1

Introduction

1.1. Introduction
In earlier days the machine operator had to lean on the machine for hours to produce an item,
which leads to undue physical stress and strain. This alternately leads to loss of efficiency.
Moreover in the conventional general purpose machines, the skilled operator is required who has
to read the drawing and check the dimensions of the component being produced, in addition to
handle the machine. With the increase in the degree of complexity of the component, the time to
produce the component also increases. More time for manufacturing means increased cost of the
item. Even a small mistake on the part of operator results in production of defective components,
which again leads to loss of time and increase in manufacturing cost. To overcome these
problems, several improvements have been made in the conventional machines. Initially machines
were made automatic by the use of electro-mechanical relays. But the size of the machines were
quite large and they were not reliable. Then with the advancement of technology integrated
circuits were used to make machines automatic. These days microprocessors are widely used for
controlling and performing the various activities of the machines. These are capable of handling
both arithmetic and logical data by designing a suitable program. The machine will be controlled
by digits, alphabetic characters, symbols or a combination of these. This controlling of a machine
by a suitably prepared program is called numerical control and the machine is called
NC machine.
According to Electronic Industries Association (EIA) numerical control is defined as :
A system in which the actions are controlled by direct insertion of numerical data at some point.
The system must automatically interpret at least some portion of this data.

1.2. NC Machines
The machines that are automatically operated by commands which are received by their
processing unit are called NC machines. The commands are given in the form of coded instructions
which are expressed not easily through numerals, but also through letters, punctuation marks and
other symbols. The commands or instructions are fed through an external medium such as punch
card, punch tape, magnetic tape etc.
The program containing the required data for the production of a component is punched on
the tape. The data on the tape is in the form of binary codes. Tape reader reads the data and is
stored into the memory of the control system called buffer storage and is processed by the
machine step by step. So when the machine is working on one instruction block, the next block is

Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

read from the tape and stored in the memory of the machine control system. When the operation
has been completed the information from buffer storage is instantaneously transferred to the
active storage, thus ensuring continuous running of the program.
Tape reader sends the corresponding data to decoder. The decoder generates a pulse for all
the starting and end points given to it. After that signals are further amplified and given to the
stepper motor, which in turn operates the machine element. The feed back is taken with the help
of transducers. The feed back is compared with the input and further the error signals are
generated to move the operative number till output matched input.
The tape has to run repeatedly depending on the number of components to be produced. Also
if there is even a minor change in the design of the component, the tape has to be discarded and
new tape with changed program has to be produced.

Fig 1.1 Numerical Control System

NC machine tool has the following features :

1 . Control using numerical data.
2 . High degree of accuracy, precission and reliability.
3 . High material removal capacity.
4 . High productivity.
5 . Considerably increased tool life.
6 . Reduced inspection.
7 . Better planning and scheduling.

Introduction

Major disadvantages associated with NC machine tool are :

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Punched tape gets damaged after number of use.

Punched tape readers are not reliable.
Online checking or editing of program is not possible.
High investment and maintenance cost.
Requirement of trained personal for operating the NC machines.

1.3. Components of NC Machine

The components of an NC machine can be identified by defining the objective of the
NC system. NC system must be programmable, so we need an input medium to give instructions
and generates the required signals. Lastly a operating unit that perform the operation. The main
components are :

(a) Program input Commands or Instructions.

(b) Processing unit Machine Controller Unit.
(c) Operating unit Machine Tool.
The relation between these three components can be represented as :

Fig.1.2.

1.3.1. Instructions
The sequence of commands required to convey the desired information to the machine is
called instructions. The set of instructions that command the machine is usually coded and
represented in an input medium.

1.3.2. Machine Control Unit (MCU)

The MCU gets the informations and data from the input elements. They perform the required
processing based on the instructions. Similar to central processing unit (CPU), the MCU has its
own memory, decision making circuits and arithmetic manipulation circuits, which is used to
process the data.
The MCU understands the instruction and performs the operation in the following steps :
(a) Gets input through an input medium.
(b) Compares the commands with a look up table and thereby understands it.
(c) If the action is to cause a slide movement, then MCU generates the required signals to
drive the corresponding mechanism.

Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

(d) It constantly gets the feed back from the transducer that monitors the slide position, and
based on the feed back initiates further control action.

Fig. 1.3. Logical Block Diagram of MCU

1.3.3. Machine Tool

Machine tool is the mechanism which physically perform the intended operation on the work
piece. A lathe or milling machine is an example for the machine tool. So a machine tool is an
assembly of slides, spindles, tool and work holding fixtures and their corresponding moving
arrangements. The design of machine tool has to be given due consideration while building a
NC machine.

1.4. Comparison of Conventional and Numerical Control Machine

A general comparison of the arrangement between a conventional machine and NC machine
is shown below :

Fig. 1.4. A conventional machines slide is moved

by an operator turning the handwheel. Accurate
positioning is accomplished by the operator
counting the number of revolutions made on the
handwheel, plus the graduations on the dial.

Fig. 1.5. A NC machine takes the commanded

position from the NC program. The drive motor is
rotated a corresponding amount, which in turn
drives the ballscrew, causing linear motion of the
axis. A feedback device confirms that the proper
amount of ballscrew revolutions has occurred.

Introduction

1.5. CNC Machines

In Computer Numerical Control system, a dedicated computer is used to perform all the basic
NC functions as per the control program stored in the memory of the computer. Thus the
machine controlled data comes directly from the computer memory and not for the continuous
tape as in case of head-wired NC system. The use of computer makes the system flexible so that
the system can operate on a different type of machine tool.
The main function of the CNC system is the control machine tool which involves convestion
of the part program instructions into machine tool motions through the computer interface and
servo system. A CNC system has got the capability to conveniently incorporate a variety of
control feature into the soft-wired controlled unit. The term soft-wired system is also used
because of the fact that the control logic for the machine tool is generated by software program.
Because of the memory availability, users can also store program in the computer. The
capability to edit these part programmers is a real advantage to the part programmer at the
machine station. Thus any minor change in the design of the component can be accumulated
using the ability of the computer, additional features such as tape punching options are possible
on the CNC. The movements of the cutting tool in each program and the final shape of the
component to be produced can be shown on the monitor screen without actual machining take
place. This makes the trouble shooting of the program easier.

Fig. 1.6. Control architecture of CNC Machine

Thus the characteristics of CNC are :

1 . It controls a single machine, in other words it is dedicated to single machine tool.
2 . It is located very near to machine tool.
3 . It allows storage, retrievals entry of NC programs directly using keyboard.

1.6. Types of CNC

There are two types of CNC machines based on the method of program implementation.

(i) Straight CNC

(ii) Hybrid CNC

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1.6.1. Straight CNC

A straight CNC system uses a computer to perform all the numerical control functions. The
only hard-wired components are those required to interface the computer with the machine tool
and the operators consol. All the functions such as tool position, feed rate generation, interpolation
and all other functions are performed by computer software.

Fig. 1.7. Straight CNC Machine Block Diagram

1.6.2. Hybrid CNC

In hybrid CNC system, the control consists of the hard-wired logic circuit and the soft-wired
computer. The hard-wired components perform the functions of feed rate generation and circular
interpolation. The computer performs the remaining control functions.

Fig. 1.8. Hybrid CNC Machine Block Diagram

The computer required in a Straight CNC must be more powerful than that required in
Hybrid CNC because more functions are to be performed with the help of computer software.
Straight CNC is more flexible as compared to Hybrid CNC because it is possible to make
changes in the interpolation program, where as the logic contained in the hard-wired circuits
cannot be altered.

