Paul Ekman

had begun to study in 1954.[9] Ekman eventually went on

to receive his Ph.D. in clinical psychology at Adelphi University in 1958, after a one-year internship at the Langley
Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute.[9][10]

Paul Ekman (born February 15, 1934) is an American

psychologist who is a pioneer in the study of emotions
and their relation to facial expressions. He has created
an atlas of emotions with more than ten thousand facial expressions, and has gained a reputation as the best
human lie detector in the world.[1]

1.3 Military service

He was ranked 59th out of the 100 most cited psychologists of the twentieth century.[2] Ekman conducted seminal research on the specic biological correlates of specic emotions, demonstrating the universality and discreteness of emotions in a Darwinian approach.[3][4]

1
1.1

Ekman was drafted into the U.S. Army in 1958 to serve

2 years as soon as his internship at Langley Porter was
nished.[9] He served as rst lieutenant-chief psychologist, at Fort Dix, New Jersey, where he did research
on army stockades and psychological changes during infantry basic training.[9][11][12][13]

Biography

Also, during this time, he spent four months working

with Leonard Krasner, at the Palo Alto Veterans Administration Hospital, working on a grant focused on the operant conditioning of verbal behavior in psychiatric patients. Ekman also met anthropologist Gregory Bateson
for the rst time because Bateson was on sta at Palo
Alto. Five years later, Gregory Bateson gave Paul Ekman motion picture lms taken in Bali in the mid-1930s
to help Ekman with cross-cultural studies of expression
and gesture.[9]

Childhood

Paul Ekman was born to Jewish parents[5] in 1934

in Washington, D.C., and grew up in New Jersey,
Washington, Oregon, and California. His father was a
pediatrician and his mother was an attorney. His sister, Joyce Steingart, is a psychoanalytic psychologist who
practices in New York.[6]

Ekman originally wanted to be a psychotherapist, but

when he was 14, his mother developed a severe mental
illness and it had tragic consequences, so he decided to 1.4 Career
spend his life helping people like his mother.[7]
From 1960 to 1963, Ekman worked as a postdoctoral
student. He submitted his rst research grant through
1.2 Education
San Francisco State College with himself as the principal investigator (PI) at the young age of 25.[14] He reAt the age of 15, without graduating from high school, ceived this grant from the National Institute of Mental
Paul Ekman enrolled at the University of Chicago where Health (NIMH) in 1963 to study nonverbal behaviour.
he completed three years of undergraduate study. During This award would be continuously renewed for the next
his time in Chicago he was fascinated by group therapy 40 years and would pay his salary until he was oered a
sessions and understanding group dynamics. Notably, his professorship at the University of California, San Franclassmates at Chicago included writer Susan Sontag, lm cisco (UCSF) in 1972.
director Mike Nichols, and actress Elaine May.[8]
Encouraged by his college friend and teacher Silvan S.
He then studied one year at New York University (NYU),
earning his BA in 1954.[4] The subject of his rst research
project, under the direction of his NYU professor, Margaret Tresselt, was group therapy.[9]

Tomkins, Ekman wrote his famous book, Telling Lies,

and published it in 1985. He retired in 2004 as professor of psychology in the Department of Psychiatry at the
University of California, San Francisco (UCSF). From
Next, Ekman was accepted into the Adelphi University 1960 to 2004 he also worked at the Langley Porter Psygraduate program for clinical psychology.[9] While work- chiatric Institute on a limited basis consulting on various
ing for his Masters degree, Ekman was awarded a pre- clinical cases.
doctoral research fellowship from the National Institute After retiring from the University of California, San
of Mental Health (NIMH) in 1955.[9] His Masters thesis Francisco, Paul Ekman founded the Paul Ekman Group
was focused on facial expression and body movement he (PEG) and Paul Ekman International.[15] The Paul Ek1

