamps reduces their lumen output more than their wattage. This makes incandescent lamps less
efficient as they are dimmed. Dimming fluorescents requires special dimming ballasts and lamp
holders, but does not reduce their efficiency.
8. Write a short note on design of lighting
LIGHTING DESIGN
Design of lighting installation involves consideration of the following factors:
Ensure that the Lighting is, or will be, Suitable and Sufficient for the Application. The basic
requirement of any lighting installation is that it should enable people to carry out all visual tasks
at the required speed and accuracy. In addition, employers must ensure that the lighting is both
suitable and adequate to meet the legal requirements.
Use the most Efficient Lamp type Suitable for the Application. The efficiency of lamp types for
display lighting cannot be compared simply in terms of lumens per watt. The objective is to
select the lowest wattage lamps that will achieve the required illuminance over the necessary
area of the object or surface.
The principal criterion for determining the suitability of lamp type is its colour characteristics.

Both the color appearance and color rendering properties of the lamp should be considered.
Color rendering index:
Color rendering describes how a light source makes the color of an object appear to
human eyes and how well subtle variations in color shades are revealed.
The Color Rendering Index is a scale from 0 to 100 percent indicating how accurate a
"given" light source is at rendering color when compared to a "reference" light source.
The higher the CRI, the better the color rendering ability.
Light sources with a CRI of 85 to 90 are considered good at color rendering.

Color temperature:
Color temperature refers to the colour appearance of the light that comes from a light source.
It's an important performance characteristic to asses when evaluating lamps because a lamps
color temperature creates the mood of the space you are lighting and can thus influence buying
behavior or work performance. Also referred to as Correlated Color Temperature (CCT), the
apparent color of a light source is measured in kelvin.
Quality and Intensity of Light: In certain cases, especially where fine and accurate work is
to be done, the quality of light is important. Textiles appear very different under artificial
lighting. This is so because the colour of artificial light is different from that of natural light.
While providing artificial illumination, care should be taken to ensure an adequate intensity of
lighting.
Glare and its Effects: Efforts should be made to prevent glare from the illumination. Glare
has been defined as "the discomfort or impairment of vision experienced when parts of the visual
field are excessively bright in relation to the general surroundings." Glare can take two basic
forms:
Discomfort glare: This is likely to occur when one area of an internal space is significantly
brighter than the surrounding area. Two common causes are excessive daylight entering windows
and inappropriate or poorly positioned luminaries. The effects of discomfort glare can be
immediate or may only become apparent after long exposure.
Disability glare: This can impair vision and may occur when there is a bright light source close
to the line of sight. As with discomfort glare, one of the causes of disability glare is inappropriate
or poorly positioned luminaries, which may be seen directly or viewed by reflection.
Glare can be eliminated by shielding lamps, adjusting the space between, and the height of
lamps, selecting proper luminaries and using lamps of proper wattage.
Color of the Walls and Ceilings: The colour used for printing walls and ceilings affects the
amount of light reflected from their surface. Light colors absorb little light and reflect a major
portion of it. Dark colors, which absorb a major portion of the illumination, reflect only a small
portion of light emitted by lamps. The percentage of the light reflected from the walls and
ceilings varies in general, depending on the kind, colour and condition of the reflecting surface.
Light colors should, therefore, be used to paint walls and ceilings so that a major portion of the
light is reflected from them.
Maintenance: Consider the effects of maintenance characteristics of lamps and luminaries
and define an appropriate maintenance schedule. Only by proper maintenance lighting
installations operate efficiently and therefore require less energy and cost to operate.
Assess the installed load efficacy of an existing or proposed new lighting installation.
The electricity consumed by lighting installation is the product of installed load and the operating
hours(kW x hours = kWh)
Control the Operation and usage of Lighting. Many types of lighting control equipment can
be added to existing lighting installations as well as incorporated into new installations.

9. Discuss the maintenance standards needed for lighting and color so that healthy
and conducive environment can be generated for higher productivity.
Fluorescent fittings equipped with electronic ballasts must be treated as systems, rather
than individual fittings. tube replacement should be undertaken on a "whole room" "basic
at periodic intervals, as demanded by effective tube life. Universal policy is to relamp
each theatre during the summer semester break.
Tubes should not be replaced on an individual basic, as new tubes will exhibit totally
different dimming characteristics to used tubes.
Fittings must be planned to allovf simple replacement. In large theatres with high
ceilings, access is required above the ceiling on permanent catwalks.
Acrylic diffusers, with built-in silicon gasket, to prevent loss of gasket during lamp.
Stainless steel diffuser clips to be used for ease of maintenance.
A minimum of IP 65 for both lamp and control gear compartment for high maintenance
factors.
Gear tray and diffuser to be attached to body via a lanyard for ease of maintenance.
Provision for photocell that can be easily replaced.
Regular cleaning and prompt replacement of lamp outages is essential in any welloperated industrial lighting system.
Analyse luminaire construction and reflector finish and also to make provisions for
maintenance access so the system can be properly serviced.
10. What are the considerations to design for lighting industrial areas?
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR LIGHTING
The designer of an industrial lighting system should consider the following factors as the first
and all-important requirements of good planning.
Determine the quantity and quality of illumination desirable for safety of personnel, the
manufacturing processes and the environment.
Select: lighting equipment that will provide the quantity and quality requirements by
examining photometric characteristics, and mechanical performance that will meet
installation, operating and actual maintenance conditions.
Select and arrange equipment so that it will be easy and practical to maintain.
Balance all of the energy management considerations and economic factors including
initial, operating and maintenance costs, versus the quantity and quality requirements for
optimum visual performance.
The choice of the electric distribution system may affect overall economics.
The use of daylighting should be considered for area lighting in all industries.
Factors of Special Consideration
Flighting and Space Conditioning: With the use of higher illuminances, It is often practical to

combine the lighting, heating, cooling and atmospheric control requirements in an integrated
system. The lighting system can often provide most of the energy during the heating period.
When cooling is required much of the lighting heat can be removed by the air exhaust system.
High Humidity or Corrosive Atmosphere and Classified Location Lighting: Enclosed
gasketed luminaries are used in non-classified areas where atmosphere contain nonflammable
dust and vapours. Enclosures protect the interior of the luminaries from conditions prevailing in
the area. Steam processing plating areas, wash and shower rooms, and other areas of unusually
high humidity are typical areas that require enclosed luminaries. Severe corrosive conditions
necessitate knowledge of the atmospheric content to permit selection of proper material for the
luminaire. Classified locations are areas where atmospheres contain inflammable dusts, vapors or
gases in explosive concentrations. They are grouped by the National Electrical Code on the basis
of their hazardous characteristics, and all electrical equipment must be approved for use in
specific classes and groups. Luminaries are available. /pecifically designed to operate in these
areas.
Abnormal Temperature Conditions: Low ambient temperatures must be recognized as existing
in such areas as unheated heavy industrial plants, frozen food plants and cold storage
warehouses. Equipment should be selected to operate under such conditions and particular
attention should be given to lamp starting and light output characteristics, if fluorescent
equipment is considered. With high intensity discharge equipment, temperature variation has
practically no effect on light output, but the Rroper starting characteristics must be provided.
With incandescent filament lamp equipment neither the starting nor the operation is a problem at
low temperature. Abnormally high temperatures may be common in truss heights in foundries,
steel mills, forge shops, etc. Caution should be observed in selecting lighting equipment for
mounting in such locations, it is particularly important to consider the temperature limitations of
fluorescent and high intensity discharge ballasts under such conditions. The reduction in
fluorescent lamp output at high operating temperatures should be recognized.
Maintenance: Regular cleaning and prompt replacement of lamp outages is essential in any
well-operated industrial lighting system. It is important for the lighting designer to analyze
luminaire construction and reflector finish and also to make provision for maintenance access so
the system can be properly serviced. Another point that should be considered is that it may often
be necessary fo do the servicing during the plant operating hours.
Supplementary lighting in Industry
Difficult seeing tasks often require a specific amount of quality of lighting which cannot readily
be obtained by general lighting methods.
To solye Such problems supplementary luminaries often are used to provide higher illuminances
for small or restricted areas. Also, they are used to furnish a certain luplinance, or colour, or to
permit special positioning of light sources to produce or avoid highlights or shadows to best
portray the details of the task. Because supplementary lighting can be specified; it is necessary to
recognize the exact nature of the visual task and to understand its light reflecting or transmitting
characteristics. An improvement in the visibility of the task will depend upon one or more of the

four fundamental visibility factors - luminance, contrast, size and time. Thus, in analysing the
problem, the designer of the lighting may find that seeing difficulty is caused by insufficient
luminance, poor contrast, small size, or that task motion is too fast for existing seeing condition.
The; planning of supplementary lighfing also entails consideration of the visual comfort of both
those workers who beI1efit directly and tlwse who are in the immediate area. Supplementary
equipment must be carefully shielded to prevent glare for the user and,his associates. Luminance
ratio should be carefully controlled. Ratiospetween task and immediate surroundings should be
limited. To attain these limits it is necessary to coordinate the design of supplementary and
general lighting.
MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT
Measurement of illumination levels becomes necessary to
check the privailing levels with levels planned
study the lighting conditions to plan improvements
ensure the reliability of lighting schemes.
The illumination level can be directly measured with the help of a direct reading instrument
commonly known as light meter or illumination meter. These meters are handy and consist of a
liqht sensing network using photocells. Light energy is converted into electric energy by the
network which actuates the meter. The meter in turn, is calibrated to read illumination level in
Lux of foot candles. The ligit meter also incorporates a battery and a means to check the battery.
11. What are the PR1NCIPLES OF ILLUMINATION? Expalin it
Uniform distribution of light throughout the work-place without dark spots and bright
pools.
Absence of contrasts that lead to visual fatigue.
A reasonable. harmony between day-light conditions and artitical lighting conditions.
Overall lighting conditions that is pleasant and soothing to the eye.
Sufficient quantity of light available for individual tasks to be performed without eye
strain and operational errors.
Judicious planning of the brightness levels and color schemes to provide proper
illumination.
For example the value of reflection factor in case of walls and ceilings could be as low as
0.1 for dark colours and as high as 0.7 for white colours.
Proper maintenance of artificallighting system as well as proper maintenance of the
interior and the exterior of the building help a lot.in mii1:imising illumination problems.
Since the effectiveness of huninaires depenas upon the utilization factor and maintenance
factor, care must be taken to choose'the right luminance as well as proper upkeep.
The planning of an industrial complex must be jusitious enough so that no confusion
shadows or sudden change of illumination leve1 take place. Proper hierarchy different of
illumination must be maintined so that workers negotiating different level of illumination
can move and work with ease.

12. What is the various color codes used in industry.

COLOR CODES USED IN INDUSTRY
No lighting scheme can be fully effective unless well-chosen and well-maintained
finishes are provided on main interior surfaces such as ceilings, walls, plant and
equipment.
The main objective here is to use colors, which will reflect rather than absorb light.
It also improves the quality of the lighting by softening shadows and minimizing harsh
contrasts in the field of view, thus contributing to visual comfort and efficiency.
Identification colors on machines should be reserved for things which really matter, such
as stop buttons and other safety tripping devices which must be found quickly in an
emergency.
Dangerous moving parts should be guarded, not colored, and when guarding is
impossible, colour should be used to highlight the actual hazard and not merely as
general warning.
Colour is used extensively for improving:
Quality of workmanship
To reduce rejections
To reduce accidents
To raise housekeeping
To reduce absenteeism
To improve morale of workers.
Table: Safety Color Codes
Color
Red
Yellow

Green
Black and White
Orange
Blue
Raddish-Purple

Use
-identifies fire protection equipment, danger and emergency stops
on machines
-marking hazards that may result in accidents from slipping,
falling, striking against;
-flammable liquid storage cabinets;
-materials handling equipments such as lift trucks.
location of first aid and safety equipment.
house keeping and traffic markings.
dangerous parts of machines.
information signs and bulletin boards.
identifies radiation hazards.

Adverse effects of color on health of the people are mainly through its psychological effects.
Each color gives a special psychological appreciation on the humans and moderates the behavior
accordingly. The following points have to be kept in mind while planning the workplace so that
ill effects due to color does not occur.

Color
Red
Yellow
Orange
Light Green and Blue
Purple
White

Effects
Psychological
Stimulates
Freshening
Tension producing
Relaxed feeling
Depression
Stimulating

Chapter 7
1. Define noise? Explain its types.
The ability to make and detect sound provides human beings with the facility to communicate
each other as well as receive useful information from the surroundings. Sound can provide the
warning useful information (a whistling tea kettle) and enjoyment. A low sound is pleasant
whereas a loud sound is unpleasant and is commonly referred to as "noise".
Noise can be defined as an unpleasant and unwanted sound that interferes significantly with
the comfort, health, or welfare of persons, or with the full use of enjoyment of property.
TYPES OF NOISE
Impulse or Impact Noise
Noise consisting of random occurrences of energy spikes having random amplitude and
spectral content. Impulse noise is noise that is caused by a high amplitude, short duration noise
pulse.
Examples of impulse noise are thumps, scratches including ticks and clicks) and crackle. Of all
types of impulse noise, crackle, which sounds 1ike bacon frying can be the most difficult to
remove.
Continuous or Steady Noise
Noise with negligible small fluctuation levels within the period of, observation is
called contmuous noise. Continuous noise of excessive level can damage the ear and
such situations should be carefully avoided.
The ear can apparently be trained to resist the damaging effects of continuous noise,
within limits of course.
Intermittent or Fluctuating Noise
Noise whose level varies continuously and to an appreciable extent during the period of
observation.
It consists of wide mixture of frequencies.
While continuous noise can cause auditory damage, the threshold lvel can be considerably
higher than currently assumed. Most dangerous for the ear are powerful impulses.
Whether a given sound is as pleasant as music or as unpleasant as noise depends on
loudness, duration rhythm qnd the mood of the person. But loudness is definitely the most
significant criterion which converts sound into noise. Exposure to loud noise is indeed annoying

and harmful too.

Noise is a physical form of pollution and is not directly harmful to the life supporting
systems namely air, soil and water. Its effects are more directly on the receiver i.e., man. Noise
pollution is the result of modern industrialized urban life and cogestion due to-over population.
Even though noise pollution is not fatal to human life, yetits improvement cannot be overlooked
because repeated exposure to noise reduce the sleeping hours and productivity or efficiency of
human being. It also affects the peace of mind and invades the privacy of a human being.
2. Differentiate between sound and noise.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOUND AND NOISE
The sound becomes noise when
It annoys and irritates.
It interferes with normal work.
It disturbs or prevents sleep.
This in general, the sound can be referred as a physical or a mechanical disturbance capable of
being detected by human ear. And the noise can be referred as the random sound phenomenon
which interferes with communication or human processes of concentration.
3. What are various FACTORS
HAZARDOUS OR NOT

DETERMINING WHETHER A NOISE

IS

Intensity or loudness of the sound (measured in dB)

Frequency or pitch (measured in Hz)

Periodicity - how often it occurs

Duration - how long it lasts.

At about 140 dB, there is the possibility of permanent damage to the ear from a single exposure.
Fortunately, this level of noise exposure at work is rare.
4. Differentiate between LOUDNESS AND PITCH
Intensity or Loudness
The intensity of a sound wave at a point is defined as the energy flowing per second per sq cm
held normally at that point to the direction of propagation of sound wave. The maximum sound
intensity which can be tolerated without actual pain, is about 1014 times as great as the minimum
audible intensity. Intensity depends upon.