1.7. Functions of CNC

The principal functions of CNC machines are :
1 . Machine Tool Control
2 . In-process Compensation
3 . Flexible programming & operating features
4 . Diagnostics

Introduction

1.7.1. Machine Tool Control

The primary function of CNC system is the control of the machine tool and slides through an
interfacing system. The logic for performing the calculations and decisions are software implemented
in the memory of the computer. The part program instructions are operated by these logics and
the results of these calculations are used to drive the external actuators such as servo motors,
through the interfacing system.

1.7.2. In Process Compensation

The functions related to machine tool control is called In process compensations. This
involves the dynamic correction of the machine tool motion for change or errors which occur
during processing. Some of the commonly used compensations are :

(a) Offset adjustment for tool radius and length.

(b) Adapting the feed and speed to suit the cutting environment.
(c) Axis position recomputation with reference to datum.
(d) Computation of predicted tool life and selection of alternative tooling when needed.

1.7.3. Flexible Programming and Operating features

The CNC provides many flexible features to enable better programmability. Some of them
are :

(a) Editing of part programs at the machine without the necessity of NC tape and reader.
This helps in optamization of the program.

(b) Graphic display of the cutting tool path helps to verify the part program.
(c) Control of various types of interpolation.
(d) Storage of more than one part program in memory unit thus allowing retrieval when
required.

(e) Use of international systems.

(f) Manual Date Input.

1.7.4. Diagnostic
CNC are often designed with a system that helps to detect any problem. The system indicates
about the existence or occurrence of a problem to the service personnel. This helps the service
person to identify and rectify the problem without causing much machine down time. Some
CNCs are built with the capability to switch to a stand-by unit if any fault occurs in the main
unit. Thus repairs could be accomplished without any breakdown in normal operations of the
machine. After repair, the stand-by unit comes out from the system automatically so that the
newly installed component can perform its functions. These diagnostic features are still under
development and future systems will be much more powerful in their capabilities.

Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

1.8. Advantages of CNC Machines

Most of the advantages derived from CNC are due to the high level of automation and high
flexibility. The significant advantages are as follows :
1. Reduced Lead Time : The time between the production engineer gets the design drawing
and the manufacturer getting ready to start production, includes the time for planning, design and
manufacturing of jigs and fixtures etc. is called lead time. The special jigs and fixtures are
entirely eliminated in CNC. So the time is saved, which in turn reduce the lead time.
2. Incresed Production : CNC increases the proportion of time the machine is engaged in
actual process, i.e., machining. This is achieved with less steps, and with automatic tool changers.
3. Smaller Batches : By the use of pre-set tooling and pre-setting techniques down time
between batches is kept at minimum. Periodic machining of small batches is found to be
economic and brings about a rapid stock turnover.
4. Longer Tool Life : According to the material of the work piece, the speeds and feeds of
the tool can be selected accurately. This reduces the wear and tear of the tool giving it a longer
cutting life.
5. Tool Storage Cost : As the tools are more readily located in a computer controlled tool
index system and hence there is no need of separate storage system of the tools, causing
reduction in tool storage cost.
6. Lower Labour Cost : Actual cutting time in the CNC machines is more than conventional
machines since the setting time is lower. Also one operator can run two or more machines or
multiple pallet machines are used resulting in reduced labour cost.
7. Elimination of Special Jigs and Fixtures
Special jigs and fixtures usually required for positioning are eliminated since the machine can
locate position quickly and accurately. Thus reducing the cost of special jigs fixtures and also the
cost of jig storage facilities.
8. Reduced Inspection : Inspection costs are greatly reduced because of the reliability of the
CNC system and do not need full inspection. Hence the cost to transport parts to inspection site is
also reduced. Normally, it is necessary to inspect the first component only. If there is any
difference in the dimensions of the machined component, the programme is checked and corrected,
if needed.
9. Elimination of Operator Error : The machine is controlled by programme of instructions
stored in the memory of the computer. The programme is checked before it goes to the machine,
so no error will occur in the job.
10. Lesser Scrap : The reliability of the system eliminates most of the human errors
associated with manual operation e.g., incorrect hole location errors are entirely eliminated. This
reduces the cost of scrap by more than 50%.

Introduction

11. Flexibility in Changes of Component Design : The modification or changes in component

design can be readily accommodated by re-programming and altering the concerned instructions.
12. Reduced Floor Space : Large floor area is saved because a single machining centre can
perform many operations which otherwise would require a number of conventional machines.
13. Reduction in Transportation Cost : The machining centre reduces the number of times
a component has to be moved from machine to machine, this reduces the material handling which
inturn reduces the transport cost during the production. The time spent in awaiting the availability
of the machine is also eliminated.
14. Accurate Costing and Scheduling : In CNC machines, the time taken in machining is
predictable, consistent and results in a greater accuracy in estimating and more consistency in
costing. Consistent operation enables the accurate compilation of shop loading schedules and thus
results in a balanced loading and a more predictable output.
15. Less Skilled Operator : Less skilled people can operate CNC machines unlike conventional
machines which need skilled engineers.
16. Effective Machine Utilization : All non-cutting movements of the slide are performed at
a rapid feedrate of 5 to 10 mm/min and dimensional measurements are eliminated.
17. Less Paper Work : In process inventory gets reduced due to reduction in lead time and
faster setup time. This inturn reduce the paper work as the scheduling is reduced.
18. Ease of Assembly and Interchangeability : The slide positions of the CNC machines
can be controlled precisely. Therefore, highly accurate components can be produced. This helps
in interchangeability.

1.9. Disadvantages of CNC Machines

As with every system, the CNC system too have certain disadvantages which are given
below :
1. High Initial Cost : The initial equipment cost and its installation cost is higher than the
conventional machine because it uses a complex electromechanical technology.
2. Higher Maintenance Cost : Persons, trained in electronics along with mechanical and
electrical, are required to service and maintain these complex machines.
3. Costlier CNC Personnel : Certain aspect of CNC machine operations require a higher skill
level than conventional operations. Part programming and CNC maintenance are two areas where
personal with the required skill are in short supply. The problem of finding hiring and training of
these people is a disadvantage to CNC mahines
4. Increased Unemployment : Less workers are required to operate CNC machine compared
to manually operated mahines. Investment in CNC can leads to unemployment.

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

5. Planned Support Facility : Since most of the proparatory work for CNC operation is done
away from the machine, planned support facilities will be essential e.g. part programming, tape
preparation and tool pre-setting, are fundamental services that must be considered.
6. Not suitable for long run application.
7. Machines have to be installed in air-conditioned places.

1.10. Parts Suitable for CNC Machines

Despite the fact that there are many successful NC machines, some users are still confused of
just what profit can be achieved by using CNC. The generally profitable applications where the
CNC machines can be best suitable are summarised as follows :
(1) When the part geometry is so complex that the quantity production of it involves
possibility of human error.
(2) Where the operations or setups are very costly.
(3) For parts subjected to regular design changes.
(4) Where close and repetitive operations are required on the work parts.
(5) For small or medium batch quantity.
(6) Where tooling cost forms significant part of unit cost.
(7) Where tool storage is a problem.
(8) When inspection cost represents a major portion of total cost i.e., 100% inspection is
required.
(9) When lead time does not permit the conventional tooling manufacturing.
(10) The operations to be performed are very complex.
(11) Where very much metal removal is required.

1.11. Environmental Control for CNC machines

As these machines are very costly and complex in design, so great care is necessary for these
machines in handling as well as upkeeping. Actually the CNC machines are the assembly of
number of sophisticated electromechanical devices with very high degree of accuracy and complex
in nature. Any change in the condition of the environment may damage or disturb the setting of
the machine, which lead the malfunctioning of the machine. Thus, it is very important to
maintain proper environmental conditions.
The main environmental conditions to be maintained are as follows :
(1) Working temperature should be within control limits of 21C to 25C. For keeping the
controlled temperature of the CNC machines space there must be a provision of airconditioning unit.

