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English Morphology
What Is A Noun? ...................................................................................................... 2
What Is A Pronoun? .8
What Is An Adjective? 14
What is a Preposition? .18
What is a Conjunction?............................................................................................19
What is an Interjection? .......21
English Syntax
The Parts of the Sentence.22
Building Phrases ..59
Building Clauses61
Building Sentences....65
English Vocabulary
Word Formation74
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A. What Is A Noun?
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are
usually the first words which small children learn. The highlighted words in the following
sentences are all nouns:
Late last year our neighbours bought a goat.
Portia White was an opera singer.
The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.
According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed in 48 B.C.
Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.
A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a
subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.
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There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the last letter before adding s. Some
words ending in f form the plural by deleting f and adding ves and words ending in y form
the plural by deleting the y and adding ies as in the following pairs of sentences:
The harbour at Marble Mountain has one wharf.
There are several wharves in Halifax Harbour.
Warsaw is their favourite city because it reminds them of their courtship.
The vacation my grandparents won includes trips to twelve European cities.
The children circled around the headmaster and shouted, Are you a mouse or a man?
The audience was shocked when all five men admitted that they were afraid of mice.
Other nouns form the plural irregularly. If English is your first language, you probably know
most of these already (when in doubt, consult a good dictionary.)
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You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in s by adding an apostrophe:
The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies'
squalling.
The janitors' room is downstairs and to the left.
My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.
The archivist quickly finished repairing the diaries' bindings.
Religion is usually the subject of the roommates' many late night debates.
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Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.
The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new
shingles.
As the car drove past the park, the thump of a disco tune overwhelmed the string
quartet's rendition of a minuet.
The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board.
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Since oxygen is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb is rather than the plural verb
are.
We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with us when we moved.
You cannot make the noun furniture plural.
The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.
Since furniture is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, is heaped.
The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.
You cannot make the non-countable noun gravel plural.
Gravel is more expensive than I thought.
Since gravel is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form is.
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B. What Is A Pronoun?
A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use pronouns like he, which, none
and you to make your sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive.
Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the personal pronoun, the
demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative
pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the intensive pronoun.
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Deborah and Roberta will meet us at the newest caf in the market.
Here the objective personal pronoun us is the direct object of the compound verb will meet.
Give the list to me.
Here the objective personal pronoun me is the object of the preposition to.
I'm not sure that my contact will talk to you.
Similarly in this example, the objective personal pronoun you is the object of the preposition
to.
Christopher was surprised to see her at the drag races.
Here the objective personal pronoun her is the object of the infinitive phrase to see.
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B. 3. Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. This and these refer
to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while that and those refer to things that are
farther away in space or time.
The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these and those. This and that are used to refer
to singular nouns or noun phrases and these and those are used to refer to plural nouns and
noun phrases. Note that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives,
though, obviously, you use them differently. It is also important to note that that can also be
used as a relative pronoun.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a demonstrative pronoun:
This must not continue.
Here this is used as the subject of the compound verb must not continue.
This is puny; that is the tree I want.
In this example this is used as subject and refers to something close to the speaker. The
demonstrative pronoun that is also a subject but refers to something farther away from the
speaker.
Three customers wanted these.
Here these is the direct object of the verb wanted.
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In a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers whom she believes to be the most
efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual.
In this sentence whom is the direct object of the verb believes and introduces the subordinate
clause whom she believes to be the most efficient. This subordinate clause modifies the noun
workers.
Whoever broke the window will have to replace it.
Here whoever functions as the subject of the verb broke.
The crate which was left in the corridor has now been moved into the storage closet.
In this example which acts as the subject of the compound verb was left and introduces the
subordinate clause which was left in the corridor.The subordinate clause acts as an adjective
modifying the noun crate.
I will read whichever manuscript arrives first.
Here whichever modifies the noun manuscript and introduces the subordinate clause
whichever manuscript arrives first. The subordinate clause functions as the direct object of the
compound verb will read.
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Here too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: none is the direct object of found.
Make sure you give everyone a copy of the amended bylaws.
In this example, everyone is the indirect object of the verb give -- the direct object is the noun
phrase a copy of the amended bylaws.
Give a registration package to each.
Here each is the object of the preposition to.
C. What Is An Adjective?
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In the subordinate clause, ``those'' modifies ``plates'' and the noun phrase ``those plates'' is the
object of the verb ``preferred.'' In the independent clause, ``these'' is the direct object of the verb
``bought.''
Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative pronoun is
similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that
between a interrogative adjective and an interrogative pronoun.
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D. What is an Adverb?
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverb
indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as how, when,
where, how much.
While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic ly suffix, most of them must be
identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole.
Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence.
In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:
The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes.
In this sentence, the adverb quickly modifies the verb made and indicates in what manner (or
how fast) the clothing was constructed.
The midwives waited patiently through a long labour.
Similarly in this sentence, the adverb patiently modifies the verb waited and describes the
manner in which the midwives waited.
The boldly-spoken words would return to haunt the rebel.
In this sentence the adverb boldly modifies the adjective spoken.
We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.
Here the adverb more modifies the adverb expeditiously.
Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today.
In this example, the adverb unfortunately modifies the entire sentence.
D. 1. Conjunctive Adverbs
You can use a conjunctive adverb to join two clauses together. Some of the most common
conjunctive adverbs are also, consequently, finally, furthermore, hence, however,
incidentally, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile, nevertheless, next, nonetheless,
otherwise, still, then, therefore and thus. A conjunctive adverb is not strong enough to
join two independent clauses without the aid of a semicolon.
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E. What is a Preposition?
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word or
phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the rest
of the sentence as in the following examples:
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
She read the book during class.