Directly upon the density of the medium in which the sound originals
Directly upon the square of the amplitude of the wave;
Directly upon the area of sound producing body; and
Inversely upon the square of distance from the sounding body

Frequency or Pitch
Frequency or Pitch refers to that quality of sensation of sound, which helps to discriminate
between different frequencies. Higher the loudness, higher is the intensity. Higher the pitch,
greater is the potential to cause annoyance.
The human ear can hear frequencies as low as 20 Hz to those as high as 20,000 Hz. Low
frequency produces a bass sound, and high frequency a high pitched sound. Pitch is the perception of sound frequency. The efficiency of human ear is best between frequencies of 500 and
5000 Hz. Sounds below 20 Hz (infra-sound) and above 20,000 Hz (ultra-sound) cannot be heard
but still can cause discomfort and harm.
5. What are the units of NOISE.
The decibel db is used in environmental noise pollution as a measure of sound intensity level. It
I
log 10
is defined as db = 10
I0
where I is sound intensity in watt/m2 and 'I0' is reference sound' intensity (approx. 10-12
watt/m2)
Decibel (db) can also be used as a measure of sound pressure level, in that case it is
defined as,
P
log 10
db = 20
P0
where 'p' is root mean square sound pressure in Pascals (N/m2) and
'Po' is reference rms sound pressure approx 2 x 10-5 Pa (or N/m2)
For all practical purposes (i.e., the standard atmospheric conditions), sound intensity level
and sound pressure level are equal in magnitude to each other.
The db scale beings from zero, which represents the faintest sound which is audible tp a
normal ear in the decibel scale, each ten fold increase is represented by 10 db e.g.
6. What are various LEGAL REQUIREMENTS for noise?
The Occupational Health and Safety Regulations, 1996 deal with the issue of noise control and
hearing conservation. The law says employers must:
II Measure and post noise levels that regularly exceed 80 dBA.
Keep records of noise measurements.
Provide training to noise-exposed workers on the harmful effects of overexposure to loud
noise.
Take all reasonably practicable steps to reduce noise levels in the workplace and to
isolate workers from exposure to loud noise.
Provide reasons for situations where it is not possible to bring worker's average daily
noise exposure below 85 dBA.
Provide hearing protection for workers where it is not possible to bring their average
daily noise exposure below 85 dBA or reduce noise levels below 90 dBA in areas in

which they have to work.

Ensure the lowest possible noise levels in new and renovated workplaces.
Arrange for noise exposed workers to have hearing tests at least once every 24 months
develop and implement a hearing conservation plan in workplaces where 10 or more
workers are overexposed to noise.
7. What are various sources of noise? Explain.
The various sources of noise that can affect a community are:
1. Industrial Noise. Mechanized industry creates serious noise problems. It is responsible for
intense noise indoors as well as outdoors. This noise is due to machinery of all kinds and often
increases with the power of the machines. There are four main categories of industrial activity
that are particularly relevant to the study of noise: product fabrication, product assembly, power
generation, and processing.
Product fabrication can be a highly noisy operation. In metal fabrication, the cutting, shearing,
pressing, and riveting of metal products can be very noisy. Molding, another type of product
fabrication, can also be highly noisy with its use of high-pressure air in the operation, pneumatic
control, and cooling of molding machinery. Plastic molding has been reported to produce noise at
levels greater than 100 dB.
Product assembly also produces dangerous noise levels. The activities within this category
often produce broadband noise that includes high levels of higher-frequency noise due to the
operation of electric and pneumatic tools, such as grinders and impact wrenches.
In Power generation noise is produced by turbine generators and air compressors. Processing
includes activities such as oil refinery. Major sources of noise in this category are furnaces, heat
exchangers, pumps, compressors, and air and steam leaks.
"Motor noise, fan noise, transformer noise, aerodynamic noise, hydraulic system noise, impact
noise, bearing noise, gear noise, and vibration-induced noise" are also examples of noise due to
industrial machinery.
2. Transportation Noise: Transportation noise is the main source of environmental noise
pollution including road traffic, rail traffic and air traffic. As a general rule, larger and heavier
vehicles emit more noise than smaller and lighter vehicles. The sound pressure level from traffic
can be predicted from the traffic flow rate, the speed of the vehicles, the proportion of heavy
vehicles, and the nature of the road surface. Special problems can arise in areas where the traffic
movements involve a change in engine speed and power, such as at traffic lights, hills, and
intersecting roads; or where topography, meteorological conditions and low background levels
are unfavorable (for example, mountain areas). Railway noise depends primarily on the speed of
the train, but variations are present depending upon the type of engine, wagons, and rails and
their foundations, as well as the roughness of wheels and rails. Aircraft operations generate
substantial noise in the vicinity of both commercial and military airports.
Aircraft takeoffs are known to produce intense noise, including vibration and rattle. The landings
produce substantial noise in long low-altitude flight corridors.
3. Construction Noise and Building Services Noise: Building construction and excavation

work can cause considerable noise emissions. A variety of sounds come from cranes, cement
mixers, welding, hammering, boring and other work processes. Construction equipment is often
poorly remove it maintained, and building operations are sometimes carried out without
considering the environmental noise consequences. Street services such as garbage disposal and
street cleaning can also cause considerable disturbance if carried out at sensitive times of day.
Ventilation and air conditioning plants and ducts, heat pumps, plumbing systems, and lifts
(elevators), for example, can compromise the internal acoustical environment and upset nearby
residents.
4. Domestic Noise and Noise From Leisure Activities: In residential areas, noise may stem
from mechanical devices (e.g., heat pumps, ventilation systems and traffic), as well as voices,
music and other kinds of sounds generated by neighbors (e.g., lawn movers, vacuum cleaners
and other household equipment, music reproduction and noisy parties). Aberrant social behavior
is a well-recognized noise problem in multifamily dwellings, as well as at sites for entertainment
(e.g., sports and music events). Due to predominantly low-frequency components, noise from
ventilation systems in residential buildings may also cause considerable concern even at low and
moderate sound pressure levels. The use of powered machines in leisure activities is increasing.
For example, motor racing, off road vehicles, motorboats, water skiing, snowmobiles etc. and
these contribute significantly to loud noises in previously quiet areas. Outdoor concerts,
fireworks and various types of festivals can also produce intense noise.
The household is an industry m itself' and is a source of many indoor noises such as the
banging of doors, noise of playing children, crying of infants, moving of furniture, loud
conversation of the inhabitants etc. Besides there are the entertainment equipment in the house,
namely the radio, record players and television sets. Domestic gadgets like the mixer-grinders,
pressure cookers, desert coolers, air-conditioners, exhaust fans, vacuum cleaner, sewing and
washing machines are all indoor sources of noise pollution.
Public Address System
In India, people need only the slightest of an excuse for using loudspeakers. Th_ reason may
be a religious function, birth, death, marriage, elections, demonstrations or just commercial
advertising. Public address systems therefore, contribute in its own way towards noise pollution.
Agricultural Machines
Tractors, thrashers, harvesters, tubewells, powered fillers etc. have all made agriculture
highly mechanical but at the same time highly noisy. Noise level of 90 db to 98 db due to
running of farm machines have been recorded in the state of Punjab.
Defence Equipments
A lot of noise pollution is added to the atmosphere by artillery tanks, launching of rockets,
explosions, exercising of military, air planes and shooting practices.
Uiscellaneous Sources
The automobile repair shops, construction works, blasting, bulldozing, stone crushing etc. are
other sources of noise pollution.

8.

Explain the effects of noise on human body and mind.

All sounds that are distracting, annoying, or harmful to everyday activities such as work, rest,
entertainment, study and so forth are regarded as noises. Infact, any sound judged by the
recipient as undesirable can be considered as a noise. Noise is generally harmful and a serious
health hazard. It has far reaching consequences and have many physical, physiological as well as
psychological effects on human being.
Whether or nota sound is undesired by a person will depend on number of factors, e;g.
Loudness.
Frequency.
Continuity.
Variation with time.
Time of occurrence.
Information content.
Origin of the sound.
Recipient's state of mind and temperament.
Backgroundtlbise level.
In general, the effects of noises are:
Physical effects
The physical manifestation of noise pollution is the effect on hearing ability. Repeated
exposure to noise may result in temporary or permanent shifting of the hearing threshold of a
person depending upon the level and duration of the exposure. The immediate and acuute level
of noise pollution is impairment of hearing.
Human ears have sensory cells for hearing. If these cells are subjected to repeated sounds of
high intensity before they have an opportunity to recover fully, they can becomepermaneritly
damaged leading to impairment of hearing. Besides the sensory cells, the delicate tympanic
membrane or the ear drum can also be permanently damaged by a sudden loud noise such as
explosion.
Physiological Effects
The physiological manifestation of noise pollution are several as mentioned below:

Headache by dilating blood vessels of the brain.

Increase in the rate of the heart beat.
Narrowing of arteries
Fluctuations in the arterial blood pressure by increasing the level of cholesterol in the
blood.
Decrease in heart output
Pain in the heart.
Digestive spasms through anxiety and dilation of the pupil of the eye, thereby causing an
eye-strain.
Impairment of night vision.

 Decrease in the rate of colour perception.

Lowering of concentration and effect on memory.
Muscular strain and nervous breakdown.
Psychological Effect
The psychological manifestations of noise pollution are:
Depression and fatigue which reduces the efficiency of a person.
Insomnia as a result of lack of undisturbed and refreshing sleep.
Straining of senses and annoyance as a result of slow but persistent noise from
motorcycles, alarm clocks, call bells, telephone rings.
Other Health Effects
People living or working in noisy environments develop the habit of shouting some are stressed
and become irritable: There is evidence that noise can lead to psychiatric aisorders. When human
beings are exposed to high noise levels, the blood ,vessels constrict and muscles tense.
Speech Interference and Masking
One cannot effectively use speech communication in an environment in which the noise level
is too high. Sometimes, the masking of warning shouts by background noise is responsible for
industrial accidents.
D Hearing Difficulties: Nearly all of us begin life with around 23,000 microscopic hair cells in
our cochlea, part of our inner ears. These hairs detect sound vibrations and send appropriate
signals to our brains. Over time, the hairs and their nerve endings naturally degenerate,
producing age related hearing loss. However, excessive noise can also damage the hairs, leading
to noise induced hearing loss. Loud noise can also cause tinnitus an40ther hearing-related
difficulties.
Noise-induced hearing loss: Noise-induced hearing loss is the most prevalent, irreversible
industrial disease is usually caused by prolonged exposure to loud noise, typically above 85
decibels. Although it is rarely painful, the damage is permanent. The first symptom is usually the
inability to hear high-pitched sounds. Unless the problem of excessive noise is addressed, your
hearing will deteriorate further, including difficulties detecting lower-pitched sounds_ This will
normally occur in both ears. Hearing loss may not only stop a person work to their full potential,
it can destroy a person's social life, isolating them from the community around them.
Acoustic shock: In call centres, and other workplaces, workers can be exposed to acoustic
shock. Defined as a sudden increase in high frequency noise transmitted through a headset, this
noise can be caused by interference on the telephone line. Exposure to these shocks can cause
pain and harm to the ear, as well as being a factor in work-related stress.
Temporary threshold shift: Not all hearing loss is permanent. Brief exposure to loud noise,
such as music in clubs, or impulse noises, such as explosions, can lead to temporary high-tone
hearing loss and tinnitus; normal hearing usually returns after a few days. This is known as
'temporary threshold shift'.

Work-related Stress: Work-related stress is usually caused by several risk factors, of which
noise can be one. The noise does not have to be loud to create stress in an individual. A low,
persistent hum, for example, is sometimes all that is required. How noise affects employees'
stress levels depends on a complex mix of factors including:
The nature of the noise, including its volume, tone and predictability;
The complexity of the task the task that worker is performing;
The individual's stress threshold and physical well-being, including whether they are tired
or not.
An Increased Risk of Workplace Accidents: Noise can lead to accidents by:

Impeding verbal communication between workers;

Masking the sound of approaching danger or warning signals;
Distracting staff, such as drivers;
Increasing work-related stress.

The Effects of Noise on Performance: Noise adversely affects cognitive task. Among the
cognitive effects, reading, attention, problem solving and memory are most strongly affected by
noise. The observed effects on motivation, as measured by persistence with a difficult cognitive
task, may either be independent or secondary to the aforementioned cognitive impairments.
Interference with Speech Communication: Noise interference with speech comprehension
results in a large number of personal disabilities, handicaps and behavioral changes. Problems
with concentration, fatigue, uncertainty and lack of self-confidence, irritation, misunderstandings, decreased working capacity, problems in human relations, and a number of
stress reactions have all been identified.
Sleep Disturbance: Sleep disturbance, on the other hand, is considered to be a major
environmental noise effect. It is estimated that 80-90% of the reported cases of sleep disturbance
in noisy environments are for reasons other than noise originating outdoors. For example,
sanitary needs; indoor noises from other occupants; worries; illness; and climate.
The primary sleep disturbance effects are: difficulty in falling asleep (increased sleep latency
time); awakenings; and alterations of sleep stages or depth, especially a reduction in the
proportion of REM-sleep (REM=Rapid Eye Movement). Other primary physiological effects can
also be induced by noise during sleep, including increased blood pressure; increased heart rate;
increased finger pulse amplitude; vasoconstriction; changes in respiration; cardiac arrhythmia;
and an increase in body temperature.
Mental Health Effects: Mental health is defined as the absence of identifiable psychiatric
disorders according to current norms. Environmental noise is not believed to be a direct cause of
mental illness, but it is assumed that it accelerates and intensifies the development of latent
mental disorder. Studies on the adverse effects of environmental noise on mental health cover a
variety of symptoms, including anxiety; emotional stress; nervous complaints; nausea; headaches; instability; argumentativeness; sexual impotency; changes in mood; increase in social
conflicts, as well as general psychiatric disorders such as neurosis, psychosis and hysteria.

Effects of Noise on Residential Behavior and Annoyance: Noise annoyance is a global

phenomenon. A definition of annoyance is "a feeling of displeasure associated with any agent or
condition, known or believed by an individual or group to, adversely affect them". However,
apart from "annoyance", people may feel a variety of negative emotions when exposed to
community noise, and may report anger, disappointment, dissatisfaction, withdrawal,
helplessness, depression, anxiety, distraction, agitation, or exhaustion.

6.

How will you NOISE MEASURED in industry?

Measurement of noise is the most important part of a workplace hearing conservation and noise
control program. It helps identify work locations where there are noise problems, employees who
may be affected, and where additional noise measurements need to be made. Sounds are
generally measured in Sound Pressure Level (SPL). It is the measurement of the loudness of a
noise signal. Special meters have been developed to measure pressure, intensity, exposure, peak
value and frequency. Generally, sounds are time weighted or frequency weighted, i.e., a weight
value is attached to them to specify their importance. The most common instruments used for
measuring noise are:
Sound Level Meter
Integrating Sound Level Meter (ISLM)
Noise Dosimeter
Sound Level Meter: A sound level meter (Fig. 9.2) is an instrument designed to respond to
sound in approximately the same way as the human ear and to give objective, reproducible
measurements of sound pressure level. This is the basic measuring instrument for noise. It
consists of a microphone, amplifier, weighing network or filter, rms detector and a display unit.
Microphone: The microphone is the interface between the acoustic field and the measuring
system. It responds to sound pressure and transforms it into an electric signal, which can he
interpreted by the measuring instrument (e.g. the sound level meter). The best instrument cannot
give a result better than the output from the microphone. Therefore, its selection and use must be
carefully carried out to avoid errors. The microphone can be of the following types:
piezoelectric, condenser, electric or dynamic.
The most suitable type of microphone for sound level meters is the condenser microphone,
which combines precision with stability and reliability. The electrical signal produced by the
microphone is quite small and so it is amplified by a preamplifier before being processed.
Weighing Network or Filter: The signal may pass through a weighting network and resulted
in different weightings, say "A" "B" or "C'. Sound level meters usually also have a linear
network. This does not weight the signal but enables the signal to pass through without
modification. The frequency range of the sound from 20 Hz to 20 kHz is divided into sections or
bands by means of electronic filters, which reject all signals with frequencies outside the selected
band.