2 RESEARCH WORK

man Group, develops and oers online emotional skillsbuilding programs such as the Micro Expression Training Tool, oers workshops, supports researchers in our
eld, and builds online community around these topics.
They do not take individual cases.[16] Also, the PEG offers a micro expression and subtle expression training tool
for sale on their website.[17] However, it may be possible to learn to spot micro expressions by quickly ipping
through photos of facial expressions. The Paul Ekman
Group is currently working on an online interactive tool
called Mapping your Anger Prole to allow couples to
analyze their emotional prole. An emotional prole will
examine how quickly one is angered, in addition to how
the person experiences emotions such as anger, fear, disgust and anguish.[18] They are also developing a tool titled, Responding Eectively to Emotional Expressions
(RE3).[15]

1.5

Media

sity of California Medical School, for his clinical internship partly because Jurgen Ruesch and Weldon Kees had
recently published a book called Nonverbal Communication (1956).[9][26][27]
Ekman then focused on developing techniques for measuring nonverbal communication. He found that facial
muscular movements that created facial expressions could
be reliably identied through empirical research. He
also found that human beings are capable of making
over 10,000 facial expressions; only 3,000 relevant to
emotion.[28] Psychologist Silvan Tomkins convinced Ekman to extend his studies of nonverbal communication
from body movement to the face, helping him design his
classic cross-cultural emotion recognition studies.[29] Interestingly enough, Tomkins also supervised Carroll Izard
at the same time, fostering a similar interest in emotion
through cross-cultural research.

2.2 Emotions as universal categories

In 2001, Ekman collaborated with John Cleese for the

Charles Darwin theorized that emotions were biologically
BBC documentary series The Human Face.[19]
determined and universal to human culture in The ExHis work is heavily referenced in the TV series Lie to pression of the Emotions in Man and Animals published
Me.[20] Dr. Lightman is based on Paul Ekman, and Ek- in 1872. However, the more popularized belief during
man served as a scientic adviser for the series; he read the 1950s was that facial expressions and their meanings
and edited the scripts and sent video clip-notes of facial were culturally determined through behavioural learning
expressions for the actors to imitate. While Ekman has processes. This was the belief of some anthropologists
written 15 books, the series Lie to Me has more eectively including Margaret Mead who had travelled to dierent
brought Ekmans research into peoples homes.[20] Lie to countries examining how cultures communicated using
Me has aired in more than 60 countries.[21]
nonverbal behaviour.
He has also collaborated with Pixar's lm director and an- Through a series of studies, Ekman found a high agreeimator Pete Docter in preparation of his 2015 lm Inside ment across members of diverse Western and Eastern litOut.[22]
erate cultures on selecting emotional labels that t facial

1.6

Inuence

He was named one of the top Time 100 most inuential

people in the May 11, 2009 edition of Time magazine.[23]
He is currently on the Editorial Board of Greater Good
magazine, published by the Greater Good Science Center
of the University of California, Berkeley. His contributions include the interpretation of scientic research into
the roots of compassion, altruism, and peaceful human
relationships.[24]

2
2.1

Research work
Measuring nonverbal communication

Ekmans interest in nonverbal communication led to

his rst publication in 1957, describing how dicult it
was to develop ways of empirically measuring nonverbal
behaviour.[25] He chose the Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute, the psychiatry department of the Univer-

expressions. Expressions he found to be universal included those indicating anger, disgust, fear, happiness,
sadness, and surprise. Findings on contempt are less
clear, though there is at least some preliminary evidence that this emotion and its expression are universally recognized.[30] Working with his long-time friend
Wallace V. Friesen, Ekman demonstrated that the ndings extended to preliterate Fore tribesmen in Papua
New Guinea, whose members could not have learned the
meaning of expressions from exposure to media depictions of emotion.[31] Ekman and Friesen then demonstrated that certain emotions were exhibited with very
specic display rules, culture-specic prescriptions about
who can show which emotions to whom and when. These
display rules could explain how cultural dierences may
conceal the universal eect of expression.[32]
In the 1990s, Ekman proposed an expanded list of basic
emotions, including a range of positive and negative emotions that are not all encoded in facial muscles.[33] The
newly included emotions are: Amusement, Contempt,
Contentment, Embarrassment, Excitement, Guilt, Pride
in achievement, Relief, Satisfaction, Sensory pleasure,
and Shame.[33]