Introduction

11

(2) The relative humidity of the machines and enclosed space should be kept between 50% to
60%. This helps to keep the components and parts of machine to remain rust free.
(3) The enclosed space environment should be free from dust and other impurities.
(4) The circulation of air should be controlled in order to keep a constant and uniform
temperature within the enclosed space.
(5) Space should not be congested but should be quite open for well air circulation.
(6) There should not be any vibrating and noisy source present near the CNC machines.
(7) There should be proper disposal point for scrap.
(8) Electrical power supply should be regulated.
(9) There must be proper lighting and air ventilation system.
(10) Shop floor should be free from oily or greasy materials.
(11) There should not be the use of harmful chemicals near the machine which give bad
effects on the machine.

1.12. Applications of CNC

The main applications of Computer Numerical Controls are given as under :
(1) To minimise the lead time in manufacturing.
(2) To manufacture such parts which are complex in construction and it will not be possible
to manufacture them accurately on conventional machines due to human and machine
error involved.
(3) To give flexibility to machine tools to adapt such parts to manufacture which are
frequently subjected to change in design.
(4) To produce repetitive and precision quality parts in varing batch quantity.
(5) To produce such parts where mistake in processing would be costly.
(6) To cut down the investment on tooling and fixture inventory as required when parts are
made on conventional machines.
(7) To manufacture parts having very close tolerances.
(8) Large number of operations must be performed on the part in its manufacturing.
(9) To manufacture parts requiring 100% inspection.

1.13. Industrial Applications of CNC

In the production of following industrial parts, the CNC machines are widely used :
(1) Aerospace Equipments
Aerospace industry is one of the first and greatest users of the CNC machines because of the
small batches of complex parts are needed by it.

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

(2) Printed Circuit Board

The electronic industry uses CNC to manufacture and assemble components parts on printed
circuit boards.
(3) Coil Winding
The electrical industry uses CNC to wind coils for different types of motors and transformers.
(4) Automobile Parts
This is the second largest industry to use CNC machines.
(5) Drawing and blue prints of complex shapes
The drafting machines also use CNC equipments where complex drawings are to be made of
the parts to be manufactured.

1.14. Direct Numerical Control (DNC)

Direct Numerical Control system can be defined as A type of manufacturing system in
which several NC or CNC machines are controlled remotely from a main frame computer. The
main frame computer sends the information to individual machines as and when required. The
part programmes for all the components, which are to be manufactured on the machines in DNC
system, are stored in the memory of the computer. When a machine needs a control commands,
they are communicated by the computer immediately.
There are two alternative system configurations for linking the computer with the machine
tools. In the first configuration, the main computer is directly linked to the machine and only
minimum facilities are provided at each machine tool so that each machining operation can be
completed. In this system, there could be delays at the main computer in providing details to the
machine tool, while it is processing some other information. In the second configuration, the
main computer is connected to machine tool through a mini computer called satellite computer.
The main computer stores the part programmes for all the components to be machined on a
particular machine. The satellite computer receives and stores the part programmes. The satellite
computer then controls the machine tool operation. The advantage of this system is that the
machine can be used independent of the main computer as the main computer is not actively
involved in the operation of the machine tool.
DNC handles scheduling of the work and bypasses the need of a machine control unit, a
punched tape and tape perforation equipment. Thus relieving the system from the most unreliable
components.
As the centralised computer is used for processing of the part programme, this facilitated the
easy modification and editing of part programmes. At time a DNC system can control more than
100 separate machines.

Introduction

13

A DNC system consists of four basic elements :

1 . Main Frame Computer
2 . Bulk Memory
3 . Communication Network
4 . NC Machine Tools

Fig. 1.9. A Direct Numerical Control System

The mainframe computer is generally kept isolated from the factory environment. The
computer is primarily used to store the part programs, machine scheduling information and
management information database. Since the part program is stored in a central place, it does not
have to be loaded into the memory of each machine. The part programmer can remain in one
place and can write the program for all the machines. Since the machines are controlled by one
powerful computer, the tracking of process in the factory is simplified and therefore optional
scheduling is made possible. This helps to increase the machine utilization time.

1.15. Types of DNC

The DNC system can be classified according to the method of the communication link
established between the computer control and the machine tool unit.
1. Behind the Tape Reader System
2. Special Machine Control Unit System

1.15.1. Behind the Tape Reader (BTR) System

In this arrangement, the central computer is directly linked to the regular NC controller unit.
This means that, the NC controller gets the program and instructions from the computer rather
than the conventional tape readers.

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

Thus the operation of this type of system very much similar to a conventional NC system
except for the source of the command instructions. The controller unit uses two temporary storage
buffers to receive blocks of instructions from the DNC computer and convert them into machine
actions. When one buffer is receiving a block of data the other provides control instructions to the
machine tool units. Only minor changes are needed in the conventional NC system to make it to
behind the tape reader DNC system. A BTR system is economical as compared to the other system.
A BTR system do not require the replacement of the conventional control unit by a special MCU.

Fig. 1.10. Behind the Tape Reader DNC System

However, this BTR advantage is a temporary one as most NC machines are sold with
computer numerical control. The CNC controller serves the same purpose as the special MCU
when incorporated into a DNC system.

1.15.2. Special Machine Control Unit (SMCU) System

In this arrangement, the NC controller is completely replaced with a special machine control
unit (MCU) that can directly interact with the central computer.
This special machine control unit configuration achieves a superior balance between accuracy
of the interpolation and fast metal removal rates than is generally possible with the BTR system.

Fig. 1.11. Special Machine Control Unit DNC System

Introduction

15

A special MCU configuration of DNC system is soft-wired while the conventional NC

controller is hard-wired. The soft-wired feature gives the advantage of flexibility to this system
and thus the control functions can be altered with relative ease to make improvements. It is more
difficult to make changes in the regular NC controller because rewiring is required.

1.16. Functions of DNC System

DNC system can perform the following functions :

(a) Part Program Storage

(b) Post Processing
(c) Part Programming without punched tape
(d) Data Collection and Report Making
(e) Communication
(a) Part Program Storage : DNC system stores the part program for CNC machining in a
sub system which consists of two types of storage :

(i) Active storage : It stores those CNC part programs which are frequently used for various
machine tools. It can be readily accessed by the DNC system to drive a particular CNC machine
tool. For active storage a floppy disc can be used.
(ii) Secondary storage : It contains the part programs which are not frequently used. In DNC
system, secondary storage media are floppy disc, CD, magnetic tape, punched tape etc.
The main requirement for program storage sub system is that it must be available for down
loading to CNC machine tools and it must permit for new programs to be entered, old programs
to be deleted and existing programs to be edited as per the requirement.

(b) Post Processing : This is an important function of DNC system. The part program in
DNC system are generally stored as CLFILE. This CLFILE must be converted into instructions
for a particular CNC machine tool because DNC controls a large number of CNC machine tools
and these machine tools can have different control systems. All these control system are not
exactly same in their operation and have differences in their approach. So, CLFILE instructions
are to be converted into a particular coding system as per a particular machine tool and its control
system. This conversion is best done by a post processor. Post processor is a software according
to the type of control system of a particular machine tool.
(c) Part Programming without punch tape : DNC system eliminate the use of punch tape.
Part programs are directly transmitted from DNC system to the CNC system, without the use of
tape and tape reader.
(d) Data collection and report making : The previous functions were concerned with the
direct link from the central computer to the machine tools in the factory.
Another important function of DNC involves the opposite link, the transfer of data from
machine tool back to the central computer. This is a two-way transfer of data.
The basic purpose behind the data collection and reporting function of DNC is to monitor
production in the factory. Datas are collected on production piece counts, tool usage, machine

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

utilization and other factors that measure performance in the shop. These data must be processed
by the DNC computer and reports are prepared to provide management with information
necessary for running the plant. The scope of this DNC function has been broadened over the
years to include data collection not only from the NC/CNC machines, but from all other work
centers in the factory. The term used to describe this broader scope activity is shop floor control.