The "A' weighting network weights a signal in a manner which approximates to an inverted
equal loudness contour at low SPLs, the "B" network corresponds to a contour at medium SPLs
and the "C" network to an equal loudness contour at high SPLs. Nowadays the "A" weighting
network is the most widely used since the "B" and "C" weightings do not correlate well with
subjective tests. One reason for this lack of correlation between subjective tests and "B" and "C
weighted measurements is because the equal loudness contours were based on experiments
which used pure tones - and most common sounds are not pure tones, but very complex signals
made up of many different tones.
RMS detector: After the signal has been weighted and or divided into frequency bands the
resultant signal is amplified, and the Root Mean Square (RMS) value is determined in an RMS
detector. The RMS value is used because it is directly related to the amount of energy in the
sound being measured.
Read out or Display unit: The read-out unit displays the sound level in dB, or some other
derived unit such as dB (A) (which means that the measured sound level has been A-weighted).
The signal may also be available at output sockets, in either AC or DC form, for connection to
external instruments such as level or tape recorders to provide a record and/or for further
processing.
The accuracy of a sound level meter is dependant on the type of meter, the frequency being
measured, the orientation of the sound relative to the microphone and the time variation of the
sound pressure. Selection of a particular sound level meter should be made following a review of
the need for accuracy, the frequency and other characteristics of the sound being measured.
Sound level meters should be calibrated in order to provide precise and accurate results. This
is best done by placing a portable acoustic calibrator, such as a sound level calibrator or a piston
phone, directly over the microphone. These calibrators provide a precisely defined sound
pressure level to which the sound level meter can be adjusted. It is good measurement practice to
calibrate sound level meters immediately before and after each measurement session.
Specifications of Sound Level Meters
Measurement Range: It is the range of sound levels, which can be effectively measured by the
sound level meter.
Accuracy: It is the closeness of the measurement with the actual value ofthe sound. Weighting
Used: It is the type of weighting used by the meter, frequency or time weights.
Frequency: It is the frequency range which can be measured by the meter, generally represented
as A or C frequency.
Power Required: It is the power required for the machine to operate.

Advantages of Sound Level Meters

Can accurately measure sounds.
Various parameters like sound pressure and power can also be known. . They are
compact, easy to use, and portable.
Compatible with other sound control mechanisms.
Applications of Sound Level Meters

Sound monitoring devices in schools and cinema halls.

Sound dosage monitoring in work areas among workers.
Sound activated alarms.
Policing and sound pollution monitoring.
Machine quality assessment in industries.
Sound control mechanisms in audio devices.
Automatic volume control in television and music systems.

Integrating Sound Level Meter (ISLM): This instrument is a sound level meter with
properties similar to those of a dosimeter. Like a noise dosimeter, it can be used to measure
varying or intermittent noise and impulse noise and the worker can move around while wearing
the instrument.
Typical applications for integrating sound level meters are identical to those for standard
sound level meters. Integrating sound level meters can however be used to measure the average
sound pressure level around noisy equipment or other sound sources where the integrating
capacity can be used to determine the average sound level in space as well as time. The two main
differences between sound level meters and integrating sound level meters are:
Averaging durations for an integrating meter are usually much longer than those for a
standard sound level meter, extending to minutes or hours; and
The integrating meter gives equal emphasis to all sounds that occur during the selected
averaging period, while the standard sound level meter gives more emphasis to
recently occurring sounds.
Noise Dosimeter: The need to ascertain the noise exposure of workers during their normal
working day, has led to the development of the noise dosimeter. This is a small, light and
compact instrument to be worn by the worker. It measures the total A weighted sound energy
received and expresses it as a proportion of the maximum A-weighted energy that can be
received per day.
In noise dosimeter, the microphone is attached to the worker whose noise exposure is being
measured. Placement of the microphone is important in estimating exposure. The microphone is
usually mounted on a shoulder, at the chest, or in the ear. The noise dosimeter is clipped to the
workers' clothes with the microphone close to the ear, and can be worn without hampering work.
The dose provided by the instrument is of course dependent on the duration during which the
instrument is used.

When noise levels are continuous and the worker remains essentially in one work area during
the work shift, measuring noise exposure with a sound level meter is relatively straightforward.
However, a noise dosimeter is preferred for measuring worker exposure when noise levels vary
or are intermittent, when they contain components of impulse noise or when the worker
frequently moves around during the work shift.
7. How noise can be controlled in an industry?
NOISE CONTROL
It is illegal to expose anyone to a sound level above the prescribed limit. These limits are
prescribed in the Regulations of the Occupational Health, Safety and Welfare Act, 1986. The first
step in controlling workplace noise is a noise assessment survey by qualified people. This
provides a detailed 'noise map' of areas and individuals in the workplace exposed to excessive
noise and identifies noisy equipment. If a noise exposure assessment confirms that workers are
exposed to noise in excess of the occupational exposure limits the employer must develop and
implement a noise management program (sometimes referred to as a hearing conservation
program). Workers are required to co-operate with the employer in implementing the program.
The program must include the following seven components:

Conduct a Risk Assessment

Worker Education and Training
Posting Warning Signs in any Work Area
Take Steps to Prevent or Control Risks
Selection, use and Maintenance of Hearing Protection Devices
Audiometric Testing and
Annual Program Review.

Conduct a Risk Assessment: Before any preventive measures are taken, it is essential to
assess the risks to workers from noise, including carrying out measurements if necessary. The
method of risk assessment used will depend upon the prevailing conditions in the workplace
(e.g., type, duration, and level of exposure), and may include sampling of the personal exposure
of workers.
Identify the different noise-related risks in your organization. For example, some staff
more exposed to loud noises than others, with the potential risk of noise induced hearing
loss? Or perhaps the nature of the noise is contributing to high stress levels within the
organization?
Assess how every type-of worker is affected, including temporary and part-time staff, as
well workers with special needs, such as employees who are pregnant.
Evaluate measures that are already in place to control noise levels. How satisfactory are
these?
Record all your findings and share them with workers, along with an explanation of their
significance and potential risks issues that need to be addressed.

Worker Education and Training: The success of a noise management program largely
depends on effective worker education. Workers need to understand the reasons for, and
requirements of, the program. Workers must also understand their role in the program.
Worker education should be ongoing and meet the specific exposure and prevention needs of
each worker or group of workers. At a minimum, the worker education component of the
program should include the following elements:

Regulatory requirements and responsibilities;

Occupational exposure limits- what they are and why they are needed?
The effects of noise on hearing;
The employer's policy on eliminating noise as a hazard, including the noise controls
already in place or planned for the future;
Identification of hazardous noise sources at the workplace;
Training in the use of protective equipment i.e., purpose of hearing protectors, types of
protectors available
Audiometric testing i.e., its role in preventing hearing loss, a description of the test
procedure, interpretation and implications of test results; and
Individual responsibilities for preventing hearing loss i.e., compliance with the program,
noise exposure and hearing loss in non-occupational settings.

Posting Warning Signs: Warning signs must be posted at the periphery of any work area
where the noise level exceeds 85 dBA. The signs should include a statement that hearing
protectors must be worn while in the area. A supply of several types of hearing protectors should
be readily accessible to those entering the area. Signs should present their warning graphically
and in words. The words should be written in English and if workers are unable to read English,
the words should also appear in the predominant language of the workplace.
Take Steps to Prevent or Control Risks: Steps taken to control the noise are:
Reduction at source
Source control is most highly prioritized because it is, in general, the most effective form of
noise control by eliminating a noise source before it is allowed to emit offensive noise levels.
Eliminating noise sources is often not physically or practically possible. However, there are a
number of ways to reduce workers' exposure:
Isolate the source of the noise, for example by relocating or enclosing the equipment.
Dampen the equipments noise or vibration, for example by using metal or air springs or
by introducing mufflers and silencer on exhausts. Reducing the machinery's speed is
another possible solution. Other options include using belt drives instead of noisier gears;
or electrical rather than pneumatic tools.
Carry out regular preventive maintenance; when components are worn or damaged, noise
levels tend to rise. This is also an opportunity to replace components with quieter
alternatives.
Whenever altering any hardware, always take into account the ergonomic impact of any
changes on the equipment's operators. Measures that make it more difficult for staff to

use the equipment are likely to be removed or altered, rending them pointless.
Noise Compliance Monitoring - technician on site to ensure compliance.
Reduced Power Operation - use only necessary size and power.
Blocking the noise transmission path: When source control measures are not s:ufficient to
avoid noise impact, then path control measures are designed and implemented. Intervening
pathways over which noise propagates to sensitive receptors can be effectively interrupted with
noise barriers and/or curtains. Proper care is taken to completely block the line-of-sight between
the noise source and the affected receptors. This can be done by:

Move noisy machines or processes to remote areas of the factory;

Fit sound-absorbent materials to ceilings and walls;
Enclose noisy machinery with sound absorbent materials;
Mount noisy floor standing machinery on rubber pads to reduce reverberation; Fit
flexible or fixed screens or curtains of sound absorbent material.

Controlling noise at receptor: However, there are numerous circumstances where source and
path noise control measures are not feasible or sufficient. In these cases, receptor control
measures are necessary which includes:
Window Treatments-reinforcing the building's noise reduction ability. Because window
openings are typically a building's weakest link for noise infiltration, acoustical window
treatments dm significantly reduce the outside-to-inside noise contribution
Community Participation-open dialog to involve affected residents
Noise Complaint Process-ability to log and respond to noise complaints
Temporary Relocation-in extreme otherwise unmitigatable cases.
Selection, use and Maintenance of Hearing Protection Devices: Hearing protectors are
generally defined as anything worn to reduce the level or volume of sound entering the ear.
Hearing protectors are subject to many problems and should be considered the last resort against
hazardous noise situations. Hearing protectors can fail to provide adequate protection in many
situations due to discomfort, incorrect use with other safety equipment, dislodgment,
deterioration and abuse. Hearing protectors provide their greatest protection against high
frequency noise. There are two basic types of hearing protection devices: Earplugs and Earmuffs.
Earplugs are inserted into ear canal. These are made of soft plastic or silicone rubber. These
plugs, when properly fitted to ear canal, provide a high degree of sound attenuation. The
performance of these plugs depends dynamically on the fit, maintenance and installation.
Earplugs may be reusable types or disposable types.
Earmuffs cover the outer ear as an acoustical shield or barrier. These are basically hard plastic
cups. A cushion seal to the head is maintained by a spring-loaded headband. The effectiveness of
earmuffs depends mainly on the cushion-to-head seal. The headband must exert sufficient
uniform pressure to conform the cushion to the shape of the head.

Audiometric Testing. Workers exposed to noise levels exceeding the occupational exposure
limits must undergo audiometric testing. The purpose of testing is to establish a baseline
measurement of the worker's hearing and to then monitor the worker's hearing at regular
intervals to detect changes in hearing ability. Audiometric testing is used to identify and diagnose
hearing loss.
Audiometer: An audiometer is a machine, which is used to determine the hearing loss in an
individual. The audiometer must be capable of making all measurements quickly, precisely, with
no discomfort to the worker. Pure tone audiometer works on the principle of presenting specific
pure tone signals to the subject and determining the intensity at which they can barely hear these
signals.
Annual Program Review: The noise management program must be reviewed on a regular
basis to make sure it is effective. The extent of the review should be based on the sophistication
and complexity of the program, but must at least include review of the training program, an
assessment of the need for further noise measurement and the adequacy of control measures.
8. What are various solution to noise problems.
Efforts to control noise and vibration in a wide range of mechanisms and devices
inevitably require the use of passive acoustical materials.
To achieve the greatest performance one should have knowledge of not only the correct
choice of materials, but also an understanding of how they work, and of how and where
to install them.
All passive noise control systems use at least one of the following material types:
Barriers enclosures, weighted materials, walls
Absorption materials...acoustical foams, fibrous blankets, acoustical tiles
Vibration isolators...equipment mounts, plastic or rubber-based bushings and grommets,
steel spring equipment supports
Damping materials... plastic sheets, adhesive films.
The first two categories above deal with.
Air borne noise-noise already propagating in the air. The last two items deal with
structure borne vibration, which will appear as airborne noise after being radiated by a
structure, unless it is either isolated or damped.
Effective noise control incorporates the use of both barriers and absorbers for airborne
noise and both isolation and damping for structure borne noise.
It is important to remember that sound is mechanical energy, and that it will always find
the path of least resistance from the noise source to the outside world.
The process of noise control involves blocking these paths and eliminating the energy
wherever possible.
Acoustic Materials

 Acoustic insulation materials work by two processes: absorption of sound energy, which
dissipates sound as heat energy, and reflection, which reflects noise away from a location
where silence is desired.
A single composite insulation material will be effective as both an absorber and a
reflector.
9. Define noise insulation
Just like noise is transmitted by vibration through structures, sound waves travel through air and
reach, the human ear. Substantial reduction in noise level can be achieved by insulating the
source from the outside environment. Noise insulation is the word given to erecting a barrier in
the path of noise. For best results, it is necessaq to insulate the source from all the sides although
insulating two or three sides only gives reduction, of a lower degree. Closing from all sides,
involves problems relating to heat dissipation, accessibility for operation and maintenance,
service facilities like air, water and electric connections and comparatively high cost. The
reduction in noise level is achieved by the material reflecting the sound waves and will depend
upon, the insulating properties of the material used, the thickness of insulation maps or other
path way left open in the barrier and the noise transmitted through path ways other than air.
10. Write short notes on sound absorption
All building materials have some acoustical properties because they absorb, reflect or
transmit sound striking them.
Speaking, acoustical materials are those materials designed and used for the purpose of
absorbing sound that might otherwise be reflected.
Sound absorption is defined, as the incident sound that strikes a material that is not reflected back.
An open window is an excellent absorber since the sounds passing through the open
window are not reflected back but makes a poor sound barrier.
Painted concrete block is a good sound barrier but will reflect about 97% of the incident
sound striking it.
When a sound wave strikes an acoustical material the sound wave causes the fibers or
particle makeup of the absorbing material to vibrate.
This vibration causes tiny amounts of heat due to the friction and thus sound absorption is
accomplished by way of energy to heat conversion.
The more fibrous a material is the better the absorption; conversely denser materials are
less absorptive.
The sound absorbing characteristics of acoustical materials vary significantly with
frequency. In general low frequency sounds are very difficult to absorb because of their
long wavelength.
Porous Absorbers
Common porous absorbers include carpet, draperies, spray-applied cellulose, aerated

plaster, fibrous mineral wool and glass fiber, open-cell foam, and felted or cast porous
ceiling tile.
All of these materials allow air to flow into a cellular structure where sound energy is
converted to heat.
Porous absorbers are the most commonly used sound absorbing materials.
Fabric applied directly to a hard, massive substrate such as plaster or gypsum board does
not make an efficient sound absorber due to the very thin layer of fiber.
Thicker materials generally provide more bass sound absorption or damping.

Sound Absorbing Materials

There are three basic categories of sound absorbers: porous materials commonly formed of
matted or spun fibers; panel absorbers having an impervious surface mounted over airspace; and
resonators created by holes or slots connected to an enclosed volume of trapped air. The
absorptivity of each type of sound absorber is dramatically influenced by the mounting method
employed.
Resonators
Resonators typically act to absorb sound in a narrow frequency range. Resonators include
some perforated materials and materials that have openings.
perforated materials only absorb the mid-frequency range unless special care is taken in
designing the facing to be as acoustically transparent as possible. Slots usually have a
similar acoustic response. Long narrow slots can be used to absorb low frequencies.

Panel Absorbers
Panel absorbers are non-rigid, non-porous materials, which are placed over an airspace
that vibrates in a flexural mode in response to sound pressure exerted by adjacent air
molecules.
Common panel (membrane) absorbers include thin wood paneling over framing,
lightweight impervious ceilings and floors, glazing and other large surfaces capable of
resonating in response to sound. Panel absorbers are usually most efficient at absorbing
low frequencies.
11. Define noise absorption.
Only Three Thing Stop Noise is:
1. Space: The more space there is, the more noise reduction there is. As an exaggeration, if you are
10 miles away, you will not hear it, except under strange circumstances.
2. Mass: A six foot thick concrete wall works great. If is heavy, it will work well. Remember, if it
does no weigh much it will not stop much.
3. Dampening: This requires a little explana.tion. Like a wine glass, when you make it ring but you
can keep it quiet by holding if. You have dampened the noige by retarding the vibrations. This
can be achieved in several ways.