2.3

Psychometric tests for studying emo- These naturals are also known as Truth Wizards, or
wizards of deception detection from demeanor.[39]
tion

Ekmans famous test of emotion recognition was the Pictures of Facial Aect (POFA) stimulus set published in
1976. Consisting of 110 black and white images of Caucasian actors portraying the six universal emotions plus
neutral expressions, the POFA has been used to study
emotion recognition rates in normal and psychiatric populations around the world. Ekman used these stimuli in
his original cross-cultural research. Many researchers
favor the POFA because these photographs have been
rated by large normative groups in dierent cultures.
In response to critics, however, Ekman eventually released a more culturally diverse set of stimuli called the
Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expressions of Emotion
(JACFEE).[34]
By 1978, Ekman and Friesen had nalized and developed
the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) to taxonomize
every human facial expression. FACS is an anatomically
based system for describing all observable facial movement for every emotion. Each observable component of
facial movement is called an action unit or AU and all facial expressions can be decomposed into their constituent
core AUs.[35] An update of this tool came in the early
2000s when it was renamed F.A.C.E. (Facial Expression,
Awareness, Compassion, Emotions) and redeveloped as
a tool to learn about identifying and recognizing facial
expressions in the human face.
Other tools have been developed, including the MicroExpressions Training Tool (METT), which can help individuals identify more subtle emotional expressions that occur when people try to suppress their emotions. Application of this tool includes helping people with Aspergers
or autism recognize emotional expressions in their everyday interactions. The Subtle Expression Training Tool
(SETT) teaches recognition of very small, micro signs of
emotion. These are very tiny expressions, sometimes registering in only part of the face, or when the expression is
shown across the entire face, but is very small. Subtle expressions occur for many reasons, for example, the emotion experienced may be very slight or the emotion may
be just beginning. METT and SETT have been shown to
increase accuracy in evaluating truthfulness.

2.4

Detecting deception

Ekman has contributed to the study of social aspects of

lying, why we lie,[36] and why we are often unconcerned
with detecting lies.[37] In a research project along with
Maureen O'Sullivan, called the Wizards Project (previously named the Diogenes Project), Ekman reported on
facial "microexpressions" which could be used to assist
in lie detection. After testing a total of 20,000 people[38]
from all walks of life, he found only 50 people who had
the ability to spot deception without any formal training.

Ekman is also working with Computer Vision researcher

Dimitris Metaxas on designing a visual lie-detector.[40]
His research on deception inspired the television series,
Lie to Me, in which he served as a consultant; this was
an excellent opportunity for Ekman to spread his work
on microexpressions, while not directly accredited for his
work, his work did eventually become part of pop culture to some extent as a result of the show. In one issue of Greater Good Magazine Ekman and his daughter
Eve were interviewed on parent-child trust. The main
topic of the interview focuses on the benets of trusting your children, how to encourage trustworthy behavior, and what it takes to build trust between parents and
children. On February 27, 2009, he was a guest presenter at the Science of a Meaningful Life seminar Building
Compassion, Creating Well-being, along with University
of California, Berkeley and Greater Good Science Center
Executive Director Dacher Keltner. Together they covered strategies for building resilience, reducing stress, and
strengthening relationships with colleagues, clients, family, and friends.
In his profession, he also uses oral signs of lying. When
interviewed about the Monica Lewinsky scandal, he mentioned that he could detect that former President Bill Clinton was lying because he used distancing language.[41]

3 Contributions to our understanding of emotion

In his 1993 seminal paper in the psychology journal
American Psychologist, Ekman describes nine direct
contributions that his research on facial expression has
made to our understanding of emotion.[42] Highlights include:
Consideration of both nature and nurture: Emotion is now viewed as a physiological phenomenon
inuenced by our cultural and learning experiences.
Emotion-specic physiology: Ekman led the way
by trying to nd discrete psychophysiological differences across emotions. A number of researchers
continue to search for emotion-specic autonomic
and central nervous system activations. With the advent of neuroimaging techniques, a topic of intense
interest revolves around how specic emotions relate to physiological activations in certain brain areas. Ekman laid the groundwork for the future eld
of aective neuroscience.
An examination of events that precede emotions:
Ekmans nding that voluntarily making one of the
universal facial expressions can generate the physiology and some of the subjective experience of emo-

