Disclosure: None of the authors has any commercial associations or financial disclosures that might
create a conflict of interest with information presented in this article.
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ANATOMY
The zygomatic complex has been incorrectly
labeled in the past as a tripod and, in fact, should
be considered a quadripod. The lateral orbital wall
should be considered the base of the quadripod,
with the four legs being the lateral orbital rim,
the inferior orbital rim, the zygomaticomaxillary
buttress, and the zygomatic arch. Fractures of the
zygomatic complex involve all four legs in addition
to the fracture that extends through the lateral
orbital wall. These four legs and the lateral orbital
wall make up five potential points of assessment
for the degree of displacement. The legs of the
quadripod provide two attachments to the cranium and two to the maxilla and create a large
portion of the orbital floors and lateral orbital
walls. The zygomaticomaxillary complexes are
therefore surgically important in establishing orbital volume and serving as a reference for reduction of maxillary fractures to the cranium.
Fractures often, but not always, occur across
the three buttress-related sutures. The term tripod
fracture was derived out of reference to the three
related sutures, but reference to the associated
sutures is inconsequential because they do not
provide consistent and reliable information with
regard to anatomical alignment, nor do they have
any significance with regard to durable points of
fixation. In addition, the term tripod fails to recognize the posterior relationship of the zygoma
with the sphenoid bone of the skull base and its
extension inferiorly down the lateral wall of the
maxillary sinus.
The four legs represent two major buttresses
of the face which are the upper transverse maxillary (across the zygomaticomaxillary and zygomaticotemporal sutures) and the lateral vertical
maxillary (across the zygomaticomaxillary and the
frontozygomatic sutures). If the two buttresses of
the zygoma are reduced and fixated, it is still possible to have a rotational deformity of the zygoma
about the zygomaticosphenoid suture. The four
legs are composed of narrow, dense bone, which
is excellent for alignment and fixation. However,
because they are narrow structures, it is difficult to
determine the degree of rotation of the zygoma
from assessment of only one or two of these points
alone. The four legs of the quadripod and the
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Fig. 2. (Left) The zygomatic complex articulates with the frontal bone and sphenoid through a suture within the lateral orbital wall.
Orbitozygomatic fractures often but not always extend directly through this suture line (arrows). The thickness of the lateral orbital
wall in relation to the other orbital walls often prevents comminution at this fracture site. The lack of comminution in addition to the
natural three-dimensional character of this concave wall makes it the single most reliable indicator of anatomical reduction. (Right)
One exception to this rule is the presence of an orbitozygomatic injury ipsilateral to an impacted sphenoid fracture, unless it is a large
fragment that can be anatomically reduced before reduction of the orbitozygomatic injury.
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Fig. 4. Most orbitozygomatic injuries present with ipsilateral proptosis secondary to orbital swelling even in cases of orbital blow-out
(orbital expansion). When a patient presents with acute enophthalmos, it is indicative of severe orbital expansion, as indicated in the
associated floor fracture of this patient with an otherwise simple orbitozygomatic fracture.
temporomandibular joint. It then maintains a linear projection with a slight medial angulation until it sharply curves at its most anterior aspect to
meet the maxilla. The zygomaticomaxillary suture
line lies at approximately the mid portion of this
anterior curvature; thus, both the zygoma and
maxilla contribute to the anterior curvature. The
anatomy of the arch is critical because it is the arch
that forms the outer facial frame, determining the
width and the anterior projection of the midface.
Without proper restoration of the position of the
arch, facial width and midface projection will be
incorrect (Fig. 3, below).
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DIAGNOSIS
Displacement of the zygoma leads to cheek depression and, depending on the condition of the
arch, disturbance of facial width. Physical signs and
symptoms of zygoma fractures include (1) subconjunctival hemorrhage and periorbital ecchymosis;
(2) disturbance of sensation in the region of infraorbital nerve; (3) palpable step-offs in the upper lateral
orbital rim, inferior orbital rim, and upper buccal
sulcus; (4) emphysema within the orbit or overlying
soft tissues of the cheek; (5) trismus; and (6) malposition of the globe and/or diplopia.
equate suspension after extensive surgical exposure. Cheek ptosis, inferior displacement of the
lateral canthus, temporal hollowing, and lower lid
ectropion are among the most common findings.
IMAGING
Advancement of computed tomographic
scanning technology has resulted in vast improvements in the quality of images, the ability
to develop three-dimensional models (digital
and stereolithographic), increased speed of scanning, and reduced radiation exposure. This has
established computed tomography as the modality
of choice for the evaluation of facial fractures.
Patients with suspected facial trauma on initial
evaluation are evaluated with a complete craniofacial computed tomographic scan. Our protocol
includes a full facial analysis from the top of the head
through the mandible with 1.5-mm axial cuts. Coronal reformatting can then be constructed from
this data set without additional scanning. Although sagittal reformat and three-dimensional
representation of the data are not part of our usual
protocol, they each have their role in specific situations. Sagittal reformat is particularly useful in
assessing the effect of a complex orbital fracture
on the inferomedial bulge of the orbital floor. In
a busy Level I trauma center, where many patients
present with neurologic compromise (head injury
or intoxication) and cannot comply with a complete physical examination, it is prudent to obtain
a complete scan at the time that the head computed tomographic scan is obtained; doing so
takes only a few seconds.
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frontal branch. If the zygomatic arch has a greenstick fracture with minimal displacement or is medially displaced, it is not necessary to expose the
zygomatic arch, and the entire open reduction can
be performed from an anterior approach without
the need for a coronal incision (Fig. 6). An anterior approach in our center involves three incisions, including an upper buccal sulcus, a mideyelid (subtarsal) or transconjunctival, and the
lateral part of an upper blepharoplasty incision.