(e) Communication : A communication network is required to accomplish the previous

functions of DNC. Communication among the various subsystems is a function that is central to
the operation of any DNC system.
The essential communication links in DNC are between the following components of the
system.

Central computer and machine tools

Central computer and NC part programmer terminals

Central computer and bulk memory which stores the NC programs

Computer-aided design (CAD) system

Shop floor control (SFC) system

Corporate data processing computer

Remote maintenance diagnostics system

1.17. Advantages of DNC system

Just as CNC had certain advantages over a conventional NC system, there are also some
advantages associated with the use of DNC. The main are :
1. Elimination of punched tape and tape readers.
DNC eliminates the least reliable element in the conventional NC system. In some DNC, the
hard-wired control unit is also elimination and replaced by a special machine control unit
designed to be more compatible with DNC operation.
2. Greater computational capability and flexibility.
The large DNC computer provides the opportunity to perform the computational and data
processing functions more effectively than traditional NC/CNC system. Because these functions
are implemented with soft-wire rather than with hard-wired devices, there exists the flexibility to
alter and improve the method by which these functions are carried out.
3. Convenient storage of NC part programs in computer files.
This compares with the more manually oriented storage of punched tapes in conventional NC.
4. Reporting of shop performance.
One of the important feature in DNC involves the collection, processing and reporting of
production performance data from the NC machines.

Introduction

17

5. Centralized control of machine tool.

All the machine tools are operated by the instructions passed by one computer placed
centrally, thus controlling all the machine tools.
6. Increased Productivity
DNC helps in reducing the down time by operating more machine tools at the same time.
This in turn increases the productivity.
7. Save Time
As all the part programs are computed centrally in DNC and the instructions are passed to
machine tool as and when required. This help in saving time of production.
8. Establishes the framework for the evolution of the future computer automated factory
The DNC concept represents a first step in the development of production plants which will
be managed by computer systems.

1.18. Disadvantages of DNC

There are some disadvantages of DNC which resists its implementation. The main disadvantages
are :
(1) High cost of computer hardware.
(2) The number of machines which could be controlled by one computer was limited.
(3) Computer software was limited for maintenance, scheduling, control and data collection.
(4) A back up computer was usually required.
(5) It is hard to justify the basis of downloading part programs.

1.19. Machine Control Unit (MCU)

The basic component of numerical control system is controller unit. It consists of the
electronics and hardware which read and interpret the programme of instructions and convert it
into mechanical action of the machine tool.
All the present day modren controls are computer numerical control system incorporating the
latest microprocessors. The availability of microprocessors has greatly increased the capability of
the machine control unit in terms of the functions as well as the reliability by reducing a large
number of devices into a few. Thus the present day MCU is a very compact unit compared to the
earlier units. Along the developments in the hardware, the control software has also gone through
a large amount of changes.

1.19.1. Benefits of the Machine Control Unit

Following are the benefits of the machine control unit :

(i) Larger part program storage running to MB rather that KB or single blocks in the
previous controllers.
(ii) Part program graphical proving and editing.

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

(iii) Part program generation using conversational part programming methods.

(iv) Tool life management function, including large number of tool off set registers as well as
monitoring the life of the individual tool used.

(v) Background part programming methods.

(vi) Drip feeding of part programs when they are very large in cases such as finish machining
(vii)

(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)

of 3D contours of dies and moulds.

Enhanced part programming facilities such as complex interpolation, additional canned
cycles, repetitive part programming, use of subroutines and macros, special geometric
calculation facilities.
Diagnostic facilities with the possibility of direct linking with the service centres using
modems.
Use of standard operating system with the associated use of the controller for other
functions.
Better shop floor control with the use of two ways linking through the programmable
logic control with the outside world.
Enhanced machine control such as adaptive control, lead screw pitch error compensation,
thermal compensation etc.
Multiple axis machining with more axes simultaneously.

(xii)
1.19.2 Types of MCU

Following three type of MCUs are generally used :

(a) Housed MCU : This type of MCU may be mounted on the machine tool or may be built
in the casing of the machine as shown in fig. 1.12.

Spindle for
job

Coolant Unit Indexing

head
Transparent
shutter

Inspection
window
Housed
MCU

Tank for coolant

metal burrs

Fig. 1.12. Housed MCU

(b) Swing Around MCU : This type of MCU is directly mounted on the machine which can
swing around it and can be adjusted as per requirement of the operators position. This

Introduction

19

arrangement shown in fig. 1.13, provides a large working space around the machine for the ease
of operator.

Machine
Tool

Swing Type
MCU

Table

Fig. 1.13. Swing Around MCU

(c) Stand Alone MCU : This MCU is enclosed in a separate cabinet which is installed at
some remote or same place near to the machine as shown in fig 1.14.
MCU

Machine Tool

Fig. 1.14. Stand Alone MCU

1.19.3. Elements of Machine Control Unit

A typical CNC machine control unit has a number of sub-units present inside to perform all
functions assigned to it. The important elements of machine control unit are :

(i) Input/Reader Units

(ii) Programs Memory

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)

Additional Programming Facility

Buffer Memory
Advance Management
Processor
Output Channels and Actuators
Graphic Proving
Diagnostics
Control Panel

1.19.3.1. Input/ Reader Unit : Reader unit consists of electro-mechanical devices used to
read the coded instruction from the programme of instructions. Various program readers are
available on the basis of type of input media. Some of the commonly used are :

(a) Card Readers : It consists of a box to keep all the cards in a sequence in the form of a
pack, pressed by a weight. The other part consists of a reading mechanism and a collecting tray,
to which the cards are passed automatically by a lever. It reads the information punched into a
card by converting the presence or absence of a hole into an electric signal which represents a
binary 0 or 1. To generate the electric signal, either brushes or photoelectric cells are employed.
Card readers operate at speeds ranging from 12 to 1000 cards per minute.

(b) Punched Tape Readers : When a punched tape is passed through a punched tape reader,
electric connections are either close or open depending on is a hole punched at a particular track
or not. The coded instructions on the tape are transformed into their electrical analogues which
are finally utilized for controlling the various machine tool functions. The commonly used
punched tape readers are :
(i) Mechanical Readers : The principle of a simple mechanical device for reading the
punched tape is as shown in fig. 1.15. In case there is no hole in the tape, the contacts remain
open, but when hole is present in the tape, its presence is detected by probe and bending of
flexible strip causes the contacts to close.

Fig. 1.15. Principle of the mechanical tape reader

The presence of hole in the tape enables the switches to close. The switch is in ON position
(hole) or OFF position (no hole) accordingly. These are very economical but have a slow speed
of reading 20-120 lines of codes per second.

