Microwind

MICROWIND 1
1. INTRODUCTION
The project is primarily aimed at making the non-conventional energy sources more
familiar and to exploit the tremendous potential of wind power to the optimum thus
creating a wide spread awareness among the people on the importance of non-
conventional renewable energy source – wind. Wind Power Projects are eligible for
availing Carbon Credit and are considered as Clean Development Mechanisms
(CDM), and are bound to get immense popularity for its economical as well as
environmental advantages. In this project we will design and build a small roof top
mountable wind turbine. The project initially named as “WIND ELECTRICITY
GENERATION – PROTOTYPE” is renamed as “MICROWIND”.
General:
Wind turbines use the wind's lift forces to rotate aerodynamic blades that turn a rotor
which creates electricity. Most small wind turbines generate direct current (DC)
electricity. Systems that are not connected to the national grid require battery storage
and an inverter to convert DC electricity to AC (alternating current - mains
electricity). A special inverter and controller converts DC electricity to AC at a
quality and standard acceptable to the grid. No battery storage is required. Any how
we are going to construct an alternating current wind mill. Wind power is a clean,
renewable source of energy which produces no carbon dioxide emissions or waste
products. Individual turbines vary in size and power output from a few hundred watts
to two or three megawatts. Uses ranges from very small turbines supplying energy
for battery charging systems, to turbines on wind farms supplying electricity to the
grid. We should consider the following issues if we're thinking
NEHRU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTRE

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about small scale wind. Wind speed increases with height so it's best to have the
turbine high on a mast or tower. Generally speaking the ideal site is a smooth top hill
with a flat, clear exposure, free from excessive turbulence and obstructions such as
large trees, houses or other buildings. Small scale wind power is particularly suitable
for remote off grid locations where conventional methods of supply are expensive or
impractical. Small-scale building-integrated wind turbines suitable for urban
locations are also available to install in homes and other buildings. The electricity
generated at any one time by a wind turbine is highly dependent on the speed and
direction of the wind. The wind speed itself is dependent on a number of factors,
such as location, height of the turbine above ground level and nearby obstructions.
Prototype:
Ideally, we should undertake a professional assessment of the local wind speed for a
full year at the exact location where you plan to install a turbine before proceeding.
In practice, this may be difficult, expensive and time consuming to undertake. Also
the cost of Anemometer, the instrument for measuring wind speed is high and
prevents us from buying one for our project. Therefore considering a domestic
building mounted or field installation and electricity generation, we only need a wind
turbine under the following circumstances, the local annual average wind speed is 4
m/s or more and there are no significant nearby obstacles such as buildings, trees or
hills that are likely to reduce the wind speed or increase turbulence. With this we can
develop a small windmill capable of producing a maximum of 50W. The generator
used shall be AC type thus reducing the cost. Also output regulations and other end
processing shall be eliminated for simplicity. In addition to the above mentioned
advantages this Project “MICROWIND” come under small scale renewable energy
technologies and generate clean and renewable energy with no harmful emissions
and can thus help reduce a significant proportion of the CO2 emissions.
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LITERATURE SURVEY
In this session of our project work which was carried out during the 7th semester, we
mainly considered all possible design considerations and datas were collected from
all possible sources. Our brainstorming with the guide proved very vital in many
crucial decisions. The technical support for the project was obtained from Mr.J.Jaya
Merin who is an Engineer at Suzlon Ltd. in Aralvoimozhi, Kanyakumari District,
Tamil Nadu. The various studies that we have done are detailed. Wind turbines are
the principle component of any wind energy system. There are two generic types of
wind turbines : The horizontal Axis Wind Turbine(HAWT) and the Vertical Axis
Wind Turbine(VAWT). In VAWT we found several new and interesting designs and
techniques. The relatively new VAWT attracted our interest first for its latest
technology. Lattice Array Wind Conversion with Multiple mini Generators and
Cantilever type are some of the prominent VAW that we have found out. But the cost
and design proved unfeasible for our project with the limited fund that we could
raise. Any how we stick to our idea of developing a House Hold type Wind
Electricity Generation Unit.
Brainstorming:
In the light of advice from our HOD and Guide, we referred the journal by
Pof.N.R.Kulkarni and Dr.Y.S.Apte, Small Scale Wind Generation Systems,
Electrical India, July 2007, Page No:116 and from the above journal we got the
velocity and output voltage that we could generate by using the blower fan of truck
as the prime mover. With further consultation with Mr.J.Jaya Merin , Suzlon , we
decided to go for a dc dynamo of a bike or car. But for this the minimum rotor speed
necessary was around 1000 RPM. So we dropped that plan and decided to go for a
specially constructed ac generator designed to work at around 100 rpm, so that the

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complication of the gear system shall be eliminated. The coupling between the
turbine and generator is made without a gear system. This will drastically reduce the
cost of the project, but compromising the speed of the turbine.But our aim will be
met as this would clearly demonstrate the importance and benefits of having house
hold wind systems. The visit to the Wind farm at Aralvoimozhi helped us a lot to
understand the things about Wind energy. The turbine is placed at a long height so as
to make sure that no turbulence or hindrance is there for the turbine to rotate freely
and in full RPM. The main mechanism is the gear system inside the nacelle. But in
our case we are only to produce power of around 50W only. Here there is no
necessity of high RPM. The elimination of gear system in the design is very crucial
as it will reduce the cost of the project.
Structure of Prototype:
Thus this small wind electricity generation system named “MICROWIND” will be
able to supply power to the UPS system in the house or to any other similar power
back up systems of low voltage ratings. Also there will not be any tail vane. So the
turbine will have to be adjusted manually in the direction of wind. The main reason
for eliminating tail vane is that it does not imply much in our demonstration as we
would be using induced wind at the time of demonstration. A steel rod of 5 feet long
fitted to the nacelle will be the tower. The purchase of various components should be
done first. The turbine was designed as per the prototype in a publication by British
Council. The design is detailed in proceeding chapters. The generator is bought from
a company named Oriental Tools Corporation, Coimbatore, as per our requirements.
All mechanical works such as welding , painting etc. were done in private lathes and
workshops. The assembling is done inside the college campus. After assembling
“Microwind” may be put to a test run. A pedestal fan may induce wind for
simulating the natural wind or it may be tested on an open area inside the campus
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where there is no obstacles for wind and if wind speed is not less than 4 m/s and the
microwind shall be tested .The voltage at the output may be checked for continuity
and whether the system is delivering the rated voltage and power at rated speed of
generator rotor. The project may be subjected to various enhancements as the
displayed one is only a base model. The incorporation of Tail vane, Gear system and
automatic control may be designed and if cost permits those may be implemented.
The project may be submitted under the CDM of UNFCCC for Carbon Credit. The
location of “Microwind” on the top of the building also need care, as it has to be
installed in such a way that it traps most of useful wind energy in that region and the
height of the building is enough for it to work properly. The battery backup system to
the computer may thus be fed from this “Microwind” thus saving that much of
electricity. The project, “MICROWIND”, helped us to understand the immense
potential in wind energy and the necessity to explore that to the maximum possible
level. In the present world the extraction of non-conventional energy is so important
as the world is heading towards an energy crisis as well as Global warming threats.
Wind energy is thus an answer for the future. Moreover a new trend of house hold
wind electricity generation has to be entertained as this in a total would significantly
reduce our the dependence on fossil fuel and other conventional power plants. The
project may pave way to the new trends in wind energy as it displays the most simple
and cheap wind electricity generation systems.
Modern Wind Generators:

The first wind powered electricity wasproduced by a machine built by CharlesF.
Brush in Cleveland, Ohio in 1888. Ithad a rated power of 12 KW (directcurrent -
dc).Direct current electricityproduction continued in the form of smallscale,stand-
alone (not connected to agrid) systems until the 1930's when thefirst large scale AC
turbine wasconstructed in the USA. There was then ageneral lull in interest until the
1970'swhen the fuel crises sparked a revival inresearch and development work in

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NorthAmerica (USA and Canada) and Europe(Denmark, Germany, The
Netherlands,
Spain, Sweden and the UK). Modernwind turbine generators are highlysophisticated
machines, taking fulladvantage of state-of-the-art technology,led by improvements in
aerodynamic andstructural design, materials technologyand mechanical, electrical
and control engineering and capable of producingseveral megawatts of electricity.
During the 1980's installed capacity costsdropped considerably and windpower has
become an economically attractive optionfor commercial electricity generation.
Largewind farms or wind power stationshave become a common sight in many
western countries. In 2001 Denmarkalone had 2000 Megawatts of electricity
generating capacity from more than 5,700 windturbines, representing 14% of their
national electricity consumption. Wind is a clean, safe, renewable form of energy.
Wind Generation For Developing Countries:

Unlike the trend toward large-scale grid connected wind turbines seen in the West,
the more immediate demand for rural energy supply in developing countries is for
smaller machines in the 5 - 100 kW range. These can be connected to small, localised
micro-grid systems and used in conjunction with diesel generating sets and/or solar
photovoltaic systems (see hybrid systems section later in this fact sheet). Currently,
the use of wind power for electricity production in developing countries is limited,
the main area of growth being for very small battery charging wind turbines (50 -
150 Watts). In Inner Mongolia there are over 30,000 such machines used by herders
for providing power for lighting, televisions, radios, etc. (Spera 1994). Other
applications for small wind machines include water pumping, telecommunications
power supply and irrigation.The wind systems that exist over the earth’s surface are a
result of variations in air pressure. These are in turn due to the variations in solar
heating. Warm air rises and cooler air rushes in to take its place. Wind is merely the
movement of air from one place to another. There are global wind patterns related

