Theory and Design for

Mechanical Measurements
Fourth Edition

Richard S. Figliola
Clemson University

Donald E. Beasley
Clemson University

WILEY
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Contents

1. Basic Concepts of Measurement Methods

1.1
1.2
1.3

Introduction
1
General Measurement System
2
Experimental Test Plan
4
Variables
5
Parameters
6
Noise and Interference
7
Random Tests
8
Replication and Repetition
11
Concomitant Methods
12
1.4
Calibration
12
Static Calibration
12
Dynamic Calibration
13
Static Sensitivity
14
Range
14
Resolution
14
Accuracy and Error
14
Random and Systematic Errors and Uncertainty
Sequential Test
18
Random Test
19
1.5
Standards
21
Base Dimensions and Their Units
22
Derived Units
24
Hierarchy of Standards
25
Test Standards and Codes
27
1.6
Presenting Data
27
Rectangular Coordinate Format
28
Semilog Coordinate Format
28
Full-log Coordinate Format
28
Significant Digits
28
1.7
Summary
28
References
29
Nomenclature
29
Problems
29
2.

Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Signals

2.1
2.2

2.3

Introduction
37
Input/Output Signal Concepts
37
Classification of Waveforms
38
Signal Waveforms
40
Signal Analysis
41
Effects of Signal-Averaging Period
DC Offset
44

15

37

43

IX

Contents
2.4

Signal Amplitude and Frequency

45
Periodic Signals
46
Frequency Analysis
48
Fourier Series and Coefficients
50
Fourier Coefficients for Functions Having Arbitrary Periods
2.5
Fourier Transform and the Frequency Spectrum
58
Discrete Fourier Transform
60
2.6
Summary
64
References
65
Suggested Reading
65
Nomenclature
65
Problems
65
3.

Measurement System Behavior

3.1
3.2

72

Introduction
72
General Model for a Measurement System
Dynamic Measurements
72
Measurement System Model
74
3.3
Special Cases of the General System Model
Zero-Order Systems
76
First-Order Systems
77
Second-Order Systems
88
3.4
Transfer Functions
95
3.5
Phase Linearity
97
3.6
Multiple-Function Inputs
98
3.7
Coupled Systems
100
3.8
Summary
102
References
103
Nomenclature
103
Problems
104
4.

Probability and Statistics

4.1
4.2

72

76

109

Introduction
109
Statistical Measurement Theory
110
Probability Density Functions
110
4.3
Infinite Statistics
116
4.4
Finite Statistics
120
Standard Deviation of the Means
122
Pooled Statistics
125
4.5
Chi-Squared Distribution
126
Precision Interval in a Sample Variance
126
Goodness-of-Fit Test
129
4.6
Regression Analysis
130
Least-Squares Regression Analysis
131
4.7
Data Outlier Detection
138
4.8
Number of Measurements Required
139
4.9
Summary
141
References
141

52

Contents
Nomenclature
142
Problems
142
5.

Uncertainty Analysis

148

5.1
5.2
5.3

Introduction
148
Measurement Errors
149
Design-Stage Uncertainty Analysis
150
Combining Elemental Errors: RSS Method
151
Design Stage Uncertainty
152
5.4
Error Sources
154
Calibration Errors
155
Data-Acquisition Errors
155
Data-Reduction Errors
155
5.5
Systematic and Random Errors
156
Systematic Error
156
Random Error
157
5.6
Uncertainty Analysis: Error Propagation
158
Propagation of Error
158
5.7
Advanced-Stage Uncertainty Analysis
162
Zero-Order Uncertainty
163
Higher-Order Uncertainty
163
Mh-Order Uncertainty
163
5.8
Multiple-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis
168
Propagation of Elemental Errors
168
Propagation of Uncertainty to a Result
173
5.9
Correction for Correlated Systematic Errors
179
5.10
Harmonization
181
5.11
Summary
181
References
182
Nomenclature
182
Problems
183

6.