Introduction

21

(ii) Pneumatic Readers : These type of readers pushes a compressed stream of air through
eight jets over the tape. The compressed jets are directed through specially designed tubes which
have two openings. The first opening called main opening, is close to the tape and second
opening is connected to a signal detector. If there is no hole in the tape, the tape covers the main
opening and the free escape of air is restricted, as a results, a back pressure is developed in the
supply tube. This back pressure is sensed by the signal detector and position is recorded as 0
i.e., OFF. But if a punched hole in the tape comes in front of the main opening, the air is
allowed to escape freely resulting in no back pressure built up in the supply tube. This loss of
back pressure is detected by the signal detector and position is recorded as 1 i.e., ON. The
support plate prevents air coming from main opening. Pneumatic readers are somewhat faster
than mechanical readers.
Tape
support
plate

Punched
tape

To
Signal
detector
Input
air
supply

No back
pressure

Back
Pressure
0

Fig. 1.16. Principle of the pneumatic tape reader

(iii) Optical Readers : Optical system employ photo-electric light cells for sensing the holes in
punched tape. The punched tape is made to pass through between a light source and a series of
photocells. The place where ever a hole is present in the punched tape, light is permitted to reach and
energies the corresponding photocell, which converts the light energy into electrical energy to
produce a pulse i.e., ON position. The pulse is amplified and processed into a form suited to the control
circuit. When there is no hole, the light from the light source does not reach the photocell, hence no
signal is produced and the position is recorded as OFF. These are very fast and can read from 400
to 1000 characters/rows per second. These are best suitable for contouring system.
Lens (2)

Light
Source
(1)
Punch Tape
(4)

1
2
3

Photo Cells
(3)

Fig. 1.17. Principle of the optical reader

Punched
tape (4)

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

(c) Magnetic tape readers : A program reader for magnet is shown in fig 1.18. The
magnetic head serves both for encoding as well as reading the tape. The magnetic head is an
electromagnet and consists of a high permeability core in the form of a ring with a small air gap
and is energised through a coil winding. The magnetic tape is moved across the opening in the
core. When a magnetized portion of the tape appears in the reading position an e.m.f. is induced
in the winding. This e.m.f. is amplified and is used to control servo system of machine tool.
Recording Head

Oxide
layer

SS

N N

N N

Backing
Max. Magnetic force

No voltage

Fig. 1.18. Magnetic tape reader

1.19.3.2. Program Memory : Program memory is used to store the part programs and
macros in the MCU. Earlier controls had very little of such memory, but the current day
controllers have much larger memory. The advantage of larger memory is that, it is possible to
store more programs and also longer programs.
1.19.3.3. Additional Programming Facility : Better programming facilities can be provided
in addition to the basic G and M code programming as standardised by ISO. One such major area
is in the provision of newer canned cycles to facilitate major machining of the components using
simple programming. Some additional canned cycles as available is Anilam Controls are ellipse,
spiral, helical, irregular area, clearance, circular plunge pocket, rectangular plunge pocket, draft
angle pocket etc.
1.19.3.4. Buffer Memory Communication : When the part programs becomes very large, it
will not be possible to store them completely in the MCU memory. In such cases, a complete
block of information is read from tape and stored into temporary memory called buffer. One
logical block may contain one complete set of instructions words in sequence, like locating the

Introduction

23

tool on job and then the operation at the position. Different words are stored in specified memory
locations. The function of this memory is to keep on storing the next block of words, when the
machine is doing processing of previous block.
1.19.3.5. Advanced Management : In addition to the basic functions as described earlier, it
is more important for the newer controllers to provide additional facilities. Some of the typical
possibilities are :

(i) Axis calibration

(ii) Adaptive control
(iii) Thermal compensation
(iv) Pitch error compensation
1.19.3.6. Processor : Previously the processor used were vacuum tubes, the transistors and
later on, now integrated circuits technology. These were hard wired i.e., they had always a
fixed number of features, functions and operations. So later on, software based processors such
as a mini computer, were used giving the concept of CNC. But still the conventional hard-wired
processors are in use, because of the advantage of using lesser storage space, fast working and
less expenditure. The functions of it is to co-ordinate and control the functions of other units, by
giving ready signals to them at appropriate point of time.
1.19.3.7. Output Channels and Actuators : The data stored in buffer is converted into
actuation signal and supplied through output channels in the form of pulses. These channels are
nothing but pins on IC or wires from the processor. The pulse signal is of very small voltage and
current, which is amplified by electronic or electro-mangnetic amplifiers. These amplifiers along
with some circuitory, which drive the servo or split field or stepper motors for positioning and
contouring the machine tool are known as actuators.
1.19.3.8. Graphic Proving : The part programs before actually performing the machining
process can be simulated on the screen of the MCU to verify the accuracy of the geometry
generated. This verification normally has a number of options such as the actual tool path shown
in various 2D view planes or with 3D such as isometric or axonometric projections. However,
this type of simulation inspite of being fast, will not give the real feel of the actual material
removal process. Hence most modern controls provide a solid simulation process in which the
blank and the tool are actually shown in 3D shaded image. As the tool moves through the work
material, the material is actually removed as a solid subtraction between the work volume and the
swept volume of the tool in contact with the workpiece. The layer removed is shown with a
different colour to give a realistic feel of the material removal process. This process will actually
be able to simulate the uncut material at the corners more realistically because of the tool radius,
burr formation etc.

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

1.19.3.9. Diagnostics : To keep the machine utilisation high, it is necessary to check the
health of the machine tool continuously. For this purpose, a number of sensors are normally built
into the machine tools. The control, therefore, should have the necessary ability to get the
information from these sensors, analyse and then diagnose any faults already present or likely to
come in future. Such diagnosis can be immediately communicated as alarms to the operator
through the Video Display Unit.
1.19.3.10. Control Panel : The control panel permits the operator to interfere the machine
operation manually. There are many keys on the control panel for operation. Some of them
commonly used are ;
1

IN 7

X
Z

0000.000
0000.000
0000
CNTL

1 2

3
0

Med Low 1 10
100
High

X
Z

+Z
+X

0/min
OFF

MIN

Fig. 1.19. Control Panel

(i) Power Buttons : To avoid surges, most CNC machines have at least two different
power buttons, one for power to the control and another for power to the machine tool
itself.

(ii) Display Screen Control Keys : These keys as like the channel selector on a television
set. They allow the operator to select which function of the display screen operator
wants to view.

(iii) Position Buttons : This selector button allows the operator to look at the machines
position display.

(iv) Program Button : This display screen selector button allows the operator to monitor
the active program in the control memory.

(v) Letter and Number Keys : These are needed for editing the CNC programming.
(vi) Offset Button : This display screen selector button allows the user to display and
manipulate the tool offsets.

Introduction

25

1.20. Input Devices

1.20.1. Floppy Disk Drive
Floppy disk is a small magnetic storage device for CNC data input. It has been the most
common storage media upto the 1970s, in terms of data transfer speed, reliability, storage size,
data handling and the ability to read and write. Furthermore, the data within a floppy could be
easily edited at any point as long as there is a proper program to read it. However, this method has
proven to be quite problematic in the long run as floppies have a tendency to degrade alarmingly
fast and are sensitive to large magnetic fields and as well as the dust and scratches that usually
existed on the shop floor.

1.20.2. USB Flash Drive

A USB flash drive is a removable and rewritable portable hard drive with compact size and
bigger storage size than a floppy disk. Data stored inside the flash drive are impervious to dust and
scratches that enable flash drives to transfer data from place to place. In recent years, all computers
support USB flash drives to read and write data that make it become more and more popular in
CNC machine control unit.