Lead is an excellent noise stopper, its softness makes it to dampen the noise. Making noise
transfer through different layers of material with different densities also helps dampen noise.
Improperly done it can make things worse, like string holding chimes help them ring by isolating
the vibration instead of dampening it.
12. Differentiate between noise reductions vs. noise absorption
This is a very important principle to understand about soundproofing. There are two types of
noise reduction and they are almost always confused with each other. All noise reduction and
noise Absorption are not alike. Noise absorption is not noise reduction.
.
Noise Reduction
Noise reduction is achieved by stopping it, killing it, not letting the noise get through the wall
or window. Stop the noise bHore it gets to you, or into the room you are in. For this you use mass
and space. You can build heavy walls with large airspaces and you maximize dampening as best
you can.
Noise Absorption
Noise absorption is achieved by changing the characteristic of the noise. Stop it from
echoing. Stop the reverberation. Stop the noise reflections. All this involves handling the noise
that is within the room. It seldom involves noise from outside the room. You have likely heard of
a room as being a 'live' room or a 'dead' room. For this type of noise reduction or soundproofing
use carpets, upholstered furniture, acoustical ceiling tile, soundboard or interior walls.
Noise absorbent material normally soft and porous one, prevent reflection of noise and also
convert some of the noise energy into heat energy. Auditoriums and Cinema theatres have their
walls coloured with noise absorbent material with this purpose in view.
A combination of absorption and insulation can give very good reduction in noise level.
13. What are different methods of noise absorption
Acoustical materials exhibit a wide range of sound-absorbing efficiency over the audible
spectrum, depending upon their surface treatment, cOInposition, method of mountin&i and
thickness.
Nearly all the more common acoustical materials are of a porous composition with a surface
finish designed to permit entrance of the sound wave into the interior. Their porous composition
consists of a labyrinth of capillary-like tunnels which are formed by the interstices of fibrous
mineral, cellulos, or aerated plaster products. When the materials is exposed to the sound wave,
the-air molecules contained in that part of the sound wave near the surface of the material
partially migrate into the material in a rapid to-and-fro motion. Here a part of the acoustic energy
is converted into heat through the frictional drag or viscous, resistance encountered by the air
molecules against the walls of the capillary tunnels. In this manner, the absorption of an incident
acoustic wave can be as high as 95 per cent. The fraction of an incident energy absorbed (a,
absorption coefficient) in the process will vary with frequency for a given material of a specified
thickness and type of mounting.

Almost without exception, porous materials provide a greater percentage of sound absorption
and the mid and high frequencies than at the lower frequencies. The lower curve of ;Fig. 10.7
illustrates a typical variation of absorption coefficient vs. frequency for a I-in-thick "unfaced"
low-density porous blanket with air-space backing. The upper curve of Fig. shows that the same
material having a 2-in thickness exhibits a significant increase in sound-absorbing efficiency,
particularly at the lower and mid frequensies. While this is in fact a typical characteristics of
porous acoustical materials, it should be pointed out that the increased soundabsorbing efficiency
resulting from the increased thickness may not always be dramatic as that shown in Fig.
Another material for sound absorption often used in architectural acoustics is the flexible
impervious panel. When a panel is set into motion by an impinging sound wave, part of the
energy contained in the wave is removed through internal viscous damping due to panel flexure.
100

this is particularly true for frequencies in the region of the resonances of the panel. Panel
materials such as plywood and composition hardboards of sizes normally used for interior
finishes provide useful sow1d absorption, jut we must note that they exhibit their maximum
absorption in the lower frequency regions. On the other hand 1/2 to l-in-thick porous acoustical
materials are somewhat less effective as these lower frequencies.
Fig. shows the sound absorption as a function of frequency for two thicknesses of plywood
panels in comparison to that of a typical1-inthick porous material. Maximum absorption is
obtained with panels that are suitably damped and do not produce a ringing tone when struck. An

example of an unsuitable panel material would be a thin undamped sheet of steel which is
actually capable of re-emitting sound for a protrected period after the airborne source of acoustic
excitation has been removed.
Still another method of achieving sound absorption is the acoustic resonator of the
Helmholtz type which consists of a vessel of any shape containing a volume of air. This air
volume is in direct communication with the air with in the room through an interconnecting
tunnel which may be long or short and of any cross-sectional shape. An example of a resonator
of this type might be a gallon jug. When a sound wave impinges on the aperture of the tunnel, the
air in the tunnel will be set into vibration which periodically expands and compresses the air
within the vessel. The resulting amplified motion of the air particles in 1ft the tunnel due to
phase cancellation between the air plough in the tunnel and-the air volume in the vessels causes
energy absorption due to frictional drag in and around the tunnel. This type of absorber can be
designed to produce maximum absorption over a very narrow frequency range or even a wide
frequency range.
The above brief descriptions serve to illustrates that a number of materials and even
combinations of methods are available for absorbing sound over a broad or narrow frequency
range and selectively at low, middle, and high frequencies.
Prefabricated Acoustical Materials
In recent years has been an ever-increasing demand for architectural acoustical materials.
Competition among manufacturers has resulted in a significant increase in the number of
products. The abundance of products which are now available in a wide variety of basic
materials, thicknesses, tile sizes, (board sizes) and surface finishes makes the selection of an
appropriate material somewhat difficult.
Fortunately, nearly all the prefabricated acoustical materials now available have been typed
in accordance with there general appearance and composition by the Acoustical Materials
Association (AMA).. This association is composed of a number of natiqnwid.e organization
engaged in the manufacture of architectural' acoustical products. Particular emphasis has been
directed by the association toward maintaining or improving the absorption characteristics of
various materials while simultaneously offering a greater variety of decorative features.
As mentioned earlier, the thickness and method of mounting are of equal importance in
determining the sound absorption coefficient of a material at various frequencies. The
prefabricated products have been standarized essentially into _ in. 3,4 in.. and 1 in., thicknesses
by the AMA. The methods of application or types of mountings used in conducting tests to
determine sound-absorption coefficient.
14. State the purpose of silencer
A sound suppressor is designed to be most:effective with a given firearm and cartridge. The main
purpose of a sound suppressor is to reduce the muzzle blast, which is the most significant portion
of the noise. Muzzle blast is caused by_high pressure gases suddenly escaping from the end of
the barrel into the atmosphere'as the bullefexits. Reducing the pressure results in less sound
generated. Pressure is reduced by increasing the volume for gas expansion, reducing the gas
temperature (cooling) delaying gas exit througn trapping and turbulence, and by a combination
of these technologies.

Types of Suppressors/Silencers
There are two basic types of suppressors. The most common, and oldest historically, is the
muzzle suppressor which is attached to the muzzle of a firearm. The other type of suppressor is
the integral suppressor, which is built arbund the barrel of a firearm. When using an illtegral type
suppressor the barrel is modified for velocity control.
Silencers are more properly called sound moderators or suppressors and are widely used by
hunters to reduce noise levels from-the discharge of firearms, particularly sporting rifles and air
weapons. A sound moderator is essentially no more than a series of baffles coupled to an
expansion chamber, contained within a tubqlar attachment which screws on to the end of the
firearm's barrel.
The noise of the dissharge of qlost firearms is made up of two components. The first comes
from the rapid expansion of propellant gases as they leave the muzzle. The second is the
supersonic crack of the bullet. It is not possible to reduce the sound level of a supersonic bullet,
but a sound moderator fitted to such a rifle will have some significant effect in reducing the noise
signature because it controls the rate of expansion of the propelling gases.
For a sound moderator to be really effective, it must be used with ammunition whose projectiles
travel at less than the speed of sound. In such cases, the noise of the discharge is greatly reduced
and may not even be recognisable as a gun. It is not possible to fit a sound moderator to a
revolver because the gap between the barrel and the front of the cylinder means that about 5 per
cent of the propellant gases escape, contributing to the overall noise of the discharge. Otherwise,
sound moderators can be fitted to any type of firearm.
Working of Gun Silencer
It is amazing that anything is able to silence a gun, but gun silencers actually work on a very
simple principle. Imagine a balloon. If you pop a balloon with a pin, it will make a loud noise.
But if you were to untie the end of the balloon and let the air out slowly, you could pop it making
very little noise. That is the basic idea behind a gun silencer.
To fire a bullet from a gun, gunpowder is ignited behind the bullet. The gunpowder creates a
high-pressure pulse of hot gas: The pressure of the gas forces the bullet down the barrel of the
gun. When the bullet exits the end of the barrel, it is like uncorking a bottle. The pressure behind
the bullet is immense, however - on the order of 3,009 pounds per square inch (psi) - so the POP
that the gun makes as it is uncorked is extremely loud.
A silencer screws on to the end of the barrel and has a huge volume compared to the barrel.
With the silencer in place, the pressurized gas behind the bullet has a big space to expand into.
So the pressure of the hot gas falls significantly. When the bullet finally exits through the hole in
the silencer, the pressure being uncorked is much, much lower - perhaps 60 psi. Therefore, the
sound of the gun is much softer.
NOISE POLLUTION CONTROL LAWS
As the inceasing ambient noise levels in public places from various sources, inter-alia,. industrial
acfivity, construction activity generator sets, loud-speakers, public address systems, music
systems, vehicular horns and other mechanical devices have deleterious effects on human health
and the psychological well-being of the people, it is considered necessary to regulate and control
poise producing and generating sources with the objective of maintaining the ambient air quality
standards in respect of noise.
To have a legal standing, under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986). The

Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000 has been prepared and notified in the
Gazette of India. Some of the important provisions contained in the said Rules are given below:
1. Ambient air quality standards in respect of noise for different areaslzones
The ambient air quality standards in respect of noise for different areaslzones shall be such as
specified in the Schedule annexed to these rules.
The State Govenment may categories the areas into industrial, commerical, residential or silence
areas zones for the purpose of implementq.tion of noise standards for different areas.
The State Government shall take measures for abatement of noise including noise emanating
from vehicular movements and ensure that the existing noise levels do not exceed the ambient air
quality standards specified under these rules.
All development authorities, local bodies and other concerned authorities, while planning
development activity or carrying out functions relating to town and country planning shall take
into consideration all as'pects of noise pollution as a parameter of quality of life to avoid noise
menace and to achieve the objective of .maintaining the ambient air quality standards in resgect
of noise.
An area comprising not less than 100 metres around hospitals, educational institutions and courts
should be declared as silence areal zone for the purpose of these rules.
Responsibility as to Enforcement of Noise Pollution Control Measures:
The noise levels in any areal zone shall not exceed the ambient air quality standards in respect of
noise as specified in the SCHEDULE.
The authority shall be responsible for the enforcement of noise pollution control measures and
the due compliance of the ambient air quality standards in, respect of noise.
Restrictions on the Use of Loud Speakers/Public Address System
A loud speaker OI'"a public adClress system shall not be used except after obtaining written
permission from the authority.
A loud speaker of a public address system shall not be used at night except in closed premises for
communication within, e.g., auditorium, conference rooms, community halls and banquet halls.
Consequences of Any Violation in Silence Zone area
Whoever, in any place covered under the silence i/one/ area commits any of the following
offence, he shall be liable for penalty under the provisions of the Act:
whoever, plays any music or uses any sound amplifiers,
Whoever, beats a drum or torn-torn or blows a horn either musical or pressure, or trumpet
beats or sounds any instrument, or
whoever, exhibits any mimetic, musical or other performances of a nature to attract
crowds.
15. How sound levels are mentioned and list the levels of sound in various industries?
S.No.
Activity
1.
Testing a jet engine or turbine

dB
130 +

2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

Riveting a large steel structure

Chain saw
Riveting small structures
Chipping operations on a large steel casting
Large drop hammer
Power house
Metal-forming machines
Gear-cutting machines
Testing an internal combustion engine
Most mining operations
Most operations using pneumatic tools
Heavy excavation equipment
Large printing presses
Boiler room
Plastic and rubber-molding equipment
Stone crusher
All furnaces other than open hearths
Punch presses
Grinders
Sawing, surfacing, etc. of large wood pieces
Food canning
Food preparation
Most textile operations
Small printing presses
Welding and cutting, both electric and oxy-acetylene
Polishers
Machinery assembly lines
Strip mills
Farm machinery
Sawing, planning, surfacing, etc. of small wood pieces
Textile dying
Typesetting
Warehouse operations
Raw material processing, chemical

120-129
110-119

100-109

90-99

80-89

16. Define vibration.what are the characteristics to describe a vibration?

If you could watch a vibrating object in slow motion, you can see movements in different
directions. How far and how fast the object moves helps determine its vibrational characteristics.
The terms used to describe this movement are frequency, amplitude and acceleration.

Frequency
A vibrating object moves back and forth from its normal stationary position. A complete
cycle of vibration occurs when the object moves from one extreme position to the other extreme
and back again. The number of cycles that a vibrating object completes in one second is called
frequency. The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz). One hertz equals one cycle per second.
Amplitude
A vibrating object moves to a certain maximum distance on either side of its stationary
position. Amplitude is the distance from the stationary position to the extreme position on either
side and is measured in metres (m). The intensity of vibration depends on amplitude.
Acceleration
The speed of a vibrating obje_t varies from zero to a maximum during each cycle of
vibration. It moves fastest as it passes through its stationary position to an extreme position. The
vibrating object slows down as it approaches the extreme, where it stops and then moves in the
opposite direction through the stationary position toward the other extreme. Speed is expressed
in units of metres per second (m/s).
Acceleration is a measure of how quickly speed changes with time and therefore,
acceleration is expressed in units" of metres per second squared (m/s2). The magnitude of
acceleration changes from zero to a maximum during each cycle of vibration. It increases as
vibrating object moves further from its normal stationary position.
Resonance
Every object tends to vibrate at one particular frequency that depends on the composition of the
object, its size, structure, weight and shape. This frequency of natural vibration is called the
resonant frequency. A vibrating machine transfers the maximum amount of energy to an object
when the machine vibrates at the object's resonant frequency.
Vibration refers to oscillatory motions of solid bodies. A simple vibrating system is represented
by a weight suspended on a spring and set into an up and down motion. The vibrating weight is
displaced above and below an average position. Vibration is classified as one of the physical
occupational hygiene hazards in the workplace. It is separated into two sub categories;
Whole-Body Vibration (WBV)-where the vibration is transmitted to the body is a whole
by its supporting surface;
Segmental Vibration: where the vibration is transmitted to a specific segment of the
body such as the hand/arm or foot/leg.
Many workers are exposed to vibration daily while using vibrating equipment or machinery.
Workers operating hand-held equipment, such as chain saw or jackhammer, are exposed to handarm vibration. Workers sitting or standing on a vibrating floor or seat are exposed to whole-body
vibration because the vibration affects almost their entire body. The risk of injury from exposure
to either type of vibration depends on:
The intensity and frequency of the vibration,
The duration of exposure (usually measured in years)
The parts of the body affected.
17. Explain the health effects of vibration.
The effect on humans of exposure to vibration at be4 may be discomfort and interference with

activities or at worst may be injury or disease. Vibration is believed to cause a range ofprob1ems.
These include:

Disorders of the joints and muscles and especially the spine;

Disorders of the circulation;
Cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine and metabolic changes;
Problems in the digestive system;
Reproductive damage in females;
Impairment of vision;
Interference with activities;
Discomfort.