Analog Electrical Devices and Measurements

6.1
6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6

191

Introduction
191
Analog Devices: Current Measurements
191
Direct Current
191
Alternating Current
194
Analog Devices: Voltage Measurements
196
Analog Voltage Meters
196
Oscilloscope
196
Potentiometer
197
Analog Devices: Resistance Measurements
200
Ohmmeter Circuits
200
Bridge Circuits
201
Loading Errors and Impedance Matching
207
Loading Errors for Voltage Dividing Circuit
207
Interstage Loading Errors
208
Analog Signal Conditioning: Amplifiers
211

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Contents
6.7

Analog Signal Conditioning: Special Purpose Circuits

Analog Voltage Comparator
215
Sample and Hold Circuit
216
Charge Amplifier
217
4-20 mA Current Loop
217
Multivibrator and Flip-Flop Circuits
218
6.8
Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters
219
Butterworth Filter Design
221
Bessel Filter Design
224
/
Active Filters
225
6.9
Grounds, Shielding, and Connecting Wires
226
Ground and Ground Loops
226
Shields
227
Connecting Wires
228
6.10
Summary
228
References
229
Nomenclature
229
Problems
229
7.

Sampling, Digital Devices, and Data Acquisition

7.1
7.2

7.3
7.4
7.5

7.6
7.7

7.8

215

235

Introduction
235
Sampling Concepts
235
Sample Rate
236
Alias Frequencies
237
Amplitude Ambiguity
241
Selecting Sample Rate and Data Number
243
Digital Devices: Bits and Words
243
Transmitting Digital Numbers: High and Low Signals
245
Voltage Measurements
246
Digital-to-Analog Converter
247
Analog-to-Digital Converter
248
Digital Voltmeters
256
Data-Acquisition Systems
257
Data-Acquisition System Components
258
Signal Conditioning: Filters and Amplification
258
Multiplexer
260
A/D Converters
261
D/A Converters
261
Digital Input/Output
261
Central Processing Unit: Microprocessor
261
Closed-Loop Controller
263
Memory
263
Central Bus
264
Analog Input-Output Communication
264
Data-Acquisition Boards
264
Single- and Differential-Ended Connections
266
Special Signal Conditioning Modules
268
Data-Acquisition Triggering and Sample Sequence
268

Contents
7.9

Digital Input-Output Communication

Serial Communications
269
Universal Serial Bus and IEEE 1394
Parallel Communications
272
7.10
Summary
276
References
277
Suggested Reading
277
Nomenclature
277
Problems
278

8.

Temperature Measurements

269
272

282

8.1

Introduction
282
Historical Background
282
8.2
Temperature Standards and Definition
283
Fixed Point Temperatures and Interpolation
283
Temperature Scales and Standards
284
8.3
Thermometry Based on Thermal Expansion
286
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
286
Bimetallic Thermometers
287
8.4
Electrical Resistance Thermometry
288
Resistance Temperature Detectors
288
Thermistors
295
8.5
Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement
300
Seebeck Effect
300
Peltier Effect
301
Thomson Effect
302
Fundamental Thermocouple Laws
302
Basic Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples
Thermocouple Standards
305
Thermocouple Voltage Measurement
306
Multiple-Junction Thermocouple Circuits
313
Data-Acquisition Considerations
315
8.6
Radiative Temperature Measurements
319
Radiation Fundamentals
319
Radiation Detectors
320
Radiative Temperature Measurements
322
Optical Fiber Thermometers
323
8.7
Physical Errors in Temperature Measurement
324
Insertion Errors
324
Conduction Errors
325
Radiation Errors
327
Radiation Shielding
329
Recovery Errors in Temperature Measurement
330
8.8
Summary
332
References
332
Nomenclature
333
Problems
334