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to large scale solar heating of different regions of the earth’s surface and seasonal
variations in solar incidence. There are also localised wind patterns due the effects of
temperature differences between land and seas, or mountains and valleys. Wind
speed generally increases with height above ground. This is because the roughness of
ground features such as vegetation and houses cause the wind to be slowed. Wind
speed data can be obtained from wind maps or from the meteorology office.
Unfortunately the general availability and reliability of wind speed data is extremely
poor in many regions of the world. However, significant areas of the world have
mean annual wind speeds of above 4-5 m/s (metres per second) which makes small-
scale wind powered electricity generation an attractive option.
It is important to obtain accurate wind speed data for the site in mind before any
decision can be made as to its suitability. Methods for assessing the mean
wind speed are found in the relevant texts (see the ‘References and resources’ section
at the end of this fact sheet). The power in the wind is proportional to the area of
windmill being swept by the wind, the cube of the wind speed, the air density -
which varies with altitude. The formula used for calculating the power
in the wind is shown below: : Power = density of air x swept area x velocity cubed,
P = ½.ρ.A.V3 where P is power in watts (W), ρ is the air density in kilograms per
cubic metre (kg/m3), A is the swept rotor area in square metres (m2),
Wind for electricity generation Practical Action, V is the windspeed in metres per
second (m/s).The fact that the power is proportional to the cube of the
windspeed is very significant. This can be demonstrated by pointing
out that if the wind speed doubles then the power in the wind increases by a factor of
eight. It is therefore worthwhile finding a site which has a relatively high
mean wind speed.

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3. WIND POWER
Although the power equation above gives us the power in the wind, the actual power
that we can extract from the wind is significantly less than this figure suggests. The
actual power will depend on several factors, such as the type of machine and rotor
used, the sophistication of blade design, friction losses, and the losses in the pump or
other equipment connected to the wind machine. There are also physical limits to the
amount of power that can be extracted realistically from the wind. It can been shown
theoretically that any windmill can only possibly extract a maximum of 59.3% of the
power from the wind (this is known as the Betz limit). In reality, this figure is usually
around 45% (maximum) for a large electricity producing turbine and around 30% to
40% for a windpump, (see the section on coefficient of performance below). So,
modifying the formula for ‘Power in the wind’ we can say that the power which is
produced by the wind machine can be given by: PM = ½.Cp.ρ.A.V3 ;Where PM is
power (in watts) available from the machine Cp is the coefficient of performance of
the wind machine. It is also worth bearing in mind that a wind machine will only
operate at its maximum efficiency for a fraction of the time it is running, due to
variations in wind speed. A rough estimate of the output from a wind machine can be
obtained using the following equation; PA = 0.2 A V3 ; Where, PA is the average
power output in watts over the year, V is the mean annual wind speed in m/s.
Principles of Wind Energy Conversion:

There are two primary physical principles by which energy can be extracted from the
wind; these are through the creation of either lift or drag force (or through a
combination of the two).The difference between drag and lift is illustrated by the
difference between using a spinnaker sail, which fills like a parachute and pulls a
sailing boat with the wind, and a Bermuda rig, the familiar triangular sail which
deflects with wind and allows a sailing boat to travel across the wind or slightly into
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the wind. Drag forces provide the most obvious means of propulsion, these being the
forces felt by a person (or object) exposed to the wind. Lift forces are the most
efficient means of propulsion but being more subtle than drag forces are not so well
understood. The basic features that characterize lift and drag are: drag is in the
direction of air flow, lift is perpendicular to the direction of air flow, generation of
lift always causes a certain amount of drag to be developed, with a good aerofoil, the
lift produced can be more than thirty times greater than the drag, lift devices are
generally more efficient than drag devices.
Types and Characteristics of Rotors:

There are two main families of wind machines: vertical axis machines and horizontal
axis. Wind for electricity generation Practical Action 4 machines. These can in turn
use either lift or drag forces to harness the wind. The horizontal axis lift device is the
type most commonly used. In fact other than a few experimental machines virtually
all windmills come under this category. There are several technical parameters that
are used to characterize windmill rotors. The tip speed ratio is defined as the ratio of
the speed of the extremities of a windmill rotor to the speed of the free wind. Drag
devices always have tip-speed ratios less than one and hence turn slowly, whereas lift
devices can have high tip-speed ratios (up to 13:1) and hence turn quickly relative to
the wind. The proportion of the power in the wind that the rotor can extract is termed
the coefficient of performance (or power coefficient or efficiency; symbol Cp) and
its variation as a function of tip-speed ratio is commonly used to characterize
different types of rotor. Solidity is usually defined as the percentage of the area of the
rotor, which contains material rather than air. Low-solidity machines run at higher
speed and tend to be used for electricity generation.

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High-solidity machines carry a lot of material and have coarse blade angles.
They generate much higher starting torque (torque is the twisting or rotary force
produced by the rotor) than low-solidity machines but are inherently less efficient
than low-solidity machines. The wind pump is generally of this type. Rated wind
speed – the wind speed at which the machine is designed to run (this is at optimum
tip-speed ratio, Furling wind speed – the wind speed at which the machine will be
turned out of the wind to prevent damage, Maximum design wind speed – the wind
speed above which damage could occur to the machine. High solidity machines will
have a low tip-speed ratio and vice versa. There are various important wind speeds to
consider: Start-up wind speed - the wind speed that will turn an unloaded rotor,
Cut-in wind speed – the wind speed at which the rotor can be loaded, Rated wind
speed – the wind speed at which the machine is designed to run (this is at optimum
tip-speed ratio, Furling wind speed – the wind speed at which the machine will be
turned out of the wind to prevent damage, Maximum design wind speed – the wind
speed above which damage could occur to the machine The choice of rotor is
dictated largely by the characteristic of the load and hence of the end use.
Anatomy and Characteristics of the Wind Generator:

A typical small wind generator has rotor that is directly coupled to the generator
which produces electricity either at 120/240 volt alternating current
for direct domestic use or at 12/24 volt direct current for battery charging.
Larger machines generate 3 phase electricity. There is often a tail vane which keeps
the rotor orientated into the wind. Some wind machines have a tail vane
which is designed for automatic furling (turning the machine out of the wind)
at high wind speeds to prevent damage. Larger machines have pitch controlled blades
which achieve the same function. The tower is of low solidity to prevent wind
interference and are often guyed to give support to the tower.

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Grid Connected or Battery Charging:
Depending on the circumstances, the distribution of electricity from a wind machine
can be carried out in one of various ways. Commonly, larger machines are connected
to a grid distribution network. This can be the main national network, in which case
electricity can be sold to the electricity utility (providing an agreement can be made
between the producer and the grid) when an excess is produced and purchased when
the wind is low. Using the national grid helps provide flexibility to the system and
does away with the need for a back-up system when winds peeds are low. Micro-
grids distribute electricity to smaller areas, typically a village or town. When wind is
used for supplying electricity to such a grid, a diesel generator set is often used as a
backup for the periods when wind speeds are low. Alternatively, electricity storage
can be used but this is an expensive option. Hybrid systems use a combination of two
or more energy sources to provide electricity in all weather conditions. The capital
cost for such a system is high but subsequent running costs will be low compared
with a pure diesel system. In areas where households are widely dispersed or where
grid costs are prohibitively expensive, battery charging is an option. For people in
rural areas a few tens of watts of power are sufficient for providing lighting and a
source of power for a radio or television. Batteries can be returned to the charging
station occasionally for recharging. This reduces the inconvenience of an intermittent
supply due to fluctuating wind speeds. 12 and 24 volt direct current wind generators
are commercially available which are suitable for battery charging applications.
Smaller turbines (50 -150 watt) are available for individual household connection.
Environmental Concerns:
Wind power is a clean renewable energy source. There are, however some
environmental considerations to keep in mind when planning a wind power
scheme. They include the following: Electromagnetic interference - some television

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frequency bands are susceptible to interference from wind generators., Noise -
wind rotors, gearboxes and generators create acoustic noise when functioning; this
needs to be considered when siting a machine., Visual impact - modern wind
machines are large objects and have a significant visual impact on their surroundings.
Some argue that it is a positive visual impact, others to the contrary.
Economics:
The cost of producing electricity form the wind is heavily dependent on the local
wind regime. As mentioned earlier the power output from the wind machine is
proportional to cube of the windspeed and so a slight increase in windspeed will
mean a significant increase in power and a subsequent reduction in unit costs. Capital
costs for windpower are high, but running costs are low and so access to initial funds,
subsidies or low interest loans are an obvious advantage when considering a wind-
electric system. If a hybrid system is used a careful cost-benefit analysis needs to be
carried out. A careful matching of the load and energy supply options should be
made to maximise the use of the power from the wind - a load which accepts a
variable input is ideally matched to the intermittent nature of windpower.
Local Manufacture:
Local production of existing designs is a far simpler process to get started than
development of new machines, and can be carried out in many developing countries.
The production of small and medium sized machines locally is a great deal cheaper
than imported machines and, during the production process, it enables manufacturers
to make minor modifications in order to match systems with desired end-uses and to
the conditions under which they are expected to operate. Depending on the
availability of materials, rotor blades can be made locally from laminated wood,
steel, plastics or combinations of these materials, whilst some of the machinery

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components can be made by small engineering workshops. Other parts, including

special bearings, gearboxes, generators and other electrical equipment may have to
be imported if they are not available in the country of assembly. Towers can be made
of welded steel, preferably galvanised, which can be manufactured in many local
engineering works, whilst the foundations can be cast from reinforced concrete on
site. A wind turbine is a rotating machine that converts the kinetic energy in wind
into mechanical energy. If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such
as a pump or grinding stones, the machine is usually called a windmill. If the
mechanical energy is then converted to electricity, the machine is called a wind
generator, wind turbine, wind power unit (WPU) or wind energy converter (WEC).
Figure:1. Wind Energy Converter

This article discusses electric power generation machinery. Windmill discusses
machines used for grain-grinding, water pumping, etc. The article on wind power
describes turbine placement, economics, public concerns, and controversy.