18. Explain the identification of vibration hazards?

Like other hazards at work, vibration needs to be identified as a problem and controlled. The
approach most usually taken is one of risk management. Risk Management involves:
Identifying vibration hazards that might exist;
Assessing these to decide if they constitute a risk to health and safety of employees; II!
Controlling those factors that do pose a risk;
Monitoring and evaluating controls/solutions.
Identification of Vibration Hazards
The process of Hazard Identification
The first step in controlling vibration hazards is to identify
Which activities and vehicles might need further investigation.
Where might people be exposed to vibration?
Which vehicles or activities are associated with complaints, incidents, injuries or other
losses?
How often do these problems occur?
How severe are the problems?
The following sources of information could be used:
Consultation with employees such as formal supervisor/safety representative reporting,
informal discussions with employees who ride in, drive or operate vehicles, question
naires;
Direct observation of the workers, tasks and activities, work area inspections, riding in
and driving vehicles were permitted;
Statistics and injury records such as medical and health records, records of incidents and
accidents, Workers' Compensation records and reports by supervisors/team leaders and
employees. However, while these data provide a list of past risks and precipitating events.
They may not be a true indication of the hazards that currently exist. In order to identify
possible sources of harmful vibration exposure the following information may be useful
when observing tasks and talking to workers.

19. What are the limits of vibration exposure?

VIBRATION EXPOSURE
Vibration exposure is possible in many occupations where a worker comesm-contact with
vibrating machinery or equipment. When a worker operates hand-held equipment such as a chain
saw or jackhammer, vibration affects hands and arms and is called hand-arm vibration exposure.
When a worker sits or stands on a vibrating floor or seat the exposure affects almost the entire
body and is called whole-body vibration exposure. The-risk of injury depends on the intensity
and frequency or the vibration, the duration (years) of exposure and the part of the body which
receives the vibratIon energy.
Hand-arm vibration causes damage to blood vessels and nerves in the fingers.-The resulting
condition is known as white finger disease, Raynaud's phenomenon or hand-arm vibration
syndrome (HAVS). The affected fingers turn white; especially when exposed to cold. Vibration induced white finger disease also causes a loss of grip force and reduced sensitivity to touch.
The effect of whole-body vibration is poorly understood. Studies of drivers of heavy vehicles
have revealed an increased incidence of the disorders of bowel and the circulatory,
musculoskeletal and neurological systems.
However, disorders of the nervous, circulatory and digestive systems are not specific to
whole-body vibration exposure. These disorders are assumed to be caused by a combination of
various working conditions and life style factors rather than by one physical factor alone.
20. What are the symtoms of HAVS?
EFFECT OF HAND-ARM VIBRATION
Vibration-induced white finger (VWF) is the most common condition among the operators of
hand-held tools. Vibration can cause changes in tendons, muscles, bones and joints, and can
affect the nervous. Collectively, these are known as Hand Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS).
Symptoms of vibration aggravated when the hands are exposed to cold. Workers affected by
HAVS commonly report:
attacks of whitening (blanching) of one or more fingers when exposed to cold'
tingling and loss of sensation in the fingers
loss of light touch
pain and c.old sensations between periodic white finger lattacks
loss of grip strength
bone cysts in fingers and wrists
The development of HAVS is gradual and increases in severity over time. It may take a
few months to several years for the symptoms of HAVS to become noticeable.
Symptoms of Hand-arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS)
Hand-arm vibration exposure affects the blood flow and causes loss of touch sensation in
fingers. One of the earliest methods used for identifying the severity of these symptoms was the
Taylor-Pelmear classification method. Table shows the TaylorPelmear classification of the
clinical stages of vibration induced white finger. This classification was widely used in the past.

Stage Signs and Syptos

Interference with Activities
0
Non
None
aT Intermittent tingling
None
ON Intermittent numbness
None
OTN Tingling and numbness
None
1
Blanching of one or more fingertips None
with or without tingling and
numbness
Blanching of one or more fingers Slight interference with home
2
with
and
social activities i11terference
numbness, usually during winter only
with work
Definite interference with
3.
Extensive blanching with .frequent
work, home
episodes during both summer
and social restrjcted hobbies
and winter
Extensiv.e blan;hing of mostOccuption change required to
4.
fingers;
avoid
further,
vibration
frequent episodes during sumer and
exposure
winter; finger ukeration
. Stage
0

Grade
(None)

Mild

Moderate

3'

Severe

Very Severe

Stage
OSN
ISN
2SN

Description
No attacks
Occasional attacks affecting only the
tips
of one or more fingers
Occasional attacks affecting fingertips
and
, middle of the finger and rarely also
the
Finger
Frequency attacks affecting most
fingers
Same symptoms as in stage 3 with
degen- erate skin changes in the
fingertips.

Symptoms
. Exposed to vibrati?n but no symptons
Intermittent numbness, with or without tingling
Intermittent or persistent numbness, reduced
sensory

3SN

perception
Intermittent or persistent numbness, reduced
tactile
discrimination and/ or manipulative dexterity

The severity of hand-arm vibration syndrome depends on several other factors, such as the
character vibration exposure, work practice, personal history and habits.
Physical Factors
Acceleration ofvibration

Biodynamic Factors
Grip forces - how hard the
worker grasps the vibrating tool
equipment
Frequency of vibration
Surface area, location, and mass
of parts of the hand in contact
with the source of vibration.
Duration of exposure each Hardness of the material being
workday
contacted by the hand held tools,
for example metal in grinding
and chipping
Years of employment
position of the hand and arm
ment mvolvmg relative to the
body
Texture of hand le-soft 'and
State of tool maintenance
compliant versus rigid material
Protective
equipment
boots

practices
and
including gloves,

Medical history of injury to

fingers and hands, particularly
ding gloves, boots, frostbite

Individual Factors
Operator's control of tool
Machine work rate
Skill and productivity

Individual
vibration

susceptibility

Smoking and use of drugs

Exposure to other physical and
agents.
Diseases or prior injury to the
fingers hands

Hand-arm vibration syndrome is also known as Raynaud's phenomenon of occupational

origin. Vibration is just one cause of Raynaud's phenomenon. Other causes are connective tissue
diseases, tissue injury, diseases of the blood vessels in the finger, exposure to vinyl chloride, and
the use of certain drugs. The resulting reduced blood flow can produce white fingers in cold
environments.
21. What are various sources of vibrations.
There are three main sources of vibrations
Rough road and poor work surface condition at end.
Vehicle and machine activity at end.
Engine vibration to a lesser extent.
22. Discuss the guidelines for exposure to whole body vibrations.
EFFECT OF WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

to

Whole-body vibration can cause fatigue, insomnia, headache and "Shakiness" shortly after or
during exposure. The symptoms are similar to those that many people experience after a long car
or boat trip. After daily exposure over a number of years, whole-body vibration can affect the
entire body and result in a number of health disorders. Sea, air or land vehicles cause motion
sickness when the vibration exposure occurs in the 0.1 to 0.6 Hz frequency range. Studies of bus
and truck drivers found that occupational exposure to whole-body vibration could have
contributed to a number of circulatory bowel, respiratory, muscular and back disorders. The
combined effects of the body posture, postural, fatigue, dietary habits and whQle-body vibration
are the possible causes for these disorders.
Studies shows that whole-body vibration can increase heart rate, oxygen uptake and
respiratory rate produce changes in blood and urine. East European researchers have noted that
exposure to whole-body vibration can produce .an overall ill feeling which they call Vibration
Sickness" .
Many studies have reported decreased performance in workers exposed to whole body vibration.
Whole-Body Vibration energy enters the body through a seat or the floor it affects the entire
body or a number of organs in the body. Exposed of groups include operators of trucks, buses,
tractors and those who work on vibratiag floors.
23. Discuss the limits of vibration exposure?
As in all occupational exposures, individual sensitivity to vibration varies from person to person.
Three important factors to be considered for vibration exposure are:
The threshold yalue.
The exposure-response relationship.
Latent period.
.
The threshold value of vibration is the level below which there is no risk of vibration
syndrome. In other words, it is the maximum intensity of vibration to which workers can be
exposed every workday for their entire full-time employment without developing numbness,
paleness or chill of fingers. Workers will not develop vibration-related injuries or disease if their
exposure to vibration is maintained at sufficiently low levels.
The number of affected people increases as the intensity and duration of vibration exposure
increases. This type of exposure-response relationship indicates a possible link between health
effects and the total amount of vibration energy entering the hands or body. Depending on the
intensity of exposure the symptoms may appear months or years after the start of the exposure.
The latent period for VWF is the time from the first occupational exposure to hand-arm
vibration until the onset of symptoms. The latent period depends on the intensity of exposure.
The higher the intensity, the shorter the latent period.
Define the term ACCEPTANCE OF VIBRATION SYNDROME
The acceptance of vibration syndrome as an industrial syndrome is hindered because:
Not every physican is trained to diagnose vibration induced white finger (VWF) as
other vibration diseases.
The cause of VWF cannot always be identified.
There are no objective clinical tests to measure the impairment.

 The disease progresses for years before the symptoms become severe enough to affect a
worker to do her or his work.
24. What are various steps to be taken for vibration prevention?
A comprehensive management system to prevent vibrations should cover the following steps:

Elimination
Substitution
Isolation
Engineering control
Administrative control
Health surveillance
Personal protective equipment.

1, Elimination: Elimination is the first step that should be considered when 'addressing
exposure to vibration at a workplace. In some cases it can be possible to eliminate the exposure;
sometimes it could mean changing the operation completely. This is the most effective way of
controlling the risk and should always be considered.
2. Substitution: A proper selection of vehicles or machines plays a very important part in
prevention methods. Sometimes a vibration source can be replaced by another machine with
lower vibration magnitude, for example, machines with rotating instead of reciprocating parts, or
belts instead of chains.
3. Isolation: Vibration isolators can be broken down into three categories:
(i) Metal springs
(ii) Elastomeric mounts, and
(iii) isolation pads
(iv) Inertia blocks.
Metal springs
Metal springs are widely used in industry for vibration isolation. Their use spans the spectrum
from light, delicate instruments to very heavy industrial machinery. The advantages of metal
springs are: (a) they are resistant to environmental factors such as temperature, corrosion,
solvents, and the like; (b) they do not drift or creep; (c) they permit maximum deflection; and (d)
they are good for low-frequency isolation. The disadvantages of springs are (a) they possess
almost no damping and hence the transmissibility at resonance can be very high; (b) springs act
like a short circuit for high-frequency vibration; and (c) care must be taken to ensure that a
rocking motion does not exist.
Elastomeric mounts
Elastomeric mounts consist primarily of natural rubber and synthetic rubber materials such as
neoprene. In general, elastomeric mounts are used to isolate small electrical and mechanical
devices from relatively high forcing frequencies. They are also useful in the protection of
delicate electronic equipment. In a controlled environment, natural rubber is perhaps the best and
most economical isolator. Natural rubber contains inherent damping, which is very useful if the
machine operates near resonance or passes through resonance during "startup" or "shutdown."

Synthetic rubber is more desirable when the environment is somewhat hazardous.

Rubber can be used in either tension, compression or shear; however, it is normally used in
compression or shear and rarely used in tension. In compression it possesses the capacity for
high-energy storage; however, its useful life is longer when used in shear.
Isolation pads
The materials in this particular classification include such things as cork, felt, and fiberglass. In
general, these items are easy to use and install. They are purchased in sheets and cut to fit the
particular application, and can be stacked to produce varying degrees of isolation. Cork is very
resistive to corrosion and solvents and is relatively insensitive to a wide range of temperatures.
Some of the felt pads are constructed of organic material and hence should not be employed in an
industrial environment where solvents are used.
Inertia blocks
Isolated concrete inertia blocks play an important part in the control of vibration transmission.
Large-inertia forces at low frequencies caused by equipment such as reciprocating compressors
may cause motion that is unacceptable for proper machine operation and transmit large forces to
the supporting structure. One method of limiting motion is to mount the equipment on an inertia
base. This heavy concrete or steel mass limits motion by overcoming the inertia forces generated
by the mounted equipment.
4. Engineering Controls: Vibration magnitude, frequency, direction and duration as well as
body posture are the main factors that determine the severity of vibration exposure.
Vibration exposure control means addressing one or more of these factors to minimize the
health risk, engineering vibration controls can be divided into two categories': control at source
and in path by controlling the transmission.
Reduce vibration at source
Reducing vibration at source is often very complicated. It may require detailed analysis of a
machine to identify the source of vibration. In other cases, there may be a simple solution such
as:
Ensuring machinery is balanced,
Leveling a road.
Ensuring factory floors are without pot-holes (for forklifts to fall into).
Ensuring the rail track of a bridge crane gives a smooth ride.
Changing machinery speed, so the resulting vibration frequency is not in a range that
affects the human body.
Using additional mass to shift the natural frequency of the machine.
Reduce, vibration transmitted
The other way of controlling vibration by engineering means is by reducing the vibration
transmitted to the vehicle body or by reducing the vibration transmitted to the operator.
The first step in reducing vibration transmission to the vehicle is through tyres. These days

most vehicles are equipped with pneumatic tyres, which offer some vertical reduction at low
frequencies. There are some exceptions, for example, forklift trucks with hard tyres and some
off-road machines with caterpillar tracks.
Vehicle-suspension is the second step in reduction of vibration transmission. Most of the offroad machines, agriculture tractors and forklift trucks are still built without any suspension
between the wheel and the chassis. Only cars, trucks and some of the recently built dumpers are
fitted with parabolic or pneumatic suspensions which give a better control of vibration
transmission.
The third step in transmission control is to isolate the cab from the chassis. This is achieved by
a suspension system fitted in two or four points. Manufacturers currently introduce this type of
suspension to most articulated trucks and some agricultural tractors.
5. Administrative Controls: It includes:
Job modification to reduce vibration exposure
Wherever possible, jobs should be redesigned to minimize the use of hand-held vibrating tools.
Where job redesign is not feasible, ways to reduce tool vibration should be found. Where
practical, substitute a manual tool for a vibrating tool. Whenever possible, high vibration tools
should be replaced by improved, low vibration tools designed to absorb vibration before it
reaches the handgrip.
Determine vibration exposure times and introduce work breaks to avoid constant, continued
vibration exposure. A worker who is using a vibrating tool continuously should take a 10minute
break after each hour of using the tool.
Education and training
Education and training is a very important aspect in the prevention approach. Operators should
be informed about.

Potential sources of hand-arm vibration;

The health effects of hand-arm vibration;
Risk factors (e.g., high levels of vibration, daily length/regularity of exposure);
How to recognize and report signs of injury?
Ways to minimize risk, including:
Changes to working practices to reduce vibration exposure;
Correct selection, use and maintenance of equipment;
How to use tools to reduce grip force, strain etc?
Maintenance of good blood circulation at work, e.g., by keeping warm, exercising.

A poor body posture is often regarded as partially responsible for back problems associated
with exposure to vibration. Operators need to be trained on how to adopt a posture, which
minimizes the transmission of vibration to the body. A standing person may reduce the transmission by bending the knees. A seated person may benefit ftom avoiding a too erect posture.