In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun book in space or in time.
A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and any associated adjectives or
adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The most
common prepositions are about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around,
at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but, by, despite,
down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on,
onto, out, outside, over, past, since, through, throughout, till, to, toward,
under, underneath, until, up, upon, with, within and without.
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition:
The children climbed the mountain without fear.
In this sentence, the preposition without introduces the noun fear. The prepositional phrase
without fear functions as an adverb describing how the children climbed.
There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was defeated.
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Here, the preposition throughout introduces the noun phrase the land. The prepositional phrase
acts as an adverb describing the location of the rejoicing.
The spider crawled slowly along the banister.
The preposition along introduces the noun phrase the banister and the prepositional phrase
along the banister acts as an adverb, describing where the spider crawled.
The dog is hiding under the porch because it knows it will be punished for chewing up a
new pair of shoes.
Here the preposition under introduces the prepositional phrase under the porch, which acts as
an adverb modifying the compound verb is hiding.
The screenwriter searched for the manuscript he was certain was somewhere in his
office.
Similarly in this sentence, the preposition in introduces a prepositional phrase in his office,
which acts as an adverb describing the location of the missing papers.
F. What is a Conjunction?
You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the following example:
I ate the pizza and the pasta.
Call the movers when you are ready.
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Here the co-ordinating conjunction and links two participle phrases (dancing on rooftops and
swallowing goldfish) which act as adverbs describing the verb spends.
In this sentence, the dependent clause because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer
people and fewer germs is introduced by the subordinating conjunction because.
F.3. Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence
elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are both...and, either...or, neither...nor,
not only...but also, so...as, and whether...or. (Technically correlative conjunctions consist
simply of a co-ordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)
The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative conjunctions:
Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.
In this sentence, the correlative conjunction both...and is used to link the two noun phrases that
act as the compound subject of the sentence: my grandfather and my father.
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G. What is an Interjection?
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically related
to any other part of the sentence.
You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in
formal academic prose, except in direct quotations.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:
Ouch, that hurt!
Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.
Hey! Put that down!
I heard one guy say to another guy, He has a new car, eh?
I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!
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the basic vocabulary of grammar, and it is important that you take some time to learn and
understand them.
If you ask who? or what? before the verb (were cowering), the answer is three stray
kittens, the correct subject.
H.1.2. Simple Subject and Simple Predicate
Every subject is built around one noun or pronoun (or more) that, when stripped of all the words
that modify it, is known as the simple subject. Consider the following example:
A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger.
The subject is built around the noun piece, with the other words of the subject a and of
pepperoni pizza -- modifying the noun. Piece is the simple subject.
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Likewise, a predicate has at its centre a simple predicate, which is always the verb or verbs that
link up with the subject. In the example we just considered, the simple predicate is would satisfy
-- in other words, the verb of the sentence.
A sentence may have a compound subject -- a simple subject consisting of more than one noun
or pronoun -- as in these examples:
Team pennants, rock posters and family photographs covered the boy's bedroom walls.
Her uncle and she walked slowly through the Inuit art gallery and admired the powerful
sculptures exhibited there.
The second sentence above features a compound predicate, a predicate that includes more than
one verb pertaining to the same subject (in this case, walked and admired).
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In every case, you could reconstruct the last part of the sentence into a sentence of its own using a
subject complement: it is black, she is out of order, the Prime Minister is sleeping.
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You should not use adjectives, or nouns or pronouns in the possessive case, as antecedents.
Although they may imply a noun, reference to them will be ambiguous:
In Ruth's apology she told Jerry she'd loved him for years.
In this case, the pronoun she seems to refer to the noun phrase Ruth's apology,, though it was
probably meant to refer to possessive noun Ruth's.
Jerry wore those blasted green knickers; it was his favourite colour.
In this example, the pronoun it seems to refer to the noun knickers, though it was probably
meant to refer to the adjective green.
A pronoun should not refer to a title
When you start your paper, do not write as if the title itself were part of the body of the paper.
Often, the title will appear on a separate page, and your opening will be confusing. Imagine, for
example, a paper entitled How to Sew Green Knickers: you should not begin the first paragraph
with a sentence like
This is not as easy as it looks.
The writer probably wanted the pronoun this to refer to the idea of sewing knickers, but since
the idea is not in the body of the paper itself, the reference will not make sense.
Use it, they and you carefully
In conversation people often use expressions such as It says in this book that ... and In my
home town they say that .... These constructions are useful for information conversation because
they allow you to present ideas casually, without supporting evidence; for academic writing,
however, these constructions are either too imprecise or too wordy:
[WRONG] In Chapter four of my autobiography it says that I was born out of wedlock.
In Chapter four, what says that the speaker was born out of wedlock?
[WRONG] In the restaurant they gave me someone else's linguini.
Who gave the speaker someone else's linguini?
It would be better to rewrite these two sentences as follow:
[RIGHT] Chapter four of my autobiography states that I was born out of wedlock.
[RIGHT] In the restaurant, the server gave me someone else's linguini.
In these revised sentences, there is no doubt about who is doing what.
The same basic rule applies to the pronoun you. In informal conversation and in instructional
writing (like HyperGrammar), English speakers often use the pronoun to mean something like a
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hypothetical person or people in general; academic writing, however, needs to be more precise,
and you should use you only when you want to address the reader directly (as I am doing here).
Consider this example:
[WRONG] In the fourteenth century, you had to struggle to survive.
In this case, you obviously does not refer to the reader, since the reader was not alive during the
seventeenth century. It would be better to rewrite the sentence so that it expresses your idea more
precisely; for example
[RIGHT] In the fourteenth century, people had to struggle to survive.
Or even better yet,
[RIGHT] In the fourteenth century, English peasant farmers had to struggle to survive.