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The wind energy ection of that article describes the distribution of wind energy
over time, and how that affects wind-turbine design. See environmental concerns
with electricity generation for discussion of environmental problems with wind-
energy production.
Types of Wind Turbines:

Wind turbines can be separated into two types based by the axis in which the turbine
rotates. Turbines that rotate around a horizontal axis are more common. Vertical-axis
turbines are less frequently used.
Figure:2 Types of Turbine

Horizontal Axis:
Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical
generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are
pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor
coupled with a servo motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of
the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive a generator. Since a
tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed upwind of the
tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the

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tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in
front of the tower and are sometimes tilted up a small amount. Downwind machines
have been built, despite the problem of turbulence, because they don't need an
additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because in high
winds, the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus
their wind resistance. Since turbulence leads to fatigue failures, and reliability is so
important, most HAWTs are upwind machines.
Figure: 3 Horizontal Wind Turbine
There are several types of HAWT: Windmills. These squat structures, typically (at-
least) four-bladed, usually with wooden shutters or fabric sails, were developed in
Europe. These windmills were pointed into the wind manually or via a tail-fan and
were typically used to grind grain. Turbines used in wind farms for commercial
production of electric power are usually three-bladed and pointed into the wind by

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computer-controlled motors. These have high tip speeds of up to six times the
wind speed, high efficiency, and low torque ripple which contributes to good
reliability. The blades are usually colored light gray to blend in with the clouds
and range in length from 20 to 40 metres (65 to 130 ft) or more. The tubular steel
towers range from about 200 to 300 feet (60 to 90 metres) high. The blades rotate at
10-22 revolutions per minute. A gear box is commonly used to step up the speed of
the generator, though there are also designs that use direct drive of an annular
generator. Some models operate at constant speed, but more energy can be collected
by variable-speed turbines which use a solid-state power converter to interface to the
transmission system. All turbines are equipped with high wind shut down features to
avoid over speed damage.
HAWT Advantages:
Blades are to the side of the turbine's center of gravity, helping stability. Ability to
wing warp, which gives the turbine blades the best angle of attack. Allowing the
angle of attack to be remotely adjusted gives greater control, so the turbine collects
the maximum amount of wind energy for the time of day and season. Ability to pitch
the rotor blades in a storm, to minimize damage. Tall tower allows access to stronger
wind in sites with wind shear. In some wind shear sites, every ten meters up, the
wind speed can increase by 20% and the power output by 34%.
HAWT Disadvantages:
HAWTs have difficulty operating in near ground, turbulent winds. The tall towers
and long blades up to 90 meters long are difficult to transport on the sea and on land.
Transportation can now cost 20% of equipment costs. Tall HAWTs are difficult to
install, needing very tall and expensive cranes and skilled operators. The FAA has
raised concerns about tall HAWTs effects on radar near Air Force bases. Their height

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can create local opposition based on impacts to viewsheds. Downwind variants
suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence.Cyclic stresses fatigue
the blade, axle and bearing material failures were a major cause of turbine failure
for many years. Because wind velocity often increases at higher altitudes, the
backward force and torque on a horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) blade peaks as
it turns through the highest point in its circle. The tower hinders the airflow at the
lowest point in the circle, which produces a local dip in force and torque. These
effects produce a cyclic twist on the main bearings of a HAWT. The combined twist
is worst in machines with an even number of blades, where one is straight up when
another is straight down. To improve reliability, teetering hubs have been used which
allow the main shaft to rock through a few degrees, so that the main bearings do not
have to resist the torque peaks. When the turbine turns to face the wind, the rotating
blades act like a gyroscope. As it pivots, gyroscopic precession tries to twist the
turbine into a forward or backward somersault. For each blade on a wind generator's
turbine, precessive force is at a minimum when the blade is horizontal and at a
maximum when the blade is vertical. This cyclic twisting can quickly fatigue and
crack the blade roots, hub and axle of the turbines.
Vertical Axis:
Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged
vertically. Key advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to
be pointed into the wind to be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind
direction is highly variable. VAWTs can utilize winds from varying directions. With
a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, so the tower
doesn't need to support it, and it is more accessible for maintenance. Drawbacks are
that some designs produce pulsating torque. Drag may be created when the blade
rotates into the wind. It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers,

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meaning they are often installed nearer to the base on which they rest, such as the
ground or a building rooftop. The wind speed is generally slower at a lower altitude,
so less wind energy is available for a given size turbine. Air flow near the ground and
other objects can create turbulent flow, which can introduce issues of vibration,
including noise and bearing wear which may increase the maintenance or shorten the
service live. However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building
generally redirects wind over the roof and this often doubles the wind speed at the
turbine. If the height of the rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of
the building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and
minimum wind turbulence.
Figure: 4. Vertical Wind Turbine
"Eggbeater" turbines”, they have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and
cyclic stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. Also, they generally
require some external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor, to start turning,
because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using 3 or

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more blades which results in a higher solidity for the rotor. Solidity is measured by
blade area over the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not held up by guy
wires but have an external superstructure connected to the top bearing. Gorlov helical
turbine Essentially a Darrieus turbine in a helical configuration. Patented in 2001. It
solves most of the problems of the Darrieus rotor. It is self-starting, has lower torque
ripple, low vibration and noise, and low cyclic stress. High reliability is expected
from tested or matured designs. At least two wind turbine products are on the market
as of 2002, including the Turby wind turbine and the Quietrevolution wind turbine. It
is up to 35% efficient, which is competitive with the most efficient VAWT's.
Giromill. A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades.
The cycloturbine variety have variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and are
self-starting. The advantages of variable pitch are: high starting torque; a wide,
relatively flat torque curve; a lower blade speed ratio; a higher coefficient of
performance; more efficient operation in turbulent winds; and a lower blade speed
ratio which lowers blade bending stresses. Straight, V, or curved blades may be used.
VAWT Advantages:
Can be easier to maintain if the moving parts are located near the ground. As the
rotor blades are vertical, a yaw device is not needed, reducing cost. VAWTs have a
higher airfoil pitch angle, giving improved aerodynamics while decreasing drag at
low and high pressures. Straight bladed VAWT designs with a square or rectangular
crossection have a larger swept area for a given diameter than the circular swept area
of HAWTs. Mesas, hilltops, ridgelines and passes can have faster winds near the
ground because the wind is forced up a slope or funnelled into a pass and into the
path of VAWTs situated close to the ground. Low height useful where laws do not
permit structures to be placed high. Does not need a free standing tower so is much
less expensive and stronger in high winds that are close to the ground. Usually have a

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lower Tip-Speed ratio so less likely to break in high winds. Does not need to turn to
face the wind if the wind direction changes making them ideal in turbulent wind
conditions. They can potentially be built to a far larger size than HAWT's , for
instance floating VAWT's hundreds of meters in diameter where the entire vessel
rotates , can eliminate the need for a large and expensive bearing. There may be a
height limitation to how tall a vertical wind turbine can be built and how much sweep
area it can have. However, this can be overcome by connecting a multiple number of
turbines together in a triangular pattern with bracing across the top of the structure .
Thus reducing the need for such strong vertical support, and allowing the turbine
blades to be made much longer.
VAWT Disadvantages:
Most VAWTs produce energy at only 50% of the efficiency of HAWTs in large part
because of the additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into the wind. This
can be overcome by using structures to funnel more and align the wind into the rotor
(e.g. "stators" on early Windstar turbines) or the "vortex" effect of placing straight
bladed VAWTs closely together . Most VAWTS need to be installed on a relatively
flat piece of land and some sites could be too steep for them but are still usable by
HAWTs. Most VAWTs have low starting torque, and may require energy to start the
turning. A VAWT that uses guy wires to hold it in place puts stress on the bottom
bearing as all the weight of the rotor is on the bearing. Guy wires attached to the top
bearing increase downward thrust in wind gusts. Solving this problem requires a
superstructure to hold a top bearing in place to eliminate the downward thrusts of
gust events in guy wired models. While VAWTs' parts are located on the ground,
they are also located under the weight of the structure above it, which can make
changing out parts near impossible without dismantling the structure if not designed
properly.