6. Health Surveillance: Workers whose occupations place them at risk for developing VWF
should have pre-employment physicals and thereafter should ,be checked at least annually by
doctors who know about the diagnosis and treatment of VWF. Diagnostic tests which can be
used include" arteriography, skin thermography, and sensory tests, such as two point
discrimination depth sense, pinprick touch and temperature sensation. X-rays may also be useful
workers that have a past history of abnormalities in blood circulation and especially workers who
have Reynaud is Syndrome should not be permitted to use vibrating hand-held tools. Workers
who have moderate to severe symptoms of VWF should be reassigned to work, which removes
them from further direct exposure to vibrating tools.
If workers develop symptoms of tingling or numbness, or if their fingers occasionally become
white or blue, or painful especially when cold, they should be examined by a doctor who knows
about the diagnosis and treatment of VWF:
.
7. Personal Protective Equipment: Personal protective equipment offers the last possibility
of preventing vibration exposure. It should reduce the vibration transmission to the feet. Shoes
with absorbing soles have been tried, but the measurements made on existing shoes show only a
very small reduction. Protective belts are the other kind of PPE that have been tried by drivers of
off-road vehicles and motor cycles. These belts are said to help maintain proper posture by
stiffening the abdomen. However, many doctors are opposed to the wearing of these belts
because of possible long-term muscular disorders. Anti-vibration gloves offer little protection
against developing vibration-induced white finger syndrome. However, gloves do provide
protection from typical industrial hazards (e,g., cuts, abrasions) and from cold temperatures that,
in turn, may reduce the initial sensation of white finger attacks.
25. Discuss the methods of measuring vibrations in an industry.
Measurements should be made to produce the data needed to draw meaningful
conclusions from the system under test. These data can be used to minimize or eliminate
the vibration and thus the resultant noise. There are also examples where the noise is not
the controlling parameter; but rather the quality of the product produced by the system.
For example, in process control equipment, excessive vibration can damage the product,
limit processing speeds, or even cause catastrophic machine failure. The basic
measurement system used for diagnostic analyses of vibrations consists of the three
system components.
Vibration pick up transducers
1. Transducers: In general, the transducers employed in vibration analysis convert mechanical energy into electrical energy; that is, they produce an electrical signal, which is a
function of mechanical vibration. Both velocity pickups and accelerometers mounted or
attached to the vibrating surface.
(i) Velocity pickups: The electrical output signal of a velocity pickup is proportional to
the velocity of the vibrating mechanism. Since the velocity of a vibrating mechanism is
cyclic in nature, the sensitivity of the pickup is expressed in peak milli-volts/cm/s and

thus is a measure of the voltage produce at the point of maximum velocity," The devices
have very low natural frequencies- and are designed to measure vibration frequencies that
are greater than the natural frequency of the pickup.
Velocity pickups can be mounted in a number of ways; for example, they can be stud
mounted or held magnetically to the vibrating surface. However, the mounting technique
can vastly affect the pickup's performance. For example, the stud-mounting technique in
which the pickup is mounted flush with the surface and silicone grease is applied to the
contact surfaces is a good reliable method. On the other hand, in general has a smaller
usable frequency range than the stud-mounted pickup. In addition, it is important to note
that the magnetic mount, which has both mass and spring like properties, is located
between the velocity pickup and the vibrating surface and thus will affect the
measurements. This mounting technique is viable, but caution must be employed when it
is used.
The velocity pickup is a useful transducer because it is sensitive and yet rugged enough
to withstand extreme industrial environments. In addition, velocity is perhaps the most
frequently employed measure of vibration severity. However; the device is relatively
large and bulky, is adversely affected by magnetic fields generated by large ac machines
or ac current carrying cables, and has somewhat limited amplitude and frequency
characteristic.
(ii) Accelerometers: The accelerometer generates an output signal that is proportional to
the acceleration of the vibrating mechanism. This device is, perhaps, preferred over the
velocity pickup, for a number of reasons. For example, accelerometers have good
sensitivity characteristics and a wide useful frequency range; they are small in size and
light in weight and thus are capable of measuring the vibration at a specific point without,
in general, loading the vibrating structure. In addition, the devices can be used easily with
electronic' integrating networks to obtain a voltage proportional to velocity or
displacement. However, the accelerometer mounting, the interconnection cable, and the
instrumentation connections are critical factors in measurements employing an
accelerometer. The general comments made earlier concerning the mounting of a velocity
pickup also apply to accelerometers.
Some additional suggestions for eliminating measurement errors when employing
accelerometers for vibration measurements. Note that the accelerometer mounting
employs an isolation stud and an isolation washer. This is done so that the measurement
system can be grounded at only one point, preferably at the analyzer. An additional
ground at the accelerometer will provide a closed (ground) loop, which may induce a
noise signal that affects the accelerometer output. The sealing compound applied at the
cable entry into the accelerometer protects the system from errors caused by moisture.
2. Preamplifiers: The second element in the vibration measurement system is the
preamplifier. This device, which may consist of one or more stages, serves two very
useful purposes: it amplifies the vibration pickup signal, which is in general very weak,
and it acts as an impedance transformer or isolation device between the vibration pickup

and the processing and display equipment.

Recall that the manufacturer provides both charge and voltage sensitivities for accelerometers. Likewise, the preamplifier may be designed as a voltage amplifier 'in which the
output voltage is proportional to the input voltage, or a charge amplifier in which the
output voltage is proportional to the input charge. The difference between these two types
of preamplifiers is important for a number of reasons. For example, changes in cable
length (i.e., cable capacitance) between the accelerometer and preamplifier are negligible
when a charge amplifier is employed. When a voltage amplifier is used however, the
system is very sensitive to changes in cable capacitance. In addition, because the input
resistance of a voltage amplifier cannot in general be neglected, the very low frequency
response of the system may be affected. Voltage amplifiers, on the other hand, are often
less expensive and more reliable because they contain fewer components and thus are
easier to construct.
3. Processing and Display Equipment: The instruments used for the processing and
display of vibration data are, the same as those described earlier for noise analysis. The
processing equipment is typically some type of spectrum analyzer. The analyzer may
range from a very simple device, which yields, for example, the rms value of the
vibration displacement, to one that yields an essentially instantaneous analysis of the
entire vibration frequency spectrum. As discussed earlier, these analyzers, which are
perhaps the most valuable tool in a vibration study, are typically either a constantbandwidth or constant-percentage band width type of device. They normally come
equipped with some form of graphical display, such as a cathode ray tube, which provides
detailed frequency data.
26. Write short note on hand arm vibrations?
HAND-ARM VIBRATION
Hand-arm vibration is caused by the use of vibrating hand-held tools, such as pneumatic jackhammers, drills, gas powered chain saws, and electrical tools such as grinders. The nature of
these tools involves vibration (a rapid back and forth type of Il1otion), which is transmitted from
the tool to the hands and arms of the person holding the tool. Regular and frequent exposure to
high levels of vibration can lead to permanent injury. This' is most likely when contact with a
vibrating tool or process is a regular part of a person's job.
Health hazards
Regular exposure to HAV damages b1ood vessels in the hands and fingers, reducing the flow of
blood and harming the skin, nerves and muscles. This is called Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome
(HAVS), also known as "Vibration-induced White Finger CVWF)", "dead-finger" or "Raynaud's
Syndrome". The injuries can include damage to the:

Blood circulatory system (e.g., vibration white finger);

Sensory nerves;
Muscles;
Bones;

 Joints. The injuries can be painful and disabling, for example:

Painful finger blanching attacks (triggered by cold or wet conditions);
Loss of sense of touch and temperature;
Numbness and tingling;
Loss of grip strength;
Loss of manual dexterity.
In addition, they may affect work and leisure activities. People may:
Need to avoid further exposure to vibration, or cold and wet conditions;
Have difficulty handling tools and materials and with tasks requiring fine finger manipulation.
Jobs and Industries Most Likely to be affected by HAV
Jobs requiring regular and frequent use of vibrating tools and equipment are found in a wide
range of industries, for example:

Building and maintenance of roads and railways;

Concrete products;
Construction;
Foundries;
Heavy engineering;
Mines and quarries;
Plate and sheet metal fabrication;
Public services (e.g., maintenance of watercourses, roadside verges and parks);
Public utilities (e.g., water, gas, electric; telephone).

Major sources of vibration among hand tools are grinders, sanders, drills, impact renches,
jackhammers, riveting and chipping hammers and chain saws. Hand tools with accelerations
greater than 2.5 m2/s are associated with increased rates of injury. Unfortunately, there isn't any
protective equipment that workers can wear to prevent exposure to vibration. Gloves are
available with vibration-damping material built into the palms and fingers but they have not been
proven effective. If the gloves fit well however, and don't cause the worker to tighten his or her
grip, it may not hurt to try them. Regular work gloves and warm clothing are important in cold
weather to keep hands warm and dry since operating a vibrating tool with cold hands increases
the risk of injury.
.
Reducing Exposure to Hand-arm Vibration
The best way to avoid injury is to work with non-vibrating tools whenever possible. If a vibrating tool is to be used, use one that has effective anti-vibration features built .in. Some new
designs can reduce tool vibration by more than 50 percent. To reduce exposure to hand-arm
vibration:
Limit the amount of time (hours per day and days per week) vibrating tools are used.

 Take a 10-minute break for every hour spent working with a vibrating tool.
Alternate work with vibrating and non-vibrating tools.
Let the tool do the work.. Use as light a grip as possible to keep the tool under control. A
tight grip restricts blood flow in the hands and fingers and allows more vibration to pass
from the tool to the body.
Maintain tools properly. Tools that are worn, blunt or misaligned vibrate more. .
Regular work gloves and warm clothing are important in cold weather to keep hands
warm and dry. Use as light a grip as possible to keep the tool under control.

CHAPTER 8
1. What does ISO stand for?
ISO is a network of the national standards institutes of 148 countries, on the basis
of one member per country, with a Central Secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland,
that coordinates the system.
ISO is a non-governmental organization established in 1947: its members are not
delegations of national governments.
The organization mainly fgnctionsto develop voluntary technical standards that
aim at making the development, manufacture and supply of goods and services
more efficient, safe and clean.
ISO stands for the International Organization for Standardization.
ISO was chosen:
To denote equal standards; ahd
To provide a universal acronym for the organization and avoid the various acronyms that
would result from interpreting the International Organization for Standardization in
different languages.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) is the world's largest developer of
standards. Although ISO's principal activity is the development of technical standards,
ISO standards also have important economic and social repercussions.
ISO standards make a positive difference, not just to engineers and manufacturers for
whom they solve basic problems in production and distribution, but to society as a whole.
The International Standards which ISO develops are very usefuh They are useful to
industrial and business organizations of all types, to governments and other regulatory
bodies, to trade officials, to conformity assessment professionals, to suppliers and
customers of products and services in both public and private sectors, and, ultimately, to
people jn general in their roles as consumers and end users.
ISO standards contribute to making the development, manufacturing and supply of products and services more efficient, safer and cleaner.
They make trade between countries easier and fairer.
They provide governments with a technical base for health, safety and environmental
legislation.

 They aid in transferring technology to developing countries.

ISO standards also serve to safeguard consumers, and users in general, of products and
services-as well as to make their lives simpler.
2. How ISO standards benefit society.
BENEFITS OF ISO STANDARDS
For businesses, the widespread adoption ofInternational Standards means that suppliers can
base the development of their products and services on specifications that have wide acceptance
in their sectors. This, in turn, means that businesses using International Standards are
increasingly free to compete on many more markets around the world.
For customers, the worldwide compatibility of technology which is achieved when products
and services are based on International Standards brings them an increasingly wide choice of
offers, and they also benefit from the effects of competition among suppliers.
For governments, International Standards provide the technological and scientific bases
underpinning health, safety and environmental legislation.
For trade officials negotiating the emergence of regional and global markets, International
Standards create "a level playing field" for all competitors on those markets. The existence of
divergent national or regional standards can create technical barriers to trade, even when there is
political agreement to do away with restrictive import quotas and the like. International
Standards are the technical means by which political trade agreements can be put into practice.
For developing countries, International Standards that represent an international consensus
on the state of the art constitute an important source of technological know-how. By defining the
characteristics that products and services will be expected to meet on export markets,
International Standards give developing countries a basis for making the right decisions when
investing their scarce resources and thus avoid squandering them.
For consumers, conformity of products and services to International Standards provides
assurance about their quality, safety and reliability.
For everyone, International Standards can contribute to the quality of life in general by
ensuring that the transport, machinery and tools we use are safe.
3. How ISO 14000 was introduced?
Environmental mariagement is neither a new concept nor a new need. We have made
significant progress in understanding and managing the relationship between humans and
the environment. We started realizing in 1950's that our water supplies were seriously
threatened.
Our drinking water was polluted. It became -unhealthy to swim in some of our lakes and
fish could not live in many of our rivers. The air became so polluted that breathing was
shortening our life.
The needs for environmental protection have been widely publicized. Something had to
be done to avoid these kinds of situations.
A large number of small groups of environmentalists began bringing these problems to
the attention of governments and general public around the world.
The environment has become an important factor in the decision-making process of

companies around the world. Environmental issues are becoming more complex and
interconnected.
As competition increases within the expanding global market, environmental laws and
regulations are setting new standards for business in every region of the world. But good
environmental performance is not just a legal or moral obligation. It also makes good
business sense. Reducing pollution means increasing efficiency and wasting fewer
resources.
Improved health and safety conditions result in a more productive workforce. Supplying
goods and services that respect the environment helps to expand markets and improve
sales.
To address these issues; a number of international conferences and organizations have
been formed to promote awareness and search for solutions.
To assist in this critical effort, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
released a series of documents called ISO 14000 that provides guidance on what
constitutes an Environmental Management System (EMS) for an organization.
These voluntary standards released in 1996 were prepared byrepresentatives from almost
70 nations. The release ofthese documents prepared by experts in conjunction with
representatives from worlds leading corporations, has, for the first time provided top
managers of organizations around the world with a clear picture of how they should and
could manage the impact that their respective organizations have on the environment.
The reasons why our organizations should consider using the ISO 14000 standards:
ISO 14000 represents the best and most practical approach to controlling the
organization's negative impact upon the environment.
ISO 14000 provides multinational companies with a single EMS for all locations worldwide, eliminating the need for conformance to numerous national standards.
ISO 14000 is a known and accepted standard worldwide that most customers understand.
ISO 14000 system design is very compatible with ISO 9000 quality management system
stannard.

4. WHAT is ISO 14000?

ISO 14000 is a series of standards and guidelines formulated in 1996 by the International
Organization for Standardization with the aim of standardizing the environmental management
programs of industries worldwide.
The standards are voluntary, and can be tailored to any organization regardless of its size,
location and activity: These standards are management tools, not performance standards.
The scope of ISO 14000 excludes testmethods for pollutants, setting limit values regarding
pollutants, setting environmental performance levels, and the standardization of products. ISO
14000's EMS standards are process, not performance, standards.
These standards do not tell organizations what environmental performance they must achieve.
Instead, the standards describe a system that will help an organization to achieve its own
objectives.
The assumption is that better environmental management will lead to improved environmental
performance. Together, these tools can provide significant tangible economic benefits, including:
Reduced raw material/resource use;

 Reduced energy consumption;

Improved process efficiency;
Reduced waste generation and disposal costs, and Utilization of recoverable resources.
There are two types of ISO 14000 standards:
Normative standard: These standards specify auditable requirements, which must be met for
specification.
Informative standard: These standards provide guidance only. They are not required for
certification.
5. Briefly discuss the family of ISO 14000?
ISO 14000
ISO 14001
ISO 14004
ISO 14010
ISO 14011
ISO 14012
ISO 14013
ISO 14014
ISO 14015
ISO 14020
ISO 14020+
ISO 14030+
ISO 14040+

Environmental Management Systems- General guidelines on principles, systems and

supporting techniques
Environmental Management Systems-Specifications with guidance for use.
Environmental Management Systems-General guidelines on principles, systems and
supporting techniques.
Guidelines for environmental auditing-General principles.
Guidelines for environmental auditing-Audit procedures- Auditing of Environmental
Management Systems.
Guidelines for environmental auditing-Qualificationcriteria for environmental
auditors.
Guidelines on environmental auditing-Management of EMS audit programs.
Guidelines for initial environmental reviews.
Guidelines for environmental site assessments
Environmental labels and Declarations-General principles
Labeling issues (symbols, testing and verification).
Provides guidance on performance targets and monitoring with an EMS
Covers life cycle issues

ISO 14000 series of documents fall into six clusters:

They are as follows:
EMS- ISO 14001 and 14004
Environmental audit- ISO 14010, 14011", 14012 and 14015
Environmental labelling- ISO 14020, 14024 and 14025
Environmental performance evaluation- ISO 14031 and 14032
Life cycle assessment- ISO 14040,14041,14042 and 14043
Common applications- ISO 14050 and 14061.
ISO 14001 is the only normative EMS standard. ISO 14004 on the other hand is an
informa. tive standard providing guidance related to how to implement ISO 14001. ISO
14004 is extremely useful for organizations with little or no experience with EMS's. It is
important to note that ISO 14001 is an EMS standard, not an environmental performance

standard.

