Lec 3

Modern Communication Theory
Part A: Wireless Communication

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir
Department of Electrical Engineering
The University of Lahore
November 6, 2015
Lecture 3
Lecture Overview
1
Review of basic modulation properties and techniques

baseband complex envelope description
BPSK, QPSK, M-PSK, M-QAM
relation symbol rate and bandwidth
spectral efficiency
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

principle: modulation, demodulation
spreading gain and spectral efficiency
advantages/disadvantages of DS-SS
BER in case of noise and narrowband interference
DS-SS in WLAN
Chapter 5: 5.1 (5.1.1 - 5.1.3), 5.2, 5.3, 5.4
Chpter 13: 13.1, 13.2 (13.2.1 - 13.2.3), 13.4 (13.4.1 - 13.4.3)
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November 6, 2015
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Modulation
Figure: Communication System.

What is modulation?
Modulation is the method to alter a carrier signal according to a
baseband source signal in order to make it suitable for transmission over
the available channel.
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Modulation

What is modulation?
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Modulation

What is modulation?
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Modulation

What is modulation?
Our specific aim here:
to exploit the available channel as good as possible!
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Bandpass Signals
Baseband signals are the message signals generated at the source.
Passband signals also called Bandpass signals refer to the signals after
modulating with a carrier.
Passband signals can be represented in three form
1
Magnitude and Phase Representation
I/Q representation
Complex Envelope Representations
Complex envelope or complex equivalent baseband signal:
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Bandpass Signals (Contd)
Modulated Signal
Magnitude and phase representation
s(t) = (t) cos [2(fc + )t]
I/Q representation
s(t) = sI (t) cos(2fc t) sQ (t) sin(2fc t)
Where,
(t), (t), sI (t) and sQ (t) represent the amplitude, phase, in-phase component
and quadrature component respectively.
sI (t) and sQ (t) are real lowpass (baseband) signals
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Bandpass Signals (Contd)
Alternatively,
u(t) = (t)ej(t)
Envelope
(t) =
(t) = tan1
Phase
and
s2I (t) + s2Q (t)

sQ (t)
sI (t)

s(t) = R (t)ej(t) ej2fc t
= (t)cos(2fc + )t
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Binary Phase Shift Keying

In binary phase shift keying (BPSK) the carrier phase is switched between
{0, } dependent on the bit to be sent.
In general: s(t) = Ac m(t) cos(2fc t)
Complex envelope: g(t) = Ac m(t), where m(t) {1, 1}
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Multi-level Modulation Techniques

In M-level modulation: for every sequence of l source bits one out of M = 2l
symbols is generated by the transmitter.
The symbol rate Rs =
Rb [bit/s]
l[bit/sym]
Rb
l
[symb/s] or [Baud]
per symbol, l bits are transmitted and the symbol time is Ts = lTb .
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M - PSK
The complex envelope for M-PSK is:

g(t) = Ac ej(t) = x(t) + jy(t)
For symbol i, the phase i , is
transmitted with
i =
2(i1)
M
and
xi = Ac cos i , yi = Ac sin i
Figure: signal state diagram for

8-PSK
Usually, we consider all symbols are equally likely!

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

In QAM, we allow discrete phase values as well as discrete amplitude values.
The general QAM structure is:
s(t) = x(t) cos wc t y(t) sin c t.
with: g(t) = x(t) + jy(t) = R(t)e(t)
x(t), y(t) each can take on a limited number of discrete values.
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QAM (Contd)
As seen from the I, Q-description, QAM can be seen as two orthogonal ASK
signal modulating quadrature carriers:
x(t) =
xn h (t nTs )
n=
y(t) =
yn h (t nTs )
n=
For 16-QAM (black dots):

xn , yn {3, 1, +1, +3}
(shown as red dots)
Symbol rate
Figure: 16 symbol QAM constellation
(4-level per dimension)
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QAM (Contd)
As seen from the I, Q-description, QAM can be seen as two orthogonal ASK
signal modulating quadrature carriers:
x(t) =
xn h (t nTs )
n=
y(t) =
yn h (t nTs )
n=
For 16-QAM (black dots):

xn , yn {3, 1, +1, +3}
(shown as red dots)
Symbol rate Rs =
Rb
4
Figure: 16 symbol QAM constellation

(4-level per dimension)
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Spectral Efficiency: Profit
The spectral efficiency is defined as:
Rb [bit/s]
BT [Hz]
Rb
2Rs
l
2
1/Tb
2/lTb
[bit/s/Hz]
When we are able to increase by a factor of two,

twice the data rate can be transmitted in the same bandwidth:
twice as many users doubling of profit
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Spectral Efficiency: Cost
According to Shannon:
Rb C = B log 1 +
=
Rb
B
C
B
S
N
= log 1 +
S
N
So for a large a large S/N is required!