6 SEE ALSO
tion provided some diculty for some of the earlier universal.[47] Ekman argued that there has been no quantheoretical conceptualizations of experiencing emo- titative data to support the claim that emotions are culture
tions.
specic. In his 1993 discussion of the topic, Ekman states
that there is no instance in which 70% or more of one cul Considering emotions as families: Ekman & tural group select one of the six universal emotions while
Friesen (1978) found not one expression for each another culture group labels the same expression as anemotion, but a variety of related but visually dif- other universal emotion.[42]
ferent expressions. For example, the authors reported 60 variations of the anger expression which
share core congurational properties and distinguish 5 Publications
themselves clearly from the families of fearful expressions, disgust expressions, and so on. Variations
Emotional Awareness: Overcoming the Obstacles
within a family likely reect the intensity of the emoto Psychological Balance and Compassion (Times
tion, how the emotion is controlled, whether it is
Books, 2008) ISBN 0-8050-8712-5
simulated or spontaneous, and the specics of the
event that provoked the emotion.
Unmasking the Face ISBN 1-883536-36-7

Criticisms

Most credibility-assessment researchers agree that people are unable to visually detect lies.[43] The application of part of Ekmans work to airport security via
the Transportation Security Administration's Screening Passengers by Observation Techniques (SPOT) program has been criticized for not having been put through
controlled scientic tests.[43] A 2007 report on SPOT
stated that simply put, people (including professional liecatchers with extensive experience of assessing veracity)
would achieve similar hit rates if they ipped a coin.[44]
Since controlled scientic tests typically involve people
playing the part of terrorists, Ekman says those people are
unlikely to have the same emotions as actual terrorists.[43]
The methodology used by Ekman and O'Sullivan in their
recent work on Truth wizards has also received criticism
on the basis of validation.[45]
Other criticisms of Ekmans work are based on experimental and naturalistic studies by several other emotion
psychologists that did not nd evidence in support of Ekmans proposed taxonomy of discrete emotions and discrete facial expression.[46]
Ekman received hostility from some anthropologists at
meetings of the American Psychological Association and
the American Anthropological Association from 1967 to
1969. He recounted that, as he was reporting his ndings
on universality of expression, one anthropologist tried to
stop him from nishing by shouting that his ideas were
fascist. He compares this to another incident when he
was accused of being racist by an activist for claiming
that Black expressions are not dierent from White expressions. In 1975, Margaret Mead, an anthropologist,
wrote against Ekman for doing improper anthropology,
and for disagreeing with Ray Birdwhistell's claim opposing universality. Ekman wrote that, while many people
agreed with Birdwhistell then, most came to accept his
own ndings over the next decade.[14] However, some anthropologists continued to suggest that emotions are not

Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings to Improve Communication and Emotional Life
(Times Books, 2003) ISBN 0-8050-7516-X
Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics, and Marriage (W. W. Norton & Company,
1985) ISBN 0-393-32188-6
What the Face Reveals (with Rosenberg, E. L., Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0-19-510446-3
The Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Questions
(with R. Davidson, Oxford University Press, 1994)
ISBN 0-19-508944-8
Darwin and Facial Expression: A Century of Research in Review ISBN 0-12-236750-2
Facial Action Coding System/Investigators ISBN
99936-26-61-9
Why Kids Lie: How Parents Can Encourage Truthfulness (Penguin, 1991) ISBN 0-14-014322-X
Handbook of Methods in Nonverbal Behavior Research ISBN 0-521-28072-9
Face of Man ISBN 0-8240-7130-1
Emotion in the Human Face ISBN 0-08-016643-1
Handbook of Cognition and Emotion (Sussex, UK
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 1999)