MICROWIND 21
4. TURBINE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a location.
Aerodynamic modeling is used to determine the optimum tower height, control
systems, number of blades, and blade shape. Virtually all modern wind turbines
convert wind energy to electricity for energy distribution. The turbine can be divided
into three components. The rotor component, which is approximately 20% of the
wind turbine cost, includes the blades for converting wind energy to low speed
rotational energy. The generator component, which is approximately 34% of the
wind turbine cost, includes the electrical generator, the control electronics, and most
likely a gearbox component for converting the low speed rotational energy to
electricity. The structural support component, which is approximately 15% of the
wind turbine cost, includes the tower and rotor pointing mechanism.
Special Wind Turbines:

Wind turbines may also be used in conjunction with a large vertical solar updraft
tower to extract the energy due to air heated by the Sun. Variable pitch wind turbines
are another special (yet low-cost) design. Designs such as the Jacobs are said to be
inexpensive, highly efficient and usable in diy-construction. Small wind turbines
Small wind turbines may be as small as a four hundred watt generator for residential
use. Small units often have direct drive generators, direct current output, aeroelastic
blades, lifetime bearings and use a vane to point into the wind. Larger, more costly
turbines generally have geared power trains, alternating current output, flaps and are
actively pointed into the wind. Direct drive generators and aeroelastic blades for
large wind turbines are being researched. A small wind turbine can be installed on a
roof. Installation issues then include the strength of the roof, vibration, and the
turbulence caused by the roof ledge. A small-scale, rooftop wind turbine is said to be
able to generate power from 10% to up to 25% of the electricity requirements of a
MICROWIND 22
regular house. A small wind energy system could prove to be a practical and
economical source of electricity for your home or farm if some or all of the following
are true: Your property has a good wind resource. Your property is at least one acre
in size. Your local zoning ordinances allow wind turbines. Your electricity bills tend
to be high. Your property does not have easy access to utility lines, i.e. off electrical
power grid. You are comfortable with making long-term investments. Turbine is
250-300 m away from your neighbour's house (closer for small turbines ie.1 kW).
Figure: 5 Wind Wheel
Small-Scale Wind Power:

Small scale turbines for residential-scale use are available that are approximately
7 feet (2 m) to 25 feet (8 m) in diameter and produce electricity at a rate of 900 watts
to 10,000 watts at their tested wind speed. Some units are designed to be very
lightweight, e.g. 16 kilograms (35 lb), allowing rapid response to wind gusts typical
of urban settings and easy mounting much like a television antenna. It is claimed that
they are inaudible even a few feet under the turbine. Dynamic braking regulates the
speed by dumping excess energy, so that the turbine continues to produce electricity
even in high winds. The dynamic braking resistor may be installed inside the

MICROWIND 23
building to provide heat (during high winds when more heat is lost by the building,
while more heat is also produced by the braking resistor). The location makes low
voltage (around 12 volt) distribution practical. In the United States, residential wind
turbines with outputs of 2-10 kW, typically cost between 6 – 25 lakhs. The dominant
models on the market, especially in the India, are horizontal-axis wind turbines
(HAWT).
Generator Operation:
As we have previously mentioned, the asynchronous motor can also run as a
generator. This simply happens when you, instead of forcing the rotor to turn at a
rotational speed lower than the synchronous speed, exceed this synchronous speed by
applying an outside energy source, such as a diesel motor or a set of wind turbine
rotor blades. Once again, the greater the difference between the rotating magnetic
field of the stator (which is always 1.500 rpm) and the speed of the rotor, the greater
the torque produced by the rotor. When a working as a generator, the rotating field
however acts as a brake in slowing the rotor. The stator experiences a variable
magnetic field from the rotor that drags its rotating magnetic field and thereby
induces an electrical current in the stator. In comparison to motor operation the
induced currents in the rotor and stator will flow in the opposite direction, which
means that power will be sent to the grid. The faster the rotor turns in relation to the
rotating magnetic field of the stator, the greater the induction in the stator and the
greater the production of power. In practice the difference between the speed of
rotational magnetic field of the stator and the rotational speed of the rotor is very
little. A rotor will typically turn about 1% faster at full power production. If the
synchronous rotational speed is 1.500 rpm then the rotor rotational speed at full
power will be 1.515 rpm. The interesting torque curve of the asynchronous
electric motor, also operating as a generator, is shown below. At speeds below the

MICROWIND 24
synchronous rotational speed, the motor yields a positive torque. Typically a

maximum torque of about 2.5 times the torque of the nominal power. If the rotational
speed exceeds the synchronous level, the torque becomes negative, and the generator
acts as a brake. At the Bonus factory, we have a rather interesting apparatus, that
demonstrates this shift between a motor and generator. A small asynchronous motor
is connected to an electric meter. The motor has a gearbox giving a shaft speed of 60
rpm. A small crank handle is fixed to the shaft. The motor starts when it is plugged
into a normal mains socket coming from the electrical grid and consumes a small
amount of electrical energy due to friction loss in the motor and gearbox. If one
attempts to resist the rotation of the shaft by holding back the crank, the consumption
of energy will increase. If the crank however is used to increase the speed of the
motor, then the electric meter will start to run backwards, showing that current is
flowing the other way. In this way one can, by using human muscle power, feed
electrical power to the grid, in just the same way that a wind turbine feeds power to
the grid. It is difficult to achieve more than 1/20 kW so a work force of twelve
thousand employees is needed to compete with one single 600 kW wind turbine
operating in a good wind. Visitors to Bonus may try their hand at our generator
demonstration model.
Wind Availability
Whether constructing a wind turbine is economically viable at your home or farm
depends most strongly on the quality of your wind resource. Generally, average
annual wind speeds of at least 4.0-4.5 m/s (14.4- 16.2 km/hr) are needed for a small
wind turbine to produce enough electricity to be cost-effective. A very useful
resource for evaluating a site for its wind energy potential is a wind resource
potential map. It may be useful to check wind speed measurements that have been
recorded at a local weather station. It is important to consider that siting factors at

MICROWIND 25
these weather stations, such as nearby trees and buildings, might influence any wind
speed measurements. Also, keep in mind that the equipment at these stations is often
located close to the ground, and that weather stations located at airports are usually
sheltered from the wind. This means that wind speed measurements recorded at
these stations might under represent the wind potential at your site. For the most
precise evaluation of the wind speed at your site, you need to purchase a wind
resource evaluation system. While wind resource evaluation systems can be
expensive, if your property is hilly and has unusual terrain features then it might be
worth obtaining one.
The most important component of a wind resource evaluation system is an

anemometer. Anemometers are typically designed with cups mounted on short arms
that are connected to a rotating vertical shaft. The anemometer rotates in the wind
and generates a signal that is proportional to the wind speed. If you do purchase an
anemometer, you will also need to purchase something to record the readings made
by the anemometer, and a tower or tripod to mount the whole system on. A wind
totalizer, which is a very simple type of wind resource evaluation system where the
anemometer is linked to an odometer. The odometer is similar to those found in cars.
After a period of time, the number recorded on the odometer, which represents the
total "distance" the anemometer has turned, can be divided by the time passed since
the odometer was last checked in order to determine the average wind speed over a
period of time at a location. More expensive wind resource evaluation systems are
available. On many systems, a data logger continuously records wind speeds
measured by the anemometer, and the data can be downloaded to a computer. These
types of wind measurement systems provide a more accurate assessment of the wind
resource at a location, but are much more expensive. No matter what measurement
system you install, for a small wind turbine a minimum of one year of data should be

MICROWIND 26
recorded and compared with another source of wind data. It is very important that the
measurement equipment is set high enough to avoid turbulence created by trees,
buildings or other obstructions. Readings would be most useful if they have been
taken at hub height, or the elevation at the top of the tower where the wind turbine is
going to be installed .
Figure : 6 Wind turbine Schematic
If there is a small wind turbine system in your area, you may be able to obtain useful
information from its owners about the annual electrical output of the system and,
possibly, wind speed data. Such information could be extremely valuable as an
alternative to installing a wind resource evaluation system.

MICROWIND 27
Best Location for a Wind Turbine:

Where you choose to build your wind turbine is important. Remember that if nearby
houses, tree lines and silos obstruct the full force of the wind from your wind turbine,
you will not be able to generate as much power. Also keep the following in mind:
Wind speeds are always higher at the top of a hill, on a shoreline, and in places clear
of trees and other structures. Remember that trees grow over the years; wind turbine
towers do not. Inform neighbours of your plans to avoid conflict later on. Be
courteous. Keep the turbine as far away from neighbours as possible. 250-300 m
away is typical. Check with the local government for any other bylaws and
regulations about zoning.
Figure 7: Example of Wind Speed Distribution by Hour of the Day
Wind speeds tend to be higher on the top of a ridge or hill, and for that reason it is a
good idea to locate wind turbines at hilly locations Just remember to keep your
turbine away from high turbulence. Neighbours must also be taken into consideration
when picking a spot to build your turbine. The farther your wind turbine site is from
neighbouring houses, the better. Do not expect your wind turbine to generate the
same amount of power all the time. The wind speed at a single location may vary
considerably, and this can have a significant impact on the power production from a
wind turbine. Even if the wind speed varies by only 10%, the power production from
a wind turbine can vary by up to 25%.
MICROWIND 28
5. COMPONENTS OF WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS
The basic components of a typical wind energy system are shown in figure:8. These
basic components include: A rotor, consisting of blades with aerodynamic surfaces.
When the wind blows over the blades, the rotor turns, causing the generator or
alternator in the turbine to rotate and produce electricity. A gearbox, which matches
the rotor speed to that of the generator/alternator.
Figure: 8 Components of a Wind Energy System
The smallest turbines (under 10 kW) usually do not require a gearbox. An enclosure,
or nacelle, which protects the gearbox, generator and other components of the turbine
from the elements. A tailvane or yaw system, which aligns the turbine with the
wind. If you plan on building a horizontal axis wind turbine, you will need a tower
on which to mount the turbine (vertical axis turbines are usually built on the ground).
Several types of towers are available: Guyed lattice towers, where the tower is
MICROWIND 29
permanently supported by guy wires. These towers tend to be the least expensive,
but take up a lot of space on a yard. A radio broadcast tower is a good example of a
guyed lattice tower. Guyed tilt-up towers, which can be raised and lowered for easy
maintenance and repair. Self-supporting towers, which do not have guy wires. These
towers tend to be the heaviest and most expensive, but because they do not require
guy wires, they do not take up as much space on a yard. An important factor in how
much power your wind turbine will produce is the height of its tower. The power
available in the wind is proportional to the cube of its speed. This means that if wind
speed doubles, the power available to the wind generator increases by a factor of 8 (2
x 2 x 2 = 8) Since wind speed increases with height, increases to the tower height can
mean enormous increases in the amount of electricity generated by a wind turbine.
Figure : 9 Relationship Between Wind Speed And Wind Power.
It has been recommended that towers be 24-37 m (80- 120 ft) high. Installing a wind
turbine on a tower that is too short is like installing a solar panel in a shady area. At a
minimum, mount a wind turbine high enough on a tower that the tips of the rotor
blades remain at least 9 m (30 ft) above any obstacle within 90 m (300 ft). Make
sure to check local bylaws about height restrictions for wind turbine towers. Use
a tower approved by the wind turbine manufacturer otherwise the warranty on the