1.20.3. Serial Communication

The data transfer between a computer and a CNC machine tool is often accomplished through a
serial communication port which provides a fast exchange of program, offset and parameter data.
International standards for serial communications are established so that information can be exchanged
in an orderly way. The most common interface between computers and CNC machine tools is
referred to the EIA Standard RS-232. Most of the personal computers and CNC machine tools have
built in RS-232 port and a standard RS-232 cable is used to connect a CNC machine to a computer
which enables the data transfer in a reliable way. Part programs can be downloaded into the
memory of a machine tool or uploaded to the computer for temporary storage by running a
communication program on the computer and setting up the machine control to interact with the
communication software. The serial communication link lets a small laptop run a towering CNC
machine with a spoon-fed part program.
The serial data is sent in codes. The speed that serial data moves is described by the baud
rate, given in units of bites-per-second (BPS). The traffic control for all this moving data is defined
by handshaking agreement established between the sending PC and receiving NC. In normal
handshaking scheme, all the stop sending and start sending codes are carried right along with
the other strings of communication data. The cable schematics are used to handle the handshaking.
For the baud rate the data codes to work, the cable and communication setting must match exactly
on both the ends of the cable.
Distributed Numerical Control is a hierarchical system for distributing data between a production
management computer and NC systems. The host computer is linked with a number of CNC
machines or computers connecting to the CNC machines for downloading part programs. The
communication program in the host computer can utilize two-way data transfer features for production
of data communication including : production schedule, parts produced and machine utilization etc.

26

Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

Work order from

production control
system
CNC part programmes
generated from CAD/CAM

Host
computer

Production
status

PC
Machine
status

Tool library
information

Production schedules
and information

PC
CNC part
programmes

CNC machine

Machine
status

PC
CNC part
Machine
programmes
status

CNC machine

PC
CNC part
Machine
programmes
status

CNC machine

CNC part
programmes

CNC machine

Fig. 1.20. Serial communication in a Distributed Numerical Control system.

Serial communication system has some major problems like ground loop noise sensitivity,
easily damaged from electrical faults and limited cable length etc.

1.20.4. Ethernet Communication

Due to the advancement of the computer technology and the drastic reduction of the cost of the
computer, it is becoming more practical and economic to transfer part programmes between
computers and CNC machines via an Ethernet communication cable. This media provides a more
efficient and reliable means in part programme transmission and storage.
One variant of Ethernet which is very desirable in an industrial environment is the fiber-optic
based system. Optical systems are totally impervious to the electrical noise and interference which
are commonly encountered in a manufacturing plant. Other significant advantage of Ethernet even
in low data-rate applications is the far better defined and coherent electrical and protocol standards.
Ethernet also performs better on long links. Ethernet offers the advantage of the transfer of more
type of data than just part program.
Most companies now built a Local Area Network (LAN) as their infrastructure. More and
more CNC machine tools provide an option of the Ethernet Card for direct communication within
the LAN. This system allows high-speed control of external devices like servos and spindles or
linking together entire groups of machines.

Introduction

27
Work order from
production control
system
CNC part programmes
generated from CAD/CAM

Tool library
information

Host
computer

Production Production schedules

status and information
Machine
status

CNC part
programmes

Machine
status

CNC machine

CNC part
programmes

CNC machine

Machine
status

CNC part
programmes

CNC machine

Machine
status

CNC part
programmes

CNC machine

Fig. 1.21. Ethernet network in a Distributed Numerical Control system.

1.20.5. Conversational Programming

Part programmes can be input to the controller via the keyboard. Built-in intelligent software
inside the controller enables the operator to enter the required data step by step. This is a very efficient
way for preparing programmes for relatively simple workpieces involving upto 2 axis machining.

1.21. NC Co-ordinate System

The distances or angles which specify the position of a point, line, circle or any other
geometrical figure with reference to a series of intersecting planes, planes or cylinder defines a
co-ordinate system. In order to find out the position of tool and work piece relative to each other
and also direction of movement giving the value of displacement, the co-ordinates of them must
be known. Any controlled movement, whether it is translation or rotation, is known as axis.
Co-ordinate system of axes is established with respect to machine table. Most of the NC machines,
have two axes X and Y for controlling the table movement. Third i.e., Z-axis movement takes
place in the tool. Similarly, a four axes machine controls movement X,Y, Z and in addition
would have a controlled angular motion of a rotating work table. The guiding principle which
best describes the relative movement of cutting tool to the work pieces is right hand co-ordinate
system, for finding the positive and negative directions of motion.
+Y

+Y
+X
+Z

+X
+Z

Fig. 1.22. Right Hand Co-ordinate System

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

1.22. Axis Identification

Most of the machine tools have two or more slide ways, at right angle to each other, along
which the spindles are displayed. Each slide can be fitted with a control system in which the axis
have to be classified.
The axis are classified on the basis of 3-Dimensional or 3D cartesian coordinate system. The
three axes of motion are identified as X, Y and Z axis. A set of certain rules are followed for
designating these axes, for applying it to different types of NC machines having different relative
motions of tool and work piece.

1.22.1. Linear Axis

(i) Z-axis : The Z-axis of motion is always the axis of main spindle of the machine. It does
not matter whether the spindle carries the workpiece or the cutting tool. If there are several
spindles on a machine, one spindle is selected as the principle spindle and its axis is then
considered to be Z-axis. The positive movement i.e., + Z is the direction that moves the cutting
tool away from the workpiece.

(ii) X-axis : The X-axis is always horizontal and is usually parallel to the holding surface. It
is generally the longest axis of movement of workpiece or tool. If the Z-axis is vertical, the
positive X-axis i.e., +X motion is identified as being to the right, while looking from the spindle
towards its supporting column.
When the Z-axis is horizontal as in horizontal milling machine, the positive X-axis i.e.,
+X motion is to the right while looking from the spindle towards the workpiece.

(iii) Y-axis : The Y-axis is always at right angles to both the X-axis and the Z-axis.

1.22.2. Rotatory Axes

In addition to these linear axes A, B and C are the other three axes, which provide rotatory
motion about the X,Y and Z cartesian axes respectively. It may be noted that all of the axes need
not be present in all groups of NC machines. The rotatory axes are to be used where the work
table or tool head has to be rotated. Fig. 1.23 shows rotational direction by the right hand i.e., if
the thumb is pointing in any direction of positive linear axis, then the direction of fingers will
point in rotational direction.
+X(or +Y, +Z)

+Y
B
+B

+C
+A(or +B
or +C)

A
+Z C

+A

Fig. 1.23. Direction of Positive Rotation

+X

Introduction

29

Various axes which can be identified in different classes of machines are as follows.
+Z
YZ Plane
+Y
X
XZ Plane

X-Y Plane

+X

Fig. 1.24.

1.22.3. Machine with Rotating Tool

These type of machine tools have spindle with cutting power.

(a) With Vertical Spindle : The machines such as drilling machine, vertical milling machine
jig boring machines, tapping machines etc. use a similar type of axes nomenclature : tool
movement is said to be in Z direction. The tool movement into the workpiece is in negative
direction i.e., Z and away from workpiece is in positive direction i.e., +Z. The motion in X
axis direction when looking from the tool spindle to column, is positive to the right. The motion
of work table in transverse direction describes the Y-axis. The positive Y can be known from the
right hand rule.

+Z
z
+y

+x

Fig. 1.25. Vertical Milling Machine

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

(b) With Horizontal Spindle : Horizontal boring machine and Horizontal spindle machine
centres, the Z-axis is again defined along the spindle axes.

+Y

+z

+x

Fig. 1.26. Horizontal Boring Machine

The X-axis, looking from the tool towards the work piece, is positive to the right side and
Y-direction is computed as previously.