6. Discuss about the term ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

An Environmental Management System (EMS) is a systematic approach for managing an
organization's environmental issues and opportunities. EMS is defined as:
"That part of the overall management system that includes organizational structure, planning activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes, and resources for
developing, implementing, achieving, reviewing and maintaining the environmental
policy".
"a set of processes and practices that enable an organization to monitor and manage its
environmental aspects.
An EMS is a continual management cycle of planning, implementing, reviewing,
maintaining and improving the processes and actions that an organization undertakes to
meet its business and environmental goals".
Good, or even best practices alone do not make an EMS. The essential characteristic of
an EMS is that its various components interact to provide measurable information
enabling continual improvements.
The systems approach means that processes are stable and repeatable, yield more
predictable outcomes and adapt new learning to continuous improvement.

7. Discuss about the BENEFITS OF EMS

Greater discipline for a long-term view, focusing on the sustainability of its operations.
Higher resource productivity of purchased materials through more efficient utilization
and reduced waste.
Energy and water conservation savings.
Improved cost controls.
Improved worker health and safety, and reduced absenteeism.
Reduced cost of compliance with regulations.
Customer Relations Benefits
Improved service quality at lower cost through systematic waste reduction.
Improved quality of life through improved planning, accounting for environmental equality and quality of life in municipal management.
Reduced costs through improved access to capital.
Improved ability to work with business, as that have also put in place EMS.
Potential Employee and Community Relations Benefits
Higher employee morale and productivity.
Improved employees, health and safety particularly if health and safety management are
included.
Improved image in the community and better public relations.

8. What are the CRARACTERISTICS OF ISO 14001

ISO 14001 is the only standard intended for registration by third parties.
All the others are for guidance. ISO 14001 is a management standard, it is not a
performance or product standard.
The underlying purpose of ISO 14001 is that companies will improve their environmental
performance by implementing ISO 14001, but there are no standards for performance or
the level of improvement.
It is a process for managing company activities that impact the environment. Some
unique and important characteristics of ISO 14001 are:
It is comprehensive. All members of the organization participate in environmental
protection, the EMS considers all stakeholders, and there are processes to identify all
environmental impacts.
It is proactive. It focuses on forward thinking and action instead of reacting to command
and control policies.
It is a systems approach. It stresses improving environmental protection by using a single
environmental management system across all functions of the organization
9. Discuss the STRUCTURE OF ISO 14001
ISO 14001 has a clear and logical structure, which covers the following:

Scope
Normative references
Terms and definitions
EMS requirements
o General requirements
o Environmental policy
o Planning
Environmental aspects
Legal and other requirements
Objectives, targets and program(s)
o Implementation and operation
Resources, roles, responsibility and authority
Competence, training and awareness
Communication
Documentation
Document control
Operational control
Emergency preparedness and response
o Checking and corrective actions
Monitoring and measurement
Nonconformity, corrective action and preventive action

 Control of records
Internal audit
o Management review.
Scope. This International Standard specifies requirements for an environmental man agement
system to enable an organization to develop and implement a policy and objectives which take
into account legal requirements and other requirements to which the organization subscribes, and
information about significant environmental aspects. It applies to those environmental aspects
that the organization identifies as those which it can control and those which it can influence. It
does not itself state specific environmental performance criteria.
This International Standard is applicable to any organization that wishes to:

Establish, implement, maintain and improve an environmental management system,

Assure itself of conformity with its stated environmental policy,
Ensure compliance with environmental laws and regulations,
Seeks certification of its EMS by an external party organization.

Normative References
Terms and Definitions
Auditor: person with the competence to conduct an audit.
Continual improvement: the process of enhancing the EMS to achieve improvements in
overall environmental performance in line with the organization's environmental policy.
Corrective action: action to eliminate the cause of a detected nonconformity.
Environment: surroundings in which an organization operates, including air, water, land,
natural resources, flora, fauna, humans, and their interrelation.
Environmental aspect: element of an organization's activities or products or services that
can interact with the environment.
Environmental impact: any change to the environment, whether adverse or beneficial,
wholly or partially resulting from an organization's environmental aspects.
Environmental management system: part of an organization's management system used to
develop and implement its environmental policy and manage its environmental aspects.
Environmental objective: overall environmental goal, consistent with the environmental
policy that an organization sets itself to achieve.
Environmental performance: measurable results of an organization's management of its
environmental aspects.
Environmental policy: overall intentions and direction of an organization related to its
environmental performance as formally expressed by top management.
Environmental target: detailed performance requirement, applicable to the organization or
parts thereof, that arises from the environmental objectives and that needs to be set and
met in order to achieve those objectives.
Interested party: person or group concerned with or affected by the environmental
performance of an organization.
Internal audit: systematic, independent and documented process for obtaining audit
evidence and exaluating it objectively to determine the extent to which the environmental

management system audit criteria set by the organization are fulfilled.

Preventive action: action to eliminate the cause of a potential nonconformity.
Prevention of pollution: use of processes, practices, techniques, materials, products,
services or energy to avoid, reduce or control the creation, emission or discharge of any
type of pollutant or waste, in order to reduce adverse environmental impacts.
Environmental Management System Requirements. This section outlines the key elements
of an EMS consistent with the requirements ofthe ISO 14001 Environmental Management
System specification. The EMS framework has five major seetions:
Environmental Policy,
the Planning Process,
EMS Implementation and Operation,
Checking and Corrective Action,
Management Review.
General requirements
The organization shall establish, document, implement, maintain and continually improve an
environmental management system in accordance with the requirements of this International
Standard and determine how it will fulfill these requirements
Environmental policy
The heart and soul of the EMS is a documented environmental policy providing the municipality
or facility an overall sense of direction. The policy statement sets the overall level of
environmental responsibility and performance which the municipality or facility seeks. Top
management must define the environmental policy and ensure that the policy:
Is appropriate to the nature, scale and environmental impacts of its activities, products and
services;
Is aligned with the services and operations;
Provides the framework for setting and reviewing environmental objectives and targets;
Includes a commitment to
continual improvement
the prevention of pollution
Compliance with applicable environmental standards and regulations and voluntary codes
principles to which the municipality or facility subscribes;
Is documented, implemented, maintained and communicated to all employees;
Is available to the public.
The environmental policy sets the stage for all of the other elements of the Organization's
Environmental Management System (EMS). The policy establishes goals for environmental
performance against which the effectiveness of the management system will be judged. It should
provide a unifYing vision for the organization. Because the policy statement can have a
significant impact on the Organization's image, it should be clear and verifiable.
A typical environmental policy statement
" It is our policy to perform significantly better than required by all applicable environmental
health and safety regulations and to set measurable goals for ourselves to continuously improve
our environmental performance. We will try to prevent the release of any pollution that has a

negative impact on the environment".

Planning
Environmental aspects
The organization needs to establish and maintain a procedure to identifY the environmental
aspects of its activities, products or services that it can control or over which it can be expected
to have an influence, in order to determine those that have or can have significant impacts on the
environment. An aspect is an interaction with the environment, and an impact is the result of its
interaction. Impacts are difficult to assess and manage. Aspects are somewhat easier to determine
and manage.
Some typical aspects are raw material use; emissions to air, discharges to water, solid waste,
and noise etc, Impacts are the result of these interactions and can be such things as ozone
depletion, acid rain, and negative impacts on human health. Identification of aspects is a
continual process under any EMS system.
Legal and other requirements
The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s)
To identify and have access to the applicable legal requirements and other requirements
To which the organization subscribes related to its environmental aspects,
To determine how these requirements apply to its environmental aspects.,
The organization shall ensure that these applicable legal requirements and other requirements
to which the organization subscribes are taken into account in establishing, implementing and
maintaining its environmental management system.
The purpose of identifying and maintaining access to legal requirements is self-evident: If one
doesn't know what laws are applicable, how can one be sure if the facility is in compliance or
not?
Objectives, targets and program
The organization shall establish, implement and maintain documented environmental objectives and targets, at relevant functions and levels within the organization. The objectives and
targets shall be measurable, where practicable, and consistent with the environmental policy,
including the commitments to prevention of pollution, to compliance with applicable legal
requirements and with other requirements to which the organization subscribes, and to continual
improvement.
An objective is a higher-level environmental goal. A target is a measurable performance
requirement. Objectives are long term goals such as "we will reduce solid waste to landfill" and
targets are short-term goals such as "we will reduce non-hazardous wastes by 60% and reduce
hazardous wastes by 80% this year". When establishing and reviewing its objectives and targets,
an organization shall take into account the legal requirements and other requirements to which
the organization subscribes, and its significant environmental aspects. It shall afso consider its
technological options, its financial, operational and business requirements, and the views of
interested parties. The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a program(s) for
achieving its objectives and targets.
It shall include.
Designation of responsibility for achieving objectives and targets at relevant functions

and levels of the organization,

The means and time-frame by which they are to be achieved.
Implementation and operation
Resources, roles, responsibility and authority
Management shall ensure the availability of resources essential to establish, implement, maintain
and improve the environmental management system. Resources include human resources and
specialized skills, organizational infrastructure, technology and financial resources. Roles,
responsibilities and authorities shall be defined, documented and communicated in order to
facilitate effective environmental management. The organization's top management shall appoint
a specific managementn;presentative(s) who, irrespective of other responsibilities, shall have
defined roles, responsibilities and authority for:
Ensuring that an environmental management system is established, implemented and
maintained in accordance with the requirements of this International Standard,
Reporting to top management on the performance of the environmental management
system for review, including recommendations for improvement.
Competence, training and awareness
The organization will require that all personnel whose work may create a significant impact
upon the environment have received appropriate training. The organization shall establish,
implement and maintain a procedure(s) to make persons working for it or on its behalf aware of:
The importance of conformity with the environmental policy and procedures and with
The requirements of the environmental management system,
The significant environmental aspects and related actual or potential impacts associated
with their work, and the environmental benefits of improved performance,
Their roles and responsibilities in achieving conformity with the requirements of the
environmental management system, and Iii, The potential consequences of departure
from specified procedures.
The basic intent of training is to explain the importance ofthe EMS to staff, and to explain
their responsibilities for EMS operations. In order for responsibilities to be effectively
understood, adequate training is essential.
A training system should also include training for executives to ensure that they understand
the EMS, know their responsibilities and have the knowledge to carry those
responsibilities out.
Communication
With regard to its environmental aspects and environmental management system, the
organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s) for internal communication
among the various levels and functions of the organization, Receiving, documenting and
responding to relevant communication from external interested parties.
The organization shall decide whether to communicate externally about its significant environmental aspects, and shall document its d9cision. If the decision is to communicate, the
organization shall establish and implement a method(s) for this external communication. An
organization can communicate environmental information in a variety of ways:
Document control
The organization will establish and maintain procedures for controlling all documents required

by this standard to ensure that:

They can be located.
They are periodically reviewed, revised as necessary and approved for adequacy by autporized pesonnel.
Obsolete documents are promptly removed from all points of issue and points of use. Any
obsolete documents retained for legal or knowledge preservation purposes are suit ably
identified.
Documents of external origin determined by the organization to be necessary for the
planning and operation of the environmental management system are identified and their
distribution controlled.
Operational control
The organization shall identify and plan those operations that are associated with the identified
significant environmental aspects consistent with its environmental policy, objectives and targets,
in order to ensure that they are carried out under specified conditions, by list
Establishing, implementing and maintaining a documented procedure to control.situ, ations
where their absence could lead to deviation from the environmental policy, objectives and
targets, and Stipulating the operating criteria in the procedures, and Establishing, implementing
and maintaining procedures related to the identified significant environmental aspects of goods
and services used by the organization and commu nicating
applicable
procedures
and
requirements to suppliers, including contractors.
Emergency preparedness and response
The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedureCs) to identify poten
tial emergency situations and potential accidents that can have an impactCs) on the environment
and-how it will respond to them. The organization shall respond to actual emergency situations
and accidents and prevent or mitigate associated adverse environmental impacts. The
organization shall periodically review and, where necessary, revise its emergency preparedness
and response procedures, in particular, after the occurrence of accidents or emergency situations.
The emergency plans include the following:
Identification of potential accidents
Procedures to respond
Procedures to mitigate
Procedures to correct and mitigate
Checking and corrective action
Monitoring and measurement
The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s) to monitor and measure,
on a regular basis, the key characteristics of its operations that can have a significant
environmental impact. The procedureCs) shall include the documenting of information to
monitor performance, applicable operational controls and conformity with the organization's
environmental objectives and targets. The organization shall ensure that calibrated or verified
monitoring and measurement equipment is used and maintained and shall retain associ ated
records. The organization shall also periodically test such procedures where practicable.

Nonconformity, corrective action and preventive action

The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedureCs) for dealing with actual
and potential nonconformity Cies) and for taking corrective action and preventive action. The
procedureCs) shall define requirements for:
Identifying and correcting nonconformity (ies) and taking action(s) to mitigate their
environmental impacts,
Investigating nonconformity (ies), determining their cause(s) and taking actions in order
to avoid their recurrence,
Evaluting the need for action(s) to prevent nonconformity and implementing approriate
actions designed to avoid the reoccurrence,
Recording the results of corrective actions and preventive action taken, and
Revieing the effectiveness of corrective/:action(s) and preventive action(s) taken.
Actions taken shall be appropriate to the ma_itude of the problems and the environmental
impacts encountered. The organization shall ensure that any necessary changes are made
to environmental management system documentation.
Control of records
The organization shall establish and maintain records as necessary to demonstrate conformity to
the requirements of its environmental management system and of this International Standard, and
the results achieved. The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s) for
the identification, storage, protection, retrieval, retention and
disposal of records. Records
shall be and remain legible, identifiable and traceable.
Internal audit
The organization shall ensure that internal audits of the environmental management system are
conducted at planned intervals to:
Determine whether the environmental management system
conforms to planned arrangements for environmental management including the
requirements ofthis International Standard,
has been properly implemented and is maintained, and
Provide information on the results of audits to management.
Audit program(s) shall be planned, established, impleinented and maintained by the organization, taking into consideration the environmental importance ofthe operation(s) concerned and
the results of previous audits. Audit program should cover the following:
Activities and areas to be covered.
Responsibility for managing and conducting the audits.
Who to send the results.
Competence required of auditors.
Procedures for conducting the audit.
10. What are the limitation of ISO 14000.
LIMITATIONS OF ISO 14000

Despite the perceived benefits, ISO 14000 is having certain limitations:

It is not connected directly enough to environmental performance. For example, a certified
company can still have substandard processes and waste streams because certification does not
tell a company how to improve efficiency and pollute less.
ISO 14000 only ensures that an EMS exists, and cannot guarantee its functionality.
11. Differentiate between ISO 14000 and ISO 9000.
COMPARISON OF ISO 14000 AND ISO 9000
ISO 9000 and ISO 14001 are series of international standards developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) to ensure consistent management systems in
organizations.
ISO 9000 is concerned with "quality management". This means what the organization does to
enhance customer satisfaction by meeting customer's quality requirements and applicable regulatory requirements and to achieve continual improvement of its performance in this regard.
ISO 14000 is primarily concerned with "environmental management". This means what the
organization does to minimize harmful effects on the environment caused by its activities, and to
achieve continual improvement of its environmental performance.
.Structurally, the ISO 14000 and ISO 9000 standards have much in common. Both require
written plans, although ISO 14001 calls for environmental planning that includes legal and other
requirements, objective and targets, and environmental management programs. In the area of
implementation and operation, the ISO 9001 standard includes requirements for organization,
training, quality systems procedures, and document and data control. The biggest addition to the
ISO 14001 standard is for emergency preparedness and response. Both standards are similar in
their requirements for checking and corrective action, management review, and internal auditing.
Management's responsibilities are more extensive under ISO 14001. The standardincludes the
drafting of an environmental policy, consideration of environmental aspects in all management
activities, setting environmental objectives and targets, establishment of an external
communication procedure, and development of a management review process for environmentrelated matters.
12. How will you implement ISO 14001 in industry?
IMPLEMENTATION OF ISO 14001
There is no official implementation process, but following is an overview of the typical steps an
organization would take to implement ISO 14001:
Plan
Assess the existing systems against ISO 14001. Are all system elements defined,
documented and in place? Identify the gaps.
Identify environmental aspects and environmental impacts of the processes, products and
services.
Environmental aspects are causes, e.g., exhaust air, potential for spillage; environmental
impacts are effects, e.g., air pollution, water contamination.