303

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Contents

9. Pressure and Velocity Measurements

341

9.1
9.2
9.3

Introduction
341
Pressure Concepts
341
Pressure Reference Instruments
344
McLeod Gauge
344
Barometer
345
Manometers
346
Deadweight Testers
349
9.4 i Pressure Transducers
351
Bourdon Tube
351
Bellows and Capsule
352
Diaphragms
355
9.5
Pressure Transducer Calibration
358
Static Calibration
358
Dynamic Calibration
358
9.6
Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids
360
Total Pressure Measurement
362
Static Pressure Measurement
362
9.7
Design and Installation: Transmission Effects
364
Gases
364
Liquids
366
Heavily Damped Systems
366
9.8
Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems
368
Pitot-Static Pressure Probe
368
Thermal Anemometry
370
Doppler Anemometry
373
Particle Image Velocimetry
375
Selection of Velocity Measuring Methods
377
9.9
Summary
378
References
378
Nomenclature
379
Problems
380
10. Flow Measurements
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5

10.6

385

Introduction
385
Historical Comments
385
Flow Rate Concepts
386
Volume Flow Rate Through Velocity Determination
Pressure Differential Meters
389
Obstruction Meters
389
Orifice Meter
393
Venturi Meter
394
Flow Nozzles
396
Sonic Nozzles
400
Obstruction Meter Selection
401
Laminar Flow Elements
405
Insertion Volume Flow Meters
406
Electromagnetic Flow Meters
406
Vortex Shedding Meters
407

387

Contents
Rotameters
410
Turbine Meters
411
Transit Time and Doppler (Ultrasonic) Flow Meters
Positive Displacement Meters
413
10.7
Mass Flow Meters
413
Thermal Flow Meter
414
Coriolis Flow Meter
415
10.8
Flow Meter Calibration and Standards
418
10.9
Estimating Standard Flow Rate
419
10.10 Summary
419
References
420
Nomenclature
420
Problems
421
11.

Strain Measurement

425

11.1
11.2

Introduction
425
Stress and Strain
425
Lateral Strains
427
11.3
Resistance Strain Gauges
428
Metallic Gauges
428
Strain Gauge Construction and Bonding
431
Semiconductor Strain Gauges
432
11.4
Strain Gauge Electrical Circuits
434
11.5
Practical Considerations for Strain Measurement
437
The Multiple Gauge Bridge
437
Bridge Constant
438
11.6
Apparent Strain and Temperature Compensation
440
Temperature Compensation
441
Bridge Static Sensitivity
443
Construction and Installation
443
Analysis of Strain Gauge Data
446
Signal Conditioning
446
Uncertainties in Multichannel Measurements
446
11.7
Optical Strain Measuring Techniques
449
Basic Characteristics of Light
449
Photoelastic Measurement
449
Moire Methods
453
11.8
Summary
454
References
454
Nomenclature
455
Problems
456
12.

Mechatronics: Sensors, Actuators, and Controls

12.1
12.2

Introduction
460
Sensors
460
Displacement Sensors
460
Measurement of Acceleration and Vibration
Velocity Measurements
472
Angular Velocity Measurements
476

460

465

412

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Contents
Force Measurement
479
Torque Measurements
483
Mechanical Power Measurements
484
12.3
Actuators
486
Linear Actuators
486
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators
488
Rotary Actuators
491
Flow-Control Valves
492
12.4
Controls
494

Dynamic Response
497
Laplace Transforms
497
Block Diagrams
499
Model for Oven Control
501
Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
504
PID Control of a Second-Order System
506
12.5
Summary
510
References
511
Nomenclature
511
Problems
512
Appendix A

A Guide for Technical Writing

515

A.I

A Guide for Technical Writing

516
Abstract
516
Introduction
516
Specific Writing Steps
516
Writing Tips
521
On Writing Style
521
Conclusions
521
References
522
Appendix B

Property Data and Conversion Factors

Appendix C Laplace Transform Basics

Reference

530

Glossary of New Terms

Index

537

531

529

523