1.22.4. Machines with Rotating Work-piece

In these type of machine tools, the spindle generates a surface of revolution in the workpiece.
The machines are lathe, grinding machines etc. The Z is the axis of rotation of the work-piece.
The positive movement of cutting tool (Z) is away from the head stock. The X-axis is radial and
parallel to the cross slide. The X-axis is positive when the tool moves outwards radially. There is
no Y-axis movement in lathes.
+W
x
+U
+C

+Z

+x

Fig. 1.27. Lathe machine

1.22.5. Machines with Non-rotating Tool and Non-rotating Workpiece

These type of machine tools donot have a spindle. The machines are shaper, planer etc. The
Z-axis is taken perpendicular to work holding devices, which may not pass through the tool

Introduction

31

point. The X-axis is parallel to the direction of major movement i.e., cutting. The Y-axis should
be perpendicular to both X and Z axis.
X

+X
Y
Z

+Y

Fig. 1.28. Shaper

1.23. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

A PLC is a microprocessor based special computer which can be programmed to carry out
different types of control functions at any level of complexity.
Its purpose is to monitor crucial process and adjust the processes accordingly. Thus, PLC
works by looking at its inputs and depending upon their state, turning its outputs ON or OFF.
The user enters a program, normally via software, which gives the desired results.
With the ever-growing increase in computing power and personal computer popularity, the
processors are becoming relatively in cheap and economical. This has led to a decline in the
afford ability of powerful programmable logic controllers i.e., the brains behind many machines.
These PLCs are basically smart relay boxes in which sensors and switches are on one side and
solenoids, bells, lights, motor, messages etc. come out from the other side. Some of these PLSs
have become affordable due to their low cost. These are easy to install and made operational. The
programming language is quite simple, known as ladder logic and the wiring is accomplished
with just a screw driver.
PLCs are used in various real world applications. If any industry, is to achieve automation,
PLC is the must choice. If an industry is involved in machining, packing, material handling,
automated assembly etc., it is most likely using them. If not, then money and time is being wasted
by the company. Almost any application that needs some type of electrical control require a PLC.
Previously, PLCs were used to convert manual lathes and machines to automate them; but
these days, PLCs are used in line diagnostic through limit switches or probes or optical sensors
in CNCs for controlling ATC (Automatic Tool Changers).

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

1.23.1. PLC Components

PLC is actually an industrial controller having hardware and software which is specifically
adapted to industrial environment. Fig. 1.29 shows typical block diagram of PLC. Special
attention needs to be given to input and output, because in these blocks protection is required in
isolating the CPU block from damaging influences of industrial environment. Programming is
usually done with a computer on a hand held programmer and is often in ladder diagram.
following the main PLC component explained in brief
Power Supply

Motor Starter
Switches

Sensors

Central

O
Lights

U
Smart

Processing

Unit

P
U

Memory
Devices

Valves

Smart Devices

Programming
Device

Fig. 1.29. Block Diagram of PLC

1.23.1.1. Central Processing Unit (CPU) : Central Processing Unit is the brain of a PLC.
CPU itself is one of the micro controllers. CPU also takes care of communication, interconnectedness
among other parts PLC controller, program execution, memory operation, over seeing input and
setting up of an output, PLC controllers have complex routines for memory check-up in order to
make sure that PLC memory was not damaged.
The CPU has permanent Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) and temporary
Read Write Memory (RWM) used to store and retrieve data.
1.23.1.2. Power supply : Electrical supply is required in bringing electrical energy to
Central Processing Unit. Most PLC controllers work either at 24 V DC or 220 VAC. On some
PLC controllers electrical supply is fitted as a separate module. These are usually bigger PLC
controllers, while small and medium series aleady contain the supply module. User has to
determine how much current is to be taken from I/O module to make sure that electrical supply
provides sufficient current. Different types of modules use different amounts of electrical current.
This electrical supply is normally not used to act external inputs or outputs.

Introduction

33

1.23.1.3. PLC Controller Inputs : Intelligence of an automated system can be analysed from
the ability of a PLC controller to read signals from different types of sensors and input devices.
Keys, keyboards and by functional switches are a bases of man versus machine relationship.
Whereas on other hand, in order to detect a working piece, view a mechanism in motion, check
pressure of fluid level, specific automatic devices such as proximity sensors, marginal switches,
photoelectric sensors, level sensors etc. are required Thus, input signals can be logical (ON/OFF)
or analog smaller PLC controllers usually have only digital input lines while larger also accept
analog inputs through special units attached to PLC controller. One of the most frequent analog
signals is a current signal of 4 to 20 mA sensors are usually used as inputs for PLCs.
Other devices such as robots, video systems, etc. are extensively used for sending signals to
PLC controller input modules.
1.23.1.4. PLC Controller Outputs : Automated system is not complete if it is not connected
with some output devices. Some of the most frequently used devices are motors, solenoids,
relays, indicators, sound signaling and similar operations. By starting a motor, or a relay, PLC
can manage a simple system such as a system for sorting products and even complex systems
such as service system for positioning head of a CNC machine.
Output can be analog or digital type. Digital output signal works as a switch i.e., it connects
or disconnects line. Analog output is used to generate the analog signal.
1.23.1.5. Programming a PLC : PLC can be reprogrammed through a computer as well as
through manual programmers (consoles). This means that each PLC controller can be programmed
through a computer in case the software needed for programming is available. Today, computers
are ideal for reprogramming a PLC controller in factory itself. This is of very useful to industry.
Once the system is corrected, it is also important to read the right program into a PLC again. It is
also advantageous to check from time to time whether program in a PLC has not changed. This
helps to avoid hazardous situations in factory permists.
Almost every program for programming a PLC controller possesses various useful options
such as : forced switching ON and OFF of the system inputs/outputs (I/O lines), program follow
up in real time as well as documenting a diagram. This documenting is necessary to understand
and define failures and malfunctions. Programmer can add remarks names of input or output
devices and comments that can be useful while finding errors, or with system maintenance. This
enables a technician to understand a ladder diagram right away.
1.23.1.6. Other features : Apart from these features discussed earlier, a PLC has some other
features that are needed in control and automation on the shop floor. Some of these important
features are discussed below.

(i) Internal Utility Relays : These do not exist physically and nor receive signals from the
outside world. They are stimulated relays and enable a PLC to eliminate external relays. There
are also some special relays that are dedicated to perform only one task. Some are always ON,
while some are always OFF. Some are ON only once during power-on and are typically used for
initializing data that was stored.

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

(ii) Counters : These again do not physically exist and are stimulated counters which can be
programmed to count pulses. Typically these counters even count up, down or both up and down.
Because they are stimulated, they are limited in their counting speed. Some manufactures also
include high speed counters which are hardware based.
(iii) Timers : These also do not physically exist and are available in many varieties and
increments. The time is essentially an internal clock that counts in intervals of 01 seconds, which
usually vary from 1 ms through 1 seconds.

(iv) Data storage : Typically they are registers assigned to simply store data. These are
normally used as temporary storage for math or data manipulation. They can also be used to store
data when power is removed from the PLC. With power ON, power up they still have the same
contents as before power was removed.

1.23.2. Advantages of PLC

Following are the major advantages of using a programmable controller :
1. Maintenance/Diagnostic : In addition to visual observation, PLCs can reduce maintenance
effort by running diagnostic routine built in its ROM for limit switches or inspection probes,
when the machine is running.
2. Flexibility : Earlier, each different electronically controlled production machine required
its own controller e.g. 20 machines might require 20 different controllers. Now, it is possible to
use just one model of a PLC to run any one of the 20 machines. Furthermore, less than 20
controllers may be required, because one PLC can easily run many machines. Each of the 20
machines under PLC control would have its own distinct program.
3. Implementing Changes and Correcting Errors : With a wired relay-type panel, any
program alterations require time for rewiring of panels and devices. When a PLC program circuit
or sequence design change is made, the PLC program can be changed from a keyboard sequence
in a matter of minutes. No rewiring is required for a PLC controlled system. Also, if a
programming error has to be corrected in a PLC control ladder diagram, a change can be typed
in no time.
4. Large Quantities of Contacts : The PLC has a large number of contacts for each coil
available in its programming. Suppose that panel-wired relay has four contacts and all are in use
when a design change requiring two more contacts is made. Time would be required to procure
and instal a new relay or relay contact block. Using a PLC, however, only two more contacts
would be typed in. The two contacts would be automatically available in the PLC. Indeed, a
hundred contacts can be used from one relay provided sufficient computer memory is available.
5. Lower Cost : Increased technology makes it possible to condense more functions into
smaller and less expenssive packages. Now a PLC with numerous relays, timers and counters, a
sequence and other functions is available for just few thousand of rupees.
6. Pitot Running : A PLC programmed circuit can be pre-run and evaluated in the office or
quickly and effectively during visual observation.