Identify applicable legal and other requirements.

Develop or revise environmental policy.
Define realistic, achievable environmental objectives and targets.
Define realistic plans and programs for meeting the objectives and targets.

Implement
Execute planned programs to meet objectives and targets.
Analyze existing management systems, e.g., in training, communication, documentation,
document control, etc. to determine best practices. Effectively integrate EMS elements
into ISO 9000 and other existing management systems.
Improve existing systems and develop new ones where needed.
Define and document systems.
Measure
Establish baseline measurements and implement ongoing measurement system.
Conduct ongoing internal EMS audits.
Improve
Take corrective and preventive actions based on ongoing measurements.
Conduct ongoing management reviews.
'.
Continually review and revise aspects, policy, objectives, programs and systems as
necessary.

CHAPTER 9
1. Define industrial waste.
Industrial waste may be defined as unwanted materials produced in or eliminated from an
industrial operation. These wastes are discharged from factories, processing plants, wholesale
establishments, assembling plants or shops and garages, such as paper, cardboard, cartons, food
processing wastes, cinders and ashes, lumber scraps, rawdust excelsior, shavings, floor
sweepings, metal scrap and shavings, glass and other waste products. Industrial waste typically
contains somewhat higher levels of contaminants than municipal solid waste and needs to be
managed with environmental controls appropriate to the specific wastes being landfilled. These
are categorised under a variety of headings, such as liquid wastes, slodge, solid wastes and
hazardous wastes.
2. What are the types of industrial waste?
TYPES AND SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE
Liquid waste: It can be defined as w water resulting from industrial processing operations.
Water is essential raw material in almost all manufacturing plants and it gets ontaminated during

its usage. Practically all the wet-processing' industries such as those engaged in manufacture of
food products, vegetables processing and canning, Sugar industries, dairy industries, paper aitd
pulp manufacturing, number of chemical industries, laundries consume large quantity of water
and produce waste in large quantity.
Solid waste: The solid waste may result from wood working industries, the fragments of metal
fabrics, plastics etc., resulting from machining and assembly operations. These wastes are
usually salvaged as far as possible and remainder is dumped..Engineering and public health
problems arise in their disposal:
The solid wastes frequently enter the liquid waste stream either accidently or by design - for
example, metal chips, mineral fins, slossies from chemicals etc.
Gaseous waste: In some industries nuisance or poisonous gases, and dusts are produced-for
example, melting furnaces, foundry, chemical industries, welding, smithy refineries, power
stations etc. These are disposed into atmosphere unless special treatment operations are provided.
The problem of atmospheric pollution is a result of such gaseous waste.
3. How will you classify the Industrial waste?
Waste classification:
Waste is classified into four general categories:
Clean fill material (or inert waste);
Municipal solid waste;
Industrial waste; and
Hazardous waste.
1. Cleanfill Material: Clean fill material, or inert waste, is waste that does
not undergo environmentally-significant physical, chemical, or biological
transformations, and has no potentially hazardous content once land filled. It
must not be contaminated or mixed with any other material. Cleanfill
material is defined as "Material that when discharged to the environment will
not pose a risk to people or the environment, and includes natural materials,
such as clay, soil and rock, and other materials, such as concrete, brick or
demolition products, that are free of combustible, or degradable
components; or contaminated soil and other contaminated materials".
2. Municipal Solid Waste: Municipal solid waste is any non-hazardous,
solid waste from a combination of domestic, commercial and industrial
sources. Municipal solid waste consists of household waste, construction and
demolition debris, sanitation residue, and waste from streets. This garbage is
generated mainly from residential and commercial complexes. With rising
urbanization and change in lifestyle and food habits, the amount of municipal
solid waste has been increasing rapidly and its composition is changing. It is
recognized that municipal solid waste is likely to contain a small proportion
of hazardous waste from households and small commercial premises that is
not detected by standard waste screening procedures.

3. Industrial Waste: Industrial wastes means a type of solid waste

generated by manufacturing or industrial operations and includes, but is not
limited to, solid waste resulting from the following processes: electric power
generation; fertilization! agricultural chemicals; food and food related
products; inorganic chemicals; iron and steel manufacturing; leather and
leather products; nonferrous metals manufacturing; plastics and resin
manufacturing; pulp and paper industry; rubber and miscellaneous plastic
products stone, glass, clay, concrete products; textile manufacturing; and
transportation equipment "Industrial solid wastes" does not include solid
wastes generated by commercial, agricultural, or community operations.
4. Hazardous Waste: Hazardous waste is waste that possesses a threat to
people or the environment as a result of one or more of the following
characteristics:
Explosiveness;
Flammability;
Capacity to oxidize;
Corrosiveness;
Toxicity
Industrial and hospital waste is considered hazardous as they may contain
toxic substances. Certain types of household waste are also hazardous.
Hazardous wastes could be highly toxic to humans, animals, and plants; are
corrosive, highly inflammable, or explosive; and react when exposed to
certain things e.g., gases. Household wastes that can be categorized as hazardous waste include old batteries, shoe polish, paint tins, old medicines, and
medicine bottles. Hospital waste contaminated by chemicals used in
hospitals is considered hazardous. These chemicals include formaldehyde
and phenols, which are used as disinfectants, and mercury, which is used in
thermometers or equipment that measure blood pressure. Most hospitals in
India do not have proper disposal facilities for these hazardous wastes.
Hazardous waste contains contaminants such as heavy metals and humanmade chemicals, at levels high enough to require treatment to render them
safe before landfill disposal.
4. Define the terms associated with water polltion?
Activated Sludge: Sludge withdrawn from the secondary clarifier in the
activated sludge process, consisting of micro-organisms, non-living organic
matter and inorganic materials.
Aerobic Bacteria: Bacteria, which require free (elementary) oxygen for
their-growth.
Anaerobic Bacteria: Bacteria, which grow in the absence of free oxygen
and derive oxygen from breaking down complex substances.
Biological Oxidation: The process by which bacteria and other types of

micro-organisms consume dissolved oxygen and organic substances in waste

water, using the energy released to convert organic carbon into carbon
dioxide and cellular material.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): quantitative measure ofthe oxygen
needed by bacteria and micro-organisms for the biological oxidation of
organic wastes in a unit volume of waste water. BOD is generally measured
in milligrams per liter (mg/l) of oxygen consumed over a five-day period.
Although complete biological decomposition of, organic waste requires about
20 days, the five-day BOD is about two-thirds of the total oxygen
requirement and, therefore, is a practical measure of waste concentration. In
waste treatment language, BOD is most frequently stated as the percentage
removed during treatment, or remaining after treatment.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): quantitative measure of the amount
of oxygen required to oxidize all organic components in a unit volume on
wastewater - non-biodegradable as well as the BOD. The COD level can be
determined more readily than BOD, but this measurement does not indicate
how much ofthe waste can be decomposed by biological oxidation.
Dissolved Solids:
Solids physically suspended in sewage which cannot be removed by proper
laboratory filtering.
Effluent: The liquid that comes out of a treatment plant after completion
of any treatment process.
Floc: The agglomeration of smaller particles in a gelatinous mass having the
feature of being more easily removed from the liquid than the individual
small particles.
Flocculation: The coming together of coalescing of minute particles in a
liquid.
Grit: Heavy, inorganic matter, such as sand or pebbles.
Inorganic Material: Material which will not respond to biological action
(sand, cinders, stone).
Primary treatment: Wastewater treatment processes that takes place in
rectangular or circular tank and allows those substances in wastewater that
readily settles or float to be separated from the water being treated.
Secondary treatment: A wastewater treatment process used to convert
dissolved or suspended materials into a form more readily separated from
the water being treated. Usually the process follows primary treatment by
sedimentation.
Sludge: The settle able solids separated from liquids during processing or
the deposits of foreign materials on the bottoms of streams or other bodies
of water.
Suspended matter: Solids that either floats on the surface of, or are in
suspension in, water, wastewater, or other liquids, and which are largely

removable by laboratory filtering.

5. Explain the various methods of disposal of wastes.
WASTE DISPOSAL
The more waste we generate, the more we have to dispose off. Some
methods of waste disposal release air pollutants and greenhouse gases into
the atmosphere. Waste recycling offers one means of reducing the impacts
of waste disposal on the atmosphere, but there are other' methods of waste
disposal, which are more environmentally friendly. The most common disposal methods are:
1. Land Filling. landfill is the most common and probably accounts for
more than 90 percent of the nation's wastewater refuse even though
Landfills have been proven contaminates of drinking water in certain areas. It
is the most cost affective method of disposal, with collection and
transportation accounting for 75 percent of the total cost in a modern landfill,
refuse is spread thin, compacted layers cqvered by a layer of clean earth.
Pollution of surface water and groundwater is minimized by lining and
contouring the fill, compacting and planting the uppermost cover layer,
diverting drainage, and selecting proper soil in sites not subject to flooding or
high groundwater levels. The best soil for a landfill is clay because clay is
less permeable than other types of soil. Materials disposed of in a landfill can
be further secured from leakage by solidifying them in materials'such as
cement, fly ash from power plants, asphalt, or organic polymers.
2. Incineration. Incineration means burning of the solid wastes in
properly constructed hearth of furnaces. This method is generally used when
suitable dumping land areas are not available and disposal in the sea is not
possible. The minimum temperature in the combustion chamber should be
greater than 670C to incinerate all the organic matter and 8xidize the foul
smelling gases. When burning waste, a large amount of energy, carbon
dioxide and other potentially hazardous air pollutants is given off. Modern
incinerators however, can use this waste energy to generate electricity and
hence prevent the energy from being wasted. Incineration plants range from
large scale, mass-burn, and municipal waste incinerators to smaller clinical
waste incinerators used in hospitals.
3. Anaerobic Digestion. A less"common but more sustainable method of
waste disposal is anaerobic digestion. In this"process waste decomposes in
an enclosed chamber, unlike in a landfill site. Digestion takes place in an
oxygen-free environment. Bacteria thrive in this environment by using the
oxygen that is chemically combined within the waste. They decompose
waste by breaking down the molecules to form gaseous by products

(methane) and small quantities of solid residue. Anaerobic sewage plants

produce significant quantities of methane, which can be burnt to generate
electricity. Liquid and solid organic fertilizers are also formed, and can be
sold to cover operating costs. For several years, sewage sludge and
agricultural waste has been treate&by anaerobicdigestiori, and the process is
now being used for municipal solid waste. It requires the biodegradable
section of the waste to be separated from other material and put into
digestion chambers.
4. Pulverization. In this method, the solid waste is pulverized in grinding
machines so as to reduce its volume and change its 'physical character, by
doing so, it becomes practically odourless and unattractive to"insects. It has
to be further disposed by land filling. The method is quite costly, and hence
not commonly used.
5. Disposal into Sea: This method of waste disposatcan be used in
coastal areas having deep seawater and at a reasonable distance. This is
quite a simple and cheap method, but it has certain disadvantages like some
portion of wastes may return and spoil the beaches, despite all necessary
precautions.
6. Discuss the harmful effects of industrial waste.
Many Industrial wastes are discharged at high temperature such as condenser water from
power plant, waste from paper mills, coke plants and many chemical plants.
Sudden disharge of high temperature waste may result.
Reduction of dissolved oxygen at high temperature creates danger to aquatic life.
The formation of inflammable gases such as methane and toxic gases such as hydrogen
sulphide are dangerous to human life.
Suspended solid produced by Waste form tanneries, starch and corn products, textile mills
impair nonnal aquatic life, form benthal deposits, and may get decomposed.
Industrial waste in stream may carry chemical substances such as phenolic compound,
hydrogen sulphide. It causes tastes and odour and makes the water unsuitable for
drinking.
Discharge of petroleum products and such other liquids insoluble in water often results in
oil film.
Heavy film of petroleum oils and inflammable organic liquids results in fire hazard. The oil
film also prevents absorption of oxygen from atinosphere and, therefore, it is dangerous
to aquatic life.
The acidic wasteinay origin from wet processing industries such as food industries,
bleacheries, textile mills, coalmines, iron and steel industries, electroplating and chemical
indusitries which are harmful to natural streams and severage streamsm fuany ways such
as:
It may cause corrosive action to metals and other construction materials,
Makes the water unsuitable in drinking, swimmmg, navigation
The floating-solids produced by breweries, distilleries, paper-mills cover appreciable

stream surface and may retard oxygen absorption by water.

Organic substances when dipsolved in water even in very small quantity result in
formation of bubbles anq accumulation of froth due to aeration or agitation.
These material
affect absorption of oxygen by water
reduce light penetration and are harmful to aquatic life.
some organic materials are toxic.
Inorganic materials may give rise to various problems such as hardhess and corrosion.

Colour and turbidity create unaesthetic conditions in water bodies.

As a result oxygen availability and photosynthesis are also affected.
Heavy metals, cyanides and toxic substances are harmful to living groups.
7. How industrial waste can be contrblled?
It is not possible to eliminate the industrial waste but if efforts are made fuen these can be
reduced to a great extent. These wastes can be reduced by the following means:
Improving the product design
Using safe and efficient material handling system.
Adopting proper inspection procedure and effective quality control system to minirhise
the wastage.
Maintaining machines properly to reduce the casts associated with the down time.
Improving material cutting layouts.
Changing the manufacturing processes example use die casting or shell moulding instead
of using sand casting method to avoid machining operations, and reduce wastage of
material.
Resharpening of tools after getting dull.
Proper control of temperature and humidity in store rooms so as to reduce shrinkage.
Changing purchase specifications to avoid losses due to left overs.
In all industrial processes there is loss of raw materials and other material through out the
manufacturing operations inspite of all the efforts mentioned above. These materials become the
source of pollution and as well as economic loss to the manufacturer. Hence the recovery of the
material should be thoroughly investigated and recovery methods should be implemented. The
recovery from waste results in economy and reduces load on waste treatment plant.
8. Explain waste disposal.
The industrial plant has to solve the waste problem either in the interest of good community
relations or due to enforcement of Government rules and regulations. The waste may sometimes
be discharged without further treatment in streams or municipal severage if permissible,
considering the concentration of waste and dilution available in receiving stream. Otherwise, the
industrial waste has to be treated before its disposal.

The method of waste disposal depends on the nature of waste. Most solid wastes are dumped
on land as soil heaps or as landfill to quarries or mine shafts or as dumps consisting of a wide
range of materials. Besides these some wastes are dumped into the seas.
(i) Detoxification of Toxic Wastes
The toxic wastes are converted into less hazardous products by treatment with acids; cyanide
containing wastes are decomposed by interaction with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and
nitrogen. The decomposition can also be carried out biologically by means of suitable microorganisms (bacteria); Sludge from petroleum refineries may be spread on the soil and left to
decay into harmless products.
Incineration of toxic wastes is another method for their disposal. However, incinerators need
pollution control devices and careful monitoring to make sure that they do not release toxic
byproducts into the environment.
(ii) land and Ocean Disposal
Radioactive wastes from nuclear power stations are generally fused in glass containers and
lowered to the ocean floor. In USA such wastes are sealed in metal drums and buried
underground at great depths. But they may leak or be damaged by earthquake and release the
wastes into ground water.
Hazardous wastes dumped into soil/ditch have chances of leaking to the ground. In 1953 the
ditch was filled up; it was covered with clay and sold to the city Board of Education which built
an elementary school. Some houses were also built. Soon the residents of these houses and the
school authorities complained of foul odour and illnesses. In 1978 it was found that some 25
toxic organic compounds known as car cinogens, leaked into the basements in the area and
dispersed into air. As a result of these findings, the state of New York declared emergency in the
area and transferred all the families and the school from the site. .