6 See also
Animal communication
Body language
Emotions and Culture
Emotion classication
Facial Action Coding System

5
Microexpression
Nonverbal communication
Origin of language
Origin of speech
Lie to Me (TV series)
Wizards Project

References

[1] Morin, Amy (October 28, 2015). 8 Biggest Myths About

Lying According to the Best Human Lie Detector in the
World. Hungton Post. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
[2] Haggbloom, S. J. et al. (2002). The 100 Most Eminent
Psychologists of the 20th Century. Review of General
Psychology. Vol. 6, No. 2, 13915. Haggbloom and
his team combined 3 quantitative variables: citations in
professional journals, citations in textbooks, and nominations in a survey given to members of the Association for
Psychological Science, with 3 qualitative variables (converted to quantitative scores): National Academy of Science (NAS) membership, American Psychological Association (APA) President and/or recipient of the APA Distinguished Scientic Contributions Award, and surname
used as an eponym. Then the list was rank ordered. Ekman was #59. (A list of the rst 25 names, in order,
can be found under Historically important writers at
Template:Psychology.)

[12] Ekman, P.; Cohen, L.; Moos, R.; Raine, W.;

Schlesinger, M.; Stone, G. (1963). Divergent Reactions to the Threat of War. Science 139: 8894.
doi:10.1126/science.139.3550.88.
[13] Ekman, P.; Friesen, W. V.; Lutzker, D. R., Psychological Reactions to Infantry Basic Training.
Medicine, U. o.
C. S. o., Ed.
http:
//www.paulekman.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/
Psychological-Reactions-To-Infantry-Basic-Training.
pdf
[14] Ekman, P., A lifes pursuit. In The Semiotic Web '86: An
International Yearkbook, Sebeok, T. A.; Umiker-Seboek,
J., Eds. Berlin, Mouton De Gruyter, 1987; pp 3-45
[15] About Paul Ekman Group LLC | Paul Ekman Group,
LLC. Paulekman.com. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[16] The Ekman Group and The Lightman Group | Paul Ekman Group, LLC. Paulekman.com. Retrieved 2014-0303.
[17] Training | Paul Ekman Group, LLC. Paulekman.com.
Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[18] ">> 2013 Thursday, December 12. The Evolution of
Psychotherapy. 2013-12-12. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[19] Lifeboat Foundation Bios: Dr.
Paul Ekman.
Lifeboat.com. 2002-09-16. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[20] The (Real!) Science Behind Foxs Lie to Me Popular Mechanics [Online], 2009.
[21] "'Lie to Me' | Paul Ekman Group, LLC. Paulekman.com.
2009-01-21. Retrieved 2014-03-03.

[3] Freitas-Magalhes, A. (2012). Facial expression of emotion. In V. S. Ramachandran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of

Human Behavior (Vol. 2, pp.173-183). Oxford: Elsevier/Academic Press. ISBN 978-008-088-575-9.

[22] Dacher Keltner & Paul Ekman (2015-07-03). The Science of 'Inside Out'". The New York Times. Retrieved
2015-09-05.

[4] Paul Ekman. American Psychologist 47 (4): 470471.

April 1992. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.47.4.470.

[23] The 2009 TIME 100: Paul Ekman, Scientists & Thinkers.
Time. April 30, 2009.

[5] JEWISH PSYCHOLOGISTS. Jinfo.org. Retrieved 28

October 2015.
[6] "'Paul Ekman. American Psychologist 47 (4): 470471.
April 1992. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.47.4.470.

[24] Freitas-Magalhes, A. (2009). The Ekman Code or in

Praise of the Science of the Human Face. In A. FreitasMagalhes (Ed.), Emotional Expression: The Brain and
The Face (Vol. 1, pp. ix-xvii). Porto: University Fernando Pessoa Press. ISBN 978-989-643-034-4.

[7] http://myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/login?url=http:
//search.proquest.com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/
docview/229138171?accountid=14771/

[25] Ekman, Paul (1957). A methodological discussion of

nonverbal behavior.. Journal of Psychology 43: 141
149. doi:10.1080/00223980.1957.9713059.

[8] Conversation with Paul Ekman, p. 1 of 5. Globetrotter.berkeley.edu. 2004-03-11. Retrieved 2014-03-03.