Introduction

35

In advanced PLC systems, an operator message can be programmed for each possible
malfunction. The malfunction description appears on the screen. When the malfunction is detected
by the PLC logic (for example, MOTOR # 16 IS OVERLOADED).
Advanced PLC systems also may have descriptions of the function of the each circuit
component. For example, input # 1 on the diagram could have IDEAL RUNNING SWITCH
on the diagram as a description.
8. Speed of Operation : Relays can take an unacceptable amount of time to actuate. The
operational speed for the PLC program is quite fast. The speed for the PLC logic operation is
determined by scan time, which is a matter of milliseconds.
9. Reliability and Maintainability : Solid-state devices are generally more reliable than
mechanical system or relays or timers. The PLC is made of solid-state components with very
high reliability rates. Therefore, the control system maintenance costs are low and downtime is
very less.
10. Simplicity of Ordering Control System Components : A PLC is one device with one
delivery date. When the PLC arrives, all the counters, relays and other components also arrive.
In designing a relay panel, there may be 15 different relays and times from 10 different suppliers.
Obtaining the parts on times involves various delivery dates and availabilities. With a PLC there
can be one product and one lead time for delivery. In a relay system, shortage of one component
would mean delaying the starts up of the control system until that component arrives. With the
PLC, one more relay is always available provided that you have a PLC with enough extra
computing power.
11. Documentation : An immediate print out of the true PLC circuit is available in minutes,
if needed. There is need to look for the blue print of the circuit in remote files. The PLC prints
out the actual circuit in operation at a given moment. Generally the file prints for relay panels are
not properly kept up to date. A PLC print out is the circuit at the present time and no wire
tracing is required for verification.
12. Security : A PLC program change cannot be made unless the PLC is properly unlocked
and programmed. Relay panels tend to undergo undocumented changes. Peoples on late shifts do
not always record panel alterations made when the office area is locked up for the night.
13. Ease of Changes by Reprogramming : Since the PLC can be reprogrammed easily and
in no time, mixed production processing can be achieved. For example, if part B comes down
the assembly line while part A is still being processed, a program for part Bs processing can be
reprogrammed into the production machinery just in seconds.

1.23.3. Disadvantages of PLC

Following are some of the disadvantages using PLCs.
1. Newer Technology : It is difficult to change the thinking of entire industry from ladders
and relays to the PLC computer concept, although today, with the extensive use of computers,
not only at home and in the office but on the factory floor, acceptance of computer as a powerful

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

and reliable productivity-enhancing tool has taken strength. Electricians and technicrons are
taking up to take causes on PLCs because they know that doing so contributes to job security and
advancement.
2. Fixed Program Applications : Some applications are single function applications and it is
does not economical to use a PLC that includes multiple programming capabilities, if they are not
needed.
Example is, in the use of drum controller/sequencers, some equipment manufacturers still use
a mechanical drum with pegs at a overall cost advantage. Their operational sequence is seldom or
never changed, so the reprogramming available with the PLC would not be required.
3. Environmental Considerations : Certain process in environments, such as high heat and
vibration, interfere with the electronic devices in PLCs, limit their use.
4. Fail-safe Operation : In relay systems, the stop button electrically disconnects the circuit.
If the power fails, the system stops. Further more, the relay system does not automatically restart
when power is restored. This can be programmed into the PLC, however, in some PLC programs,
input voltage may be required to be applied to cause a device to stop. These systems are not failsafe. This advantage can be overcome by adding safety relays to a PLC system.
5. Fixed Circuit Operation : If the circuit in operation is never altered, a fixed control
system (such as a mechanical drum) might be economical than a PLC. The PLC is most effective
when periodic changes in operation are made.

Objective Type Questions

Fill in the Blanks :
1 . In NC machine tool, the machine is controlled by ........ characters.
2 . The punched tape contains ........ for NC Machine.
3 . The ........ language is most commonly used in computer aided part programing.
4 . ........ is the least reliable component hardware of a NC system.
5 . ........ inspection is performed while the job is still setup on the machine.
6 . The external appearance of a CNC machine is almost ........ to that of the conventional
NC machine.
7 . The two types of CNC are ........ and ........ .
8 . A DNC system controls a number of machines by ........ computer.
9 . Most commonly, a CNC machine is used for ........ production.
10. A CNC machine is used when variety of components produced is ........ .
11. NC/CNC system is also known as ........ system.
12. Present day MCU is very .......... as compaired to earlier unit.
13. MCU mounted on the machine tool is called ......... .

Introduction

37

14. Card reader operates at a speed ranging from ........ card per minute.
15. Pneumatic card readers are ........ than mechanical card reders.
16. Optical readers are best suitable for ......... system.
17. In CNC ........ based processors are used.
18. Co-ordinates system of axes is established with respect to .......... table.

Ture or False :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Numerical control system helps in automation.

A NC system does not recognise digits, numbers and alphanumeric characters.
There is no difference between NC, CNC and DNC system.
Optical readers can read up to 1000 characters per rows per second.
Lead time is considerably reduced with NC/CNC.
The initial investment list in NC/CNC system.
Management information system is applicable to NC/CNC system.
On the job inspection can be done on NC/CNC system.
A CNC machine consists of software and hardware.
A CNC system has more flexibility than NC system and conventional machine tool system.
The part program in DNC system are generally stored as CLFILES.
In DNC one-way information flow occurs in real time.

Answers
Fill in the Blanks :
1. Alphanumeric
5. In-process
9. batch
13. Housed MCU
17. software

2. part program
6. similar
10. large
14. 12 to 1000
18. machine

3. APT
7. Straight, hybrid
11. soft-wired
15. faster

4. tape reader
8. a single
12. compact
16. contouring

2. Flase
6. False
10. True

3. False
7. True
11. True

4. True
8. Frue
12. False

Ture or False :
1. True
5. True
9. True

Text Questions
1 . Define NC, CNC and DNC.
2 . What are the reasons for NC machine tool to become so popular ?
3 . Compare a NC machine tool with conventional machine tool.

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Eagles CNC Machines and Automation

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.

What are the limitations of NC machine ?

Explain how CNC is different from NC ?
Discuss the main features of CNC Machine Tool in detail.
What are the advantages of CNC machine tool over NC machine tool ?
Why CNC machine Tools are known as soft-wired ?
What are the different types of CNC ?
Discuss the disadvantages of CNC.
What are the parts suitable for production ?
Write short note on environmental control for CNC machines.
Explain the DNC system.
What are the different types of DNC ? Discuss briefly about each of them.
What are the advantages of DNC system ?
How does computer numerical control increases the precision of a machine tool ?
What do you understand by MCU ? What are the different types of MCU ?
What are the different types of punched type readers ?
What are the main elements of MCU ? Explain any four ?
What is a PLC ? What is its use in context of CNC.
Explain main components of PLC ?
What are the advantages of using PLC ?
What are the disadvantages of using PLC ?
Explain the NC-coordinate system.
With the help of suitable sketches explain the axes identification of a
(a) lathe machine
(b) milling machine
(c) sphere
(d) grinder
(e) Horizontal boring machine.
26. What are the different input devices used in CNC for data input ?
27. Compare Serial Communication and ethernet communication in DNC system.

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