MICROWIND 30
turbine may become invalid. Also ensure the tower is connected to an underground
metal object to ground the tower in case of a lightning strike. You need a disconnect
switch that can electrically isolate the wind turbine from the rest of the wind energy
system. An automatic disconnect switch is necessary to prevent damage to the rest of
the system in case of an electrical malfunction or a lightning strike. It also allows
maintenance and system modifications to be safely made to the turbine. There are
other system components you may choose or need to purchase.
Figure 10. Diagram of a Grid-Tied Wind Electric System
You may need batteries to store excess energy generated by the wind turbine.
Because energy is stored in batteries as DC power, you may need an inverter
to convert power from the batteries to the AC power required to run electrical

MICROWIND 31
appliances in your home. If your home or farm is connected to the power grid on
windier days you may be able to "sell" excess power generated by your wind turbine
to your utility. Then, at other times when your turbine cannot generate all the power
you need, you would buy power from the grid. This concept is called "net metering",
or "net billing". Even if net metering is unavailable, you might be able to reduce your
power bills by using the electricity you generate using a grid-connected wind turbine.
If you do this, then you would not have to buy as much electricity from your utility.
If you do connect your wind turbine to the grid, your utility will require a transfer
switch between the wind turbine and the utility line as a well as a two-way meter to
keep track of the energy you have stored in and taken from the power grid. It is very
important that your wind generator meets certain standards and that it does not pose a
risk to your utility's personnel or equipment. It is also important that the quality of
power coming from your turbine adequately matches the electrical characteristics in
your utility's power grid.
Cost of Wind Turbine:

It costs 100000-350000 INR/per kilowatt to purchase a small wind turbine. However,
the wind turbine costs represent only 12%-48% of the total cost of a small wind
electric system. You also need to pay for other components of your wind energy
system, such as inverters and batteries, as well as sales tax, installation charges and
labour. Keep in mind that the costs of wind power, unlike other sources of electrical
power, are almost entirely due to the cost of purchasing and installing the system.
Once the turbine has been installed, there is no fuel costs associated with its
operation; you will only need to pay for maintenance of your wind turbine. The cost
of the energy produced by small (<10 kW) wind turbines over their lifetimes has

MICROWIND 32
been estimated to vary from 3INR/kWh, for a low cost turbine constructed in a
windy area, to 30INR/kWh, for a high cost turbine constructed in a low wind area .
The performance of a wind turbine is normally described by manufacturers using a

performance curve of power output versus wind speed, called a power curve.
Examples of a power curve for a small wind turbine rated at 10 kW. One problem
with wind turbine ratings is that there is no industry standard for a consistent wind
speed at which to measure the output from wind turbines.
Figure 11. Graphical Representation of Small Wind Turbines

Instead, manufacturers choose which wind speed to use for their wind turbine output
ratings. Take, for example, the "Wind-o-matic" and the "Mighty-wind", both rated at
1,000 watts. The Wind-o-matic was rated at 5 m/s winds, while the Mighty-wind was
rated at 10 m/s. Because the power in the wind is proportional to the cube of its
speed (see Figure 6), a 1,000-watt turbine rated at 10 m/s will only produce 1/8
of that power at 5 m/s. So, at a wind speed of 5 m/s, the Wind-o-matic will produce

MICROWIND 33
Figure 12. Graphs Showing Power V/s. Wind
Mighty-wind will only produce 125 watts. Rather than comparing the rated outputs
advertised for different turbines, compare the swept area of the turbines. Since the
electrical output of a wind generator is largely a function of its swept area, the larger
the swept area of a rotor, the more electricity the wind generator produces. Doubling
the area on the solar panels that is exposed to the sun can double the electrical energy
generated by solar panels. With wind turbines, swept area works much the same way.
If you do not know the swept areas, you can still make reasonable comparisons
between wind turbines by comparing the rotor diameters of the turbines.
Figure 13. Rotor Diameter Specifications
A modest increase in the rotor diameter will lead to significant increases in both the
swept area of a turbine and the amount of electricity that the turbine can generate .
Please note that the values for power production shown on Figure are theoretical
values, and only intended for illustrative purposes. The actual power production from

MICROWIND 34
a wind turbine will be influenced by many other factors, such as: the efficiency
that
the wind turbine is able to extract energy from the wind; the elevation at which the
turbine is located; and other design characteristics of the wind turbine. Theoretical
power production for small wind turbines when the wind speed is 10 m/s.
Choosing an Appropriate Wind Turbine Size:

To determine the appropriate size of wind turbine to use, review your monthly
electricity consumption in kilowatt-hours (kWh). To do this look at your electricity
bills for the last year, add the kilowatt-hours you consumed, and divide by 12. Then
compare this total to estimates of the power production for different wind turbines, a
figure available from a wind turbine dealer. To get a preliminary estimate of the
performance of a particular wind turbine, use the formula below: AEO = 1.64 D2
V3 Where: AEO is Annual energy output in KWh/year. D is rotor diameter in
meters. V is Annual average wind speed in m/s. By making your home or farm more
energy efficient and reducing the size of your peak demand electrical loads, you can
reduce the size of wind turbine you'll need, thereby decreasing the purchase cost.
Intermittency and Grid Management:

Grid management authorities faced with the need to be able to dispatch power at
short notice treat wind-generated power not as an available source of supply which
can be called upon when needed but as an unpredictable drop in demand. In any case
wind needs about 90% back-up, whereas the level of back-up for other forms of
power generation which can be called upon on demand is around 25%, simply
allowing for maintenance downtime. Improved ability to predict the intermittent
availability of wind enables better use of this resource. In Germany it is claimed that
wind generation output can be predicted with 90% certainty 24 hours ahead. This
MICROWIND 35
means that it is possible to deploy other plant more effectively so that the
economic value of that wind contribution is greatly increased. The high cost of
wind power
plus the need for substantial back-up gives rise to very high system generating costs
by present standards, but in some places it may be the shape of the future. Not only
are production costs substantially higher than for conventional energy, but in the case
of intermittent energy sources like wind energy, grid extensions and additional
balancing and back-up capacity to ensure security of supply imply costs which add
considerably to the end price for the final consumer." "Reducing CO 2 by promoting
renewable energy can thus become extremely expensive for consumers," though both
organisations fully support renewables in principle. The economic disadvantage
referred to will also be reduced as carbon emission costs become factored in to fossil
fuel generation. Because wind turbine output is so variable, for planning purposes its
potential output is discounted to the level of power that can be relied upon for 90%
of the time.
Maintenance:
A wind turbine requires periodic maintenance such as oiling and greasing, and
regular safety inspections. Check bolts and electrical connections annually; tighten if
necessary. Once a year check wind turbines for corrosion and the guy wires
supporting the tower for proper tension. If the turbine blades are wood, paint to
protect from the elements. Apply a durable leading edge tape to protect the blades
from abrasion due to dust and insects in the air. If the paint cracks or the leading
edge tape tears away, the exposed wood will quickly erode. Moisture penetrating into
the wood causes the rotor become unbalanced, stressing the wind generator. Inspect
wooden blades annually, and do any repairs immediately. After 10 years, blades and

MICROWIND 36
bearings may need to be completely replaced. With proper installation and
maintenance, your turbine can last 20-30 years or longer. Proper maintenance will
also minimize the amount of mechanical noise produced by your wind turbine.
6. RENEWABLE ENEGY
All wind turbines have a maximum wind speed, called the survival speed, at which
they will not operate above. When winds over this maximum occur, they have an
internal brake and lock to prevent them from going faster than this survival speed.
For turbines operating in cold winter conditions, be prepared to de-ice as required,
and store batteries in an insulated place. Mounting turbines on rooftops is generally
not recommended unless a wind turbine is very small (1 kW of rated output or less).
Wind turbines tend to vibrate and transmit the vibration to the structure on which
they are mounted. As a result, turbines mounted on a rooftop could lead to both noise
and structural problems with the building and rooftop.
Renewable Energy and Electricity:

There is unprecedented interest in renewable energy, particularly solar and
windenergy, which provide electricity without giving rise to any carbon dioxi
emission. Harnessing these for electricity depends on the cost and efficiency of the
technology, which is constantly improving, thus reducing costs per peak kilowatt.
Utilising electricity from solar and wind in a grid requires some back-up generating
capacity due to their intermittent nature. Policy settings to support renewables are
also generally required, and some 50 countries have these. Utilising solar and wind-
generated electricity in a stand-alone system requires corresponding battery or other
storage capacity. The possibility of large-scale use of hydrogen in the future as a
transport fuel increases the potential for both renewables and base-load electricity
supply. Technology to utilise the forces of nature for doing work to supply human
MICROWIND 37
needs is as old as the first sailing ship. But attention swung away from renewable
sources as the industrial revolution progressed on the basis of the concentrated
energy locked up in fossil fuels. This was compounded by the increasing use of
reticulated electricity based on fossil fuels and the importance of portable high-
density energy sources for transport - the era of oil. As electricity demand escalated,
with supply depending largely on fossil fuels plus some hydro power and then
nuclear energy, concerns arose about carbon dioxide emissions contributing to
possible global warming. Attention again turned to the huge sources of energy
surging around us in nature - sun, wind, and seas in particular. There was never any
doubt about the magnitude of these, the challenge was always in harnessing them.
Today we are well advanced in meeting that challenge. Wind turbines have
developed greatly in recent decades, solar photovoltaic technology is much more
efficient, and there are improved prospects of harnessing tides and waves. With
government encouragement to utilize wind and solar technologies in particular, their
costs have come down and are now in the same league as the increased costs of fossil
fuel technologies due to likely carbon emission charges on electricity generation
from them.
Demand for Clean Energy:

There is a fundamental attractiveness about harnessing such forces in an age which is
very conscious of the environmental effects of burning fossil fuels and sustainability
is an ethical norm. So today the focus is on both adequacy of energy supply long-
term and also the environmental implications of particular sources. In that regard the
near certainty of costs being imposed on carbon dioxide emissions in developed
countries at least has profoundly changed the economic outlook of clean energy
sources. A market-determined carbon price will create incentives for energy sources
that are cleaner than current fossil fuel sources without distinguishing among

MICROWIND 38
different technologies. This puts the onus on the generating utility to employ
technologies which efficiently supply power to the consumer at a competitive price.
Sun, wind, waves, rivers, tides and the heat from radioactive decay in the earth's
mantle as well as biomass are all abundant and ongoing, hence the term
"renewables". Only one, the power of falling water in rivers, has been significantly
tapped for electricity for many years, though utilization of wind is increasing rapidly
and it is now acknowledged as a mainstream energy source. Solar energy's main
human application has been in agriculture and forestry, via photosynthesis, and
increasingly it is harnessed for heat. Electricity remains a niche application for solar.
Biomass (eg sugar cane residue) is burned where it can be utilised. The others are
little used as yet. Turning to the use of abundant renewable energy sources other than
large-scale hydro for electricity, there are challenges in actually harnessing them.
Apart from solar photovoltaic (PV) systems which produce electricity directly, the
question is how to make them turn dynamos to generate the electricity. If it is heat
which is harnessed, this is via a steam generating system. If the fundamental
opportunity of these renewables is their abundance and relatively widespread
occurrence, the fundamental challenge, especially for electricity supply, is applying
them to meet demand given their variable and diffuse nature*.
This means either that there must be reliable duplicate sources of electricity beyond
the normal system reserve, or some means of electricity storage. Policies which
favour renewables over other sources may also be required. Such policies, now in
place in about 50 countries, include priority dispatch for electricity from renewable
sources and special feed-in tariffs, quota obligations and energy tax exemptions. The
prospects, opportunities and challenges for renewable are discussed below in this
context. Load curve of the Victorian electricity system through one June weekday in
1996 showing the relative contributions of base, intermediate and peak-load plant
MICROWIND 39
duty, the base-load here indicating the minimum requirement of the system. The
shape of such a curve will vary markedly according to the kind of demand. Here, the
peaks reflect domestic demand related to a normal working day, with household
hot water systems evident overnight. Note that the base-load here is about 4100 MW,
and while total capacity must allow for at least 50% more than this, most of the
difference is normally supplied by large intermediate-load gas-fired plant. The peak
loads are typically supplied by hydro and gas turbines. Under the wholesale
electricity market, power stations bid into the market and compete for their energy to
be dispatched. Thus the sources of supply at any particular moment are determined
by some balance between plant which (once installed) can be run very cheaply, and
that which while costing less to build, uses more expensive fuel. Most electricity
demand is for continuous, reliable supply that has traditionally been provided by
base-load electricity generation. Some is for shorter-term (eg peak-load)
requirements on a broadly predictable basis. Hence if renewable sources are linked to
a grid, the question of back-up capacity arises, for a stand-alone system energy
storage is the main issue. Apart from pumped-storage hydro systems (see below), no
such means exist at present, at least on any large scale. However, a distinct advantage
of solar and to some extent other renewable systems is that they are distributed and
may be near the points of demand, thereby reducing power transmission losses if
traditional generating plants are distant. Of course, this same feature sometimes
counts against wind in that the best sites for harnessing it are sometimes remote from
population, and the main back-up for lack of wind in one place is wind blowing hard
in another, hence requiring a wide network with flexible operation.
Hydro Electricity:

MICROWIND 40
Hydro-electric power, using the potential energy of rivers, is by far the best-
established means of electricity generation from renewable sources. It now supplies
16% of world electricity (99% in Norway, 58% in Canada, 55% in Switzerland, 45%
in Sweden, 7% in USA, 6% in Australia). Apart from those four countries with an
abundance of it, hydro capacity is normally applied to peak-load demand, because it
is so readily stopped and started. This also means that it is an ideal complement to
wind power in a grid system, and is used thus most effectively by Denmark (see case
study below). Hydro is not a major option for the future in the developed countries
because most major sites in these countries having potential for harnessing gravity in
this way are either being exploited already or are unavailable for other reasons such
as environmental considerations. Growth to 2030 is expected mostly in China and
Latin America. The chief advantage of hydro systems is their capacity to handle
seasonal (as well as daily) high peak loads. In practice the utilisation of stored water
is sometimes complicated by demands for irrigation which may occur out of phase
with peak electrical demands.
Wind Energy:
Utilization of wind energy has increased spectacularly in recent years, with a 27%
increase in installed capacity during 2007 capping similar rises in previous years.
The 20 GWe increment represented an investment of EUR 25 billion (US$ 37
billion). This brought total world wind capacity to 94 GWe, with tens of thousands
of turbines now operating. Wind turbines of up to 5 MWe are now functioning in
many countries, though most new ones are 1-2 MWe. The power output is a function
of the cube of the wind speed, so doubling the wind speed gives eight times the
energy potential. In operation such turbines require a wind in the range 4 to 25
metres per second (14 - 90 km/hr), with maximum output being at 12-25 m/s (the
excess energy being spilled above 25 m/s). While relatively few areas have

MICROWIND 41
significant prevailing winds in this range, many have enough to be harnessed
effectively and to give better than a 25% capacity utilisation. Alternative power
sources allow the system to cope with calmer periods. Where there is an economic
back-up which can be called upon at very short notice (eg hydro), a significant
proportion of electricity can be provided from wind. The most economical and
practical size of commercial wind turbines is now up to 2 MWe, grouped into wind
farms up to 200 MWe. Depending on site, most turbines operate at about 25% load
factor over the course of a year (European average), but some reach 33%. Wind is
projected to supply 3% of world electricity in 2030, and perhaps 10% in OECD
Europe. Germany leads the field with over 22 GWe installed, Spain has over 15
GWe and the USA has over 16 GWe. The average size of new turbines in USA in
2007 was 1.6 GWe. With increased scale and numbers of units, generation costs have
been diminishing. They are still greater than those for coal or nuclear, and allowing
for backup capacity and grid connection complexities adds to them. However,
government policies in many countries ensure that power from them is able to be
sold (see Appendix). The US capacity is claimed to produce 31 billion kWh per year
at 30.5% capacity factor, and relies on only a small production tax credit. Wind
turbines have a high steel tower to mount the generator nacelle, and have rotors with
three blades up to 50m long. Foundations require a substantial mass of reinforced
concrete.
Solar Energy:
Solar energy is readily harnessed for low temperature heat, and in many places
domestic hot water units (with storage) routinely utilise it. It is also used simply by
sensible design of buildings and in many ways that are taken for granted.
Industrially, probably the main use is in solar salt production - some 1000 PJ per year
in Australia alone (equivalent to two thirds of the nation's oil use) Three methods of

MICROWIND 42
converting the sun's radiant energy to electricity are the focus of attention. The
best-known method utilises sunlight acting on photovoltaic cells to produce
electricity. Flat plate versions of these can readily be mounted on buildings without
any aesthetic intrusion or requiring special support structures. Solar photovoltaic
(PV) has application for certain signalling and communication equipment, such as
remote area telecommunications equipment in Australia or simply where mains
connection
is inconvenient. Sales of solar PV modules are increasing strongly as their efficiency

increases and price falls. Even working on 1 kilowatt per square metre in the main
part of a sunny day, intensity of incoming radiation and converting this to high-grade
electricity is still relatively inefficient, though it has been the subject of much
research over several decades. But the cost per unit of electricity - at least ten times
that of conventional sources, limits its potential to supplementary applications on
buildings where its maximum supply coincides with peak demand. More efficiency
can be gained using concentrator PV (CPV), where some king of parabolic mirror
tracks the sun and increases the intensity of the solar radiation op to
1000-fold. Modules are typically 35-50 kW and some 18 MWe of CPV capacity was
installed in 2006.
For a stand-alone system some means must be employed to store the collected energy
during hours of darkness or cloud - either as electricity in batteries, or in some other
form such as hydrogen (produced by electrolysis of water). In either case, an extra
stage of energy conversion is involved with consequent energy losses. Several
experimental PV power plants mostly of 300 - 500 kW capacity are connected to
electricity grids in Europe and USA. Japan has 150 MWe installed. A large solar PV
plant was planned for Crete. GE Energy is constructing the 11 MWe Serpa PV plant
in southern Portugal, for US$ 78.5 million. It was expected to operate from early