Use it consistently within a sentence
There are three common uses of the pronoun it:
As an idiom
It is snowing;
To postpone the subject
It is untrue that a rhinoceros can run faster than my tights; and
As a personal pronoun
I wanted a rhinoceros for my birthday, but did not get it.
You may use all of these in academic writing, but to avoid awkwardness, you should not use
more than one within a single sentence:
[WRONG] When it is my birthday, I hope to receive a rhinoceros, and I will walk it
often.
It would be better to eliminate the first (idiomatic) it:
On my birthday, I hope to receive a rhinoceros, and I will walk it often.
Use who, which, and that carefully
Historically, writers, editors, and publishers have had difficulty establishing clear guidelines for
using the relative pronouns who, which, and that, in formal writing, but over the last fifty
years or so they have come a loose standard. According to this standard, the pronoun who
usually refers to people, but may also refer to animals that have names:
My mother, who gave me the rhino, must love me very much. My rhino, whom I call
Spike, wanders at will through the house.
The pronoun which refers to animals and things:
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The rhino, which is a much maligned and misunderstood animal, is really quite
affectionate. Its horn is a matt of hair which is sort of stuck to its snout.
Finally, the pronoun that refers to animals and things and occasionally to persons when they are
collective or anonymous:
The rhino that hid behind the television was missing for days.
Rhinos that like to swim cause both plumbing and enamelling problems for their owners.
The answer that everyone missed was Etruscan.
Tricky Points of Pronoun Usage
This section covers some relatively tricky points which are no longer standard in spoken English,
though many people still insist upon them in formal writing.
Pronouns in Apposition
A pronoun should also be in the subject case when it is in apposition to a subject or subject
complement, and in the object case when it is in apposition to the object of a verb, verbal, or
preposition:
[RIGHT] Three craftspeople -- Mary, Albert, and he -- made the accessory for Jerry.
The phrase Mary, Albert, and he is in apposition to craftspeople, the subject of the sentence.
[RIGHT] The accessory was made by three craftspeople, Mary, Albert, and him.
The phrase Mary, Albert, and him is still in apposition to the noun craftspeople, but that noun
has become the object of the preposition by, so the pronoun him is in the object case.
[RIGHT] The three craftspeople involved were Mary, Albert, and she.
The pronoun she is part of the subject complement, so it is in the subject case.
Us and we before a Noun
A first-person plural pronoun used with a noun takes the case of the noun. If the noun functions
as a subject, the pronoun should be in the subject case; if the noun functions as an object, the
pronoun should be in the object case:
We rowdies left the restaurant late.
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Elliptical
Ruth likes Jerry better than I.
Complete
Ruth likes Jerry better than I like Jerry.
Elliptical
Ruth likes Jerry better than me.
Complete
Ruth likes Jerry better than she likes me.
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Here the compound verb is made up of the auxiliary verb was and the present participle
looking.
They will meet us at the newest caf in the market.
In this example the compound verb is made up of the auxiliary verb will and the verb meet.
That dog has been barking for three hours; I wonder if someone will call the owner.
In this sentence the first compound verb is made up of the two auxiliary verbs (has and been)
and a present participle (barking). The second compound verb is made up of the auxiliary verb
will and the verb call.
Auxiliary Verbs
The most common auxiliary verbs are be, do, and have, and you may also use these verbs on
their own. You use will and shall to express future time.
In each of the following examples, a verb commonly used as an auxiliary verb appears as a
simple predicate:
She is the chief engineer.
The tea cups are in the china cabinet.
Garth does this kind of thing frequently.
My roommates and I do the laundry every second week.
I can't complete my assignment because he still has my notes.
They have several kinds of gelato in the display case.
Other common auxiliaries are can, could, may, might, must, ought, should, will, and
would. A verb like these is called a modal auxiliary and expresses necessity, obligation, or
possibility.
The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is a modal auxiliary:
Zora was pleased to learn that she could take several days off.
The small freckled girl told her neighbours that she would walk their dog for an
appropriate fee.
Henry told Eliza that she ought to have the hole in the bucket fixed.
The principal told the assembled students that the school board might introduce a dress
code next autumn.
According to the instructions, we must leave this goo in our hair for twenty minutes.
Several words may intervene between the auxiliary and the verb which goes with it, as in the
following sentences:
They have not delivered the documents on time.
The treasure chest was never discovered.
The health department has recently decided that all high school students should be
immunised against meningitis.
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The compound verb was hung is used intransitively and the sentence has no direct object. The
prepositional phrase on the south wall of the reception room acts as a adverb describing where
the paint hung.
Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, depending on their context in the sentence. In
the following pairs of sentences, the first sentence uses the verb transitively and the second uses
the same verb intransitively:
Transitive use:
According to the instructions, we must leave this goo in our hair for twenty minutes.
In this example, the verb leave takes a direct object, the noun phrase this goo.
Intransitive use:
We would like to stay longer, but we must leave.
In this example, the verb leave does not take a direct object.
Transitive use:
The audience attentively watched the latest production of The Trojan Women.
In this example, the verb watch is used transitively and takes the noun phrase the latest
production of The Trojan Women as a direct object.
Intransitive use:
The cook watched while the new dishwasher surreptitiously picked up the fragments of
the broken dish.
In this example, the verb watched is used intransitively and takes no direct object.
Intransitive use:
The crowd moves across the field in an attempt to see the rock star get into her helicopter.
Here the verb moves is used as an intransitive verb and takes no direct object.
Transitive use:
Every spring, William moves all boxes and trunks from one side of the attic to the other.
In this sentence moves is used as a transitive verb and takes the noun phrase all the boxes and
trunk as a direct object.