The zygomaticosphenoid alignment at the lateral orbital wall is recognized as a fundamental key
to the proper reduction of orbitozygomatic injuries. Displacement at this surface indicates a residual rotational deformity. As mentioned earlier,
the thick lateral orbital wall is rarely comminuted.
Accurate reduction of the lateral orbital wall in
combination with inspection of the other three or
four sites as necessary will allow the surgeon to
achieve a very accurate reduction of the fracture
before the application of rigid fixation. Subperiosteal dissection at the exposed buttresses is limited to the minimum required to assess reduction
and achieve fixation but always adequate to allow
full assessment of the fracture character.
The pull of the masseter can often frustrate
adequate mobilization of the fracture fragment.
This can be overcome by either chemical paralysis
or partial or complete release of the anterior portion of the masseter from the zygoma by means of
the intraoral or coronal incision. The correct reduction is best accomplished by placing a temporary interosseous wire at the frontozygomatic suture on the lateral orbital rim to set the vertical
height of the zygoma, followed by rotation of the
entire complex into correct position. Failure to
accurately reduce the fractures will result in the
zygomatic complex being stabilized in an unreduced position otherwise known as an open internal fixation without reduction.
Rigid fixation with plates and screws is the
accepted standard of fixation of reduced fractures
of the zygoma. There is no consensus, however, on
the strength of plates required at each fracture site
that will provide sufficient rigidity to resist the
regional deforming forces (Fig. 7). All currently
available internal fixation systems have a large selection of plates of various thicknesses, sizes, and
strengths. The benefit of a smaller plate is less
dissection required to place it and potentially less
palpability. These benefits must always be weighed
against the fundamental goal of rigid fixation to
retain reduction and promote osseous union.
Thus, it is always safer to err on a slightly larger and
stronger plate than a smaller plate that will not be
Fig. 5. Segmentation, lateral displacement, telescoping, and comminution of the arch are indications for exposure, reduction, and
fixation.
of the masseter. The infraorbital rim is an important site for fracture reduction but is the least
important site for fracture fixation, and either an
interosseous wire or a small plate can be used in
this site quite safely.
The frontozygomatic suture line represents
very thick bone that is ideal for rigid fixation.
Unfortunately, plates in this area are readily palpable, and therefore it is usually advisable to use
smaller plates at this location, provided that the
fracture is not too unstable. It is very important to
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Fig. 7. Plating guidelines for fixation of orbitozygomatic fractures. A 2.0-mm plate is indicated at the zygomaticomaxillary
buttress because this strong buttress directly opposes the deforming forces of the masseter muscle. A 2.0-mm plate is easily
concealed in the region of the arch and provides further stability
to this structure. Plates placed on the lateral orbital rim and the
inferior orbital rim tend to be more palpable; therefore, smaller
plates or wires can be used in these regions because these areas
bear less weight. A 1.7- or 2.0-mm plate is recommended on the
inferior orbital rim in the presence of an ipsilateral naso-orbitoethmoid fracture to further stabilize the adjacent fractures in the
correct position.
Fig. 6. If the zygomatic arch has a greenstick fracture with minimal displacement or is medially displaced, it is not necessary to
expose the zygomatic arch, and the entire open reduction can be
performed from an anterior approach without the need for a
coronal incision.
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Fig. 8. Accurate reduction and fixation of the base of the zygomatic arch is important for reestablishing the correct facial width and
projection. Care must be taken when fixating fractures at the base of the zygomatic arch to avoid penetration of screws into the
glenoid fossa. Correct position of hardware is demonstrated in this coronal image.
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be much more subtle and easily missed. The nasofrontal junction in these less severe naso-orbitoethmoid injuries is often greensticked, with posterior, inferior displacement of the medial
buttress and inferior orbital rim (Fig. 9).
If an ipsilateral naso-orbito-ethmoid is not appreciated, reduction of the zygoma to the malpositioned medial portion of the inferior orbital rim
will lead to fixation of the zygoma in an incorrect
position. The clinical consequence to using this
displaced anatomy as a guide to reduction of the
orbitozygomatic complex is usually malar flattening, hemifacial widening caused by lateral displacement of the zygomatic arch, enophthalmos,
ocular dystopia, a depressed inferior orbital rim,
and telecanthus.
The best way to evaluate for the presence of an
ipsilateral naso-orbito-ethmoid in the absence of
overt clinical signs is through careful evaluation of
a fine cut, craniofacial computed tomographic
scan. Findings consistent with naso-orbito-ethmoid injury on axial views include lateral, inferior,
and posterior displacement of the nasomaxillary
buttress (often seen as a discrepancy in the position of nasolacrimal ducts), opacification and
comminution of the ethmoids air cells, ipsilateral
depression and displacement of the nasal bone,
displaced fractures of the medial orbital wall, and
significant periorbital emphysema. Coronal views
may demonstrate medial and inferior displacement of the nasomaxillary buttress or fracture of
the inferior orbital rim with posterior displacement.
DISCUSSION
Poorly treated orbitozygomatic injury is undoubtedly the most common posttraumatic problem seen by most craniofacial surgeons today. The
advent of rigid fixation using plates and screws has
given many surgeons a false sense of security in the
management of these fractures. The use of plates
and screws is probably the least important part of
the entire treatment protocol in these patients. All
the plates and screws represent are the most sophisticated and best form of fixation of the fractures after they have been reduced. The most important aspect of the treatment of these fractures,
and all other facial fractures, is the careful expo-
REFERENCES
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The importance of the zygomatic arch in complex midfacial
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