This is not so strange, because for larger l ( larger ),
the signal states will be closer together when the signal power remains
constant larger probability of detection error due to noise.
Reliable detection is only possible if also S/N is increased.
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Channel Anomalies: Multi-path

Time domain: time dispersion
Usually, mean excess delay and rms-delay spread are accounted for time
dispersion.
The mean excess delay is the centre of gravity of the power delay profile.
The rms-delay spread is measure for the power dispersion in time. It
puts a limit on the maximum symbol rate due to ISI.
Frequency domain: frequency selectivity
Coherence bandwidth Bcon : the bandwidth over which the frequency
components fade in the same way. correlated fading.
Wideband signal: BW > Bcoh
Narrowband: BW >> Bcoh
virtually constant channel
response
frequency selective channel

response
no distortion
signal distortion
heavy fluctuations.
limited signal power fluctuations.

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Channel Anomalies: Interference

The undesired signals present at the same time which disrupt detection
performance of the desired signal.
Interference sources
1
Noise: always present, usually generated by receiver electronics.
Other users of the same frequency band: similar or different systems
Large power out-of-band users: due to non-linearities in the receiver

front-end receiver blocking.
Intentional jamming: usually only in a military environment.
The detection performance is usually determined by the ratio:

signal power
SNIR = noise+interference
which should be above a certain threshold.
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1


signal power
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1


signal power
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1


signal power
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1


signal power
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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS)

DS-SS modulation was originally developed for military communication
systems between 1950 - 1980 to ensure robust and covered communications.
In DS-SS modulation, the information signal is spread over a much wider
bandwidth that required based on the symbol rate.
A narrowband signal is made wideband !
How?
Why?
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How?
Signal spreading over a much wider bandwidth is achieved by multiplying the
signal at the transmitter by a wideband code signal.
Why?
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How?
Signal spreading over a much wider bandwidth is achieved by multiplying the
signal at the transmitter by a wideband code signal.
Why?
To create robustness against: multi-path fading and dispersion, interference,
detection, eavesdropping.
Because of the low PSD, its presence is difficult to detect.
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DS-SS Transmitter
In DS-SS spreading of the signal over a much wider bandwidth is achieved by
multiplying the signal at the transmitter by a code sequence c(t) {1, +1}
consisting of code chips.
The transmitted signal is:

xc (t) = Ac d(t)c(t) cos c t
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DS-SS Transmitter (Contd)

Signals in a DS-SS transmitter for a BPSK data modulation signal.
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data signal
2Rs
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data signal
d(t)c(t)
d(t)
2Rs
f
c(t)
PN-code signal
f
2Rc
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data signal
The PSD of the spread signal is 1/Gp
less than the PSD of the un-spread
signal
DS-SS signal
d(t)c(t)
d(t)
2Rs
2Rc
c(t)
PN-code signal
f
2Rc
The chip rate Rc =

The ratio Gp =
factor.
1
Tc
BWDSSS
BWdata
symbol rate Rs =
=
Rc
Rs
Ts
Tc
1
Ts
is called the processing gain or spreading
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DS-SS Reception
At the DS-SS receiver, the
reverse operation is performed
We can recover the signal only if:
c(t)c0 (t)d(t) = d(t)
The code is known
Perfect synchronization
data signal
DS-SS signal
d(t)c(t)
d(t)
f
2Rc
2Rs
PN-code signal
c (t)
f
2Rc
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DS-SS Reception (Contd)

DS-SS is very robust against interference. When de-spreading the desired
signal, the interference is spread.
Only a fraction 1/Gp of the spread interference overlaps with the de-spread
data signal spectrum.
BWdata
2Rs
= PI 2R
Effective Interference power: Ieff = PI BWspreadinterference
=
c
Narrowband Interference
PI
Gp
de-spread data signal
DS-SS data signal
Spread Interference
d(t)c(t)
DS-SS code signal
d(t)
c0 (t)
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DS-SS Reception (Contd)

DS-SS is also robust against other DS-SS interference signals. When the
SS-code or code phase is different, the signal remains spread.
Also in this situation, only a fraction 1/Gp of the interference spectrum
overlaps with the de-spread data signal spectrum.
Spread data signal 2
DS-SS data signal 1 and 2
d1 (t)c1 (t) + d2 (t)c2 (t)
d1 (t) + c01 (t)c2 (t)d2 (t)
DS-SS code signal
c01 (t)
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Pseudo-noise code generators

A DS-SS code is a pseudo random sequence of {1, 1}. There are several
ways to generate DS-SS codes depending on the required properties. One
way is to use Maximum length sequences which are also called
Pseudo-Noise (PN) codes because of their noise like spectral properties.
Maximum Length (ML) sequences can be digitally generated in a simple way
using a shift register with a feedback.
A ML-code generator using a five stage shift register with code length 31.
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Desired Properties of PN codes