Linking Verbs
A linking verb connects a subject to a subject complement which identifies or describes the
subject, as in the following sentences:
The play is Waiting for Godot.
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In this sentence, the linking verb is links the noun phrase the play to the identifying phrase
Waiting for Godot, which is called a subject complement.
Some of us thought that the play was very good.
In this sentence, the verb was links the subject complement very good to subject the play.
Others thought it became tedious after the first fifteen minutes.
In this sentence, the linking verb became links the subject it to the subject complement
tedious. The phrase after the first fifteen minutes functions as a adverb modifying the clause
it became tedious.
The cast appears disorganised and confused; perhaps Beckett intended this.
Here appears is functioning as a linking verb that connects the subject the cats to its subject
complement disorganised and confused.
The play seems absurd to me.
The subject the play is joined to its subject complement absurd by the linking verb seems.
Linking verbs are either verbs of sensation (feel, look, smell, sound, taste) or verbs of
existence (act, appear, be, become, continue, grow, prove, remain, seem, sit,
strand, turn).
Many linking verbs (with the significant exception of be) can also be used as transitive or
intransitive verbs. In the following pairs of sentences, the first sentence uses the highlighted verb
as a linking verb and the second uses the same verb as either a transitive or an intransitive verb:
Linking:
Griffin insists that the water in Winnipeg tastes terrible.
In this sentence, the adjective terrible is a subject complement that describes a quality of the
water.
Transitive:
I tasted the soup before adding more salt.
Here the noun phrase the soup identifies what I tasted. The soup is the direct object of the
verb tasted.
Linking:
My neighbour's singing voice sounds very squeaky despite several hours of daily
practice.
In this example, the phrase very squeaky is a subject complement that describes or identities the
nature of the singing voice.
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Transitive:
Upon the approach of the enemy troops, the gate-keeper sounded his horn.
Here the verb sounded takes a direct object, the noun phrase his horn.
Linking:
Cynthia feels queasy whenever she listens to banjo music.
In this sentence, the adjective queasy is a subject complement that describes Cynthia.
Transitive:
The customer carefully feels the fabric of the coat.
Here the noun phrase the fabric of the coat is the direct object of the verb feels and identifies
what the customer feels.
The Participle
A participle is an adjective formed from a verb. To make a present participle, you add -ing to
the verb, sometimes doubling the final consonant:
think becomes thinking
fall becomes falling
run becomes running
The second type of participle, the past participle, is a little more complicated, since not all verbs
form the past tense regularly. The following are all past participles:
the sunken ship
a ruined city
a misspelled word
Note that only transitive verbs can use their past participles as adjectives, and that unlike
other verbals, past participles do not take objects (unless they are part of a compound
verb).
The Gerund
Building a house is complicated.
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In this example, the noun phrase a house is the direct object of the verbal building, even
though building is a noun rather than a verb.
A gerund is a noun formed from a verb. To make a gerund, you add -ing to the verb, just as
with a present participle. The fundamental difference is that a gerund is a noun, while a participle
is an adjective:
- gerund
I enjoy running. (Running is a noun acting as the direct object of the verb enjoy.)
- participle
Stay away from running water. (Running is an adjective modifying the noun water.)
There are two common problems that come up when writers use verbals. The first is that since
verbals look like verbs, they sometimes cause students to write fragmentary sentences:
[WRONG] Oh, to find true love!
[WRONG] Jimmy, swimming the most important race of his life.
The second problem is a very fine point, which most editors and some teachers no longer enforce.
Although they look the same, gerunds and present participles are different parts of speech, and
need to be treated differently. For example, consider the following two sentences:
I admire the woman finishing the report.
I admire the woman's finishing the report.
In the first example, finishing is a participle modifying the noun woman: in other words, the
writer admires the woman, not what she is doing; in the second example, finishing is a
participle, modified by the possessive noun woman's: in other words, the writer admires not the
woman herself but the fact that she is finishing the report.
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- Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs form the past participle and the past form without -(e)d or -t, and frequently
their past form and past participle are different. For example, the past form of the verb break is
broke and the past participle is broken.
This list contains the most common verbs that form their past tenses irregularly:
arise
make
arose, arise
awake
awoke or awaked, awaked or awoken
awaken
awakened, awakened
bear (to carry)
bore, borne
bear (to give birth)
bore
beat
beat, beaten or beat
be
was, been
become
became, become
begin
began, begun
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made, made
mean
meant, meant
meet
met, met
mistake
mistook, mistaken
overcome
overcame, overcome
pay
paid, paid
prove
proved, proved or proven
put
put, put
quit
quit, quit
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bet
read
bet, bet
read, read
bid
ride
rode, ridden
ring
rang, rung
rise
rose, risen
run
ran, run
say
said, said
see
saw, seen
seek
sought, sought
sell
sold, sold
send
sent, sent
set
set, set
shake
shook, shaken
shed
shed, shed
shoot
shot, shot
shrink
shrank or shrunk, shrunk
shut
shut, shut
sing
sang, sung
sink
sank, sunk
sit
sat, sat
slay
slew, slain
sleep
slept, slept
slide
slid, slide
sling
slung, slung
slink
slunk, slunk
speak
spoke, spoken
speed
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drank, drunk
drive
drove, driven
eat
spent, spent
spin
ate, eaten
fall
spun, spun
spit
fell, fallen
feed
fed, fed
feel
split, split
spread
felt, felt
fight
spread, spread
spring
fought, fought
find
found, found
flee
stood, stood
steal
fled, fled
fly
stole, stolen
stick
flew, flown
forbid
stuck, stuck
stink
forbade, forbidden
forget
forgot, forgotten
forgive
strewed, strewn
stride
forgave, forgiven
forsake
strode, stridden
strike
forsook, forsaken
freeze
struck, struck
string
froze, frozen
get
strung, strung
strive
gave, given
go
swore, sworn
sweep
went, gone
grind
swept, swept
swell
ground, ground
grow
grew, grown
hang (to suspend)
hung, hung
hang (to execute)
hanged, hanged
have
had, had
hear
heard, heard
hide
hid, hidden
hit
hit, hit
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hold
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thrive
held, held
hurt
hurt, hurt
keep
threw, thrown
thrust
kept, kept
kneel
thrust, thrust
wake
wept, wept
win
knew, known
lay
won, won
wind
laid, laid
lead
wound, wound
wring
led, led
leap
wring, wrung
write
wrote, written
leave
left, left
lend
lent, lent
let
let, let
lie
lay, lain
light
lighted or lit, lighted or lit
lose
lost, lost
Frequently-Confused Verbs
Writers often confuse the verb pairs lie and lay and sit and set.