[26] Nonverbal Communication: Notes on the Visual Perception of Human Relations - Jurgen Ruesch, Weldon Kees Google Boeken. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2014-0303.

[9] Ekman, P., A lifes pursuit. In The Semiotic Web '86: An

International Yearkbook, Sebeok, T. A.; Umiker-Seboek,
J., Eds. Berlin, Mouton De Gruyter, 1987; pp 3-45.
[10] Eissner, B. Paul Ekman PH.D. '58, '08: East Meets
West.
http://profiles.adelphi.edu/profile/paul-ekman/
http://www.adelphi.edu/adelphi-magazine/
Adelphi-Magazine-Fall-2008.pdf.
[11] American Psychologist (April 1992),"Paul Ekman 47
(4), pg. 470-471

[27] Ruesch, J.; Kees, W., Nonverbal Communication: Notes

on the Visual Perception of Human Relations. University
of California Press, 1956: Berkeley, 1956; p 205.
[28] Watch Lie To Me: Expressions: Introduction online |
Free. Hulu. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[29] FACS Investigators Guide - Acknowledgements. Retrieved 2 September 2009.

[30] Matsumoto, David (1992) More evidence for the universality of a contempt expression. Motivation and Emotion.
Springer Netherlands. Volume 16, Number 4 / December, 1992
[31] Ekman, P.; Friesen, W.V. (1971). Constants across
cultures in the face and emotion. (PDF). Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology 17: 124129.
doi:10.1037/h0030377. PMID 5542557.
[32] Ekman, Paul (1989). The argument and evidence about
universals in facial expressions of emotion. In H. Wagner & A Manstead. Handbook of social psychophysiology.
Chichester, England: Wiley. pp. 143164.
[33] Ekman, Paul (1999), Basic Emotions, in Dalgleish, T;
Power, M, Handbook of Cognition and Emotion (PDF),
Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons

EXTERNAL LINKS

8 External links
Interview
Ocial site
Complete bibliography
A biography from Lifeboat Foundation site
Video of Freitas-Magalhaess 2008 Ceremony of
Doctorate Honoris Causa to Paul Ekman, The Ekman Code or the Eulogy to the Human Face
The Naked Face, Gladwell.com
Interview (History Channel transcript)
Interview (Financial Times)

[34] Ekman, P.; Matsumoto, D. Japanese and Caucasian facial expressions of emotion and neutral faces..

Greater Good Magazine: Interview between Ekman

and daughter Eve on parent-child trust

[35] Ekman, Paul. FACS vs. F.A.C.E..

Recording of a conversation with Daniel Goleman

[36] Book: Why Kids Lie: How Parents Can Encourage Truthfulness
[37] Ekman, P., 1996: Why don't we catch liars
[38] Camilleri, J., Truth Wizard knows when you've been lying, Chicago Sun-Times, January 21, 2009
[39] NPR: The Face Never Lies.
[40] Meet the New Interrogators: Lockheed Martin by
Pratap Chatterjee, CorpWatch report, November 4th,
2005.
[41] The lie detective: San Francisco psychologist has made
a science of reading facial expressions by Julian Guthrie,
San Francisco Chronicle, Monday, September 16, 2002.
[42] Ekman, Paul (1993). Facial Expression and Emotion.
American Psychologist 48 (4): 384392.
doi:10.1037/0003-066X.48.4.384. PMID 8512154.
[43] Sharon Weinberger. Airport security: Intent to deceive?
: Nature News. Nature.com. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[44] Hontz, C. R., Hartwig, M., Kleinman, S. M. & Meissner,
C. A. Credibility Assessment at Portals, Portals Committee Report (2009).
[45] Bond, Charles F & Uysal, Ahmet. (2007). On lie detection wizards. Law and human behavior, 31.
[46] Russel and Fernandez-Dols (1997). The Psychology of
Facial Expression . Cambridge University Press.
[47] Lutz, C.; White, G.M. (1986). The anthropology of
emotions.. Annual Review of Anthropology 15: 405
436. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.15.1.405.

Detecting Deception, American Psychological Association

PaulEkmanGroup Facebook
PaulEkmanGroup Twitter

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