Auto-correlation
Low auto-correlation of a PN-code outside the main peak is required:
to achieve reliable synchronisation
to lock on the main resolvable path and reduce interference from other
paths.
cross correlation
Low cross correlation between PN-codes is required:
to be able to separate signals of different users.
to obtain good detection performance because of low interference from
other users
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Spectral Efficiency of DS-SS
For DS-SS, with M-level modulation, the spectral efficiency is given by:
,
=
Rb
BT
lRs
BT
lRs
2Rc
l
2Gp
[bit/s/Hz]
The price, we pay for the increased robustness against interference and
multi-path fading (large Gp ) is very low spectral effaciency.
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Spectral Efficiency of DS-SS
For DS-SS, with M-level modulation, the spectral efficiency is given by:
,
=
Rb
BT
lRs
BT
lRs
2Rc
l
2Gp
[bit/s/Hz]
The price, we pay for the increased robustness against interference and
multi-path fading (large Gp ) is very low spectral effaciency.
This can be improved by letting multiple users share the same bandwidth!
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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

In code division multiple access (CDMA) the spectral responses are shared
among multiple users based on different DS-SS code.
Each user is defined by its code. The cross-correlation between the codes
has to be low (ideally zero orthogonal codes).

Spread DS-SS signals 2 to 5
DS-SS data signal 1 and 5
5
P
j=1
cj (t)dj (t)
d1 (t) +
DS-SS code signal
c01 (t)
5
P
c0 (t)c
j=2
j (t)dj (t)
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Pseudo-Noise Code Generator

Only a few combinations of feedback taps result in an ML-code:
the number of ML-codes is limited.
When a large number of codes is required, i.e., to assign to different users in
a multiple access communication system, other techniques for code
generation are applied.
Gold codes are generated beaded on two ML-codes:
pro: many different codes.
con: worse auto-correlation and cross correlation properties among the
codes.
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Bit Error Rate in DS-SS systems

The BER in DS-SS systems is deteriorated by interference produced by other
users due to non-orthogonal codes.
q
2Eb
For BPSK: Pe = Q
with No0 = No + NI
N0
o
In case of many users, the interference can be assumed to be Gaussian

distributed. The power spectral density for single interfere is:
NI =
PI
2Rc
when synchronised and NI =
For K equal-power DS-SS users:

Pe = Q
1
q
No
K1
3N + 2Eb
PI
3Rc
when not synchronised.
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DS-SS (Contd)
In DS-SS modulation the bandwidth of the signal is increased by multiplying
the data with a code known to the receiver.
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DS-SS (Contd)
To retrieve the data at the receiver, the DS-SS signal is de-spread:
The system is robust against interference and multiple paths, since:

signals with a different code remain spread.
narrowband signals are spread in the frequency domain.
multi-path signals can be separated if the delay difference > Tc
The robustness is determined by the processing gain.
Gp =
BWDSSS
BWdata
Ts
Tc
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DS-SS (Contd)
To retrieve the data at the receiver, the DS-SS signal is de-spread:
requires the same code.
requires perfect synchronisation.
The system is robust against interference and multiple paths, since:
signals with a different code remain spread.
narrowband signals are spread in the frequency domain.
multi-path signals can be separated if the delay difference > Tc
The robustness is determined by the processing gain.
Gp =
BWDSSS
BWdata
Ts
Tc
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Employing DS-SS
By applying DS-SS, spectral efficiency is traded for increased robustness due
to the introduced processing gain. Different trade-offs can be made, e.g., the
spectral efficiency can be increased by:
1
Increasing the symbol rate at the same chip rate.

the processing gain is decreased.
less robust.
Increasing the modulation level at the same symbol and chip rate.
robustness is maintained: same processing gain.
increase of signal power may be required.
Allow multiple users to share the same bandwidth: CDMA
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Exercise
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Modern Communication Theory

Part A: Wireless Communication

Review of basic modulation properties and techniques

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

BER in case of noise and narrowband interference

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

Figure: Communication System.

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

Figure: Communication System.

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

Figure: Communication System.

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

Figure: Communication System.

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

Magnitude and Phase Representation

Complex Envelope Representations

Complex envelope or complex equivalent baseband signal:

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

Bandpass Signals (Contd)

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

Bandpass Signals (Contd)

s2I (t) + s2Q (t)

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

Binary Phase Shift Keying

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

Multi-level Modulation Techniques

The symbol rate Rs =

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

The complex envelope for M-PSK is:

Figure: signal state diagram for

Usually, we consider all symbols are equally likely!

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

For 16-QAM (black dots):

Part A: Wireless Communication

For 16-QAM (black dots):

Figure: 16 symbol QAM constellation

Part A: Wireless Communication

Spectral Efficiency: Profit

The spectral efficiency is defined as:

When we are able to increase by a factor of two,

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

Spectral Efficiency: Cost

So for a large a large S/N is required!

Dr. ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL)

Part A: Wireless Communication

Channel Anomalies: Multi-path

frequency selective channel

limited signal power fluctuations.