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The verb lay is a transitive verb which means to place or to put. The present participle of
lay is laying, and both the past form and the past participle is laid:
I was laying the cups and saucers on the table when I dropped one.
Jenkins laid the suspicious parcel on the commissioner's desk.
The supervisor had laid a cup of scalding coffee on the counter only moments before the
bulldozer rammed into the construction office.
In each of these sentences, the transitive verb lay is used to describe the fact that someone had
placed something somewhere.
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Note that the present perfect and present perfect progressive are a present not past tenses -- that
idea is that the speaker is currently in the state of having gone or having been going.
The four future tenses are
1.
2.
3.
4.
A verb in the indefinite aspect is used when the beginning or ending of an action, an event, or
condition is unknown or unimportant to the meaning of the sentence. The indefinite aspect is also
used to indicate a habitual or repeated action, event, or condition.
The three complete tenses, or perfect tenses, describe a finished action:
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A verb in the complete aspect indicates that the end of the action, event, or condition is known
and it is used to emphasise the fact that the action is complete. The action may, however, be
completed in the present, in the past or in the future.
The three incomplete tenses, or progressive tenses, describe an unfinished action:
A verb in the continuing aspect indicates that the action, event, or condition is ongoing in the
present, the past or the future.
It is also possible to combine the complete tenses and the incomplete tenses, to describe an action
which was in progress and then finished:
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Menarche and menopause mark the beginning and the ending of a woman's reproductive
history.
The simple present is used to indicate a habitual action, event, or condition, as in the following
sentences:
Leonard goes to The Jumping Horse Tavern every Thursday evening.
My grandmother sends me new mittens each spring.
In fairy tales, things happen in threes.
We never finish jigsaw puzzles because the cat always eats some of the pieces.
Jesse polishes the menorah on Wednesdays.
The simple present is also used when writing about works of art, as in the following sentences.
Lolly Willowes is the protagonist of the novel Townsend published in 1926.
One of Artemisia Gentleschi's best known paintings represents Judith's beheading of
Holofernes.
The Lady of Shallot weaves a tapestry while watching the passers-by in her mirror.
Lear rages against the silence of Cordelia and only belatedly realizes that she, not her
more vocal sisters, loves him.
The play ends with an epilogue spoken by the fool.
The simple present can also be used to refer to a future event when used in conjunction with an
adverb or adverbial phrase, as in the following sentences.
The doors open in 10 minutes.
The premier arrives on Tuesday.
Classes end next week.
The publisher distributes the galley proofs next Wednesday.
The lunar eclipse begins in exactly 43 minutes.
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Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the present perfect progressive tense
and each sentence suggests that the action began in the past and is continuing into the present.
That dog has been barking for three hours; I wonder if someone will call the owner.
I have been relying on my Christmas bonus to pay for the gifts I buy for my large
family.
They have been publishing this comic book for ten years.
We have been seeing geese flying south all afternoon.
Even though the coroner has been carefully examining the corpse discovered in
Sutherland's Gully since early this morning, we still do not know the cause of death.
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This sentence describes actions (ran and was writing) that took place sometime in the past, and
emphasises the continuing nature of one of the actions (was writing).
The archivists were eagerly waiting for the delivery of the former prime minister's
private papers.
Here the ongoing action of waiting occurred at some time unconnected to the present.
Between 1942 and 1944 the Frank and Van Damm families were hiding in a Amsterdam
office building.
In this sentence, the action of hiding took place over an extended period of time and the
continuing nature of the hiding is emphasised.
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Here the learning took place and was completed at a specific time in the past. By using the past
perfect rather than the simple past (learned), the writer emphasises that the learning preceded
the feeling of independence.
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In this sentence, the act of returning from the store (get back) takes place after the act of writing
(will have written).
If this year is like last year, I will have finished my holiday shopping long before my
brother starts his.
In this example, the act of finishing (will have finished) occurs well before the act of starting
(starts).
They will have written their first exam by the time we get out of bed.
Here, the act of getting out of bed occurs sometime after the writing of the exam.
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In order to determine correct verb sequence, you must be able to identify independent and
dependent clauses. The sequence of tenses in complex sentences is usually determined by the
tense of the verb in the independent clause. (In compound sentences, use the tenses that fit the
logic of the sentence.)
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Here the action was telling took place in the past and continued for some time in the past. The
breaking of the window is described in the simple past.
When the recess bell rang, Jesse was writing a long division problem on the blackboard.
This sentence describes actions (ran and was writing) that took place sometime in the past, and
emphasis the continuing nature of the action that takes place in the independent clause (was
writing).
One of the most common source of verb sequence error arises from a confusion of the
present perfect (has walked) and the past perfect (had walked). Both tense convey a
sense of pastness, but the present perfect is categorised as a present tense verb.