MICROWIND 43
2007. Research continues into ways to make the actual solar collecting cells less
expensive and more efficient. In some systems there is provision for feeding surplus
PV power from domestic systems into the grid as contra to normal supply from it,
which enhances the economics. A solar thermal power plant has a system of mirrors
to concentrate the sunlight on to an absorber, the energy then being used to drive
turbines. The concentrator is usually a parabolic mirror trough oriented north-south,
which tracks the sun's path through the day. The absorber is located at the focal point
and converts the solar radiation to heat (about 400°C) which is transferred into a
fluid such as synthetic oil. The fluid drives a conventional turbine and generator.
Several such installations in modules of 80 MW are now operating. Each module
requires about 50 hectares of land and needs very precise engineering and control.
These plants are supplemented by a gas-fired boiler which generates about a quarter
of the overall power output and keeps them warm overnight. Over 350 MWe
capacity worldwide has supplied about 80% of the total solar electricity so far. With
solar input being both diffuse* and interrupted by night and by cloud cover, solar
electric generation has a low capacity factor, typically less than 15%. Power costs are
two to three times that of conventional sources, which puts it within reach of being
economically viable where carbon emissions from fossil fuels are priced. In mid
2007 Nevada Solar One, a 64 MWe capacity solar thermal energy plant, started up.
The $250 million plant is projected to produce 124 million kWh per year and covers
about 160 ha with mirrored troughs that concentrate the heat from the desert sun on
to pipes that contain a heat transfer fluid.
Another kind of solar thermal plant is the solar tower, using a huge chimney
surrounded at its base by a solar collector zone like an open greenhouse. The air
under these is heated and rises up the chimney, turning turbines as it does so. A 200
MWe installation planned for Australia would use 32 turbines each of 6.25 MWe
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with a 7km diameter collector zone under a 1000 metre high tower. Thermal mass
- possibly brine ponds - under the collector zone means that some operation will
continue into the night. A 50 kWe prototype plant of this design operated in Spain
1982-89, and a 50 MWe prototype is proposed in Australia before the full-scale
version. The main role of solar energy in the future will be that of direct heating.
Much of our energy need is for heat below 60oC - eg. in hot water systems. A lot
more, particularly in industry, is for heat in the range 60 - 110oC. Together these may
account for a significant proportion of primary energy use in industrialised nations.

The first need can readily be supplied by solar power much of the time in some
places, and the second application commercially is probably not far off. Such uses
will diminish to some extent both the demand for electricity and the consumption of
fossil fuels, particularly if coupled with energy conservation measures such as
insulation With adequate insulation, heat pumps utilising the conventional
refrigeration cycle can be used to warm and cool buildings, with very little energy
input other than from the sun. Eventually, up to ten percent of total primary energy in
industrialised countries may be supplied by direct solar thermal techniques, and to
some extent this will substitute for base-load electrical energy.
Geothermal Energy:
Where hot underground steam can be tapped and brought to the surface it may be
used to generate electricity. Such geothermal sources have potential in certain parts
of the world such as New Zealand, USA, Philippines and Italy. Some 8000 MWe of
capacity is operating, including 3000 MWe in the USA and 2000 MWe in
Philippines, and in 2002 geothermal produced more electricity than did wind
worldwide. In Japan 500 MWe of capacity produces 0.3% of the country's electricity.
In New Zealand 420 MWe produces over 7% of the electricity, and Iceland gets most
of its electricity from 200 MWe of geothermal plant. Lihir Gold mine in Papua New
MICROWIND 45
Guinea has 56 MWe installed, the last 20 MWe costing US$ 40 million - about the
same as annual savings from the expanded plant. Geothermal electric output is
expected to triple by 2030. There are also prospects in certain other areas for hot
fractured rock geothermal - pumping water underground to regions of the Earth's
crust which are very hot or using hot brine from these regions. The heat - around
250°C - is due to high levels of radioactivity in the granites and because they are
insulated at 4-5 km depth. They typically have 15-40 ppm uranium and/or thorium,
but may be ten times this. The heat from radiogenic decay is used to make steam for
electricity generation. South Australia has some very prospective areas. The main
problem with this technology is producing and maintaining the artificially-fractured
rock as the heat source. Ground source heat pump systems also come into this
category, though the temperatures are much lower. The 1997 Geoscience Australia
building in Canberra is heated and cooled thus, using a system of 210 pumps
throughout the building which carry water through loops of pipe buried in 352
boreholes each 100 metres deep in the ground. Here the temperature is a steady
17°C, so that it is used as a heat sink or heat source at different times of the year.
Tidal Energy:
Harnessing the tides in a bay or estuary has been achieved in France (since 1966),
Canada and Russia, and could be achieved in certain other areas where there is a
large tidal range. The trapped water can be used to turn turbines as it is released
through the tidal barrage in either direction. Worldwide this technology appears to
have little potential, largely due to environmental constraints. However, placing free-
standing turbines in major coastal tidal currents appears to have much greater
potential, and this is being explored. Currents are predictable and those with
velocities of 2 to 3 metres per second are ideal and the kinetic energy involved is
equivalent to a very high wind speed. This means that 1 MWe tidal turbine rotor

MICROWIND 46
would be less than 20 m diameter, compared with 60 m for a 1 MWe wind turbine.
Units can be packed more densely than wind turbines in a wind farm, and positioned
far enough below the surface to avoid storm damage. A 300 kW turbine with 11 m
diameter rotor in the Bristol Channel can be jacked out of the water for maintenance.
Early in 2008 a 1.2 MWe twin turbine was installed in Northern Ireland, billed as the
first commercial unit of its kind and expected to produce power 18-20 hours per day.
The next project is a 10.5 MWe nine-turbine array of the cost of Anglesey.
Some tidal stream generators are designed to use the tidal flow to move hydroplanes
connected to hydraulic arms up and down. A prototype has been installed off the
coast of Portugal. Tidal power comes closest of all the intermittent renewable sources
to being able to provide a continuous and predictable output, and is projected to
increase from 1 billion kWh in 2002 to 35 billion in 2030 (including wave power).
Wave Energy:
Harnessing power from wave motion is a possibility which might yield much more
energy than tides. The feasibility of this has been investigated, particularly in the
UK. Generators either coupled to floating devices or turned by air displaced by
waves in a hollow concrete structure would produce electricity for delivery to shore.
Numerous practical problems have frustrated progress, not least storm damage.
Ocean Thermal Energy:

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) has long been an attractive idea, but is
unproven. It would work by utilising the temperature difference between equatorial
surface waters and cool deep waters via a submerged chimney arrangement, the
temperature difference needing to be about 20 degrees top to bottom.
Biofuels:

MICROWIND 47
Growing crops of wood or other kinds to burn directly or to make fuels such as
ethanol and biodiesel has a lot of support in several parts of the world, though mostly
focused on transport fuel. The main issues here are land and water resources. The
land usually must either be removed from agriculture for food or fibre, or it mean
encroaching upon forests or natural ecosystems. But available fresh water for
growing biofuel crops such as maize and sugarcane and for processing them may be
an even greater constraint. Burning biomass for generating electricity has some
appeal as a means of utilising solar energy for power. However, the logistics usually
defeat it, in that a lot of energy is required to harvest and move the crops to the
power station, which means that greenhouse gas emissions are much higher than for
fossil fuels. Also for long term sustainability, the ash containing mineral nutrients
needs to be returned to the land. In Australia and Latin America sugar cane pulp is
burned as a valuable energy source, but this (bagasse) is a by-product of the sugar.
By 2030 biomass-fuelled electricity production was projected to triple and provide
2% of world total, 4% in OECD Europe, as a result of government policies to
promote renewables. However, such projections are increasingly challenged as the
cost of biofuels in water use and pushing up food prices is increasingly questioned.
In 2008 about 100 million tonnes of grain (enough feed nearly 450 million people) is
expected to be turned into fuel. This includes about 30% of the US corn crop, aided
by heavy subsidies. Meanwhile basic food prices have risen sharply.
Decentralised Energy:
Centralised state utilities focused on economies of scale can easily overlook an
alternative model - of decentralized electricity generation, with that generation being
on a smaller scale and close to demand. Here higher costs may be offset by reduced
transmission losses (not to mention saving the capital costs of transmission lines) and
possibly increased reliability. Generation may be on site or via local mini grids.

