PHYSICAL LAYER-1
1. Analog and Digital Signals
Analog
Many levels of intensity over a period time
Digital
Limited and defined values
Transmission Impairments
*Signal when travelling in beginning a medium is not same as signal in end of medium i.e. What is sent
is not received. This is transmission impairment.
*There are three types of transmission impairments
1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3. Noise
1. Attenuation
> It is loss of energy.
>When signal travels from one medium to another it loses some of its energy in overcoming
resistance in medium.
>To compensate this loss, amplification is done.
Attenuation
The strength of signal is measured in decibel (dB).
decibel is the relative strength of two signals at a given point of time.
It is negative for attenuated signal and positive for amplified signal.
2. Distortion
* Change of shape or form of signal.
* Occurs in a composite signal of different frequencies.
* Each component of composite signal has different propagation speeds, therefore its own delay in
arriving to final destination.
>This creates phase difference if the time period is different i.e. The signal components have
different phase from what had been sent at sender.
Distortion
3. Noise
* Different types: thermal, induced, crosstalk, impulse.
* unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that degrades the quality of signals and data.
NOISE
Performance
1. Bandwidth: expressed in two different contexts:
1. Bandwidth in hertz: Range of frequencies contained in a composite signal.
2. Bandwidth in bits per second: Number of bits per second in a channel, link or network can
transmit
Increase in bandwidth in hertz increases bandwidth in bits per second.
2. Throughput: Measure of how fast the data can be sent through a network.
A link can have bandwidth of B bps, but only T bps can be sent through this link.
B is always less than T
Bandwidth: measurement of potential of link
Throughput: measure of actual measurement of data transfer of link
3. Latency: Time taken for complete message/data to arrive to destination from the time first bit is sent
from source.
4 components
1. Propagation time: Time taken for a bit to travel from source to destination.
Propagation time= Distance/Propagation speed
2. Transmission time: amount of time from the beginning until the end of a
message transmission.
Transmission time=Message size/Bandwidth
3. Queuing time: Time required by device to hold message before processing.
4. Processing delay: Time taken for processing of message in receiver.
Line coding
Unipolar NRZ
Polar scheme: Voltages are on both sides of the time axis. Ex. Voltage level 0 can be positive and
voltage level for 1 can be negative.
2 levels of amplitude. Can have 2 versions NRZ-Level (NRZ-L) and NRZ-Inverted (NRZ-I).
NRZ-L
Level of voltage determines value of bit
NRZ-I
Change or lack of change in level of voltage determines the value of bit
Polar RZ
Polar Bi-phase
-Idea of RZ and NRZ-L combined to form Manchester scheme.
* Duration of bit divided into two halves.
* Voltage remains at one level during one half and moves to other level in next half.
* Transition at middle provides synchronization.
-Idea of RZ and NRZ-I combined to form Differential Manchester scheme.
* Transition at middle of bit, but bit value determined at beginning of bit only.
* 1st bit: 0, 2nd bit 1: theres transition, 1st and 2nd bit 0: theres no transition.
Polar Bi-phase
Quantization
- Result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values between maximum and minimum
amplitudes of signal.
- Set of amplitudes can be infinite values between the two limits.
Steps in quantization
1. Assume amplitude of signal at given instance is in between V min and V max.
2. Divide range of values into L zones, each of height (delta).
3. Assign quantized values to 0 to L-1 to mid-points of each zone.
4. Approximate value of sample amplitude to quantized values.
Transmission modes
2 types:
1. Parallel
2. Serial
1. Asynchronous
2. Synchronous
3. Isochronous
Parallel
Binary data, can be organized into groups of n bits each.
By grouping, n bits can be sent at a time instead of 1.
n lines for n bits of data.
Adv: speed
Disadv: n lines for n bits, high cost.
Parallel Transmission
Serial
Asynchronous
- Timing of signal not important
- Info received and translated by agreed patterns. Patterns generally group of bits.
- Bit starting and ending indicated by adding additional bits at beginning and ending.
Asynchronous Transmission
Synchronous
- Bit stream combined to longer frames containing multiple bytes.
- Data sent unbroken.
- Timing very important.
- Speed
- No gap between data, can be uneven gaps between frames.
Synchronous Transmission