One of the easiest ways of determining whether you've used the perfect tenses correctly is to
examine the auxiliary verb. Remember has/have is a present tense auxiliaries and had is a
past tense auxiliary. The future tense auxiliary is will.
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The subjunctive mood has almost disappeared from the language and is thus more difficult to
use correctly than either the indicative mood or the imperative mood. The subjunctive mood
rarely appears in everyday conversation or writing and is used in a set of specific circumstances.
You form the present tense subjunctive by dropping the s from the end of the third person
singular, except for the verb be.
paints
present subjunctive: paint
walks
present subjunctive: walk
thinks
present subjunctive: think
is
present subjunctive: be
Except for the verb be, the past tense subjunctive is indistinguishable in form from the past
tense indicative. The past tense subjunctive of be is were.
painted
past subjunctive: painted
walked
past subjunctive: walked
thought
past subjunctive: thought
was
past subjunctive: were
The subjunctive is found in a handful of traditional circumstances. For example, in the
sentence God save the Queen, the verb save is in the subjunctive mood. Similarly, in the
sentence Heaven forbid, the verb forbid is in the subjunctive mood.
The subjunctive is usually found in complex sentences. The subjunctive mood is used in
dependent clauses to express unreal conditions and in dependent clauses following verbs of
wishing or requesting.
The subjunctive mood is used in a dependent clause attached to an independent clause that uses
a verb such as ask, command, demand, insist, order, recommend, require, suggest, or
wish.
The subjunctive mood is also used in a dependent clause attached to an independent clause that
uses an adjective that expresses urgency (such as crucial, essential, important, imperative,
necessary, or urgent).
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the subjunctive mood.
It is urgent that Harraway attend Monday's meeting.
The Member of Parliament demanded that the Minister explain the effects of the bill on
the environment.
The sergeant ordered that Calvin scrub the walls of the mess hall.
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We suggest that Mr. Beatty move the car out of the no parking zone.
The committee recommended that the bill be passed immediately.
I wish that this book were still in print.
- Modifiers
1. Using Adverbs and Adjectives
Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and sometimes clauses and whole
sentences. Adjectives are words that modify nouns and pronouns. Be careful not to use an
adjective where you need an adverb. Consider the following sentences, for instance:
[WRONG] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slow out of the classroom.
[RIGHT] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slowly out of the classroom.
The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the verb walked.
[WRONG] We tried real hard to get the muffin mixture perfect.
[RIGHT] We tried really hard to get the muffin mixture perfect.
The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the adjective hard. (Note that really
is an informal substitute for very, and you should avoid in formal essays.)
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Similarly, although the double negative -- the use of two negative words together for a single
negative idea -- is common in speech and has a long history in the English language, you should
avoid using it in formal writing:
[WRONG] We decided there wasn't no point in pursuing our research further.
[WRONG] I can't get no satisfaction.
[RIGHT] We decided there wasn't any point in pursuing our research further. OR We
decided there was no point in pursuing our research further.
[RIGHT] I can't get any satisfaction. OR I can get no satisfaction.
Double negatives involving not and no are fairly easy to spot and fix. However, some other
adverbs -- for example, hardly, scarcely, barely -- imply the negative, and you should not use
them with another negative:
[WRONG] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he does not have hardly
any friends there.
[RIGHT] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he has hardly any friends
there. OR Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he does not have many
friends there.
1. Misplaced Words
In general, you should place single-word modifiers near the word or words they modify,
especially when a reader might think that they modify something different in the sentence.
Consider the following sentence:
[WRONG] After our conversation lessons, we could understand the Spanish spoken by
our visitors from Madrid easily.
Do we understand the Spanish easily, or do the visitors speak it easily? This revision eliminates
the confusion:
[RIGHT] We could easily understand the Spanish spoken by our visitors from Madrid.
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It is particularly important to be careful about where you put limiting modifiers. These are words
like almost, hardly, nearly, just, only, merely, and so on. Many writers regularly
misplace these modifiers. You can accidentally change the entire meaning of a sentence if you
place these modifiers next to the wrong word:
[WRONG] Randy has nearly annoyed every professor he has had. (he hasn't nearly
annoyed them)
[WRONG] We almost ate all of the Thanksgiving turkey. (we didn't almost eat it)
[RIGHT] Randy has annoyed nearly every professor he has had.
[RIGHT] We ate almost all of the Thanksgiving turkey.
3. Squinting Modifiers
A squinting modifier is an ambiguously placed modifier that can modify either the word before
it or the word after it. In other words, it is squinting in both directions at the same time:
[WRONG] Defining your terms clearly strengthens your argument. (does defining
clearly strengthen or does defining clearly strengthen?)
[RIGHT] Defining your terms will clearly strengthen your argument. OR A clear
definition of your terms strengthens your argument.
- Split Infinitives
The infinitive form of the verb consists of the word to followed by the base form of the verb: to
be, to serve, to chop, etc. Inserting a word or words between the to and the verb of an
infinitive creates what is known as a split infinitive. Prescriptive grammarians, who knew Latin
grammar better than English, once decreed that a split infinitive was an error, but now it is
growing increasingly acceptable even in formal writing. Nevertheless, some careful writers still
prefer to avoid splitting infinitives altogether.
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In general, you should avoid placing long, disruptive modifiers between the to and the verb of
an infinitive. However, you must use your judgement when it comes to single-word modifiers.
Sometimes a sentence becomes awkward if a single-word modifier is placed anywhere but
between the elements of the infinitive:
[WRONG] The marketing team voted to, before they launched the new software, run
an anticipatory ad campaign. (disruptive -- the infinitive should not be split)
[RIGHT] The marketing team voted to run an anticipatory ad campaign before they
launched the new software.