MICROWIND 48
Renewables And Base-Load Electricity Demand:

It is clear that renewable energy sources have considerable potential to increase their
contribution to meeting mainstream electricity needs. However, having solved to
problems of harnessing them there is a further challenge: of integrating them into the
supply system. Obviously sun, wind, tides and waves cannot be controlled to provide
directly either continuous base-load power, or peak-load power when it is needed, so
how can other, controllable sources be operated so as to complement them? If there

were some way that large amounts of electricity from intermittent producers such as
solar and wind could be stored efficiently, the contribution of these technologies to
supplying electicity demand would be much greater. Already in some places pumped
storage is used to even out the daily generating load by pumping water to a high
storage dam during off-peak hours and weekends, using the excess base-load
capacity from low-cost coal or nuclear sources. During peak hours this water can be
used for hydro-electric generation. Relatively few places have scope for pumped
storage dams close to where the power is needed, and overall efficiency is low.
Means of storing large amounts of electricity as such in giant batteries or by other
means have not been developed.
Clean Development Mechanisms:

Carbon credits are a tradable permit scheme. They provide a way to reduce green
house gas emissions by giving them a monetary value. A credit gives the owner the
right to emit one ton of carbon credit. International treaties such as the Kyoto
Protocol set quotas on the amount of greenhouse gases countries can produce.
Countries, in turn, set quotas on the emissions of businesses. Businesses that are over
their quotas must buy carbon credits for their excess emissions, while businesses that

MICROWIND 49
are below their quotas can sell their remaining credits. By allowing credits to be
bought and sold, a business for which reducing its emissions would be expensive or
prohibitive can pay another business to make the reduction for it. This minimizes the
quota's impact on the business, while still reaching the quota. Credits can be
exchanged between businesses or bought and sold in international markets at the
prevailing market price. There are currently two exchanges for carbon credits: the
Chicago Climate Exchange and the European Climate Exchange.
The GHG data table as per United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change(UNFCCC):-
CO2 - Carbon dioxide

CH4 - Methane
N2O - Nitrous oxide
PFCs - Perfluorocarbons
HFCs - Hydrofluorocarbons
SF6 - Sulphur hexafluoride
The Global Warming Potentials (GWP) used for presentation of CH4 and N2O in
terms of CO2 equivalent are 21 and 310, respectively. That is if we reduce 1 ton
emission of methane it is equivalent to reducing 21 tons of CO2 as such. So now we
are concerned of making people aware of the necessity to bring down the GHG much
below 1990 base line. International treaties such as the Kyoto Protocol set quotas on
the amount of greenhouse gases countries can produce. Countries, in turn, set quotas
on the emissions of businesses. Businesses that are over their quotas must buy carbon
credits for their excess emissions, while businesses that are below their quotas can
sell their remaining credits. By allowing credits to be bought and sold, a business for
which reducing its emissions would be expensive or prohibitive can pay another
MICROWIND 50
business to make the reduction for it. This minimizes the quota's impact on the
business, while still reaching the quota. Credits can be exchanged between
businesses or bought and sold in international markets at the prevailing market price.
To execute this mission world wide , this new “CURRENCY”, Carbon Credit and to
spread awareness of such a subsidy for Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). This
project is aimed to be an eye opener towards climate change, the need and necessity
to control it. Also a prototype towards a future CDm eligible for Carbon Credits.
7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The purchase of various components has been done first. The turbine was designed
as per the prototype in a publication by British Council.The generator was bought
from a company named Oriental Tools Corporation, Coimbatore, as per our
requirements. All mechanical works such as welding , painting etc. were done in
private lathes and workshops. The assembling is done inside the college campus.
After assembling “Microwind” has been put to a test run.It was observed that
MICROWIND has delivered an output of 25 watts. A pedestal fan has induce d
wind for simulating the natural wind or it may be tested on an open area inside the
campus where there is no obstacles for wind and if wind speed is not less than 4 m/s
and the microwind shall be tested .The voltage at the output has been checked for
continuity and observed whether the system is delivering the rated voltage and power
at rated speed of generator rotor. The project may be subjected to various
enhancements as the displayed one is only a base model. The incorporation of Tail
vane, Gear system and automatic control may be designed and if cost permits those
may be implemented. The project may be submitted under the CDM of UNFCCC for
Carbon Credit. The location of “Microwind” on the top of the building also need
care, as it has to be installed in such a way that it traps most of useful wind energy in
that region and the height of the building is enough for it to work properly. The
MICROWIND 51
project, “MICROWIND”, helped us to understand the immense potential in wind
energy and the necessity to explore that to the maximum possible level. In the
present world the extraction of non-conventional energy is so important as the world
is heading towards an energy crisis as well as Global warming threats. Wind energy
is thus an answer for the future. Moreover a new trend of house hold wind electricity
generation has to be entertained as this in a total would significantly reduce our the
dependence on fossil fuel and other conventional power plants.
CONCLUSION
Wind power is a clean, renewable source of energy which produces no carbon

dioxide emissions or waste products. Individual turbines vary in size and power
output from a few hundred watts to two or three megawatts. Uses ranges from very
small turbines supplying energy for battery charging systems, to turbines on wind
farms supplying electricity to the grid. We should consider the following issues if
we're thinking about small scale wind. Wind speed increases with height so it's best
to have the turbine high on a mast or tower. Generally speaking the ideal site is a
smooth top hill with a flat, clear exposure, free from excessive turbulence. Small
scale wind power is particularly suitable for remote off grid locations where
conventional methods of supply are expensive or impractical. Small-scale building-
integrated wind turbines suitable for urban locations are also available to install in
homes and other buildings. The electricity generated at any one time by a wind
turbine is highly dependent on the speed and direction of the wind. The wind speed
itself is dependent on a number of factors, such as location, height of the turbine
above ground level and nearby obstructions. Ideally, we should undertake a
professional assessment of the local wind speed for a full year at the exact location
where you plan to install a turbine before proceeding. In practice, this may be

MICROWIND 52
difficult, expensive and time consuming to undertake. Also the cost of
Anemometer, the instrument for measuring wind speed is high and prevents us from
buying one for our project. With this we can develop a small windmill capable of
producing a maximum of 50W. The generator used shall be AC type thus reducing
the cost. Also output regulations and other end processing shall be eliminated for
simplicity. The advantages this Project “MICROWIND” come under small scale
renewable energy technologies and generate clean and renewable energy with no
harmful emissions and can thus help reduce a significant proportion of the CO 2
emissions.
REFERENCES
1. Dunnett,S.(2003). Small Wind Energy Systems for Battery

Charging, Redwood Burn Limited, Trowbridge.
2. Hugh Piggot.(1981). Windpower Workshop, Cheshire Books, USA.
3. Golding,E.W.(1997). The Generation of Electricity by Wind

Power, Redwood Burn Limited, Trowbridge.
4. Kristoferson,L.A.(1999). Renewable Energy Technologies, ITGD

Publishing, London.
5. Lysen,E.H.(1998).Introduction to Wind Energy, Chelsea Green

Publishing Company, UK.
6. Paul,G.(1994).Wind Energy Basics, ASME Press, Netherlands.
7. www.unfccc.com/cdm

MICROWIND 53
S. Dunnett: Small Wind Energy Systems for Battery Charging. Practical Action
Technical Information Leaflet, Hugh Piggott: It’s A Breeze, A Guide to Choosing
MICROWIND 54
Windpower. Centre for Alternative Technology, 1998 E. H. Lysen: Introduction to
Wind Energy, basic and advanced introduction to wind energy with emphasis on
water pumping windmills. SWD, Netherlands, 1982 Smail Khennas, Simon Dunnett
& Hugh Piggott: Small Wind Systems for Rural Energy Services ITDG Publishing,
2003, ISBN 1 85339 555 2 Jack Park: The Wind Power Book. Cheshire Books,
USA, 1981 Hugh Piggot: Windpower Workshop, building your own wind turbine.
Centre for Alternative Technology, 1997 E. W. Golding: The Generation of
Electricity by Wind Power. Redwood Burn Limited, Trowbridge, 1976 David, A.
Spera: Wind Turbine Technology, fundamental concepts of wind turbine
engineering. ASME Press, 1994 Paul Gipe: Wind Energy Basics, a guide to small
and micro wind systems. Chelsea Green Publishing Company, 1999 T. Anderson, A.
Doig, D. Rees and S. Khennas: Rural Energy Services - A handbook for sustainable
energy development. ITDG Publishing, 1999. L.A. Kristoferson, and V. Bokalders:
Renewable Energy Technologies - their application in developing countries. ITDG
Publishing, 1991. S. Lancashire, J. Kenna and P. Fraenkel: Windpumping Handbook.
I T Publications, London, 1987 Windpumping. Practical Action Technical Brief.

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MICROWIND 1

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Modern Wind Generators:

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Wind Generation For Developing Countries:

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Principles of Wind Energy Conversion:

Types and Characteristics of Rotors:

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Anatomy and Characteristics of the Wind Generator:

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components can be made by small engineering workshops. Other parts, including

Figure:1. Wind Energy Converter

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Types of Wind Turbines:

Figure:2 Types of Turbine

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Figure: 3 Horizontal Wind Turbine

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Figure: 4. Vertical Wind Turbine

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4. TURBINE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Special Wind Turbines:

Figure: 5 Wind Wheel

Small-Scale Wind Power:

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synchronous rotational speed, the motor yields a positive torque. Typically a

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The most important component of a wind resource evaluation system is an

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Figure : 6 Wind turbine Schematic

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Best Location for a Wind Turbine:

Figure 7: Example of Wind Speed Distribution by Hour of the Day

5. COMPONENTS OF WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure: 8 Components of a Wind Energy System

Figure : 9 Relationship Between Wind Speed And Wind Power.

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Figure 10. Diagram of a Grid-Tied Wind Electric System

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Cost of Wind Turbine:

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The performance of a wind turbine is normally described by manufacturers using a

Figure 11. Graphical Representation of Small Wind Turbines

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Figure 13. Rotor Diameter Specifications

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Choosing an Appropriate Wind Turbine Size:

Intermittency and Grid Management:

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Renewable Energy and Electricity:

Demand for Clean Energy:

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