4. Dangling Modifiers
The dangling modifier, a persistent and frequent grammatical problem in writing, is often
(though not always) located at the beginning of a sentence. A dangling modifier is usually a
phrase or an elliptical clause -- a dependent clause whose subject and verb are implied rather
than expressed -- that functions as an adjective but does not modify any specific word in the
sentence, or (worse) modifies the wrong word. Consider the following example:
Raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the sea.
The introductory phrase in the above sentence looks as if it is meant to modify a person or
persons, but no one is mentioned in the sentence. Such introductory adjective phrases, because of
their position, automatically modify the first noun or pronoun that follows the phrase -- in this
case, it. The connection in this case is illogical because it was not raised in Nova Scotia. You
could revise the sentence in a number of ways:
For a person raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the sea. (the phrase
no longer functions as an adjective)
Raised in Nova Scotia, I often miss the smell of the sea. (the phrase functions as an
adjective but now automatically modifies I, a logical connection)
A dangling modifier can also appear when you place an elliptical clause improperly:
Although nearly finished, we left the play early because we were worried about our sick
cat.
The way this sentence is structured, the clause Although nearly finished illogically modifies
we, the pronoun directly following the clause. An easy way to rectify the problem is to re-insert
the subject and verb that are understood in the elliptical clause:
Although the play was nearly finished, we left early because we were worried about our
sick cat.
I. Building Phrases
A phrase is a group of two or more grammatically linked words without a subject and predicate - a group of grammatically-linked words with a subject and predicate is called a clause.
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The group teacher both students and is not a phrase because the words have no grammatical
relationship to one another. Similarly, the group bay the across is not a phrase.
In both cases, the words need to be rearranged in order to create phrases. The group both
teachers and students and the group across the bay are both phrases.
You use phrase to add information to a sentence and can perform the functions of a subject, an
object, a subject or object complement, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
The highlighted words in each of the following sentences make up a phrase:
She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.
Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.
They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night.
In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs; unfortunately, squirrels ate the
bulbs and none bloomed.
Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
- The Function Of Phrases
A phrase may function as a verb, noun, an adverb, or an adjective.
- subject
Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
- object of a verb
To read quickly and accurately is Eugene's goal.
- object of a preposition
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She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase to the corner store acts as an adverb modifying the
verb went.
Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase in the night sky functions as an adverb modifying the
verb flashed.
In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs; unfortunately, squirrels ate the
bulbs and none bloomed.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase in early October acts as an adverb modifying the entire
sentence.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 P.M.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase at 3:30 P.M. acts as an adverb modifying the verb
phrase will meet.
The dogs were capering about the clown's feet.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase about the clown's feet acts as an adverb modifying the
verb phrase were capering.
J. Building Clauses
A clause is a collection of grammatically-related words including a predicate and a subject
(though sometimes the subject is implied). A collection of grammatically-related words without a
subject or without a predicate is called a phrase.
Clauses are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence consists of one or more clauses. This
chapter will help you to recognise and (more importantly) to use different types of clauses in your
own writing.
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This noun clause is the subject of the verb will have to pa, and answers the question who will
have to pay?"
The Toronto fans hope that the Blue Jays will win again.
This noun clause is the object of the verb hope, and answers the question what do the fans
hope?
J.1.b.Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an adjective in another clause
or phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun, answering questions
like which? or what kind of? Consider the following examples:
- Adjective
the red coat
. Adjective clause
the coat which I bought yesterday
Like the word red in the first example, the dependent clause which I bought yesterday in the
second example modifies the noun coat. Note that an adjective clause usually comes after
what it modifies, while an adjective usually comes before.
In formal writing, an adjective clause begins with the relative pronouns who(m), that, or
which. In informal writing or speech, you may leave out the relative pronoun when it is not the
subject of the adjective clause, but you should usually include the relative pronoun in formal,
academic writing:
- informal
The books people read were mainly religious.
- formal
The books that people read were mainly religious.
- informal
Some firefighters never meet the people they save.
- formal
Some firefighters never meet the people whom they save.
Here are some more examples of adjective clauses:
the meat which they ate was tainted
This clause modifies the noun meat and answers the question which meat?.
about the movie which made him cry
This clause modifies the noun movie and answers the question which movie?.
they are searching for the one who borrowed the book
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The clause modifies the pronoun one and answers the question which one?.
Did I tell you about the author whom I met?
The clause modifies the noun author and answers the question which author?.
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- place
Where the whole Danish court was assembled, Hamlet ordered a play in an attempt to
prove his uncle's guilt.
The adverb clause answers the question where?.
- condition
If the British co-operate, the Europeans may achieve monetary union.
The adverb clause answers the question under what conditions?.
K. Building Sentences
Some English sentences are very basic:
Shakespeare was a writer.
Einstein said something.
The Inuit are a people.
You could write an entire essay using only simple sentences like these:
William Shakespeare was a writer. He wrote plays. It was the Elizabethan age. One play
was Hamlet. It was a tragedy. Hamlet died. The court died too.
It is not likely, however, that your essay would receive a passing grade. This chapter helps you
learn to recognise different types of sentences and to use them effectively in your own writing.
Why Sentence Structure Matters
Although ordinary conversation, personal letters, and even some types of professional writing
(such as newspaper stories) consist almost entirely of simple sentences, your university or college
instructors will expect you to be able to use all types of sentences in your formal academic
writing. Writers who use only simple sentences are like a truck drivers who do not know how to
shift out of first gear: they would be able to drive a load from Montral to Calgary (eventually),
but they would have a great deal of trouble getting there.
If you use phrases and clauses carefully, your sentences will become much more interesting and
your ideas, much clearer. This complex sentence develops a major, central idea and provides
structured background information:
Since it involves the death not only of the title character but of the entire royal court,
Hamlet is the most extreme of the tragedies written by the Elizabethan playwrite William
Shakespeare.
Just as a good driver uses different gears, a good writer uses different types of sentences in
different situations:
a long complex sentence will show what information depends on what other
information;
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- Simple
Canada is a rich country.
- Simple
Still, it has many poor people.
- Compound
Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.
Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers -- small children learn to use them
early on to connect their ideas and to avoid pausing (and allowing an adult to interrupt):
Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet rabbit, and he showed it to the class, and I
got to pet it, and Kate held it, and we coloured pictures of it, and it ate part of my carrot at
lunch, and ...
Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you overuse compound sentences in written work,
your writing might seem immature.
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of balance or contrast
between two (or more) equally-important pieces of information:
Montral has better clubs, but Toronto has better cinemas.
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- Simple
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
- Compound
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
- Complex
Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.
In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: My friend invited me to a party
and I do not want to go. The second example joins them together into a single sentence with the
co-ordinating conjunction but, but both parts could still stand as independent sentences -- they
are entirely equal, and the reader cannot tell which is most important. In the third example,
however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first clause, Although my friend invited me to
a party, has become incomplete, or a dependent clause.
A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a compound sentence because it
makes clear which ideas are most important. When you write
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
or even
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
The reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most important to you. When
you write the subordinating conjunction although at the beginning of the first clause, however,
you make it clear that the fact that your friend invited you is less important than, or subordinate,
to the fact that you do not want to go.
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Note that the last example contains an indirect question, which path leads back to the lodge.
An indirect question does not make a sentence into an interrogative sentence -- only a direct
question can do that.
2.1. Direct/Interrogative
When was Lester Pearson prime minister?
2.2. Indirect/Declarative
I wonder when Lester Pearson was prime minister.
A direct question requires an answer from the reader, while an indirect question does not.
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Apposition
When two words, clauses, or phrases stand close together and share the same part of the sentence,
they are in apposition and are called appositives.
In fact, an appositive is very much like a subject complement, only without the linking verb:
subject complement
My brother is a research associate.
appositive
My brother the research associate works at a large polling firm.
subject complement
Jean became a magistrate.
appositive
I have never met Jean the magistrate.
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You use the subject case for a noun or pronoun which stands alone, is the subject of a
clause, is the subject complement, or stands in apposition to any of these.
1.b. Object
You use the object case for the object of a preposition, a verb, or a verbal, or for any
noun or pronoun which stands in apposition to one of these.
1.c. Possessive
You use the possessive case for any noun or pronoun which acts as an adjective,
implicitly or explicitly modifying another element in the sentence.
Nouns always take the same form in the subject case and the object case, while pronouns often
change their form. Both nouns and pronouns usually change their form for the possessive case:
Subject Case
The man travelled to Newfoundland.
He travelled to Newfoundland.
Object Case
The taxi drove the man to the airport.
The taxi drove him to the airport.
Possessive Case
The baggage handlers lost the man's suitcase.
The baggage handlers lost his suitcase.
For further information, see possessive nouns, possessive pronouns, and possessive adjectives.
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Unlike the Roman languages (such as French, Spanish, and Italian), English has three genders
for nouns and pronouns: masculine, feminine, and neuter (same as Romanian).
Generally, the English language uses natural gender rather than grammatical gender -- that is,
the gender of a word is usually based on its biology (so there is little need to remember whether a
word is masculine or feminine). A noun that refers to something with male sexual organs is
masculine, a noun that refers to something with female sexual organs is feminine and most other
nouns are neuter by default.
There was a time when you could use the masculine gender by default when you did not know a
person's natural gender, but very few people accept this usage any longer.
There are, moreover, a few tricky points. First, you may refer to all animals in the neuter gender,
or you may refer to them by their natural gender:
Neuter
What a beautiful dog! Does it bite?
Natural Gender
What a beautiful dog! Does she bite?
Second, you usually assign mythical beings (such as gods) to a natural gender, even if you do not
believe that the beings have actual sexual organs:
God is great. God is good. Let us thank him for our food.
Finally, people sometimes assign natural gender to inanimate objects, especially if they live or
work closely with them. When engineers were mostly men, for example, they tended to refer to
large machines in the feminine:
She is a fine ship.
For more information, see the discussion of gender-specific nouns.
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It arrived yesterday.
How can you stand working with them?
Traditionally, you were required to use the third person in formal academic writing, but some
people now accept the second person. Whichever you choose, however, you must be consistent.
L. Word Formation
The basic part of any word is the root; to it, you can add a prefix at the beginning and/or a suffix
at the end to change the meaning. For example, in the word unflattering, the root is simply
flatter, while the prefix un- makes the word negative, and the suffix -ing changes it from a
verb into an adjective (specifically, a participle).
English itself does not use prefixes as heavily as it once did, but many English words come from
Latin, which uses prefixes and suffixes (you can use the word affix to refer either to a prefix or a
suffix) quite extensively. For example, the words prefix, suffix, and affix themselves are all
formed from fix by the used of prefixes:
Note that both the -d of ad and the -b of sub change the last letter.
Here are some of the most common Latin prefixes (for the meanings of the Latin roots, look up
the words in a good dictionary):
ab
(away) abrupt, absent, absolve
ad
(to) adverb, advertisment, afflict
in
(not) incapable, indecisive, intolerable
inter
(between, among) intercept, interdependent, interprovincial
intra
(within) intramural, intrapersonal, intraprovincial
pre
(before) prefabricate, preface prefer
post
(after) postpone, postscript, postwar
sub
(under) submarine, subscription, suspect
trans
(across) transfer, transit, translate
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